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v Metric Spaces
Let X be a non-empty set and ¡ denotes the set of real numbers. A
function d : X × X → ¡ is said to be metric if it satisfies the following
axioms ∀ x, y , z ∈ X .
[M1] d ( x,y ) ≥ 0 i.e. d is finite and non-negative real valued function.
[M2] d ( x,y ) = 0 if and only if x = y.
[M3] d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x) (symmetric property)
[M4] d ( x, z ) ≤ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z ) (triangular inequality)
The pair (X, d ) is then called metric space.
d is also called distance function and d(x, y) is the distance from x to y.
Note: If (X, d) be a metric space then X is called underlying set.
v Examples:
i) Let X be a non-empty set then d : X × X → ¡ defined by
1 if x ≠ y
d ( x, y ) = 
0 if x = y
is a metric on X and is called trivial metric or discrete metric.
ii) Let ¡ be the set of real number then d : ¡ × ¡ → ¡ defined by
d ( x, y ) = x − y is a metric on ¡ .
The space ( ¡, d ) is called real line and d is called usual metric on ¡ .
iii) Let X be a non-empty set and d : X × X → ¡ be a metric on X, then d ′ : X × X → ¡
defined by d ′( x, y ) = min (1, d ( x, y ) ) is also a metric on X.
Proof:
[M1] since d is a metric so d ( x, y ) ≥ 0
as d ′( x, y ) is either 1 or d ( x, y ) so d ′( x, y ) ≥ 0 .
[M2] if x = y then d ( x, y ) = 0 and then d ′( x, y ) which is min (1, d ( x, y ) ) will be
zero.
Conversely, suppose that d ′( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ min (1, d ( x, y ) ) = 0
⇒ d ( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ x = y as d is metric.
[M3] d ′( x, y ) = min (1, d ( x, y ) ) = min (1, d ( y , x) ) = d ′( y , x) Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y, x)
[M4] we have d ′( x, z ) = min (1, d ( x, z ) )
⇒ d ′( x, z ) ≤ 1 or d ′( x, z ) ≤ d ( x, z )
We wish to prove d ′( x, z ) ≤ d ′( x, y ) + d ′( y, z )
now if d ( x, z ) ≥ 1 , d ( x, y ) ≥ 1 and d ( y , z ) ≥ 1
then d ′( x, z ) = 1 , d ′( x, y ) = 1 and d ′( y, z ) = 1
and d ′( x, y ) + d ′( y , z ) = 1 + 1 = 2
therefore ⇒ d ′( x, z ) ≤ d ′( x, y ) + d ′( y , z )
Now if d ( x, z ) < 1 , d ( x, y ) < 1 and d ( y , z ) < 1
Then d ′( x, z ) = d ( x, z ) , d ′( x, y ) = d ( x, y ) and d ′( y , z ) = d ( y , z )
As d is metric therefore d ( x, z ) ≤ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
⇒ d ′( x, z ) ≤ d ′( x, y ) + d ′( y , z )
Q.E.D
2 Metric Spaces

iv) Let d : X × X → ¡ be a metric space then d ′ : X × X → ¡ defined by

d ( x, y )
d ′( x, y ) = is also a metric.
1 + d ( x, y )
Proof:
d ( x, y )
[M1] Since d ( x, y ) ≥ 0 therefore = d ′( x, y ) ≥ 0
1 + d ( x, y )
d ( x, y )
[M2] Let d ′( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ d ( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ x = y
1 + d ( x, y )
Now conversely suppose x = y then d ( x, y ) = 0
d ( x, y ) 0
then d ′( x, y ) = = =0
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + 0
d ( x, y ) d ( y , x)
[M3] d ′( x, y ) = = = d ′ ( y, x )
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + d ( y , x )
[M4] Since d is metric therefore d ( x, z ) ≤ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
a b
Now by using inequality a < b ⇒ <
1+ a 1+ b
d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
We get ≤
1 + d ( x , z ) 1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
d ( x, y ) d ( y, z)
⇒ d ′( x, z ) ≤ +
1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z ) 1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
d ( x, y ) d ( y, z )
⇒ d ′( x, z ) ≤ +
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + d ( y , z )
⇒ d ′( x, z ) ≤ d ′( x, y ) + d ′( y , z )
Q.E.D
v) The space C[a, b] is a metric space and the metric d is defined by
d ( x, y ) = max x (t ) − y (t )
t∈J
where J = [a, b] and x, y are continuous real valued function defined on [a, b].
Proof:
[M1] Since x(t ) − y (t ) ≥ 0 therefore d ( x, y ) ≥ 0 .
[M2] Let d ( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ x(t ) − y (t ) = 0 ⇒ x(t ) = y (t )
Conversely suppose x = y
Then d ( x, y ) = max x (t ) − y (t ) = max x (t ) − x (t ) = 0
t∈J t∈J

[M3] d ( x, y ) = max x (t ) − y (t ) = max y (t ) − x(t ) = d ( y , x)

t∈J t∈J

[M4] d ( x, z ) = max x(t ) − z (t ) = max x(t ) − y (t ) + y (t ) − z (t )

t∈J t∈J

≤ max x(t ) − y (t ) + max y (t ) − z (t )

t∈ J t∈J
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
Q.E.D
vi) d : ¡ × ¡ → ¡ is a metric, where ¡ is the set of real number and d defined by
d ( x, y ) = x− y
vii) Let x = ( x1 , y1 ) , y = ( x2 , y2 ) we define
d ( x, y ) = ( x1 − x2 )2 + ( y1 − y2 )2 is a metric on ¡
and called Euclidean metric on ¡ 2 or usual metric on ¡ 2 .
 Metric Spaces 3

