Unit 4

Energy changes occur during chemical reactions.

Chemical energy is stored in the chemical bonds between atoms in molecules.
Chemical reactions that release energy, usually in the form of heat, are called
exothermic reactions. Chemical reactions that absorb energy, usually in the form
of heat, are called endothermic reactions. Many types of reactions can be
endothermic or exothermic. Changes of state also can be endothermic or
exothermic. In any system, the total energy before and after a reaction remains
the same. This is the law of conseration of energy.
!eat is the transfer of thermal energy.
"ll ob#ects hae internal $inetic energy, or thermal energy, which causes
molecules to moe. Thermal energy is measured as temperature, and moes
from hot ob#ects to cold ones.
%ast&moing particles from warm ob#ects collide with slow&moing molecules
from cold ob#ects, thereby transferring thermal energy. !eat is the moement of
thermal energy.
!eat is measured by a change in temperature. "t constant pressure, if there is no
change in temperature between two ob#ects, then there is no heat transfer. !eat
is measured in units of calories 'cal( and #oules ')(.
* cal + 4.*,- )
.ubstances can store heat, or thermal energy.
!eat capacity is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a
substance by one degree Celsius. .pecific heat capacity, or specific heat, is the
amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by
one degree Celsius.
Each substance has a uni/ue specific heat. .pecific heat 'C( can be calculated
by this e/uation0 C + /1mlT, where / is heat, m is mass, and lT is the change in
temperature. .pecific heat influences the time re/uired for heating and cooling.
%luids with high specific heats are used to transfer heat in cooling systems for
cars and spacecraft.
Enthalpy changes occur during both chemical reactions and phase changes.
Enthalpy '!( is the total heat content of a system at constant pressure. It cannot
be measured directly. Changes in enthalpy 'l!( occur during chemical reactions
2l! + !'of products( !'of reactants(3. 4ecause most chemical reactions occur at
constant pressure, l! is e/ual to heat released or absorbed
'l! + / + mClT(. In endothermic reactions, l! is positie. In exothermic reactions,
l! is negatie. Enthalpy changes that occur during phase changes in the
absence of a change in temperature are called latent heat.
Thermochemical e/uations depict enthalpy changes in chemical reactions.
Thermochemical e/uations must be balanced. The states of all reactants and
products are noted in parentheses. The change in enthalpy or enthalpy of
reaction 'l!( is written at the right.
Endothermic reactions hae positie l!, while exothermic reactions hae
negatie l!. Changes of state contribute to the l!.
In multistep reactions, l! alues can be added to calculate the net l!. In a
reersible reaction, the l! of the reerse reaction has the same alue as, but the
opposite sign of, the forward reaction.
If you multiply a chemical e/uation by some factor, then the l! are also
multiplied. .tandard conditions are 'l!"( *55 $6a, 57C.
!eat changes occur during changes of state.
!eat energy during phase changes inoles increasing or decreasing $inetic
energy relatie to intermolecular forces. The temperature does not change.
.olid $ li/uid0 heat of fusion 'l!8(
9i/uid $ solid0 heat of solidification 'l!& + l!8(
9i/uid $ gas0 heat of apori:ation 'l!;(
<as $ li/uid0 heat of condensation
Calculate heat during phase change by multiplying the mass of the substance by
the appropriate latent heat for the substance.
To calculate the heat re/uired when temperatures change, use / + mClT. Total
heat calculations inole multiple steps.
!ess=s 9aw is used to calculate the enthalpy change of a series of reactions.
!ess=s law states that the enthalpy change for an oerall reaction can be
calculated by adding the enthalpies for indiidual steps in the reaction. If you
hae a series of chemical reactions where " $ 4 $ C $ >, then
l! '" $ >( + l! '" $ 4( ? l! '4 $ C( ? l! 'C $ >(
Chemists use !ess=s law to calculate enthalpy changes for reactions that are
either too slow or too difficult to measure in the laboratory.
