Low Noise Photodiode Amplifier Write-Up

EECS 189 A/B

Professors:
R. Nelson
J. Larue
Mentors:
Allen Kine
George Horansky
Faruk Leric Jr.
Brian Gorda
Eugine Rubin
March 19, 2007
1
Low-Noise Photodiode Simulation Writeup
With their low-input currents, FET input operational amplifiers are quite
commonly used in monitoring photodetectors. The most common of these configurations
are usually applied to photodiodes. The photodetector bridges the gap between a physical
phenomenon, such as light in our case, and the electronics used to detect and interpret
these phenomena. Selection of the appropriate amplifier architecture depends on ones
choice of noise, bandwidth, offset, and linearity. A traditional topology that is quite
commonly used in photodetection is as follows:
1
Here the photodiode is in series with the input of an operational amplifier where
ideally zero current flows. R
IN
and C
IN
are used to reduce DC and AC errors caused by
input bias currents. C
IN
shunts signal so that the noise inverting input approximates AC
ground. However, at the same time R
IN
also increases noise at the output by a factor of
1
Bonnie C. Baker, Comparison of Noise Performance Between FET Transimpedance Amplifier and A
Switched Integrator, Burr Brown, 1993
2
!4KTRB times the noise gain of the circuit. The op-amp has feedback set by R
2
. This
resistance in a current-to-voltage converter such as the one presented above, largely
determines noise and bandwidth as well as gain. The spectral density of the resistor is
given by !4KTR, excluding non-ideal resistor behavior, and appears directly at the output
of a current-to-voltage converter. As we can see from the mathematical relationship,
increasing R not only increases output noise, but it also increases the output signal by a
direct proportionality. Consequently, signal-to-noise ratio tends to increase by a square-
root relationship. Noise from the operational amplifier also influences the output, with
an additional effect introduced by the high feedback resistance R
2
as well as the
capacitance C
2.
Amplifier noise sources are usually modeled by the input noise current,
i
n
, and the input noise voltage e
n
shown as follows:
2
The current noise i
n
flows through the feedback resistor R experiencing the same
gain as the signal current I
p
. The DC noise voltage gain is given by 1+R/R
D
. This gain is
2
Photodiode Monitoring With Op Amps, Burr Brown, January, 1995
3
kept small by the high diode resistance R
D
. However, at higher frequencies the above the
current bandwidth capacitance large values C
D
of the photodiode compared to the
feedback capacitor starts having a significant effect on the noise gain. This in turn
influences the gain of e
n
in a proportional manner. Since the feedback resistance is
commonly made large, the effect can take place at relatively lower frequencies for small
values of C in parallel with the parasitic capacitance. The noise gain gradually rises and
eventually terminates at the intersection of given bandwidth curve. The feedback
capacitance C, shunts the feedback resistance R and results in a pole leveling response at
1+C
D
/C. For large area diodes, the capacitance C
D
can be in the picofarad range. This
could have a detrimental effect since the noise gain could be amplified by a factor of a
hundred as well. As such, gain peaking phenomena are a common side effect of high-
feedback op amp resistors and need to be carefully studied to maintain good behavioral
characteristics of the circuit. The effects of not properly selecting the feedback
capacitance can result in overshoot, response peaking, poor settling and quite possibly
oscillation. All of these effects are highly undesirable and need to be accounted for in the
architecture and design of the proper circuit topology.
