9.

Welding
9.1 Introduction
This section covers the most important aspects related to vertical circumferential girth welding activities during
cross-country pipeline construction. A comprehensive description of each main step of the construction and
welding stage is presented including a basic technical background and good working practices.
The information within this section is based on the experience of pipeline contractors, welding technology
companies, and welding equipment suppliers and is focused on maximizing safety, quality and productivity.
overnance over pipeline welding activities
!ection ".# presents how welding activities are governed during qualifications and production $field
installation%. The roles of the industrial codes, standards, governmental institutions and third party authorities
are also addressed.
!takeholders
&n section ".' the roles of the different stakeholders involved in pipeline engineering and construction are
described.
(elding technology
!ections ".), ".* and ".+ present the pipeline welding technology, the pipeline welding processes and the typical
welding imperfections.
,ield construction equipment
!ection ".- is dedicated to the description of commonly-used pipeline welding equipment.
!afety in pipelines
!ection ".. is dedicated to the specific safety matters involved in welding activities.
/ngineering and construction activities
!ection "." describes the sequence of activities required from qualifications to mainline welding production
start-up. !ection ".01 describes all the field operations related to the pipeline mainline welding.
2ew welding technology
,inally section ".00 describes the latest trends and requirements in welding technologies.
9.2 Governance over pipeline welding activities
".#.0 &nternational and national regulations and codes
".#.# 3ompany and local specifications
The cross country pipeline, compared to other oil 4 gas installations, has the significant difference that over a
long distance, it crosses public areas with various types of potential consequences in case of failure, ranging
from minor to catastrophic. 5aintaining the public6s safety and mitigating environmental impact are very high
priorities in the pipeline industry.
&n the pipeline construction stage, pipe welding activities are some of the most sensitive. The most internal pass,
the root pass, is in direct contact with the fluid. ,urthermore, the girth weld will have different properties
compared to base material of the line pipe, as will the base metal ad7acent to the girth weld, that was affected by
the heat of welding.
(elding is a critical element in the construction of a pipeline. The details require strict control in order to
maintain the following8
5echanical properties6 9performance: for both line pipe and the weld metal
;ualification of welding procedure specifications $(<!%
3onformance to qualified (<!
;ualifying of welders and welding operators.
2=T acceptance criteria
Therefore, the welding activities are highly regulated by many different bodies, from local and pro7ect
specifications to international regulations based on national and international standards, supplemented with
additional specifications issued for each asset.
>ecause of those strict regulations, welding shall not be treated as a 9standard: activity. (elding needs a
specific quality management based on destructive and nondestructive tests. These tests should be conducted on
actual materials welded per the qualified and controlled welding procedure to be used in the field by trained and
qualified personnel.
A system that is fully traceable shall enable the retrieval of complete records of each welded 7oint from line pipe
material and filler metal to the final nondestructive tests. These records should be retained until the
abandonment and dismantlement of the line.
".#.0 &nternational and national regulations and codes
The highest level of conformance has to be against the applicable pro7ect specific, local, national and
international regulations. Those are enforced by law.
The welding activities for pipeline construction throughout the globe, beside regulations, are predominately
governed by one of the following recognized industry codes, but not limited to8
American <etroleum &nstitute8 A<& 001)8 9(elding of <ipelines and ?elated ,acilities:@ A<& *A8 9!pecification
for Aine <ipe:.
American !ociety of 5echanical /ngineers8 A!5/ >'0.. as Transmission and =istribution <iping !ystems
A!5/ >'0.) Aiquid Transmission and =istribution <iping !ystems
=et 2orske Beritas8 =2B C!-,0108 9!ubmarine <ipeline !ystems:
&nternational !tandard organization8 &!C 0'.)- 9<etroleum and natural gas industries -- <ipeline transportation
systems -- (elding of pipelines:
".#.# 3ompany and local specifications
/ach company investing in a pipeline asset $the 9client:% is keen to maintain the validity of its license to operate
and reap the long-term benefits of such investment. ,or this reason, such companies would have their own
technical specifications setting the requirements and the approach to use while designing a pipeline.
&n the design stage the engineering contractor will, most often, issue an asset specific set of technical
specifications based on the client6s generic corporate technical specifications, the applicable regulations and the
most suitable national or international standards.
Those will be known as 9pro7ect specifications:. Cne or more of them would focus on the actual and very
specific requirements to be met while executing welding operations during the construction stage. The welding
crew will refer to those as 9welding specifications: which are quite often to be read in con7unction with the
selected national or international standards.
9.3 Stakeholders in pipeline projects

All of the below listed parties have an impact on welding activities through their mandatory requirements,
declared preferences and other recommendations. Dnderstanding how these parties work together is important
in order to streamline and optimize the welding activities from early engineering to final execution and
handover of documentation.
".'.0 The regulator
5ost times the regulator is a government-initiated body with experts who compose the requirements a pipeline
asset has to meet. Cnce all the requirements have been successfully addressed the client would receive the 9fit
for service: notification and the pipeline can be legally operated.
&t is also typically the government body having the authority to validate the pipe line asset before it can be
operated or at each periodic mandatory revalidation. This is achieved by reviewing all design, construction,
commissioning and operations records.
".'.# <ipeline owner@operator
The pipeline owner@operator is typically the company that makes the investment in and operates the asset. The
asset can be owned by several companies, linked by an operating contract. =epending on the country involved,
a license from the regulator or the local equivalent is needed to operate any pipeline.
