RATIO:

1. Numerator = Antecedent , Denominator = Consequent

2. Order is important
3. Types of Ratios:
a) Original a : b Inverse = b : a
b) Original a : b Duplicate = a
2
: b
2

c) Original a : b Triplicate = a
3
: b
3

d) Original a : b Sub Duplicate = b a :
e) Original a : b Sub Duplicate =
3 3
: b a
f)
f
e
d
c
b
a
, ,
Compound ratio =
f
e
d
c
b
a

(any 3 or more ratios) =
f d b
e c a

g) Continued ratio = a : b : c



PROPORTION:
1. If 4 Quantities a, b, c, d are in proportion:

d
c
b
a
or a : b = c : d.

Result: 1) ad = bc (Product of extremes = Product of means)
2) By k method :
d
c
b
a
= k
a = bk c = dk.

2. If 3 Quantities a, b, c are in proportion
c
b
b
a
or a : b : c :
Result: 1) b
2
= ac i.e b is geometric mean of a & c (or mean proportional)
a = 1
st
proportional
b = Mean proportional (or Geometric mean)
c = 3
rd
proportional.
2) By k method :
c
b
b
a
= k.
b = ck
a = ck
2
.

3. If 4 Quantities a, b, c, d are in continued proportion:

d
c
c
b
b
a
, ,
or a : b : c : d
Result: 1) b
2
= ac ; c
2
= bd ; ad = bc
2) By k method :
d
c
c
b
b
a
= k.
c = dk
b = dk
2

c = dk
3
[Increase the power of k only]





PROPERTIES OF PROPORTION:

1. Invertendo :
d
c
b
a

c
d
a
b

2. Alternendo :
d
c
b
a

d
b
c
a

3. Componendo :
d
c
b
a

d
d c
b
b a

4. Dividendo :
d
c
b
a

d
d c
b
b a

5. Componendo Dividendo :
d
c
b
a

d c
d c
b a
b a

r
r
D in n Subtractio
N in Addition


Note : To simplify a ratio that is in the form of componendo dividend, apply componendo
dividendo on it. (1
st
term in N
r
& 2
nd
term in D
r
)

6. Addendo :
f
e
d
c
b
a
Each ratio =
f d b
e c a

7. Subtrahendo :
f
e
d
c
b
a
Each ratio =
f d b
e c a


INDICES:

a
p
= m i.e. a x a x a p times = m
a = base p = power or index or exponent.
m = value (or answer) of a
p


LAWS OF INDICES:

1. a
m
x a
n
= a
m + n
same base in multiplication Different powers
Result : Power add up.
2. a
m
a
n
= a
m - n
same base in division Different powers
Result : Power subtract. (Large - Small)
3. (a
m
)
n
= a
m x n
single base 2 Different powers
Result : Power multiply.
4. (a x b)
m
= a
m
x b
m
different base in multiplication Single power
Result : Power get distributed..
Use : b a b a (Split)
5.
m
m
m
b
a
b
a
different bases in division single power.
Result : Power get distributed..
Use :
b
a
b
a
(Split)
6. a = 1 Any base power zero
Result : Answer = 1.
7. a
- m
=
m
a
1
Single base raised to negative power.
Result : Only the base gets reciprocated (power does not get reciprocated)
Power changes in sign only.
8.
n m
a = a
m/n
m = actual power
= (a
m
)
1/n
n = root part. (radical)
= (a
1/n
)
m
a = base (radicand)
NOTE:
1. In case of cyclic powers : Usual Answer = L.
2. If x = p
1/3
+
3 / 1
1
p
x
3
3x = p +
p
1

If x = p
1/3

3 / 1
1
p
x
3
+ 3x = p
p
1


Question Answer

LOGARITHMS:
If a
p
= m then log
a
m = p. & vice versa


In log
b
a = c a = Subject (to which log is applied)
b = base
c = logarithmic value (or answer)

Usual base = 10 (a.k.a. common base)
Take base = 10, if no base is given.