Besides the DC and transient performance of the circuit, which is a function of the
overshoot, settling time and oscillation, we must also account for the noise characteristics
of the circuit. In understanding the current-to-voltage noise performance, it is important
to recognize that the signal current and noise voltage encounter different frequency
responses. The current-to-voltage is flat with frequency until the feedback impedance is
rolled off by the stray capacitance. The majority of the op amps bandwidth quite
commonly serves to amplify the noise error and not the signal. This is also typically the
4
dominant source of noise for high feedback resistances. A typical noise versus feedback
resistance plot will usually behave in the following manner:
3
Upon inspection of the plot, we note that as the feedback resistance of a current-to-
voltage converter increases, the dominant noise source changes from the op amp to the
resistor and back to the op amp under gain peaking conditions. These effects are shown
for several op amps. Nameley, the OPA 404, the OPA 128 which we will utilize in our
design, and the OPA 111/OPA2111. The OPA 128 is a highly desirable op amp in our
case because it exhibits low noise characteristics in the middle range that is due to the
amplifiers low bandwidth that is 1 MHz (typically). It also excels in its very low DC
error characteristics as its input currents are a mere 0.075pA. Thus it is also a very low
input current device that we can take advantage of in our low noise amplifier design.
To understand the detrimental effects of noise even further, it is important to give
a brief overview of the governing principles behind low noise amplifier systems. The
first stage of amplifier design is the most prone of all to noise disturbance because noise
and signal are related at the input in an application. Noise when referred to the input is
3
Photodiode Monitoring With Op Amps, Burr Brown, January 15, 1995
5
independent of amplifier gain or input impedance. The Noise Figure is defined as the
ratio of the signal to noise at the output to that of the input. This can be expressed as
follows:
NF= (s/n)
I
/(s/n)
O
,
where (s/n)
I
is the signal to noise ratio at the input, and (s/n)
O
is the signal to noise ratio at
the output of the device under test conditions. Hence, the noise figures can be referred to
the input. We know that noise can be modeled as a series of Gaussian distributions and
that uncorrelated noise combines in quadrature. Mathematically, this can be expressed as
follows:
e
2
tot
= e
2
1
+ e
2
2
+ e
2
3
+..+ i
2
n
R
2
n
where e is a voltage input. This simple relation demonstrates that the total noise
accumulates as the sum of the squares of individual noise contributions. Consequently,
the success of the design will largely be influenced by the ability to curb and control
noise figures. To illustrate the significance of the phenomenon, we will proceed with a
relatively simple model as follows:
Here G
1
, G
2
, and G
3
serve as hypothetical amplifiers of several stages in our circuit
topology. It is noteworthy to point out that it is impractical to put all the gain in one
location because of power, heating, material, and size related issues. To calculate the
signal and noise at the output the following is done:
4
EE Lectures, 2002
6
S
out
= G
1
G
2
G
3
S
in

This can be extended to an N
th
order system for theoretical purposes. We then have the
following at the output:
(e
out
/S
out
)
2
= (e
2
1
+ e
2
2
/G
1
+ e
2
3
/(G
2
1
G
2
2
))/S
2
in
Therefore we can deduce from this relation that it is desirable to maximize gain at the
input stage. The first stage would boost the signal enough for the transmission down a
cable and should be large enough such that environmental noise is not significant enough
to affect the functionality of the circuit.
To control noise, it is imperative to recognize that gain peaking effects are the
primary noise limitation with a commonly configured high feedback resistance topology.
To limit gain peaking, additional capacitance is commonly added to bypass the
detrimental effects posed by the feedback resistor. Simply adding feedback capacitance
to the photodiode amplifier however, reduces the circuits high-frequency noise gain.
This does not actually reduce noise bandwidth, but reduced gain peaking decreases the
high-frequency effect of the op amps noise voltage. The amount of capacitance will vary
depending on the impedance posed by the resistor. Further, although adding feedback
capacitance is an effective means of reducing and controlling noise gain, it also decreases
signal bandwidth by the same factor. That bandwidth is already low with high feedback
resistance. Consequently, the end result could be a response of a kilohertz or less.
Circumventing the bandwidth problem is accomplished by utilizing a composite
amplifier. It consists of two op amps with the added one for phase compensation control.
A common topology may look as follows:
7
5
With this composite structure, internal feedback controls the frequency response
of the gain added by the second op amp A
2
. At DC, we know that capacitors block the
feedback and this is the purpose of C
1
in the schematic. The overall open-loop gain will
be given by the product of the two amplifiers. The gain will be rolled off by the open-
loop pole of A
1
and by the response established by for A
2
by C
1
and R
3.