viii) d : ¡ × ¡ → ¡ is not a metric, where ¡ is the set of real number and d defined by
d ( x, y ) = ( x − y )2
Proof:
[M1] Square is always positive therefore ( x − y )2 = d ( x, y ) ≥ 0
[M2] Let d ( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ ( x − y ) 2 = 0 ⇒ x − y = 0 ⇒ x= y
Conversely suppose that x = y
then d ( x, y ) = ( x − y ) 2 = ( x − x)2 = 0
[M3] d ( x, y ) = ( x − y )2 = ( y − x)2 = d ( y, x )
[M4] Suppose that triangular inequality holds in d. then for any x, y, z ∈ ¡
d ( x, z ) ≤ d ( x − y ) + d ( y , z )
⇒ ( x − z )2 ≤ ( x − y ) 2 + ( y − z ) 2
Since x, y, z ∈ ¡ therefore consider x = 0, y = 1 and z = 2 .
⇒ (0 − 2)2 ≤ (0 − 1) 2 + (1 − 2)2
⇒ 4 ≤1+1 ⇒ 4≤2
which is not true so triangular inequality does not hold and d is not metric.
ix) Let x = ( x1 , y1 ) , y = ( x2 , y2 ) ∈ ¡ 2 we define
d ( x, y ) = x1 − y1 + x2 − y2
is a metric on ¡ 2 , called Taxi-Cab metric on ¡ 2 .
x) Let ¡ n be the set of all real n-tuples. For
x = ( x1 , x2 ,..........., xn ) and y = ( y1 , y2 ,..........., yn ) in ¡ n
we define d ( x, y ) = ( x1 − y1 ) 2 + ( x2 − y2 )2 + ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅ + ( xn − yn )2
then d is metric on ¡ n , called Euclidean metric on ¡ n or usual metric on ¡ n .
xi) The space l ∞ . As points we take bounded sequence
x = ( x1 , x2 ,........) , also written as x = ( xi ) , of complex numbers such that
xi ≤ Cx ∀ i = 1, 2,3,.............
where Cx is fixed real number. The metric is defined as
d ( x, y ) = sup xi − yi where y = ( yi )
i∈ ¥

xii) The space l p , p ≥ 1 is a real number, we take as member of l p , all sequence

∞ p

x = (ξ j ) of complex number such that ∑ξ j < ∞.

j =1
1
 ∞
p p
The metric is defined by d ( x, y ) =  ∑ ξ j − η j 
 j =1 
∞ p

Where y = (η j ) such that ∑η j <∞

j =1

Proof:
1
 p
∞ p
[M1] Since ξ j − η j ≥ 0 therefore  ∑ ξ j − η j  = d ( x, y ) ≥ 0 .
 j =1 
[M2] If x = y then
1 1 1
 ∞ p p ∞ p  p
p ∞ p
d ( x, y ) =  ∑ ξ j − η j  =  ∑ ξ j − ξ j  ==  ∑ 0  = 0
 j =1   j =1   j =1 
4 Metric Spaces

Conversely, if d ( x, y ) = 0
1
 ∞
p
⇒  ∑ ξ j − η j  = 0 ⇒ ξ j − η j = 0 ⇒ (ξ j ) = (η j ) ⇒ x = y
p

 j =1 
1 1
 ∞ p  p p∞ p
[M3] d ( x, y ) =  ∑ ξ j − η j  =  ∑ η j − ξ j  = d ( y, x )
 j =1   j =1 
∞ p

[M4] Let z = (ζ j ) , such that ∑ζ j <∞

j =1
1
 ∞
p p
then d ( x, z ) =  ∑ ξ j − ζ j 
 j =1 
1
 ∞
p p
=  ∑ ξ j −η j +ηj −ζ j 
 j =1 
*
Using Minkowski’s Inequality
1 1
∞
p p p
∞ p
≤  ∑ ξ j −ηj  +  ∑ η j − ζ j 
 j =1   j =1 
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
Q.E.D
v Pseudometric
Let X be a non-empty set. A function d : X × X → ¡ is called
pseudometric if and only if
i) d ( x, x) = 0 for all x ∈ X .
ii) d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x) for all x, y ∈ X .
iii) d ( x, z ) ≤ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z ) for all x, y , z ∈ X .
OR
A pseudometric satisfies all axioms of a metric except d ( x, y ) = 0
may not imply x = y but x = y implies d ( x, y ) = 0 .
Example
Let x, y ∈ ¡ 2 and x = ( x1 , x2 ) , y = ( y1 , y2 )
Then d ( x, y ) = x1 − y1 is a pseudometric on ¡ 2 .
Let x = (2,3) and y = (2,5)
Then d ( x, y ) = 2 − 2 = 0 but x ≠ y
Note: Every metric is a pseudometric, but pseudometric is not metric.
∗ Minkowski’s Inequality
If ξi = (ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,..........,ξ n ) and ηi = (η1 ,η2 ,..........,ηn ) are in ¡ n and p > 1 , then
1 1 1
 ∞ p
p  ∞ p
p  ∞ p
p
 ∑ ξi + ηi  ≤  ∑ ξ i  +  ∑ ηi 
 i =1   i=1   i=1 
 Metric Spaces 5

v Distance between sets

Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A, B ⊂ X . The distance between A and B
denoted by d ( A, B) is defined as d ( A, B ) = inf {d (a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
If A = { x} is a singleton subset of X, then d ( A, B) is written as d ( x, B ) and is
called distance of point x from the set B.
v Theorem
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space then for any x, y ∈ X
d ( x, A) − d ( y , A) ≤ d ( x, y )
Proof:
Let z ∈ A then d ( x, z ) ≤ d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
then d ( x, A) = inf d ( x, z ) ≤ d ( x, y ) + inf d ( y , z )
z∈A z∈A
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y, A)
⇒ d ( x, A) − d ( y , A) ≤ d ( x, y ) ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅ (i )
Next
d ( y , A) = inf d ( y, z ) ≤ d ( y, x) + inf d ( x, z )
z∈A z∈A
= d ( y , x) + d ( x, A)
⇒ − d ( x, A) + d ( y, A) ≤ d ( y , x)
⇒ − ( d ( x, A) − d ( y , A) ) ≤ d ( x, y ) ⋅⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅ ⋅⋅⋅ (ii) Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x )
Combining equation (i) and (ii)
d ( x, A) − d ( y , A) ≤ d ( x, y ) Q.E.D

v Diameter of a set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A ⊂ X , we define diameter of A denoted by
d ( A) = sup d (a, b)
a , b∈ A
Note: For an empty set ϕ , following convention are adopted
(i) d (ϕ ) = − ∞ , some authors take d (ϕ ) also as 0.
(ii) d ( p,ϕ ) = ∞ i.e distance of a point p from empty set is ∞ .
(iii) d ( A, ϕ ) = ∞ , where A is any non-empty set.
v Bounded Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A ⊂ X , we say A is bounded if diameter of A is
finite i.e. d ( A) < ∞ .
v Theorem
The union of two bounded set is bounded.
Proof:
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A, B ⊂ X be bounded. We wish to prove
A ∪ B is bounded.
Let x, y ∈ A ∪ B
If x, y ∈ A then since A is bounded therefore d ( x, y ) < ∞
and hence d ( A ∪ B) = sup d ( x, y ) < ∞ then A ∪ B is bounded.
x , y ∈ A∪ B

Similarity if x, y ∈ B then A ∪ B is bounded.