Natural base = e (e = 2.71828)
(Used in limits, derivatives & integration)

REMEMBER:
1. a = 1 log
a
1 = 0 [log 1 to any base = 0]
2. a
1
= a log
a
a 1 = 1 [log a to same base a = 1]
3. Base of log cannot be 0 [log
a
0 = ]
Base of Log cannot be negative.
4. log
10
10 = 1, log
10
100 = 2, log
10
1000 = 3 and so on.
5. a
log
a
m
= m


LAWS OF LOGARITHMS:
1. Product Law:

NOTE : 1) log (a + b) log a + logb
2) (log a) log b) log a + logb


2. Quotientt Law:

NOTE : 1) log (a - b) loga - logb
2)
b
a
log
log
log a - logb log(
b
a


3. Power Law:

NOTE : 1) (log a)
n
n. loga

4. Change of base:


(log
m
a

= log
a
m = 1)


log
m
(a x b) = log
m
a + log
m
b
Log
m

b
a
= log
m
a - log
m
b
log
m
a
n
= n. log
m
a
i) log
m
a

=
m
a
p
p
log
log

ii) log
m
a

=
m
a
log
1

EQUATIONS:
I] SIMPLE LINEAR EQUATION :
General form : Ax + B = 0 x = variable
A, B = constants (coefficients)
Max power of x = 1.
II] SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES :
General form : A
1
, x + B
1
, y + C
1
= 0
A
2
, x + B
2
, y + C
2
= 0
x , y = Variables.

Methods of solving:
1) Substitution : Express x in terms of y & substitute in other equation.
2) Elimination : Eliminate any one variable & find value of other variable. Replace this in any equation
to get the value of 1
st
variable. (eliminated) (Remember : DASS)
3) Cross Multiplication : B
1
C
1
A
1
B
1

B
2
C
2
A
2
B
2

x =
1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1
B A B A
C B C B
y =
1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1
B A B A
A C A C

4) In case of MCQs : Substitute the options to satisfy the equations.


III] QUADRATIC EQUATIONS : (Q.E.)

* General form : Ax
2
+ Bx + C = 0 x = variable
A, B, C = Constants
A 0.
Max power = 2.
No. of answers = 2. (solutions/roots)
If A = 1 Reduced form.
If B = 0 or C = 0 Incomplete Q.E.
When B = 0 Use a
2
b
2
= (a + b) (a b) to factorise
Roots : Same value, different signs.
When C = 0 Take x common.
One Root = 0.
If A = C Roots : Reciprocals of each other one root =
q
p
other root =
p
q

* Methods of Solving :
1) Factorisation : Involves Splitting of middle terms ax
2
+ bx + c = (x ) (x )
Taking x common
Difference of squares i.e. a
2
b
2
= (a + b) (a b)
2) Formula Method : For a Q.E. Ax
2
+ Bx + C = 0
x =
A
AC B B
2
4
2

B
2
4AC = Discriminants ()










* Nature of Roots :
B
2
4AC ()





1. Roots : REAL & EQUAL 1. Root: NOT REAL (Imaginary or complex)
2. Each Root =
A
B
2
2. One root = a + bi
3. QE is a perfect square. Other root = a bi (i = 1 )




Is also a perfect square Is not a perfect square

1. Roots : REAL, UNEQUAL & RATIONAL 1. Roots : REAL, UNEQUAL IRRATIONAL
2. One root = a + b
Other root = a b

B
2
4AC = 0 REAL & EQUAL
B
2
4AC < 0 NOT REAL (IMAGINARI CONJUGATE)
RATIONAL (If perfect square)
B
2
4AC > 0 REAL, UNEQUAL
IRRATIONAL (conjugates) (If not a perfect square)
B
2
4AC 0 REAL


* Relation between Roots & Coefficients:
Q.E. Ax
2
+ Bx + C 2 roots : &
Sum of Roots : & =
A
B

Product of Roots : =
A
C


* Formation of Quadratic Equation :
2 roots : &
Q.E. x
2
( + ) x + = 0
x
2
(Sum of roots) x + Product of roots = 0

* Symmetric functions of Roots:
1)
2
+
2
= ( + )
2
2
2) ( )
2
= ( + )
2
4
3)
3
+
3
= ( + )
3
3 ( + )
4)
3

3
= ( )
3
+ 3 ( )






B
2
4AC =
0
B
2
4AC < 0 (Negative)
B
2
4AC > 0 (Positive)
IV] CUBIC EQUATIONS :
General form : Ax
3
+ Bx
2
+ Cx + D = 0 x = variable
Max power = 3
No. of solution = 3
Method of Solving :
1) Synthetic Division
2) In case of MCQS : Use options.