This
configuration is also a two pole roll off; therefore it is necessary to reduce it to establish
frequency stability and avoid oscillations. It is interesting to note that minimal noise, or
offset, is added by the second op amp A
2
since this amplifier is preceded by the high gain
of A
1
. This topology is especially useful in situations where low level signals have
greater sensitivity to noise such as in our case. However, the feedback approach adds
simulation complexity to optimizing the design and little practical advantage over current
to voltage stage followed by a modified two pole filter stage.
Another design consideration that has to be accounted for is the bandwidth of the
circuit. This is especially important for current-to-voltage converters since the total
output noise increases in proportion to the square root of system bandwidth because a
5
Photodiode Monitoring With Op Amps, Burr Brown, January, 1995
8
broad noise spectrum is encompassed. Typically there is also the added conflict of an
optimum signal-to-noise ratio and the bandwidth. This optimum occurs at a very high
gain. However, for current-to-voltage converters the situation is dire because they are
bandwidth limited. For instance, 0.5pF of stray capacitance around a 100M! feedback
resistor pulls the signal bandwidth from a megahertz level to a kilohertz level. To
minimize this, know as stray shunting, low capacitance resistors and assembly
precautions are used. On a practical level, mounting feedback resistors on standoffs
reduces capacitive coupling with printed circuit boards. This is one possible source that
usually adds more capacitance to the overall circuitry. Bandwidth beyond parasitics such
as capacitance requires lower feedback resistance and accompanying lower converter
gain. Although it is very important to improve the bandwidth through voltage gain,
output noise increases which is undesirable. As such, a right compromise must be struck
for a given design.
The traditional transimpedance amplifier topology is preferred because it gives us
a real time representation of light excitation at the output of the amplifier. Alternative
topologies on the other hand, such as the switched integrator, give a time-averaged
representation of the input information from the photodetector. Despite the limits to the
solution in real time, such as bandwidth limits and settling time problems set by the
amplifier, this approach is optimal for low and medium bandwidth applications where
information about the amplitude and shape of the input signal is important such as in our
case. The switched integrator requires careful analysis of the frequency oscillation and
the effect of its characteristics as the switched integrator. Additionally, the switched
integrator topology is inherently limited in terms of bandwidth because of restrictions
imposed by the slew rate, settling times, and switching times of the integrator itself. The
9
only advantage it has over the traditional topology according to the Burr-Brown article is
its relatively better noise performance.
Much of the discussion so far has dealt with the architectural design and topology
most advantageous for the low noise amplifier to be used in photodetection. Since
topology issues have been resolved, we are now ready to discuss concrete simulation
outcomes. The simulation software that we utilized for our purposes was Linear
Technologys (LTI) TINA Spice Simulation software. It is a user friendly software
available free for download from Texas Instruments web-page. The decision to use the
software is partly influenced by its ability to simulate noise figures that are not as easily
obtained in PSPICE, and the inclusion of OPA 277 and OPA 128 in simulations model
library. The requirements for the low noise amplifier are as follows: root mean square
circuit noise equivalent to one picoampere of photocurrent for the Hamamatsu S1336-44
BQ photodiode. The overall circuit response for a 100 Hz photocurrent square wave
varies dynamically from 1 pA to 25 mA. The output voltage for the specified
photocurrent must be roughly 10 Volts. For a 100 M" feedback resistance the required
RMS noise would be 1 pA
*
10
8
"/!2 or 70.7 V. The design will use rechargeable
Nickel metal hydride batteries that have a 9V case configuration . The primary circuit
operation will be between 16.6 and 14 volts. For simulation purposes the circuit analysis
will use plus and minus 15 volt supplies.
