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Basic Electronics : Basic

Components
By Dulsha Kularatna Abeywardana
ME Electrical & Electronics (Auckland, New Zealand), BE - Electrical & Electronics
(Auckland, New Zealand)
Chapter 1
Components, Quantities and Units
In electrical circuits we deal with a very large number of physical quantities such
as voltage current resistance inductance capacitance power etc! "he system
of units used in engineering and science is the #yst$me International d%&nit's
(International system of units) usually abbreviated to #I units and is based on
the metric system! "his was introduced in *+,- and is now adopted by the
ma.ority of countries as the official system of measurement!
Although it is possible to assign a standard unit for each quantity it is rarely
necessary to do so because many of the quantities are functionally related
through e/periment derivation or definition! 0or e/ample the units of only three
quantities (mass, length and time) are needed to study mechanics since all other
quantities (ex Area, !olume, !elocit" etc) can be e/pressed in terms of these
quantities! "he units selected for these three quantities are called 1fundamental
units!% In order to cover the entire sub.ect of engineering three other
fundamental units have been defined which are electric current temperature
and luminous intensity! Derived #I units use combinations of basic units and
there are many of them! "wo e/amples are:
2elocity3meters per second (m4s)
Acceleration3meters per second squared (m4s
5
)
"here are seven fundamental quantities and they have been assigned standard
units of measurements! "he international system of units (abbreviated as #I
units) has been universally accepted and units have been assigned for the
fundamental quantities by this system as given below in table *!*!
Table 1.1 Seven fundamental quantities
Quantity Symb
ol
Unit Name Unit
Symbol
6ength l 6 meter m
7ass m 8ilogram 8g
"ime t second s
Electric Current I ampere A
"emperature " degree
8elvin
K
6uminous
Intensity
I candela Cd
Amount of
substance
7ole mol
#I units may be made larger or smaller by using prefi/es that denote
multiplication or division by a particular amount! "he si/ most common
multiples with their meaning are listed in "able *!5!
Table 1.2 Most ommon multiples
!refi" Nam
e
Meanin#
7 mega multiply by *------ (i!e! / *-
,
)
8 8ilo multiply by *--- (i!e! / *-
9
)
m milli divide by *--- (i!e! / *-
:9
)
; micro divide by *------ (i!e! / *-
:,
)
n nano divide by *--------- (i!e! / *-
:+
)
p pico divide by *------------ (i!e! /
*-
:*5
)
Table 1.$ % &letrial terms, units, and symbols
Quantity Quantity
Symbol
Unit Unit
symbol
6ength l meter m
7ass m 8ilogram 8g
"ime t second s
2elocity ! meters per second m4s or ms
:*
Acceleration a meters per second
squared
m4s
5
or ms
: 5
0orce # newton <
Electrical charge or
quantity
$ coulomb C
Electric current % ampere A
=esistance & ohm >
Conductance ' siemen #
Electromotive force E volt 2
?otential difference ( volt 2
@or8 ) .oule A
Energy E (or @) .oule A
?ower * watt @
#ymbols are used for components in electrical circuit diagrams and some of the
more
common ones are shown in 0igure *!* !
0igure *!* Common electrical component symbols
'asi &letrial Measurin# (nstruments
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in
series with the circuit! 0igure *!5 shows an ammeter connected in series with the
lamp to measure the current fl owing through it! #ince all the current in the
circuit passes through the ammeter it must have a very low resistance!
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure voltage and must be connected in
parallel with the part of the circuit whose voltage is required! In 0igure *!5 a
voltmeter is connected in parallel with the lamp to measure the voltage across it!
"o avoid a significant current flowing through it a voltmeter must have a very
high resistance!
0igure *!5
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring resistance!
A multimeter or universal instrument may be used to measure voltage current
and resistance! "he oscilloscope may be used to observe waveforms and to
measure voltages and currents! "he display of an oscilloscope involves a spot of
light moving across a screen! "he amount by which the spot is deflected from its
initial position depends on the voltage applied to the terminals of the
oscilloscope and the range selected! "he displacement is calibrated in volts per
cm! 0or e/ample if the spot is deflected 9 cm and the volts4cm switch is on *-
24cm then the magnitude of the voltage is 9 cm / *- 24cm i!e! 9- 2!
'asi Ciruit Components
Electric circuits or networ8s are formed by interconnecting various devices
sources and components! Although the effects of each element (such as heating
effects electric:field effects or magnetic:field effects) are distributed throughout
space one often lumps them together as lumped elements! "he passive
components are the resistance = representing the heating effect the
capacitance C representing the electric:field effect and the inductance 6
representing the magnetic:field effect! "heir characteristics will be discussed
later in the course!
)esistors
An ideal resistor is a circuit element with the property that the current through it
is linearly proportional to the potential difference across its terminals! = is 8nown
as the resistance of the resistor with the #I unit of ohms (>) and B is the
reciprocal of resistance called conductance with the #I unit of siemens (#)! "he
circuit symbols of fi/ed and variable resistors are shown in 0igure *!*! =esistors
will be discussed in detail in the ne/t chapter!