Note: Test of Divisibility
1) If Sum of all coefficients = 0 (x 1) is a factor (i.e. x = 1 is a root)
2) If Sum of coefficients = sum of coefficients (x + 1) is a factor)
of odd powers of x of even powers of x (i.e. x = 1 is a root.)


V] STRAIGHT LINES :
* SLOPE of line (m) : Inclination of line w.r.t. + ve X axis.
m =
abscissa of Diff
Ordinates of Diff
x x
y y
.
.
1 2
1 2
2 points on line A (x
1
, y
1
) ; B (x
2
, y
2
)
= tan = Angle between line & X-axis
=
B
A
If equation of line Ax + By + C = 0 is given.
= m If equation of line is in the form of Y = m X + c. or Y = a + b X (Slope = b)

For 2 PARALLEL LINES: (having slopes m
1
& m
2
)
* Slopes are EQUAL Lines are

* Equations differ in constants only.
One line : Ax + By + C = 0
Parallel line : Ax + By + K = 0

For 2 PERPENDICULAR LINES: (having slopes m
1
& m
2
)
* Slopes are NEGATIVE RECIPROCALS Lines are
r



* Equations differ in constants, coefficient & sign.
One line : Ax + By + C = 0
Perpendicular line : Bx Ay + K = 0

FORMATION OF EQUATION OF LINE :
1. SLOPE POINT FORM : Requirement : Slope = m
Point = (x
1
, y
1
)


2 TWO POINT FORM : Requirement : 1
st
point = (x
1
, y
1
)
2
nd
Point = (x
2
, y
2
)
(RHS = Slope)


3 DOUBLE INTERCEPT FORM : Requirement : X intercept = a
Y intercept = b




m
1
= m
2

m
1
=
2
1
m

y y
1
= m(x x
1
)
1 2
1 2
1
1
x x
y y
x x
y y

1
b
y
a
x


4. SLOPE INTERCEPT FORM : Requirement : Slope = m
Y intercept = c
Other form : y = a + bx.
(a. k. a. DISPLAY EQUATION)

5. GENERAL FORM :

Ax + By + C = 0
Slope =
B
A

X intercept =
A
C

Y intercept =
A
C


Other Important Notes :
1. 3 points A, B, C are COLLINER Slope AB = Slope BC = Slope AC
2. 3 lines are concurrent 3 lines intersect at 1 point only
Pt. of concurrency : pt. of intersection of 3 lines.
Condition for concurrency : 0
1
1
1
3 3
2 2
1 1
y x
y x
y x

3.
r
Distance of a point (x
1
, y
1
) from line Ax + By + C = 0
=
2 2
1 1
B A
C By Ax



r
Distance of a line Ax + By + C = 0 from line Origin (O, O)
=
2 2
B A
C



r
Distance between 2 parallel line Ax + By + C = 0 & Ax + By + K = 0
=
2 2
B A
K C

4. Distance formula : A(x
1
y
1
) & B(x
2
y
2
)
AB =
2
1 2
2
1 2
) ( ) ( y y x x

5. Section formula : Internal division.
A P B

(x
1
y
1
) (x, y) (x
2
y
2
)


m n
Px =
n m
nx mx
1 2
Py =
n m
ny my
1 2







y = mx + c
6. Midpoint formula :
A P B

(x
1
y
1
) (x, y) (x
2
y
2
)

Px =
2
2 1
x x
Py =
2
2 1
y y



INEQUALITIES :
Max availability At most
Min requirement At least

SIMPLE INTEREST:
1. SI = Pin
Pnr
100

2. A = P + SI = P + Pin = P(I + in)
P = Principal (in Rs.)
SI = Simple Interest (in Rs.)
A = Amount (in Rs.)
r = rate of interest (in % p.a.)
i =
100
% rate
rate of interest (in decimal)
n = Period or Time (in years)
If time in months, divide by 12
In days , divide by 365.

COMPOUND INTEREST:
1. A = P(1 + i)
n

2. CI = A P = P(1 + i)
n
P = P[(1 + i)
n
1]
3. CI for n
th
year = Amount in n years Amount in (n 1) years
4. For compounding more than once in a year
Mode of compounding Divide Rate Multiply Time
Half yearly 2 2
Quarterly 4 4
Monthly 12 12

5. Effective Rate of Interest : (To be calculated if compounding done more than once in year)
E = [(1 + i)
n
1] 100%

ANNUITY :
1. Immediate Annuity or Annuity Regular or Annuity Certain.
(Ordinary Annuity)
Payments are made/received at the END of reach period.