The amplifier schematic for the low noise amplifier is as follows:
10
The schematic consists of a model photodiode which is composed of a diode shunt
resistance, a current source for the dark current, a current source for the photo current,
amplifier and a junction capacitance. The first op amp is an OPA 128KM. It is a
monolithic amplifier that is commonly used in photodetection schemes. A noise free
cascode and low-noise processing give it superb low-level signal processing. The choice
of this particular amplifier is also based on its ultra-low bias current of roughly 75fA
max, its low offset voltage, which is 500V max, its low noise currents, and low
bandwidth. The amplifier is also optimized for low power consumption purposes. This
will allow our circuitry to last longer for longer time durations and will require less
charging frequencies as light spectra are being studied. Its side terminals are tied to 15 V
voltage sources that are then grounded.
At the positive terminal of the OPA 128KM we have also modeled the parasitic
capacitance of the resistor. The feedback capacitance is the parasitic capacitance and the
capacitance required to suppress circuit oscillations. The output stage of the first op amp
11
is followed by an RC filter as well as another amplifier. The second amplifier chosen for
photo detection purposes was the OPA277P. The choice of this op-amp was influenced
by the following operational characteristics: it has an ultra-low offset voltage of
roughly 10!V, high open loop gain of 134dB, high common-mode rejection of 140 dB,
and ultra-low bias currents. Asides from this, it also has a wide voltage supply range
spanning from 2 V up to 18 V. Its positive input polarity has been grounded while the
negative input is connected to the output of the first stage via a resistor. A modified 800
Hertz unity gain RC filter has been utilized for the purposes of noise control. The filter
was initially designed to be used with a higher bandwidth operational amplifier which
would have required additional filtering due to capacitive gain peaking of the first stage.
The filter is followed by the dual version of the OPA277 , that is the OPA2277, which is
used to create two unity gain differential signals which are 180 degrees out of phase. The
signals then go to a LT1167AC instrumentation amplifier with gains of either two or one
hundred. The conversion of the differential signal to a single phase signal by the
instrumentation amplifier results in a gain of two so that with the instrumentation
amplifier overall gain is 4 or two hundred. The output of the instrumentation amplifier
goes to two amplifiers which are used as RC filters and for gain. The filters were
designed so that their combined bandwidth was approximately 600 Hertz. The first filter
has gains of 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10. The second will has gains of 1, 10, 20, and 40. Following
the two filters there is a voltage follower that is basically used as load buffer. The three
amplifiers following the instrumentation amplifier are the OPA277P.
In light of the background information and our structural topology, it is only
befitting to continue the discussion of low noise amplifiers with simulation outcomes.
The simulations have been conducted in the following manner: capacitances C
1
, C
2
, and
12
C
3
have been varied in a manner to yield the most desirable transients, output and total
noise curves. The frequencies at which responses were noted are 100 and 400 Hz
respectively. Unless otherwise noted the photocurrent is one picoamperes, and a dark
current of 3 picoamperes. For comparative purposes, plots will be included in our
discussion to elucidate the subject matter. In the first attempt, we used the following
physical set of data:
Total Noise
(uV)
Output Noise
(uV/!Hz) Cap. 1 Cap. 2
Frequency
(Hz) Cap. 3
13.96 1.41 4p 4p 100 10n
27.45 1.29 4p 4p 400 10n
The corresponding curves of the transient response, output noise and total noise looked as
follows:
13
Transient Response
Output Noise
14
Total Noise
15
From the table and plots we observe the following: the transient response is well
behaved. It is regular, periodic and experiences no oscillations, indicating that the circuit
is stable for the capacitance values listed. In a similar fashion, the output noise and total
noise experience flat responses with no peaks or dips. From the table we observe that the
output and total noise are 1.41 uV/!Hz and 13.96 uV for 100 Hz respectively. For 400 Hz,
these figures are 1.29 uV/!Hz and 27.45 uV. As such, we observe that at higher frequencies, the
output noise decreases while the total noise increases by a factor of roughly 2. If we perform the
same analytical procedure for the following capacitive parameters and frequencies we find that:
Total Noise
(uV)
Output Noise
(uV/!Hz) Cap. 1 Cap. 2
Frequency
(Hz) Cap. 3
13.99 1.41 1p 1p 100 10n
28.44 1.43 1p 1p 400 10n
Transient Response
Output Noise
16
Total Noise
Upon completion of the simulation with lowered capacitance, we find that the transient
response is well behaved once again. In a similar fashion, the output and total noise
17
experience no dips or peaks. The respective responses indicate that gain peaking has not
become an issues as of yet. However at the same relative frequencies of 100 Hz and 400
Hz we find the following: at 100 Hz, the output and total noise are 1.41 uV/!Hz and 13.99
uV respectively. Essentially the output noise has remained unchanged while the total noise has
increased by 0.03 uV. At 400 Hz, the output and total noise are 1.43 uV/!Hz and 28.44 uV.