Now if x ∈ A and y ∈ B then
d ( x, y ) ≤ d ( x, a ) + d (a, b) + d (b, y ) where a ∈ A, b ∈ B .
Since d ( x, a ), d (a, b) and d (b, y ) are finite
Therefore d ( x, y ) < ∞ i.e A ∪ B is bounded. Q.E.D
6 Metric Spaces

v Open Ball
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space. An open ball in ( X , d ) is denoted by
B ( x0 ; r ) = { x ∈ X | d ( x0 , x ) < r}
x0 is called centre of the ball and r is called radius of ball and r ≥ 0 .
v Closed Ball
The set B ( x0 ; r ) = { x ∈ X | d ( x0 , x ) ≤ r} is called closed ball in ( X , d ) .
v Sphere
The set S ( x0 ; r ) = { x ∈ X | d ( x0 , x) = r} is called sphere in ( X , d ) .
v Examples
Consider the set of real numbers with usual metric d = x − y ∀ x, y ∈ ¡
then B ( xo ; r ) = { x ∈ ¡ | d ( xo , x ) < r}
i.e. B ( xo ; r ) = { x ∈ ¡ : x − xo < r}
i.e. x0 − r < x < x + r = ( x0 − r , x0 + r )
i.e. open ball is the real line with usual metric is an open interval.
And B ( xo ; r ) = { x ∈ ¡ : x − x0 ≤ r}
i.e. x0 − r ≤ x ≤ x0 + r = [ x0 − r , x0 + r ]
i.e. closed ball in a real line is a closed interval.
And S ( xo ; r ) = { x ∈ ¡ : x − x0 = r} = { x0 − r , x0 + r}
i.e. two point x0 − r and x0 + r only.
v Open Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and set G is called open in X if for every x ∈ G ,
there exists an open ball B ( x ; r ) ⊂ G .
v Theorem
An open ball in metric space X is open.
Proof:
Let B ( x0 ; r ) be an open ball in ( X , d ) .
Let y ∈ B ( x0 ; r ) then d ( x0 , y ) = r1 < r
Let r2 < r − r1 , then B ( y ; r2 ) ⊂ B ( x0 ; r )
Hence B ( x0 ; r ) is an open set.
Alternative:
Let B ( x0 ; r ) be an open ball in ( X , d ) .
Let x ∈ B ( x0 ; r ) then d ( x0 , x) = r1 < r
Take r2 = r − r1 and consider the open ball B ( x ; r2 )
we show that B ( x ; r2 ) ⊂ B ( x ; r ) .
For this let y ∈ B( x ; r2 ) then d ( x, y ) < r2
and d ( x0 , y ) ≤ d ( x0 , x ) + d ( x, y )
< r1 + r2 = r
hence y ∈ B( x0 ; r ) so that B ( x; r2 ) ⊂ B( x0 ; r ) . Thus B ( x0 ; r ) is an open.
Q.E.D

Note: Let ( X , d ) be a metric space then

i) X and ϕ are open sets.
ii) Union of any number of open sets is open.
iii) Intersection of a finite number of open sets is open.
 Metric Spaces 7

v Limit point of a set

Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A ⊂ X , then x ∈ X is called a limit point or
accumulation point of A if for every open ball B ( x ; r ) with centre x,
B ( x ; r ) ∩ { A − {x}} ≠ ϕ .
i.e. every open ball contain a point of A other than x.
v Closed Set
A subset A of metric space X is closed if it contains every limit point of itself.
The set of all limit points of A is called the derived set of A and denoted by A′ .
v Theorem
A subset A of a metric space is closed if and only if its complement Ac is open.
Proof:
Suppose A is closed, we prove Ac is open.
Let x ∈ Ac then x ∉ A .
⇒ x is not a limit point of A.
then by definition of a limit point there exists an open ball B ( x ; r ) such that
B( x ; r ) ∩ A = ϕ .
This implies B ( x ; r ) ⊂ Ac . Since x is an arbitrary point of Ac . So Ac is open.
Conversely, assume that Ac is an open then we prove A is closed.
i.e. A contain all of its limit points.
Let x be an accumulation point of A. and suppose x ∈ Ac .
then there exists an open ball B ( x ; r ) ⊂ Ac ⇒ B( x ; r ) ∩ A = ϕ .
This shows that x is not a limit point of A. this is a contradiction to our assumption.
Hence x ∈ A . Accordingly A is closed.
The proof is complete.
v Theorem
A closed ball is a closed set.
Proof:
c
Let B ( x ; r ) be a closed ball. We prove B ( x ; r ) = C (say) is an open ball.
Let y ∈ C then d ( x, y ) > r .
Let r1 = d ( x, y ) then r1 > r . And take r2 = r1 − r
 r   r 
Consider the open ball B  y ; 2  we prove B  y ; 2  ⊂ C .
 2  2
 r  r
For this let z ∈ B  y ; 2  then d ( z, y ) < 2
 2 2
By the triangular inequality
d ( x, y ) ≤ d ( x , z ) + d ( z , y )
⇒ d ( x, y ) ≤ d ( z , x) + d ( z , y ) Q d ( y , z ) = d ( z, y )
⇒ d ( z , x ) ≥ d ( x, y ) − d ( z , y )
r 2r − r 2r − r + r r +r
⇒ d ( z , x) > r1 − 2 = 1 2 = 1 1 = 1 Q r2 = r1 − r
2 2 2 2
r+r
⇒ d ( z , x) > =r Q r1 − r = r2 > 0 ∴ r1 > r
2
⇒ z ∉ B( x ; r ) This shows that z ∈ C
 r 
⇒ B y; 2  ⊂ C
 2
Hence C is an open set and consequently B ( x ; r ) is closed. Q.E.D
8 Metric Spaces
v Theorem
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A ⊂ X . If x ∈ X is a limit point of A. then
every open ball B ( x ; r ) with centre x contain an infinite numbers of point of A.
Proof:
Suppose B ( x ; r ) contain only a finite number of points of A.
Let a1 , a2 ,........., an be those points.
and let d ( x, ai ) = ri where i = 1,2,........, n .
also consider r ′ = min(r1 , r2 ,.............., rn )
Then the open ball B ( x ; r ′) contain no point of A other than x. then x is not limit point of
A. This is a contradiction therefore B ( x; r ) must contain infinite numbers of point of A.
v Closure of a Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and M ⊂ X . Then closure of M is denoted by
M = M ∪ M ′ where M ′ is the set of all limit points of M. It is the smallest closed
superset of M.
v Dense Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space the a set M ⊂ X is called dense in X if M = X .
v Countable Set
A set A is countable if it is finite or there exists a function f : A → ¥ which is
one-one and onto, where ¥ is the set of natural numbers.
e.g. ¥, ¤ and ¢ are countable sets . The set of real numbers, the set of irrational
numbers and any interval are not countable sets.
v Separable Space
A space X is said to be separable if it contains a countable dense subsets.
e.g. the real line ¡ is separable since it contain the set ¤ of rational numbers, which is
dense is ¡ .
v Theorem
Let (X, d) be a metric space, A ⊂ X is dense if and only if A has non-empty
intersection with any open subset of X.
Proof:
Assume that A is dense in X. then A = X .
Suppose there is an open set G ⊂ X such that A ∩ G = ϕ .
Then if x ∈ G then A ∩ ( G − {x}) = ϕ
which show that x is not a limit point of A.
This implies x ∉ A but x ∈ X ⇒ A ≠ X
This is a contradiction.
Consequently A ∩ G ≠ ϕ for any open G ⊂ X .
Conversely suppose that A ∩ G ≠ ϕ for any open G ⊂ X .
We prove A = X , for this let x ∈ X .
If x ∈ A then x ∈ A ∪ A′ = A then X = A .
If x ∉ A then let {Gi } be the family of all the open subset of X such that x ∈ Gi for
every i.
Then by hypothesis A ∩ Gi ≠ ϕ for any i. i.e Gi contain point of A other then x.
This implies that x is an accumulation point of A. i.e. x ∈ A′
Accordingly x ∈ A ∪ A′ = A and X = A .
The proof is complete.
 Metric Spaces 9
v Neighbourhood of a Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and x0 ∈ X and a subset N ⊂ X is called a
neighbourhood of x0 if there exists an open ball B ( x0 ; ε ) with centre x0 such that
B ( x0 ; ε ) ⊂ N .
Shortly “neighbourhood ” is written as “nhood ”.
v Interior Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and A ⊂ X , a point x0 ∈ X is called an interior point
of A if there is an open ball B ( x0 ; r ) with centre x0 such that B ( x0 ; r ) ⊂ A .
The set of all interior points of A is called interior of A and is denoted by int(A) or Ao .
It is the largest open set contain in A. i.e. Ao ⊂ A .
v Continuity
A function f : ( X , d ) → (Y , d ′ ) is called continuous at a point x0 ∈ X if for any
ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such that d ′ ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) < ε for all x satisfying d ( x, x0 ) < δ .
Alternative:
f : X → Y is continuous at x0 ∈ X if for any ε > 0 , there is a δ > 0 such that
x ∈ B ( x0 ; δ ) ⇒ f ( x) ∈ B ( f ( x0 ); ε ) .
v Theorem
f :( X , d ) → (Y , d ′) is continuous at x0 ∈ X if and only if f −1 (G ) is open is X.
wherever G is open in Y.
Note : Before proving this theorem note that if f : X → Y , f −1 : Y → X and A ⊂ X ,
B ⊂ Y then f −1 f ( A) ⊃ A and f f −1 ( B) ⊂ B