2. Annuity Due :
Payments are made / received at the START of each period.
Formulae



Ordinary Annuity Annuity Due
1) FV = ] 1 ) 1 ( [
2
i
i
C
1) FV = ) 1 ( ] 1 ) 1 ( [ i i
i
C
n


2) PV =
n
i
i
C
) 1 (
1
1 2) PV =
n
i
i
C
) 1 (
1
1 (1 + i)
FV = Future Value
PV = Present Value (LOAN)
C = Annuity or Periodic Payment or Instalment.
n = Period or No. of instalments.
r = rate of interest (in %)
i = rate of interest (in decimal)
100
r


PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION
1. Factorial Notation : n ! = Product of 1
st
n natural nos.
= 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x . . . . . . . . . x n

n ! = n(n 1) (n 2) . . . . . . . x 3 x 2 x 1.
NOTE : n ! = n(n 1)!
= n(n 1) (n 2)!
= n(n 1) (n 2) (n 3)! & so on.
Remember :
0! = 1 3! = 6 6! = 720
1! = 1 4! = 24 7! = 5040
2! = 2 5! = 120 8! = 40320

2. Fundamental Principal : 1
st
job = p 2
nd
job = q
Addition Rule : (OR) (p + q) ways
Multiplication Rule : (AND) (p x q) ways.

3. PERMUTATION (ARRANGEMENT) Order important
* n = No. of places available.
r = No. of objects to be arranged

n
P
r
= No. of arrangements
)! (
!
r n
n
(n > r)
* If No. of places = no. of objects (arrangements amongst themselves)
Then No. of arrangements =
n
P
r
= n!
* No. of places available = n
No. of objects to be arranged = r

Condition : 1 Particular place is never occupied.
No. of arrangements =
n-1
P
r


Condition : 1 particular place is always occupied.
No. of arrangements = r x
n - 1
P
r - 1

[
n
P
r
=
n-1
P
r
+ r.
n - 1
P
r 1
]

Condition : Balls in boxes. [Each place can take in all r objects]
No. of arrangements = n
r


Condition : Permutation with Repetitions.
Total no. of objects ( = places) = n
No. of alike objects = p of 1
st
kind
= q of 2
nd
kind
= r of 3
rd
kind.
& rest are different.
No. of arrangements =
! ! !
!
r q p
n

No. of arrangements of (3p) things in 3 groups =
3
) ! (
! ) 3 (
P
p


No. of arrangements of (2p) things in 2 groups =
2
) ! (
! ) 2 (
P
p

* Circular permutations :
No. of objects ( = places) = n.
Condition : To be arranged in a circle. [eg. Circular table]
No. of arrangements = (n 1)!

Condition : Does not have same neighbour (necklace)
No. of arrangements =
2
1
(n 1)!

COMBINATIONS (SELECTIONS) Order not important.
* No. of objects available = n
No. of objects to be selected = r
No. of selections =
n
C
r
=
! ) ( !
!
r n r
n
(n > r)

Remember :
1)
n
C
r
=
! r
P
r
n

2)
n
C
r
=
n
C
n - r
***
3)
n
C
0
=
n
C
n
= 1
4)
n
C
1
= n
5) If
n
C
x
=
n
C
y
then x = y or x + y = n.
6)
n
C
r
+
n
C
r - 1
=
n + 1
C
r
(Pascals Law)

* Total no. of ways of dealing with n things = 2
n
(take it or leave it)
No. of ways in which all n things are rejected = 1
No. of ways in which one or more things are selected = 2
n
1
Note :
n
C
0
+
n
C
1
+
n
C
2
+ . . . . . . . +
n
C
n
= 2
n


n
C
1
+
n
C
2
+ . . . . . . . +
n
C
n
= 2
n
1

* No. of points in a plane = n
Condition : No. 3 points are collinear.
No. of Straight lines =
n
C
2
(= No. of handshakes)
No. of triangles =
n
C
3