Capaitors
An ideal capacitor is an energy:storage circuit element (with no loss associated
with it) representing the electric:field effect! "he symbol for capacitors is shown
in figure *!9! Capacitors will be discussed in detail later in chapter *5!
0igure *!9
(ndutors
An ideal inductor is also an energy:storage circuit element (with no loss
associated with it) li8e a capacitor but representing the magnetic:field effect!
"he symbol for inductors is shown in figure *!C! Inductors will be discussed in
detail later in chapter *9!
0igure *!C
*olta#e Soure
In electric circuit theory an ideal voltage source is a circuit element where the
voltage across it is independent of the current through it! A voltage source
supplies a constant DC or AC potential between its terminals for any current flow
through it! =eal:world sources of electrical energy such as batteries generators
or power systems can be modelled for analysis purposes as a combination of an
ideal voltage source and additional combinations of impedance elements! <o real
voltage source is idealD all have a non:Eero effective internal resistance and
none can supply unlimited current! Fowever the internal resistance of a real
voltage source is effectively modelled in linear circuit analysis by combining a
non:Eero resistance in series with an ideal voltage source! 0igure *!G illustrates
the symbols used to represent a voltage source!
0igure *!G
Current Soure
A current source is an electrical or electronic device that delivers or absorbs
electric current! A current source is the dual of a voltage source! "he term
constant:current sin8 is sometimes used for sources fed from a negative voltage
supply! <o real current source is ideal (no unlimited energy sources e/ist) and all
have a finite internal resistance (none can supply unlimited voltage)! Fowever
the internal resistance of a physical current source is effectively modelled in
circuit analysis by combining a non:Eero resistance in parallel with an ideal
current source! 0igure *!, illustrates the symbols used for a current source!
0igure *!,
Chapter 2
*olta#e, Current and )esistane
7atter is electric in nature since they contain protons and electrons! If the number
of electrons are equal to protons in a body the resultant charge is Eero and the body
will be electrically neutral! 0or e/ample the paper of the note is electrically neutral
since it has the same number of electrons and protons! Fowever if some electrons
are removed from a neutral body a deficit of electrons occurs in the body and it
becomes positively charged! If a neutral body is supplied with electrons an e/cess
of electrons occur and the body attains a negative charge!
"he charge of an electron is so small that it is not convenient to select it as the unit
of charge! 1Coulomb% is used as the unit of charge! Hne Coulomb (C) of charge is
equal to the charge of ,5I / *-
*,
electrons!
* Coulomb J Charge of ,5I / *-
*,
@e 8now that electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different orbits!
Electrons in the inner orbits are tightly bound to the nucleus! As we move away from
the nucleus the binding decreases so that electrons in the last orbit (called valence
electrons) are quite loosely bound to the nucleus! In certain substances especially
metals the valence electrons are so wea8ly attached to their nuclei and can be
easily removed or detached! "hose valence electrons which are very loosely
attached to the nucleus of an atom are called free electrons!
&letri Current
"he flow of free electrons is called electric current! In figure 5!* the copper strip has
a large number of free electrons! @hen electric pressure or voltage is applied free
electrons which are negatively charged will start moving towards the positive
terminal around the circuit as shown below! "his directed flow of free electrons is
called electric current!
0igure 5!*
Copper
#trip
:
K
0ree
Electrons
Convention
al Current
"he actual direction of current is from the negative terminal to the positive terminal
through the circuit e/ternal to the cell! But prior to electron theory it was assumed
that current flowed from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell via
the circuit! "herefore this assumed direction is called the conventional current!
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge through a conductor i!e! the
charge flowing per second!
I J L4 t
"he charge L is measured in Coulombs and time t in seconds! "herefore the unit of
electric current will be coulombs4sec or ampere! If L J *C and t J *s then the
current I J *A!
+ne am,ere o- current is said to -low through a wire i- at an" section one coulom.
o- charge -lows in one second
A closed path is essential for the current to flow through a circuit!
Example 2.1
If a current of G A flows for 5 minutes find the quantity of electricity transferred!
Example 2.2
@hat current must flow if -!5C coulombs is to be transferred in *G msM
Example 2.3
If a current of *- A flows for C minutes find the quantity of electricity transferred!
&letri !otential
@hen a body is charged wor8 is done by charging it! "his wor8 done is stored in the
body in the form of potential energy! "he charged body has the capacity to do wor8
by moving other charges either by attraction or repulsion! "he ability of the charged
body to do wor8 is called the electric potential!
"he capacity of a charged body to do wor8 is called electric potential!
Electric potential 2 J @or8 doneCharge J @L
"he wor8 done is measured in .oules and charge in coulombs and therefore the unit
for electric potential is .oules4coulomb or 1volt!% If @ J *A L J *C then 2 J *2!
A body is said to have an electric potential of * volt if * .oule of wor8 is done to give
it a charge of * coulomb!