Proof:
Assume that f : X → Y is continuous and G ⊂ Y is open. We will prove f −1 (G )
is open in X.
Let x ∈ f −1 (G ) ⇒ f ( x) ∈ f f −1 (G ) ⊂ G
When G is open, there is an open ball B ( f ( x );ε ) ⊂ G .
Since f : X → Y is continuous, therefore for ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such that
y ∈ B( x ;δ ) ⇒ f ( y ) ∈ B ( f ( x); ε ) ⊂ G then y ∈ f −1 f (G ) ⊂ f −1 (G )
Since y is an arbitrary point of B ( x ;δ ) ⊂ f −1 (G) . Also x was arbitrary, this show that
f −1 (G ) is open in X.
Conversely, for any G ⊂ Y we prove f : X → Y is continuous.
For this let x ∈ X and ε > 0 be given. Now f ( x ) ∈ Y and let B ( f ( x );ε ) be an open
ball in Y. then by hypothesis f −1 ( B ( f ( x); ε ) ) is open in X and x ∈ f −1 ( B ( f ( x ); ε ) )
As y ∈ B ( x ; δ ) ⊂ f −1 ( B ( f ( x); ε ) )
⇒ f ( y ) ∈ f f −1 ( B ( f ( x); ε ) ) ⊂ B ( f ( x); ε ) i.e. f ( y ) ∈ B ( f ( x );ε )
Consequently f : X → Y is continuous.
The proof is complete.
v Convergence of Sequence:
Let ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 ,..........) be a sequence in a metric space ( X , d ) , we say ( xn )
converges to x ∈ X if lim d ( xn , x ) = 0 .
n→∞
We write lim xn = x or simply xn → x as n → ∞ .
n→∞
Alternatively, we say xn → x if for every ε > 0 there is an n0 ∈ ¥ , such that
∀ n > n0 , d ( xn , x) < ε .
10 Metric Spaces

v Theorem
If ( xn ) is converges then limit of ( xn ) is unique.
Proof:
Suppose xn → a and xn → b ,
Then 0 ≤ d (a, b) ≤ d (a, xn ) + d ( xn , b) → 0 + 0 as n → ∞ ⇒ d ( a, b) = 0 ⇒ a = b
Hence the limit is unique. 8
Alternative
Suppose that a sequence ( xn ) converges to two distinct limits a and b.
and d (a, b) = r > 0
Since xn → a , given any ε > 0 , there is a natural number n1 depending on ε
such that
ε
d ( xn , a ) < whenever n > n1
2
Also xn → b , given any ε > 0 , there is a natural number n2 depending on ε
such that
ε
d ( xn , b) < whenever n > n2
2
Take n0 = max(n1 , n2 ) then
ε ε
d ( xn , a ) < and d ( xn , b) < whenever n > n0
2 2
Since ε is arbitrary, take ε = r then
r = d (a, b) ≤ d (a , xn ) + d ( xn , b)
r r ε
< + =r Q d (a, xn ) = d ( xn , a ) <
2 2 2
Which is a contradiction, Hence a = b i.e. limit is unique.
v Theorem
i) A convergent sequence is bounded.
ii) If xn → x and yn → y then d ( xn , yn ) → d ( x, y ) .
Proof:
(i) Suppose xn → x , therefore for any ε < 0 there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that
∀ n > n0 , d ( xn , x ) < ε
Let a = max {d ( x1 , x ), d ( x2 , x),............, d ( xn , x )} and k = max {ε , a}
Then by using triangular inequality for arbitrary xi , x j ∈ ( xn )
0 ≤ d ( xi , x j ) ≤ d ( xi , x) + d ( x, x j )
≤ k + k = 2k
Hence ( xn ) is bounded.
(ii) By using triangular inequality
d ( xn , yn ) ≤ d ( xn , x ) + d ( x, y ) + d ( y, yn )
⇒ d ( xn , yn ) − d ( x, y ) ≤ d ( xn , x ) + d ( y , yn ) → 0 + 0 as n → ∞ ...........(i )
Next d ( x, y ) ≤ d ( x, xn ) + d ( xn , yn ) + d ( yn , y )
⇒ d ( x, y ) − d ( xn , yn ) ≤ d ( x, xn ) + d ( yn , y ) → 0 + 0 as n → ∞ ..........(ii )
From (i) and (ii)
d ( xn , yn ) − d ( x, y ) → 0 as n → ∞
Hence
lim d ( xn , yn ) = d ( x, y )
n→∞
Q.E.D
 Metric Spaces 11
v Cauchy Sequence
A sequence ( xn ) in a metric space ( X , d ) is called Cauchy if any ε > 0 there is a
n0 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ m, n > n0 , d ( xm , xn ) < ε .
v Theorem
A convergent sequence in a metric space ( X , d ) is Cauchy.
Proof:
Let xn → x ∈ X , therefore any ε < 0 there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that
ε ε
∀ m, n > n0 , d ( xn , x) < and d ( xm , x) < .
2 2
Then by using triangular inequality
d ( xm , xn ) ≤ d ( xm , x ) + d ( x, xn )
≤ d ( xm , x ) + d ( xn , x ) Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x )
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
Thus every convergent sequence in a metric space is Cauchy.
v Example
Let ( xn ) be a sequence in the discrete space ( X , d ) . If ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence, then
for ε = 12 , there is a natural number n0 depending on ε such that
d ( xm , xn ) < 12 ∀ m, n ≥ n0
Since in discrete space d is either 0 or 1 therefore d ( xm , xn ) = 0 ⇒ xm = xn = x (say)
Thus a Cauchy sequence in ( X , d ) become constant after a finite number of terms,
i.e. ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 ,............, xn , x, x, x,...........)
0