Condition : P points are collinear ( p 3)
No. of Straight lines =
n
C
2

p
C
2
+ 1
No. of triangles =
n
C
3

p
C
3


* Maximum no. of diagonals that can be drawn in an n sided polygon =
n
C
2
n. [No. of lines No. of sides]
* n = No. of parallel line in 1
st
set . (Sleeping lines)
m = No. of parallel lines in 2
nd
set. (Standing lines)

No. of parallelograms =
n
C
2
x
m
C
2




SEQUENCE AND SERIES : AP/GP.
I] ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP) :
Sequence in which the terms (numbers) increase/decrease by a constant difference.
AP : a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . . . . .
t
n
= a + ( n 1) d. a = 1
st
term ER
S
n
= ] ) 1 ( 2 [
2
d n a
n
d = common difference ER
= ] [
2
n
t a
n
n = no. of terms (position) EN
= ] 1 [
2
term last term st
n
t
n
= n
th
term (any term) ER
S
n
= Sum of n terms ER
For convenience :
No. of terms Terms
3 a d, a, a + d
4 a 3d, a d, a + d, a + 3d
5 a 2d, a d, a, a + d, a + 2d

* If a, b, c are 3 terms in AP b =
2
c a
(A. M. between 2 nos.is half their sum)
Remember :
1) Sum of 1
st
n natural nos : 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . . . . . + n =
2
) 1 (n n

2) Sum of squares of 1
st
n natural nos: 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
+ . . . . . . . + n
2
=
6
) 1 2 ( ) 1 ( n n n

3) Sum of cubes of 1
st
n natural nos: 1
3
+ 2
3
+ 3
3
+ . . . . . . . + n
3
=
2
2
) 1 (n n

4) Sum of 1
st
n odd natural nos: 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . . + (2n 1) = n
2

5) Sum of 1
st
n even natural nos: 2 + 4 + 6 + . . . . + (2n) = n(n + 1)

TRIVIA :
1) n t
n
= m t
m
t
m + n
= 0
2) t
p
= q & t
q
= p t
r
= p + q r
3) S
m
= S
n
S
m + n
= 0
4)
2
2
n
m
S
S
n
m
d = 2a &
1 2
1 2
n
m
tn
tm


II] GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP)
Sequence in which the terms increase/decrease by a constant ratio.
GP : a, ar, ar
2
, ar
3
, . . . . . . . . .
t
n
= ar
n 1
a = 1
st
term ER
S
n
= a
1
1
r
r
n
if r > 1 r = common ratio ER
= a
r
r
n
1
1
if r < 1 n = no. of terms EN. (Position)
S =
r
a
1
(only if r < 1) t
n
= n
th
term ER (Any term)
S
n
= Sum of n terms ER.
S = Sum of infinite terms.




* For Convenience :
No. of Terms Terms Common Ratio
3
r
a
, a, ar r
4
3
3
, , , ar ar
r
a
r
a
r
2

5
2
2
, , , , ar ar a
r
a
r
a
r

* If a, b, c are 3 terms in GP b
2
= ac b = ac . (b = G. M. of a & c)

TRIVIA
1) a + aa + aaa + aaaa + .. = n
a
n
) 1 10 (
9
10
9

2) 0.a + 0.aa + 0.aaa + 0.aaaa + . . . . . . . = ) 1 . 0 1 (
9
1
9
n
n
a

3) 0.a + 0.0a + 0.00a + . . . . . . . =
n
a
) 1 . 0 ( 1
9

Best term fro AP : 1, 2, 3.
GP : 1, 2, 4 or 2, 4, 8.


SETS RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS :
I] SETS :
Notations :
1. - Belongs to
2. - Does not belong to
3. - Subset
4. - Proper Subset.
5. or { } - Empty set or Null Set.
6. - Union
7. - Intersection.

Basic Operations of sets:
1. Union : A B = {x / A or x B or x Both A & E (Common as well as uncommon)
2. Intersection : A B = {x / x A and x B} (common only)
3. Complement : A or A
c
= {x / x U, x A} (not contained in A)

Properties :
1) Union 2) Intersection
a) A B = B A a) A B = B A.
b) A A = U b) A A =
c) A = A c) A =
d) A U = U d) A U = A
e) If A B then A B = B e) If A B then A B = A