Therefore lowering capacitance has increased the output noise by .02 uV/!Hz while the total
noise has increased by 0.99 uV. These changes indicate that lowering the capacitance makes
the circuit more prone to disturbance due to noise. As such, oscillations, which are highly
undesirable, are more likely to occur. This observation will be illustrated by the following results:
Total Noise
(uV)
Output Noise
(uV/!Hz) Cap. 1 Cap. 2
Frequency
(Hz) Cap. 3
13.99 1.42 10f 10f 100 10n
28.5 1.44 10f 10f 400 10n
Transient Response
Output Noise
18
Total Noise
19
After lowering the capacitance even further, we ultimately find that the circuit starts
oscillating. This is particularly obvious in the output noise plot, which shows an abrupt
peak around a frequency of 4kHz. Due to the high capacitance of the photodiode, the
amplifier becomes subject to instability and oscillation with lower feedback capactitance.
The perceived significance of this observation shows that controlling the capacitance
values is an important factor in determining whether the circuit topology will be well
behaved. Therefore we constrict ourselves to capacitance values in the picofarad range.
This observation will be illustrated by the following results:
Total Noise
(uV)
Output Noise
(uV/!Hz) Cap. 1 Cap. 2
Frequency
(Hz) Cap. 3
13.99 1.42 10f 10f 100 10n
28.5 1.44 10f 10f 400 10n
20
Transient Response:

Output Noise: Spot noise for 10fF capacitance
21
Total Noise: 10fF capacitance
Circuit simulations for conditioning where oscillations begin after a step input are
difficult to simulate accurately as the software programs tend not to converge to a
22
solution. The oscillation condition is better shown using phase plots. However, noise
plots also indicate the potential for oscillation.
This is particularly obvious in the output noise plot, which shows an abrupt peak
around a frequency of 4 kHz. The perceived significance of this observation shows that
controlling the capacitance values is an important factor in determining whether the
circuit topology will be well behaved and yet meet the bandwidth and transient response
requirements.
While simulations shown above used had a photo current input of 1 pA, the
following simulations use a photo current input of 1nA in order to match the bench test
results which will be discussed later. The output of the OPA128KM is 0.1 volts which is
increased to 0.4 V by the differential gain of two and the instrumentation amplifier gain
of two.
The circuit simulation circuit topology looks as follows:
23
24
The amplifier bandwidth shows that our low noise amplifier will meet the bandwidth
specification. With a lower, but stable capacitance values the bandwidth increases. Very
low picofarad capacitors have higher percentage tolerance limits as well as less tolerance
for the effects of parasitic capacitances. For an effective one picofarad feedback
capacitance, the bandwidth is as follows:
25

For bench testing we do not have the ability to verify the circuit response photo current
response with any accuracy to compare to the simulation results. However, we can
measure the circuit response to a voltage input by attaching a 50 meg Ohm resistor to the
non-inverting input which modifies the circuit input to a unity gain. The topology of this
circuit looks as follows, however the second schematic sheet is not shown as it is
unchanged from the photo current response shown above:
26
The above figure contains the input waveform and the circuit response. However, the
input waveform has been multiplied by four to match the amplitude of the circuit
response.
27
Asides from the aforementioned simulation responses, we also need to explore the
bandwidth response of the circuit. The simulations include the photodiode box and the
instrument amplifier in the amplifier box. For the OPA128KM, the time response has a
1pA current which yields 100uV. The two out of phase amplifiers add a gain of two.