v Subsequence
Let (a1 , a2 , a3 ,.........) be a sequence is ( X , d ) and let (i1 , i2 , i3 ,.........) be a
sequence of positive integers such that i1 < i2 < i3 < ....... then ( a , a , a ,.........) is called
i1 i2 i3

subsequence of ( an : n ∈ ¥ ) .
v Theorem
(i) Let ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in ( X , d ) , then ( xn ) converges to a point x ∈ X if
( )
and only if ( xn ) has a convergent subsequence xnk which converges to x ∈ X .
(ii) If ( xn ) converges to x ∈ X , then every subsequence xnk also converges to ( )
x∈ X .
Proof:
(i) Suppose xn → x ∈ X then ( xn ) itself is a subsequence which converges to x ∈ X .
( )
Conversely, assume that xnk is a subsequence of ( xn ) which converges to x.
ε
Then for any ε > 0 there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ nk > n0 , d xnk , x < ( ) 2
.
Further more ( xn ) is Cauchy sequence
ε
Then for the ε > 0 there is n1 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ m, n > n1 , d ( xm , xn ) <
.
2
Suppose n2 = max(n0 , n1 ) then by using the triangular inequality we have
( ) (
d ( xn , x ) ≤ d xn , xnk + d xnk , x )
ε ε
< + =ε ∀ nk , n > n2
2 2
12 Metric Spaces
This show that xn → x .
(ii) xn → x implies for any ε > 0 ∃ n0 ∈ ¥ such that d ( xn , x ) < ε
(
Then in particular d xnk , x < ε ) ∀ nk > n0
Hence xnk → x ∈ X .

v Example
Let X = ( 0,1) then ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,........) = ( 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 ,........) is a sequence in X.
Then xn → 0 but 0 is not a point of X.
v Theorem
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and M ⊂ X .
(i) Then x ∈ M if and only if there is a sequence ( xn ) in M such that xn → x .
(ii) If for any sequence ( xn ) in M, xn → x ⇒ x ∈ M , then M is closed.
Proof:
(i) Suppose x ∈ M = M ∪ M ′
If x ∈ M , then there is a sequence ( x, x, x,.........) in M which converges to x.
If x ∉ M , then x ∈ M ′ i.e. x is an accumulation point of M, therefore each n ∈ ¥ the
 1
open ball B  x ;  contain infinite number of point of M.
 n
 1
We choose xn ∈ M from each B  x ; 
 n
1
Then we obtain a sequence ( xn ) of points of M and since → 0 as n → ∞ .
n
Then xn → x as n → ∞ .
Conversely, suppose ( xn ) such that xn → x .
We prove x ∈ M
If x ∈ M then x ∈ M . Q M = M ∪ M′
If x ∉ M , then every neighbourhood of x contain infinite number of terms of ( xn ) .
Then x is a limit point of M i.e. x ∈ M ′
Hence x ∈ M = M ∪ M ′ .
(ii) If ( xn ) is in M and xn → x , then x ∈ M then by hypothesis M = M , then M is
closed.
v Complete Space
A metric space ( X , d ) is called complete if every Cauchy sequence in X
converges to a point of X.
v Subspace
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and Y ⊂ X then Y is called subspace if Y is itself a
metric space under the metric d.
v Theorem
A subspace of a complete metric space ( X , d ) is complete if and only if Y is
closed in X.
Proof:
Assume that Y is complete we prove Y is closed.
Let x ∈ Y then there is a sequence ( xn ) in Y such that xn → x .
Since convergent sequence is a Cauchy and Y is complete then xn → x ∈ Y .
Since x was arbitrary point of Y ⇒ Y ⊂Y
 Metric Spaces 13
Therefore Y = Y QY ⊂ Y
Consequently Y is closed.
Conversely, suppose Y is closed and ( xn ) is a Cauchy sequence. Then ( xn ) is Cauchy
in X and since X is complete so xn → x ∈ X .
Also x ∈ Y and Y ⊂ X .
Since Y is closed i.e. Y = Y therefore x ∈ Y .
Hence Y is complete. 8
v Nested Sequence:
A sequence sets A1 , A2 , A3 ,............... is called nested if A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ A3 ⊃ ...............
v Theorem (Cantor’s Intersection Theorem)
A metric space ( X , d ) is complete if and only if every nested sequence of non-
empty closed subset of X, whose diameter tends to zero, has a non-empty intersection.
Proof:
Suppose ( X , d ) is complete and let A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ A3 ⊃ ............... be a nested
sequence of closed subsets of X.
Since Ai is non-empty we choose a point an from each An . And then we will prove
(a1 , a2 , a3 ,..........) is Cauchy in X.
Let ε > 0 be given, since lim d ( An ) = 0 then there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that d An0 < 0
n→∞
( )
Then for m, n > n0 , d (am , an ) < ε .
This shows that (an ) is Cauchy in X.
Since X is complete so an → p ∈ X (say)
We prove p ∈ I An ,
n