A
KG2
B
K92
!otential +ifferene
"he difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called 1potential difference!%
If two bodies have different electric potentials a potential difference e/ists between
the bodies! Consider the two bodies A and B in figure 5!5 have potentials of G2 and
92 respectively! Each coulomb of charge on body A has an energy of G .oules while
each coulomb of charge on body B has as an energy of 9 .oules! Body A is at a
higher potential than body B!
0igure 5!5
If the two bodies are .oined through a conductor then electrons will from body B to
body A and once the two bodies attain the same potential the flow of current stops!
"herefore it can be concluded that a current will flow in a circuit if a potential
difference e/ists! "he potential difference is commonly referred to as 1voltage% and
it is measured in volts!
/he ,otential di--erence .etween two ,oints is 0 !olt i- one 1oule o- work is done in
trans-erring 0 coulom. o- charge -rom one ,oint to the other
)esistane
"he opposition effect by a substance to the flow of current is called resistance! "his
opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow
of these electrons! Certain substances such as metals offer very little opposition
and are called conductors! #ubstances such as glass rubber mica dry wood etc!
offer high opposition and are called insulators!
@e can also say that resistance is the electric friction offered by the substance and
causes production of heat with the flow of electric current! "he moving electrons
collide with atoms or molecules of the substance and each collision results in the
release of a minute quantity of energy in the form of heat!
"he practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the symbol >!
A wire is said to ha!e a resistance o- 02 i- a ,otential di--erence o- 0( across its
ends causes a current o- 0A to -low through it
,ators upon -hih )esistane +epends
"he resistance of a conductor:
I! Is directly proportional to its length (l)
II! Is inversely proportional to its area of cross section (a)
III! Depends upon the nature of the material
I2! Changes with temperature
= N la
= J O la
O is a constant and is 8nown as the resistivity or specific resistance of the material!
"he value of O depends upon the nature of the material!
In general the resistance of a material changes with the change in temperature!
"he effect of temperature varies according to the type of material!
"he resistance in pure metals (copper aluminium) increases with the increase of
temperature! "he change in resistance is fairly regular for a normal range of
temperatures! "he resistance of electrolytes insulators (glass mica rubber) and
semi:conductors (germanium silicon) decreases with the increase in temperature!
#uch materials have a negative temperature coefficient! =esistance of alloys
increases with the rise of temperature but this increase is very small and irregular!
0or some high resistance alloys (eure8a manganin cons the constantan) the
change in resistance is practically negligible over a wide range of temperatures!
)esistivity
=esistivity (specific resistance) of a material is the resistance offered by *m length
of wire of material having an area of cross section of m
5
!
=esistivity can also be defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a
meter cube of material!
=esistivity is measured in ohm:m (>m)!
)esistors
=esistors that are found in electric circuits doing many different tas8s have different
physical constructions power dissipation capability and tolerance of the resistance
value! 7ost resistors used in practice are good appro/imations to linear resistors for
large ranges of current and their iPv characteristic (current versus voltage plot) is a
straight line! "he wire wound resistor is often found in larger industrial applications
where greater power handling capability is required! "hese resistors are constructed
of nic8el:chromium alloy and are wound on a ceramic core!
"he carbon type resistors are widely used in electric circuits but they have been
replaced in the recent years by diffused resistors! "he cylindrical shape is composed
of carbon and is relatively ine/pensive! "hese are highly sensitive to temperature
variations! "hey are colour:coded to indicate their value and precision! 0irst two
bands on the resistor colour code represent the value and the third band is the
multiplying factor! "he fourth band indicates the tolerance of the resistor!
0igure 5!9
0or e/ample the resistor in figure 5!9 has red and green as its first two bands and
orange in the multiplier band! "he tolerance is silver! "herefore the value of the
resistor is 5!G / *-9> and this value can vary by Q*-R!
Carbon resistors are generally low wattage resistors with a power dissipating
capability ranging from -!* to 5@ and the physical siEe of the larger resistors have
less than *cm in diameter!
7etal film resistors are made using film deposition techniques to deposit a thic8 film
of resistive material onto insulating substrate! "hese resistors have an accuracy
close to those of the wire wound resistors as they are trimmed quite accurately
using laser!
Diffused resistors are fabricated using the same technique as integrated circuits!
"hey generally have a tolerance of about Q5-R!
&"ample 2..
"he resistance of a G m length of wire is ,-- >! Determine:
(a) the resistance of an I m length of the same wire
(b) the length of the same wire when the resistance is C5- >
&"ample 2./
A piece of wire of cross:sectional area 5 mm
5
has a resistance of 9-- >! 0ind:
(a) the resistance of a wire of the same length and material if the cross:sectional
area is G mm
5
(b) the cross:sectional area of a wire of the same length and material of resistance
SG- >
&"ample 2.0
Calculate the cross:sectional area in mm
5
of a piece of copper wire C- m in length
and having a resistance of -!5G > ! "a8e the resistivity of copper as -!-5 / *-
:,
> m!

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