Further, the instrument amplifier has a gain of 100 so that the output of the
instrumentation amplifier is 20 millivolts.
Amplifier Bandwidth Response
The amplifier bandwidth shows that our low noise amplifier will be a low bandwidth
circuit. This is one of the specifications that our circuit has to meet. Hence, this
requirement will be satisfied as shown. The bandwidth response will be restricted
28
between roughly 200 and 400 Hz. It is also important to explore the amplifier time
circuit. The topology of this circuit is looks as follows:
In the amplifier box it is important to point out that the detector box and amplifier do not
have a common ground. Additionally, the instrument amplifier LT1167 gains are set by
the resistor between pins rg
1
and rg
2
. R
10
and R
11
are selected by a switch and are not
actually in parallel. The actual time response itself of the circuit is given as such:
29
From the simulation we deduce that the circuit is well behaved and experiences no gain
peaking which could potentially make the circuit unstable or oscillate.
Given the architecture discussion, it is also important to give a brief overview on
some of the practical issues on the concrete design level. The considerations to be
accounted for include external noise sources for instance. With its high resistance, a
current-to-voltage converter is fairly sensitive to noise coupling from electrostatic,
magnetic and radio frequency sources. As such, they will require great care. Care can be
exercised by means of shielding, proper grounding, and the physical location of the actual
components. Electrostatic coupling can emanate from the power line for instance in
practical design. Therefore voltage differences between objects are impressed on various
capacitors; consequently any voltage difference is coupled as noise current. To avoid this
commonly encountered phenomenon, shielding is commonly resorted to. Shielding
allows one to intercept the coupled current and shunt it to ground. However, it is
important to avoid parasitic capacitances that are created by the shields themselves.
Therefore, the shields must be returned to the signal common to avoid the coupling
effect. Therefore, this concludes our design approach analysis.
PCB Board Layout, Assembly, and Test
30
PCB board layout design is an important aspect in the correct functionality of a
low noise amplifier. There are several different areas that need to be addressed when
laying out the components which are necessary for our circuit. Both layout design and
assembly are vital parts in successfully creating a functioning PCB board.
The layout portion of the PCB board is initially constructed with the computer
software program, ExpressPCB. Through this program the components we chose in the
design and simulation stage can be physically placed onto a PCB board. This is
accomplished by placing the necessary pins in the board which correspond to the correct
sizing of the component that is being placed on the board. Yellow silkscreen outlines the
body of the component, in-between the pins, which acts as a visual aid when laying out
and assembling the board. The name of the component can also be written in the
silkscreen to further aid in organization of the board and component placement. The
components we used for mounting on the PCB board are resistors, capacitors, operational
amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers potentiometers as variable resistors, and a
photodiode.

31
This picture represents what our final board layout looks like as a PCB file. Each
component is traced with the yellow silkscreen and labeled, and each label corresponds to
the component part used in the design/simulation.
Furthermore, we chose to use a PCB board with two independent layers. A two
layered board allowed us to use the top layer for component placement, and the bottom
layer was used as the common ground, and for connections that would have required
crossing lines on the top layer. Since we used only analog components we were able to
use a single common ground to connect all the components that required grounding.
These are pictures of our actual board after fabrication. The picture on the left is the top
layer of our board before the components were soldered on, and the pictured to the right
is of the bottom, or ground layer.
Another important consideration of layout design is spacing. Initially we
designed two separate boards which would be connect through a cable, however through
the design/learning process we found that combining our two boards into a single board
would reduce noise, and more importantly cost.
32

This picture represents an early design where the photodiode socket , the photodiode
amplifier, the unity gain filter stage, the dual amplifier used to create a differential signal
are separate from the other portion of the circuit. Reducing the two boards into one did
reduce cost and also reduced the area, thus creating a more difficult task in laying out the
circuit. Placement of the components is important when considering noise. Running
connection wires next to other wires causes coupling and parasitic capacitance, therefore
the placements of each component needs to be located in an area which is within ideal
proximity to the other components connected to it.