Suppose the contrary that p ∉ I An then ∃ a k ∈ ¥ such that p ∉ Ak .

n
Since Ak is closed, d ( p, Ak ) = δ > 0 .
 δ  δ
Consider the open ball B  p ;  then Ak and B  p ;  are disjoint
 2  2
 δ
Now ak , ak +1 , ak +2 ,......... all belong to Ak then all these points do not belong to B  p ; 
 2
This is a contradiction as p is the limit point of ( an ) .
Hence p ∈ I An .
n
Conversely, assume that every nested sequence of closed subset of X has a non-empty
intersection. Let ( xn ) be Cauchy in X, where ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,...........)
Consider the sets
A1 = { x1 , x2 , x3 ,................}
A2 = { x2 , x3 , x4 ................}
………………………..
……………………….
……………………….
Ak = { xn : n ≥ k}
Then we have A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ A3 ⊃ ...............
We prove lim d ( An ) = 0
n→∞
Since ( xn ) is Cauchy, therefore ∃ n0 ∈ ¥ such that
∀ m, n > n0 , d ( xm , xn ) < ε , i.e. lim d ( An ) = 0 .
n→∞
14 Metric Spaces
( )
Now d An = d ( An ) then lim d ( An ) = lim d ( An ) = 0
n→∞ n→∞

Also A1 ⊃ A2 ⊃ A3 ⊃ ...............
Then by hypothesis I An ≠ ϕ . Let p ∈ I An
n n
We prove xn → p ∈ X
Since lim d ( An ) = 0 therefore ∃ k0 ∈ ¥ such that d Ak0 < ε
n→∞
( )
Then for n > k0 , xn , p ∈ An ⇒ d ( xn , p ) < ε ∀ n > k0
This proves that xn → p ∈ X .
The proof is complete.
v Complete Space (Examples)
(i) The discrete space is complete.
Since in discrete space a Cauchy sequence becomes constant after finite terms
i.e. ( xn ) is Cauchy in discrete space if it is of the form
( x1 , x2 , x3 ,........., xn = b, b, b,.......)
(ii) The set ¢ = {0, ±1, ± 2, ± 3,.............} of integers with usual metric is complete.
(iii) The set of rational numbers with usual metric is not complete.
Q (1.1,1.41,1.412,..........) is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers but its limit is
2 , which is not rational.
(iv) The space of irrational number with usual metric is not complete.
We take ( −1,1) , ( − 1 2 , 1 2 ) , ( − 13 , 13 ) ,................, ( − 1 n , 1 n )
We choose one irrational number from each interval and these irrational tends to zero
as we goes toward infinity, as zero is a rational so space of irrational is not complete.
v Theorem
The real line is complete.
Proof:
Let ( xn ) be any Cauchy sequence of real numbers.
We first prove that ( xn ) is bounded.
Let ε = 1 > 0 then ∃ n0 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ m, n ≥ n0 , d ( xm , xn ) = xm − xn < 1
In particular for n ≥ n0 we have
xn0 − xn ≤ 1 ⇒ xn0 − 1 ≤ xn ≤ xn0 + 1

{ } { }
Let α = max x1 , x2 ,..........., xn0 + 1 and β = min x1 , x2 ,..........., xn0 − 1
then β ≤ xn ≤ α ∀ n .
this shows that ( xn ) is bounded with β as lower bound and α as upper bound.
Secondly we prove ( xn ) has convergent subsequence ( xni ) .
If the range of the sequence is { xn } = { x1 , x2 , x3 ,..........} is finite, then one of the term is
the sequence say b will repeat infinitely i.e. b, b ,b ,……….
Then (b, b, b,.........) is a convergent subsequence which converges to b.
If the range is infinite then by the Bolzano Weirestrass theorem, the bounded infinite
set { xn } has a limit point, say b.
Then each of the open interval S1 = (b − 1, b + 1) , S2 = ( b − 1 2 , b + 1 2 ) ,
S2 = ( b − 13 , b + 13 ) , …….…… has an infinite numbers of points of the set { xn } .
i.e. there are infinite numbers of terms of the sequence ( xn ) in every open interval S n .
We choose a point xi1 from S1 , then we choose a point xi2 from S 2 such that i1 < i2
 Metric Spaces 15
i.e. the terms xi2 comes after xi1 in the original sequence ( xn ) . Then we choose a
term xi3 such that i2 < i3 , continuing in this manner we obtain a subsequence
( x ) = ( x , x , x ,..........) .
in i1 i2 i3

It is always possible to choose a term because every interval contain an infinite

numbers of terms of the sequence ( xn ) .
Since b − 1 n → b and b + 1 n → b as n → ∞ . Hence we have convergent subsequence
( x ) whose limit is
in b.
Lastly we prove that xn → b ∈ ¡ .
Since ( xn ) is a Cauchy therefore for any ε > 0 there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that
ε
∀ m, n > n0 xm − xn <
2
Also since xin → b there is a natural number im such that im > n0
Then ∀ m, n, im > n0
d ( xn , b ) = xn − b = xn − xim + xim − b
ε ε
≤ xn − xim + xim − b < + =ε
2 2
Hence xn → b ∈ ¡ and the proof is complete.

v Theorem
The Euclidean space ¡ n is complete.
Proof:
Let ( xm ) be any Cauchy sequence in ¡ n .
Then for any ε > 0 , there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ m, r > n0
1
  ( m ) ( r ) 2  2
d ( xm , xr ) =  ∑  ξ j − ξ j   < ε ..............(i )
   

 ( m )   ( m ) ( m) ( m ) ( m)
  (r )   (r ) (r ) (r ) (r )

where xm =  ξ j  =  ξ1 , ξ 2 , ξ 3 ,............., ξ n  and xr =  ξ j  =  ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,ξ3 ,.............,ξ n 
       
Squaring both sided of (i) we obtain
2
 (m) (r ) 
∑  ξ j − ξ j  < ε 2
(m) (r )
⇒ ξ j −ξ j < ε ∀ j = 1,2,3,......., n

 ( m)   (1) (2) (3) 

This implies  ξ j  =  ξ j ,ξ j ,ξ j ,....................  is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers
   
for every j = 1,2,3,............, n .
(m)
Since ¡ is complete therefore ξ j → ξ j ∈ ¡ (say)
Using these n limits we define
x = (ξ j ) = (ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,ξ3 ,..........,ξ n ) then clearly x ∈ ¡ .
We prove xm → x
In (i) as r → ∞ , d ( xm , x ) < ε ∀ m > n0 which show that xm → x ∈ ¡
And the proof is complete.
Note: In the above theorem if we take n = 2 then we see complex plane £ = ¡ 2 is
complete. Moreover the unitary space £ n is complete.
16 Metric Spaces
v Theorem
The space l ∞ is complete.
Proof:
Let ( xm ) be any Cauchy sequence in l ∞ .
Then for any ε > 0 there is n0 > ¥ such that ∀ m, n > n0
(m) n
d ( xm , xn ) = sup ξ j − ξ j < ε .......... (i )
j

 ( m )   ( m ) ( m) ( m )   ( n)   ( n) ( n) ( n) 
Where xm =  ξ j  =  ξ1 , ξ 2 , ξ 3 ,.............  and xn =  ξ j  =  ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,ξ3 ,............. 
       