!ess=s law is based on the law of conseration of energy.
Unit @
Aeactant molecules collide together in reactions.
Those reactant molecules colliding with sufficient speed '$inetic energy( and
orientation will form an actiated complex 'transition state( that will separate into
products. .ufficient speed is necessary to oercome the actiation energy 'E1( of
the reaction. Aeactions with low E1 are more li$ely to proceed than those with
high E1. The reaction rate of a system is the decrease in reactant concentration
oer time or the increase in product concentration oer time.
"ny factor that increases the fre/uency of reactant collisions, increases the
energy of collisions, or lowers the actiation energy, will increase reaction rate.
There are many ways to increase or decrease the rate of a chemical reaction.
Increasing the temperature or pressure of a system will increase the rate of a
reaction. 4rea$ing the reactants into smaller particles to increase the surface
area will also speed up a reaction, as will increasing the concentration of the
reactants. "ddition of a catalyst will also speed the rate of a reaction. 4y contrast,
an inhibitor slows the rate of a reaction.
Aeactants collide together in reactions.
Those reactant molecules colliding with sufficient speed 'determined by
actiation energy, E1( and orientation will form an actiated complex, or transition
state, that will separate into products. Increasing reactant concentration or
surface area increases the fre/uency of reactant collisions and the reaction rate.
Increasing temperature increases the fre/uency and energy of reactant collisions
and the reaction rate. Increasing pressure increases the fre/uency of reactant
collisions and the reaction rate. " catalyst proides a lower E1 path, so that more
effectie collisions can occur and reaction rate increases.
In chemical e/uilibrium, the products and reactants of a reersible reaction
remain constant oer time.
Aeersible reactions reach chemical e/uilibrium. If the rate at which the products
and reactants are produced remains in a dynamic constancy, the reaction is at
e/uilibrium. E/uations at e/uilibrium can be described /uantitatiely in terms of
their e/uilibrium constant.
9e ChBtelier=s principle helps predict how the e/uilibrium of a system will change
due to changes in concentration, pressure, or temperature.
"ccording to 9e ChBtelier=s principle, any chemical system will attempt to
stabili:e its e/uilibrium. If a factor of the system changes, if the temperature goes
up or down, if the pressure changes, or if the reactants or product amounts
change, then the system will shift to reestablish e/uilibrium.
The <ibbs free&energy e/uation for a reaction tells about the spontaneity of a
reaction.
<ibbs free energy relates the energy, the disorder, and the temperature of a
reaction. Chen all the thermochemical factors are ta$en into considerationwthe
enthalpy of the reaction, the entropy, and the temperaturewa chemist can predict
whether a reaction will be spontaneous.
Chen the alue of l<, the change in the <ibbs free energy, is negatie, the
reaction will proceed by itself. It is spontaneous.
Chen the alue of l< is positie, the reaction will not proceed by itself. It is
nonspontaneous.
Aemember this formula0 l< + l! Tl..
The <ibbs free&energy e/uation states that entropy and enthalpy must both be
included in a consideration of whether a reaction will be spontaneous.
" negatie enthalpy change faors a spontaneous reactionD a positie entropy
change also indicates a faorable reaction. Together, these two factors determine
whether a process is spontaneous.
Unit E
!ydrocarbons are /uite aried.
!ydrocarbons are compounds made of hydrogen and carbon. There are many
types of hydrocarbons0
"l$anes0 single CwC bonds
"l$enes0 one or more CwC double bonds
"l$ynes0 one or more CwC triple bonds
Cyclic hydrocarbons0 carbon bac$bone is geometrically shaped, with only CwC
single bonds
"romatic hydrocarbons0 one or more carbon rings made of alternating CwC
single and CwC double bonds
>ouble or triple CwC bonds affect physical and chemical properties. %unctional
groups define classes and chemistries of organic compounds, such as alcohols
'wF!(, and al$yl halides 'wCl, w4r, w%, wI(.