In addition to spacing, the use of our more complex parts in ExpressPCB required
custom pin configurations to be created. The photodiode, the variable resistors and the
standoff required custom creation and placement of the pins of these components
required calculation down to the thousandth of an inch. While this task was not
overwhelmingly difficult it did require precision as many of our comment pins are closely
arrange and the correct placement of the pins is vital
for a successful PCB board design.
The photodiode also posed a unique challenge in the
layout process. Our first stage of amplification is
33
extremely sensitive to noise created by leakage currents and the current noise generated
by the photodiode. The board specifications could not be obtained from the manufacturer
which created a design problem that needed to be addressed. Pico ampere leakage
currents between the OPA128KM input pins where the photodiode is connected, or Pico
ampere current leakages in the areas where the photo diode, high impedance resistors and
OPA128KM input pins join. Leakages could occur on the board surface between the PCB
material and the conformal coating, through the PCB board. Guard rings could mitigate
the surface problem however board cleanliness and solder flux residues would still be a
concern. Another consideration is the parasitic capacitance of the high impedance
resistors, and the parasitic capacitance of the resistors to ground which could limit the
design bandwidth.
To solve both the leakage, parasitic capacitance and cleanliness problems standoffs
would be used as support points for the high impedance resistors and also supporting the
connection of the photo diode and the inputs to the OPA128KM amplifier. One of the
selection criteria for the OP128 amplifier was its availability in a TO-92 case which
would allow its input pins to be bent and not be inserted in the amplifier socket, and
connect directly to the photo diode, which was ideal for our design.
The standoffs are a non-conducting material which allows the photo diode, high
impedance resistors, and amplifier inputs to be independent from the board, thus solving
both the leakage and capacitance problems. Also as the PCB board and parts are new
their connection could be achieved with minimal flux residue.
34
Once the layout design was completed and the board was fabricated, assembly
posed the next challenge. The first difficulty we encountered in assembly after part
mounting but before the insertion of the photodiode or amplifiers was a layout error
which resulted in insufficient clearance between a routing hole and the ground plane.
One of our pins was not completely etched from ground; this caused a direct connection
between ground and the power supply, thus causing our entire board to be shorted out.
For time constraint reasons we decided to sacrifice one of our extra boards and
disconnect the power supply in sections of the board, therefore we were able to deduce in
which general area of the board the short was occurring. Once we discovered where the
faulty connection was, we carefully drilled the short out and soldered a jumper lead to
complete the circuit connection. Additionally the plus and minus supplies were
interchanged for one amplifier and to solve this connecting lines were severed with a
small tool and jumper wires were installed.
Another assembly conflict we encountered was flux. In some area there was a
build up of flux and residue. The flux residue could create undesired conditions on our
board which caused our board to function incorrectly. The flux was not a problem in the
highly critical areas of the PCB. To remove the flux from our PCB board we cleaned the
35
This is a picture of how
the op-amp should be
placed on standoffs and
guarded, to
avoid the leakage and
grounding problems
surface with an alcohol solution which removed the flux sufficiently. The close
proximity of the components on the board also caused some assembly disagreement.
Close attention needed to be paid to ensure each pin was correctly connected to the
proper lead of its component. The clearance between the hole area to solder a lead and the
surrounding ground plane on the back of the PCB was minimal. The layout used the
manufacturers standard clearance which we in many cases should have enlarged. In
addition to that, the leads of each component needed to be isolated from the other leads
surrounding each component, and with some components confined to a small area contact
between the leads was difficult to avoid. Only one small surface mount integrated circuit
part type was used in the design and it was soldered using a binocular microscope. To
make sure each lead had clearance from another lead or the ground plane board was often
closely inspected. Shielding the PCB board from outside noise, such as electrostatic and
magnetic pickup was another important assembly consideration. To ensure our circuit
maintains a low noise signal exposure to outside interference was necessary in producing
a low noise signal. To account for outside pickup a fully enclosed box was purchased to
encase the board, and to mount switches and other connections. The top, bottom, and two
sides of the box were 0.050 inch steel and two sides for mounting switches and other
components was .060 inch aluminum. The box would be the primary shielding from any
electrostatic or magnetic pickup, with any required additional shielding being
experimentally determined. The box did offer sufficient shield, however the photodiode
requires exposure to light, and thus to accommodate the diode a hole was drilled through
the box which allowed light exposure to the surface of the photodiode.