Then from (i)
( m) ( n)
ξ j − ξ j < ε ..........(ii ) ∀ j = 1,2,3,........ and ∀ m, n > n0

 ( m)   (1) (2) (3) 

It means  ξ j  =  ξ j ,ξ j ,ξ j ,....................  is a Cauchy sequence of real or complex
   
numbers for every j = 1,2,3,........
(m)
And since ¡ and £ are complete therefore ξ j → ξ j ∈ ¡ or £ (say).
Using these infinitely many limits we define x = (ξ j ) = (ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,ξ 3 ,..........) .
We prove x ∈ l ∞ and xm → x .
(m )
In (i) as n → ∞ we obtain ξ j − ξ j < ε ..........(iii ) ∀ m > n0

We prove x is bounded.
By using the triangular inequality
( m) (m) (m) ( m)
ξ j = ξ j − ξ j + ξ j ≤ ξ j − ξ j + ξ j < ε + km
( m)
Where ξ j < km as xm is bounded.

Hence (ξ j ) = x is bounded.
This shows that xn → x ∈ l ∞ .
And the proof is complete.
v Theorem
The space C of all convergent sequence of complex number is complete.
Note: It is subspace of l ∞ .
Proof:
First we prove C is closed in l ∞ .
Let x = (ξ j ) ∈C , then there is a sequence ( xn ) in C such that xn → x .
 ( n)   ( n) ( n) ( n) 
Where xn =  ξ j  =  ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,ξ 3 ,............... 
   
Then for any ε > 0 , there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ n ≥ n0
( n)
ε
d ( xn , x ) = sup ξ j − ξ j <
j 3
Then in particular for n = n0 and ∀ j = 1, 2,3,...........
( n0 )
ε
ξ j −ξ j <
3
Now xn0 ∈C then xn0 is a convergent sequence therefore ∃ n1 ∈ ¥
such that ∀ j , k > n1
 Metric Spaces 17
ε ( n0 ) ( n0 )
ξ j − ξk <
3
Then by using triangular inequality we have
( n0 ) ( n0 ) ( n0 ) ( n0 )
ξ j − ξ k = ξ j − ξ j + ξ j − ξk + ξk − ξ k
( n0 ) ( n0 ) ( n0 ) ( n0 )
≤ ξ j − ξ j + ξ j − ξk + ξk − ξ k

ε ε ε
<
+ + =ε ∀ j , k > n1
3 3 3
Hence x is Cauchy in l ∞ and x is convergent
Therefore x ∈C and ⇒ C = C.
i.e. C is closed in l ∞ and l ∞ is complete.
Since we know that a subspace of complete space is complete if and only if it is closed
in the space.
Consequently C is complete.
v Theorem
The space l p , p ≥ 1 is a real number, is complete.
Proof
Let ( xn ) be any Cauchy sequence in l p .
Then for every ε > 0 , there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ m, n > n0
1
 ∞ (m) ( n)
p
 p
d ( xm , xn ) =  ∑ ξ j − ξ j  < ε ………….. (i)
 j =1
 
  
(m) ( m ) ( m ) (m )

where xm =  ξ j  =  ξ1 , ξ 2 , ξ3 ,............ 
   
(m ) ( n)
Then from (i) ξ j − ξ j < ε ……… (ii) ∀ m, n > n0 and for any fixed j.

 ( m) 
This shows that  ξ j  is a Cauchy sequence of numbers for the fixed j.
 
(m)
Since ¡ and £ are complete therefore ξ j → ξ j ∈ ¡ or £ (say) as m → ∞ .
Using these infinite many limits we define x = (ξ j ) = (ξ1 ,ξ 2 ,ξ 3 ,............) .
We prove x ∈ l p and xm → x as m → ∞ .
From (i) we have
1
 k (m) ( n) p  p

 ∑ ξ j − ξ j  < ε
 j =1 
k ( m) ( n) p
i.e. ∑ξ
j =1
j −ξ j < ε p …………. (iii)

Taking as n → ∞ , we get
k ( m) p

∑ξ
j =1
j −ξ j <εp , k = 1, 2, 3, …….

Now taking k → ∞ , we obtain

( m) p

∑ξ j −ξ j < ε p ………… (iv) ∀ j = 1,2,3,..........

This shows that ( xm − x ) ∈ l p

18 Metric Spaces
Now l is a vector space and xm ∈ l p , x − xm ∈ l p then xm + ( x − xm ) = x ∈ l p .
p

Also from (iv) we see that

( d ( xm , x) ) < ε p
p
∀ m > n0
i.e. d ( xm , x) < ε ∀ m > n0
This shows that xm → x ∈ l p as x → ∞ .
And the proof is complete.
v Theorem
The space C[a, b] is complete.
Proof:
Let ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in C[a, b].
Therefore for every ε > 0 , there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ m, n > n0
d ( xm , xn ) = max xm (t ) − xn (t ) < ε ………… (i) where J = [ a, b] .
t∈J
Then for any fix t = t0 ∈ J
xm (t0 ) − xn (t0 ) < ε ∀ m, n > n0
It means ( x1 (t0 ), x2 (t0 ), x3 (t0 ),...............) is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers. And
since ¡ is complete therefore xm (t0 ) → x (t0 ) ∈ ¡ (say) as m → ∞ .
In this way for every t ∈ J , we can associate a unique real number x(t ) with xn (t ) .
This defines a function x(t ) on J.
We prove x (t ) ∈C[a, b] and xm (t ) → x (t ) as m → ∞ .
From (i) we see that
xm (t ) − xn (t ) < ε for every t ∈ J and ∀ m, n > n0 .
Letting n → ∞ , we obtain for all t ∈ J
xm (t ) − x(t ) < ε ∀ m < n0 .
Since the convergence is uniform and the xn ’s are continuous, the limit function x(t )
is continuous, as it is well known from the calculus.
Then x(t ) is continuous.
Hence x (t ) ∈C[a, b] , also xm (t ) − x(t ) < ε as m → ∞
Therefore xm (t ) → x (t ) ∈C[a, b] .
The proof is complete.
v Theorem
If ( X , d1 ) and (Y , d2 ) are complete then X × Y is complete.
Note: The metric d (say) on X × Y is defined as d ( x, y ) = max ( d1 (ξ1 ,ξ 2 ) , d 2 (η1 ,η2 ) )
where x = (ξ1 ,η1 ) , y = (ξ 2 ,η2 ) and ξ1 ,ξ 2 ∈ X , η1 ,η2 ∈ Y .
Proof:
Let ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in X × Y .
Then for any ε > 0 , there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that ∀ m, n > n0
  ( m) ( n )   ( m ) ( n )  
d ( xm , xn ) = max  d1  ξ , ξ  , d 2  η , η   < ε
    