Formulae : For 2 sets A & B:
1) Addition Theorem :
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B)
= n(A) + n(B) (if A B = i.e. A & B are disjoint)
2) n(A B) + n(A B) = n(S).
3) n(Only A) = n(A B) = n(A B )
= n(A) n(A B).
4) n(Only B) = n(B A) = n(A B)
= n(B) n( A B)
5) n(A B ) = n(A B) De Morgans Law.
n(A B ) = n(A B)

For 3 sets A, B, C.
1) Additional Theorem :
n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) n(A B) n(B C) n(C A) + n(A B C)

RELATION :
1) Reflexive : x Rx
2) Symmetric : If x Ry then y Rx.
3) Transitive : If x Ry and y Rz, then xRz.
4) Equivalence : All if above


LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
1) L HOSPITAL RULE : If
) (
) (
x g
x f
is of the form or
0
0
, then
.. ..........
) ( ' '
) ( ' ' lim
) ( '
) ( ' lim
) (
) ( lim
x g
x f
a x x g
x f
a x x g
x f
a x


IMPORTANT FORMULAE :
1) .
lim
k k
a x

2) ) (
lim
. ) ( .
lim
x f
a x
k x f k
a x

3)
1
lim
n
n n
na
a x
a x
a x

4) a
x
a
x
e
x
log
1
0
lim

5) 1
1
0
lim
x
e
x
x
The coefficient of x in N
r
must be repeated in D
r

6) 1
) 1 ( log
0
lim
x
x
x

7) e x
x
x
1
) 1 (
0
lim


8) Limit at Infinity::
* . 0
1
lim
. ..........
1
lim
1
lim
1
lim
3 2 n
x
x
x
x
x
x x x

Also 0
) (
1
lim
x f x

* e
x x
x
1
1
lim
(Also see )

CONTINUITY :
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if
i) f(a) exists.
ii) ) (
lim
x f
a x
exists.
iii) ) (
lim
x f
a x
exists.
iv) f(a) = ). (
lim
) (
lim
x f
a x
x f
a x



EQUATIONS:
Key phrase : Rate of change / Gradient / Slope.
If y = f(x) is a function involving the variable x, then
dx
dy
= f (x) is its derivative.

dx
dy
f (x) =
h
x f h x f
o h
) ( ) ( lim


Standard Formulae :



A
L
G
E
B P
R O
A W
I E
C R

Exponential

Logarithmic




Let u & v be two functions involving the variable x.
1.
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
) ( (Additional / Subtraction Rule
2.
dx
d
dx
dv
dx
d
) . ( (Multiplication Rule)
3.
2
v
dx
dv
dx
d
v
dx
d
(Division Rule)
4.
dx
du
c c
dx
d
) ( [constant x function]
5. ) ( ]. ) ( [ ' ] ) ( [ x g
dx
d
x g f x g f
dx
d
[Chain Rule]
6.
dx
dy
dx
d
dx
y d
2
2
[ 2
nd
Order Derivative or f" (x)]





y = f(x)
dx
dy
f (x)
c 0
x 1
cx c
x
n
nx
n - 1

x
x 2
1

x
1

2
1
x

x
1

x x 2
1

a
x
a
x
loga
e
x
e
x

logx 1/x
x
x
x
x
(1 + logx)
APPLICATIONS & TYPES:
1. Slope (or Gradient) of Tangent to a curve:
y or f(x) = function representing a curve.

dx
dy
or f (x) = function representing the slope of tangent to the curve.

a x
dx
dy
or f (a) = Slope of tangent to the curve at any point x = a. on the curve.

2. Maxima & Minima :
A function f(x) is said to have a maxima at x = a if
i) f (x) = 0 at x = a &
ii) f"(x) < 0 at x = a.

A function f(x) is said to have a minima at x = a if
i) f (x) = 0 at x = a &
ii) f"(x) > 0 at x = a.

3. Logarithmic Differentiation :
Recognise : x
x
or [f(x)]
g(x)
or (function)
function
.
Method : Take log on both sides & then differentiate.
Note : Also applicable if
) ( ). (
) ( ). (
) (
) ( . ) (
x s x r
x g x f
or
x r
x g x f

i.e. Many functions in multiplication & division.
Why Log? : - Log simplified complex multiplication, division, powers.

4. Implicit Functions :
Recognise : x & y scattered throughout the equation. i.e. f(x,y) = 0

Method :
i] See if a single y can be isolated from the function. If so, then isolate and then differentiate.

ii] If y cannot be isolated, then differentiate the function. w.r.t. x.
This gives a new equation involving
dx
dy

Isolate
dx
dy
on LHS.