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The hole necessary for the diode allowed a strong signal to be created from the
photodiode, however the hole also exposed the circuit to noise (pickup). To allow the
photodiode light, while shielding the rest of the board from noise a non-reflective steel
tube was placed through the hole in the box. The photodiode was placed in one end of
the tube while the other end was open to accept light for the diode. This offered a partial
solution to our noise concern. However, it is anticipated that there will have to be a
conducting mesh screen over the end of the tube. The design of the box and PCB did not
have any common ground points. The battery power is contained within the box. A
problem arose with the addition of the tube, and when the photo diode was inserted into
the tube. The photo diode had little response to light. The cathode of the photo diode is
connected to the TO-92 case, and the cathode is also connected to the inverting pin of the
OPA128KM. The placement of the photodiode in the tube created a connection between
the diode and the box, which caused our circuit to function improperly. After some
experimentation it was determined that the isolation between the box and the PCB ground
was approximately 30 meg ohms. Since the photo diode shunt impedance is typically 600
meg ohms the circuit was essentially converted to a voltage amplifier and not a trans-
impedance amplifier. To avoid the connection between the diode and the box, an insulting
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Picture of the tube in which the photodiode fits
into for shielding. The tube is connected to the
box
dielectric was placed between the photodiode and the tube to avoid the electrical
connection.
The testing portion of our project was an important area which allowed us to
make the correct modifications to our circuit. Since we encountered several problems
during assembly testing our circuit was necessary in determining exactly where a short,
oscillation, improper connection occurred. We found how close our measured gain
values were in comparison to the theoretical values.

The error percentage of the measured value in comparison to the theoretical value is very
small, which is important for our circuit to function properly. In addition to measuring
the gain and voltages across the components of our circuit we also measured the output
noise as a Gaussian distribution.
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The output noise of 52.8 micro volts is well within our ceiling of 70 micro volts of output
noise. Furthermore, we also took the FFT for the fast Fourier transform of the noise,
which gave us our frequency response of the noise.

The test confirm that our circuit is overall well behaved and within our low noise
specification. Testing was a vital portion of our project which allowed us to both adjust
our circuit in order to obtain our desired results, and confirm the noise and gain values
were within the appropriate range.
In conclusion our project was a success. We completed our project on time with
all parts functioning correctly. In addition to that we met all of our initial design
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Picture of the noise at
the output with a gain
of 1600.
specifications which were set by our professors. The output noise signal, as a function of
the input, measured to be 50 micro volts which is under our maximum of 70 micro volts.
The numerous gain settings on our box all produce and output gain that is very near the
expected value. Through this project we learned several valuable lessons, which pertain
to not only the technical side of engineering, but also the teamwork and communication
aspect of engineering. Our group learned to work together and communicate to solve
problems and meet deadlines. This project has taught us real life engineering skills which
we will be able to demonstrate as we make the transition from student to employee.
The future advice we would like to extend to next years low noise photodiode
amplifier group is, first, design is the most crucial step. Make sure your design is correct
as even small mistakes in the design take much more time to solve and correct once the
board is fabricated. In addition to that, time management is another important topic for
this project, and creating a time schedule in the first quarter would be a good idea.
Lastly, make sure everyone communicates and is assigned specific areas. Our group
successfully completed our project because we divided the workload, and made sure to
communicate and work together as a team.
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Appendix
! Software (Board Design):
" Express PCB
! Software (Simulations):
" TINA
" PSPICE
! Parts purchased
" www.digikey.com
" www.newark.com
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