 (m ) ( n)
  ( m) ( n)

⇒ d1  ξ , ξ  < ε and d 2  η , η  < ε ∀ m, n > n0
   
  
( m) (1) (2) (3)

This implies  ξ  =  ξ , ξ , ξ ,.............  is a Cauchy sequence in X.
   
  
( m) (1) (2) (3)

and  η  =  η , η , η ,.............  is a Cauchy sequence in Y.
   
 Metric Spaces 19
(m) (m)
Since X and Y are complete therefore ξ → ξ ∈ X (say) and η → η ∈ Y (say)
Let x = (ξ , µ ) then x ∈ X × Y .
  (m)   (m)  
Also d ( xm , x ) = max  d1  ξ ,ξ  , d 2  η ,η   → 0 as n → ∞ .
    
Hence xm → x ∈ X × Y .
This proves completeness of X × Y .
v Theorem
f : ( X , d ) → (Y , d ′ ) is continuous at x0 ∈ X if and only if xn → x implies
f ( xn ) → f ( x0 ) .
Proof:
Assume that f is continuous at x0 ∈ X then for given ε > 0 there is a δ > 0
such that
d ( x, x0 ) < δ ⇒ d ′ ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) < ε .
Let xn → x0 , then for our δ > 0 there is n0 ∈ ¥ such that
d ( xn , x0 ) < δ , ∀ n > n0
Then by hypothesis d ′ ( f ( xn ), f ( x0 ) ) < ε , ∀ n > n0
i.e. f ( xn ) → f ( x0 )
Conversely, assume that xn → x0 ⇒ f ( xn ) → f ( x0 )
We prove f : X → Y is continuous at x0 ∈ X , suppose this is false
Then there is an ε > 0 such that for every δ > 0 there is an x ∈ X such that
d ( x, x0 ) < δ but d ′ ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) ≥ ε
1
In particular when δ = , there is xn ∈ X such that
n
d ( xn , x0 ) < δ but d ( f ( xn ), f ( x0 ) ) ≥ ε .
This shows that xn → x0 but f ( xn ) → f ( x0 ) as n → ∞ .
This is a contradiction.
Consequently f : X → Y is continuous at x0 ∈ X .
The proof is complete.
v Rare (or nowhere dense in X )
Let X be a metric, a subset M ⊂ X is called rare (or nowhere dense in X ) if M
( )
has no interior point i.e. int M = ϕ .
v Meager ( or of the first category)
Let X be a metric, a subset M ⊂ X is called meager (or of the first category) if M
can be expressed as a union of countably many rare subset of X.
v Non-meager ( or of the second category)
Let X be a metric, a subset M ⊂ X is called non-meager (or of the second
category) if it is not meager (of the first category) in X.
v Example:
Consider the set ¤ of rationales as a subset of a real line ¡ . Let q ∈ ¤ , then
{q} = {q} because ¡ − {q} = ( −∞, q ) ∪ ( q, ∞ ) is open. Clearly {q} contain no open ball.
Hence ¤ is nowhere dense in ¡ as well as in ¤ . Also since ¤ is countable, it is the
countable union of subsets {q} , q ∈ ¤ . Thus ¤ is of the first category.
20 Metric Spaces
v Bair’s Category Theorem:
If X ≠ ϕ is complete then it is non-meager in itself.
OR
A complete metric space is of second category.
Proof
∞
Suppose that X is meager in itself then X = U M k , where each M k is rare in X.
k =1
o
Since M 1 is rare then int(M ) = M = ϕ
i.e. M 1 has non-empty open subset
But X has a non-empty open subset ( i.e. X itself ) then M 1 ≠ X .
c
This implies M 1 = X − M 1 is a non-empty and open.
and an open ball B1 = B ( p1; ε1 ) ⊂ M 1 , where ε1 < 1 .
c c
We choose a point p1 ∈ M 1
2
c
Now M 2 is non-empty and open
 1 
Then ∃ a point p2 ∈ M 2 and open ball B2 = B ( p2 ; ε 2 ) ∈ M 2 ∩ B  p1 ; ε1 
c c

 2 
c  1 
( M 2 has no non-empty open subset then M 2 ∩ B  p1; ε1  is non-empty and open.)
 2 
c  1 
So we have chosen a point p2 from the set M 2 ∩ B  p1; ε1  and an open ball
 2 
1 1 1
B ( p2 , ε 2 ) around it, where ε 2 < ε1 < ⋅ < 2 −1 .
2 2 2
Proceeding in this way we obtain a sequence of balls Bk such that
 1 
Bk +1 ⊂ B  pk ; ε k  ⊂ Bk where Bk = B ( pk ;ε k ) ∀ k = 1, 2,3,.......
 2 
Then the sequence of centres pk is such that for m > n
1 1
d ( pm , pn ) < ε m < m+1 → 0 as m → ∞ .
2 2
Hence the sequence ( pk ) is Cauchy.
Since X is complete therefore pk → p ∈ X (say) as k → ∞ .
Also
d ( pm , p ) ≤ d ( pm , pn ) + d ( pn , p )
1
< ε m + d ( pn , p )
2
< ε m + d ( pn , p ) → ε m + 0 as n → ∞ .
(
Q Bm = M 2 ∩ B pm−1; 12 ε m−1 )
c c
⇒ p ∈ Bm ∀ m i.e. p ∈ M m ∀ m
c
⇒ Bm ⊂ M m ⇒ Bm ∩ M m = ϕ
⇒ p∉Mm ∀ m ⇒ p∉ X
This is a contradiction.
Bair’s Theorem is proof.
References: (1) Lectures (2003-04)
Prof. Muhammad Ashfaq
Ex Chairman, Department of Mathematics.
University of Sargodha, Sargodha.
(2) Book
Introductory Functional Analysis with Applications
By Erwin Kreyszig
Available online at http://www.mathcity.org in PDF Format. (Page Setup: 8 12 ′′ × 14′′ )