5. Parametric Functions :
Recognise : 2 different functions involving a 3
rd
variable (t or m)
i.e. x = f(t) y = g(t)
or x = f(m) y = g(m)
or x = f() y = g().

Method : Differentiate the functions separately w.r.t. the variable present.
i.e. .
/
/
dt dx
dt dy
dx
dy

Note : Also applicable if differentiate f(x) w.r.t g(x).
Take u = f(x) & v = g(x) & diff w.r.t. x.









CORRELATION:
I] Karl Pearsons coefficient of correlation OR Product moment correlation coefficient.
r =
y x
y x Cov
.
) , (

=
n
y y
n
x x
n y y x x
2 2
) ( ) (
/ ) ( ) (

=
2 2
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
y y x x
y y x x

=
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( y y n x x n
y x xy n

=
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( v v n u u n
v u uv n


Results :
1) 1 r 1
2) If r = 1 Perfect Positive correlation.
r = 1 Perfect Negative correlation
r = 0 No correlation.

3) If r > 0 Positive correlation
r < 0 Negative correlation
Strong ve Weak ve Weak + ve Strong + ve



1 0.5 0 0.5 1
II] Spearmans Rank correlation coefficient :
i) For Non-Repeated Ranks :
R = 1
1) - (
6
2
2
n n
d


ii) For Repeated Ranks :
R = 1 6
) 1 (
........} ) ( ) {(
12
1
2
) 2
3
2 1
3
1
2
n n
m m m m d

d = R
1
R
2
= Difference in Ranks.
n = no. of pairs of obsvns.
m
1
= no. of obsvns forming 1
st
group having repeated ranks.
m
2
= no. of obsvns forming 2
nd
group having repeated ranks.

III] Concurrent Deviations coefficient :
R
c
=
m
m c ) 2 (

c = No. of concurrent deviations. (No. of + signs)
m = No. of deviations. (= n 1) (No. of + & signs in all)
n = No. of pairs of obsvns.

Other Important Formulae
1) Cov (x, y) =
n
y y x x ) ( ) (

2) Coefficient of Determination or Explained Variations. = r
2
x 100%
3) Coefficient of Non-Determination or Unexplained variance = (1 r
2
) x 100%
4) Effect of shift of origin / scale.
* Not affected by shift of origin.
* Effect of change of scale : r
xy
=
d b
d b .
. r
uv

Where b, d = slopes.
[In short, r changes in sign only depending on sign of b & d.]
5) Steps for finding correct R when diff is wrong.
Step 1 : Calculate Wrong d
2
using R = 1
) 1 (
6
2
2
n n
d

Step 2 : Correct d
2
= wrong d
2
(wrong d)
2
+ (correct d)
2

Step 3 : Correct R = 1
) 1 (
6
2
2
n n
d Correct


REGRESSION:
Regression Equation of
* Y on X : ) ( x x b y y
yx
y = ? x = Given
* X on Y : ) ( y y b x x
yx
x = ? y = Given

Regression Coefficients : (Slopes of regression lines)
1) byx =
2
) , (
x
y x Cov
2) byx =
2
) , (
y
y x Cov

=
n x x
n y y x x
/ ) (
/ ) ( ) (
2
=
n y y
n y y x x
/ ) (
/ ) ( ) (
2

=
2 2
) ( x x n
y x xy n
=
2 2
) ( y y n
y x xy n


=
2 2
) ( u u n
v u uv n
=
2 2
) ( v v n
v u uv n

= r .
x
y
= r .
y
x


Properties :
1) If equation is Ax + By + C + 0
b
yx
=
B
A
(Slope) Used for Identifying the equations.
b
xy
=
A
B

2) b
yx .
b
xy
< 1
3) r =
xy yx
b b . (All 3 carry same sign)
4) ) , ( y x Point of Intersection of 2 regression lines (Solve the 2 equations simultaneously).
5) Effected of shift of origin / change of scale.
byx = bvu x
p
q
u =
p
a x

b
xy
= buv x
q
p
v =
q
c y

1. Classical Definition : P(A) =
) (
) (
S n
A n

2. Statistical Definition : P(A) =
N
F
N
A
lim

3. Modern Definition : i) P(A) 0 for all A S
ii) P(S) = 1