Arkansas Tech University

MATH 2914: Calculus I

Dr. Marcel B. Finan
4 Logarithmic Functions
An equation of the form a
x
= b can be solved graphically. That is, using a
calculator we graph the horizontal line y = b and the exponential function
y = a
x
and then nd the point of intersection.
In this section we discuss an algebraic way to solve equations of the form
a
x
= b where a and b are positive constants. For this, we introduce two
functions that are found in todays calculators, namely, the functions log x
and ln x.
If x > 0 then we dene log x to be a number y that satises the equality
10
y
= x. For example, log 100 = 2 since 10
2
= 100. Similarly, log 0.01 = 2
since 10
2
= 0.01. We call log x the common logarithm of x. Thus,
y = log x if and only if 10
y
= x.
Similarly, we have
y = ln x if and only if e
y
= x.
We call ln x the natural logarithm of x.
Example 4.1
(a) Rewrite log 30 = 1.477 using exponents instead of logarithms.
(b) Rewrite 10
0.8
= 6.3096 using logarithms instead of exponents.
Solution.
(a) log 30 = 1.477 is equivalent to 10
1.477
= 30.
(b) 10
0.8
= 6.3096 is equivalent to log 6.3096 = 0.8.
Example 4.2
Without a calculator evaluate the following expressions:
(a) log 1 (b) log 10
0
(c) log (
1

10
) (d) 10
log 100
(e) 10
log (0.01)
Solution.
(a) log 1 = 0 since 10
0
= 1.
(b) log 10
0
= log 1 = 0 by (a).
1
(c) log (
1

10
) = log 10

1
2
=
1
2
.
(d) 10
log 100
= 10
2
= 100.
(e) 10
log (0.01)
= 10
2
= 0.01.
Properties of Logarithms
(i) Since 10
x
= 10
x
we can write
log 10
x
= x
(ii) Since log x = log x, we have
10
log x
= x
(iii) log 1 = 0 since 10
0
= 1.
(iv) log 10 = 1 since 10
1
= 10.
(v) Suppose that m = log a and n = log b. Then a = 10
m
and b = 10
n
. Thus,
a b = 10
m
10
n
= 10
m+n
. Rewriting this using logs instead of exponents, we
see that
log (a b) = m + n = log a + log b.
(vi) If, in (v), instead of multiplying we divide, that is
a
b
=
10
m
10
n
= 10
mn
then using logs again we nd
log

a
b

= log a log b.
(vii) It follows from (vi) that if a = b then log a log b = log 1 = 0 that is
log a = log b.
(viii) Now, if n = log b then b = 10
n
. Taking both sides to the power k
we nd b
k
= (10
n
)
k
= 10
nk
. Using logs instead of exponents we see that
log b
k
= nk = k log b that is
log b
k
= k log b.
Example 4.3
Solve the equation: 4(1.171)
x
= 7(1.088)
x
.
Solution.
Rewriting the equation into the form

1.171
1.088

x
=
7
4
and then using properties
(vii) and (viii) to obtain
x log

1.171
1.088

= log
7
4
.
2
Thus,
x =
log
7
4
log

1.171
1.088

.
Example 4.4
Solve the equation log (2x + 1) + 3 = 0.
Solution.
Subtract 3 from both sides to obtain log (2x + 1) = 3. Switch to exponential
form to get 2x+1 = 10
3
= 0.001. Subtract 1 and then divide by 2 to obtain
x = 0.4995.
Remark 4.1
All of the above arguments are valid for the function ln x for which we
replace the number 10 by the number e = 2.718 . That is, ln (a b) =
ln a + ln b, ln
a
b
= ln a ln b etc.
Keep in mind the following:
log (a + b) = log a + log b. For example, log 2 = log 1 + log 1 = 0.
log (a b) = log a log b. For example, log (2 1) = log 1 = 0 whereas
log 2 log 1 = log 2 = 0.
log (ab) = log a log b. For example, log 1 = log (2
1
2
) = 0 whereas log 2
log
1
2
= log
2
2 = 0.
log

a
b

=
log a
log b
. For example, letting a = b = 2 we nd that log
a
b
= log 1 = 0
whereas
log a
log b
= 1.
log

1
a

=
1
log a
. For example, log
1
1
2
= log 2 whereas
1
log
1
2
=
1
log 2
.
Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs
Next, we will graph logarithmic functions and determine a number of their
general features.
We have seen that the notation y = log x is equivalent to 10
y
= x. Since
10 raised to any power is always positive, the domain of the function log x
consists of all positive numbers. That is, log x cannot be used with negative
numbers.
Now, let us sketch the graph of this function by rst constructing the follow-
ing chart:
3
x log x Average Rate of Change
0 undened -
0.001 -3 -
0.01 -2 111.11
0.1 -1 11.11
1 0 1.11
10 1 0.11
100 2 0.011
1000 3 0.0011
From the chart we see that the graph is always increasing. Since the average
rate of change is decreasing, the graph is always concave down. Now plotting
these points and connecting them with a smooth curve to obtain
Figure 4.1
From the graph we observe the following properties:
(a) The range of log x consists of all real numbers.
(b) The graph never crosses the y-axis since a positive number raised to any
power is always positive.
(c) The graph crosses the x-axis at x = 1.
(d) As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right the function log x decreases
without bound. That is, as x 0
+
, x . We call the y-axis a vertical
asymptote. In general, if a function increases or decreases without bound
as x gets closer to a number a then we say that the line x = a is a vertical
asymptote.
4
Next, lets graph the function y = 10
x
by using the above process:
x 10
x
Average Rate of Change
-3 0.001 -
-2 0.01 0.009
-1 0.1 0.09
0 1 0.9
1 10 9
2 100 90
3 1000 900
Note that this chart can be obtained from the chart of log x discussed above
by interchanging the variables x and y. This means, that the graph of y = 10
x
is a reection of the graph of y = log x about the line y = x as seen in Figure
4.2.
Figure 4.2
Example 4.5
Sketch the graphs of the functions y = ln x and y = e
x
on the same axes.
Solution.
The functions y = ln x and y = e
x
are inverses of each like the functions
y = log x and y = 10
x
. So their graphs are reections of one another across
the line y = x as shown in Figure 4.3.
5
Figure 4.3
6