6olymers are made of repeating units.
6olymers ma$e up many things, including plastics and fabrics. " polymer is a
large molecule composed of repeating units of smaller molecules, called
monomers, chemically bound together. The repeating unit may be made of one
monomer 'a homopolymer( or different monomers 'copolymers(.
6olymers may be straight chains or branched chains. 4iopolymers are made
from liing substances. Condensation reactions combine two monomers with the
loss of a water molecule.
"ddition reactions occur when one monomer adds to the double bond of another
to form new single bonds.
Carbohydrates and fats are biochemicals.
Carbohydrates and fats are main components of foods and proide energy when
bro$en down. Carbohydrates are sugars and starches0
Monosaccharides glucose, galactose, fructose
>isaccharides sucrose, maltose, lactose
6olysaccharides starches, glycogen
<lucose 'CC!A.FC( is a six&sided ring structure with F! groups in specific
places aboe and below the ring. 9ipids include solid fats, li/uid oils, and solid
waxes0
Triglycerides glycerol plus three fatty acids 'fats, oils(
6hospholipids phosphate head and two fatty acids
.teroid multiringed structures
Caxes long&chain alcohol plus long&chain fatty acid
6roteins and nucleic acids are important polymers.
"mino acids consist of a central carbon bound to a hydrogen atom, G!. group,
CFF! group, and ariable A group. "mino acids lin$ together through peptide
bonds to form long chains, which fold and twist to form proteins. The particular
se/uence of amino acids determines the protein=s shape and function.
Gucleotides are monomers for nucleic acids. Gucleotides consist of a sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base 'purine or pyrimidine(. Gucleotides lin$
together through phosphodiester bonds to form nucleic acids, >G" and AG",
which carry genetic information.
Unit ,
Guclear chemistry inoles changes in the composition of the nucleus.
6rotons '?* charge( and neutrons '5 charge( ma$e up the nucleus. 6rotons and
neutrons are made of fundamental particles called /uar$s. Huar$s attract each
other to hold protons and neutrons together ia the strong nuclear force. Huar$s
from one proton attract /uar$s from another nucleonD this is the residual strong
force. Guclear chemistry has many applications.
Unstable nuclei decay by giing off radiation.
Guclei are unstable when there are a relatiely high number of protons per
neutron. Unstable nuclei decay to stable ones by giing off radiation 'particles,
energy, and1or heat(.
alpha emission nucleus
beta emission high&speed electron or positron
gamma emission electromagnetic waes
Aadioactie emissions can change the composition of the nucleus. The time of
radioactie decay is measured in half&lies. !eay isotopes change to stable
ones in a series of radioactie decays.
Aadioactiity can produce new elements.
Unstable nuclei decay to stable ones by giing off radiation 'particles, energy,
and1or heat(.
alpha emission helium nucleus
beta emission high&speed electron
gamma emission electromagnetic waes
aA"e emission positrons
bA"e capture the nucleus captures an electron from the cloudD the electron
combines with a proton to ma$e a neutron 'the neutron may be emitted(
Aadioactie emissions can change the composition of the nucleus and produce
new elements and isotopes 'transmutations(.
6article accelerators smash high&speed particles into target atoms to ma$e new
elements1radioisotopes and radiation.
Guclear reactions can yield tremendous energy.
"lbert Einstein showed that mass and energy are e/uialent 'E + mcC(.
Chemical reactions hae insignificant changes in mass, while nuclear reactions
hae significant ones and yield much more energy.
In fission, heay atoms absorb neutrons, split into lighter ones, and yield particles
and energy. " critical mass is essential for a chain reaction.
In fusion, lighter elements combine into heaier ones and yield particles and
energy. !igh temperatures and pressure are needed.
Guclear power plants harness the heat energy from fission 'and will do so from
fusion, too, at some point( to drie steam turbine electrical generators. AT<s use
radioactie decay to ma$e small amounts of electrical power for spacecraft