".'.' <ipeline engineering@construction contractor
The company investing in a pipeline asset might not necessarily have the engineering and pro7ect management
resources available internally. /ngineering contractor parties are specialized in those activities and will be
contracted by the investing company to deliver the overall engineering from the early preliminary design phase
until the final commissioning and operating approval.
,or constructing the pipeline a construction contractor has to be contracted either directly by the investor
company or by the main engineering contractor.
9.4 Crosscountr! pipeline welding activities
9.4.1 "ainline
The pipe sections welded on the right of way, across public areas, are considered the 9cross-country pipeline:.
5ain line welding is when the pipe sections are assembled on the right of way in long strings including bends to
follow the terrain relief. The mainline welds are normally produced above the ground. /ach section would then
be welded to each other after lowering down in the trench $tie-in%, to finally constitute the full pipeline.
The mainline pipe sections are welded in * and + positionE this means that the welding arc$s% travel
vertically down around the pipe circumference while the pipe remains stationary.
,ig. 08 <ipe positions
All the activities on the mainline are on the so-called critical path. Any delay in any activity on the right of way
could have an effect on the ultimate pipeline delivery schedule.
The mainline welding crew is, in most cases, the biggest and most expensive crew working in the construction
of an onshore pipeline.
".).# =ouble 7ointing @ triple 7ointing
=ouble 7ointing @ triple 7ointing are welding activities connecting two or three pipes together. &ts main purpose
is to minimize the number of main line field girth welds to be executed on the right of way. The production of
double@triple 7oint sections is also cost effective as the welding, 2=T inspection and the coating can be done
off-line. =ouble@triple 7ointing is only feasible in areas with 9easy: transportation in view of access roads, and
where it is permitted by local regulations.
".).' !pecial sections and tie-ins
The tie-in welds are the welds that connect two mainline pipe sections. The welding is usually performed in the
trench by a crew of two welders and their support crew. The support crew assists by operating the side booms in
order to align and maintain the proper position of the two pipe sections, in con7unction with the external
clamping device to enable proper welding alignment. Tie-ins welding is performed when the usual mainline
construction cannot be performed, in cases like road crossings, rivers crossings, steep slopes and successive
directional bends.
".).) ?epair
(elding quality is controlled by monitoring the current, pass speed and temperature of the base metal during
execution to control that the essential variables of the approved procedures are within the ranges of the
approved procedures. Cnce the welding of a pipeline girth weld is completed, the welding quality is finally
controlled by means of visual and non-destructive testing. &n those cases where the weld quality is found to be
outside specified acceptance criteria, the weld is marked for repair. After removal of the defected area, re-
examination is carried out using the same inspection method as used during the initial inspection. (hen
ultrasonic testing is used, the system may include inspection functions specifically configured for testing of
repairs to cope with the possible wide variation in groove shape that may limit the detection capability.
2ondestructive testing techniques to be used to check weld quality control are defined in section 01.' 9The
2=T toolbox:.
&n case the repaired area is still unacceptable $incomplete removal of initial defect, or defect in the repair weld%
the weld will be repaired a second time or completely removed $knows as a 9cut out:%, pending the
requirements of the applicable specification and@or standard.
(eld repair areas may affect the overall quality of the weld. The strict adherence to a repair procedure will help
to ensure an acceptable repair is made. &n most cases the repair procedure has to be qualified. ?epair welds
often require welders of greater skill and competency.
9.# Welding $ethods and processes
9.#.1 Introduction
".*.0 &ntroduction
(elding is the primary connecting process in pipeline construction. !everal different welding processes can be
deployed during the construction phase of the pipeline. /ach process has its advantages and limitations when
being implemented in girth welding activities. The specific welding process used must be considered based on
its overall ease of implementation in the particular welding activity, criticality of the service environment and
techno-economic impact. (elding of pipelines and related components comprise of mainline welds $i.e. line
pipe-to-line pipe connections%, tie-in welds $i.e. line pipe-to-line pipe connections for specific locations%, repair
welding of girth welds and fabrication welding. /ven with the emergence of new technology, arc welding
remains the most common welding type used in pipeline construction. Arc-welding activities can be classified
into two typical categories such as mechanized@automated welding, and manual welding. Adaptive control
welding is also an advanced form of automatic welding, which is welding with a process control system that
automatically determines any changes in welding conditions and directs the equipment to take appropriate
action. This shall be classified as automatic welding for the purpose of this discussion.
This classification is in accordance with the degree of operator involvement in the performance of the welding
activity. The following is a breakdown of welding processes involved and considered for each portion of
pipeline construction and related components, discussing the advantages and limitations of each process.
The table below gives a comparison of the pro and cons of the different welding processes. The comparison
shows the criteria used for the selection of the welding method.
"anual Se$iauto$atic "echani%ed &uto$atic
'evel o( control o( welder over the welding
arc )voltage and a$perage*.
Figh 5edium 5edium Aow
+ravel speed control Figh Figh 5edium Aow
Wire (eed control Figh 5edium 5edium Aow
Welder in(luence over weld ,ualit! Figh Figh Figh 5edium
-e,uired level o( welder skill Figh 5edium 5edium 5edium
.le/i0ilit! )1* Figh 5edium 5edium Aow
1((icienc! grade o( the welding Aow 5edium 5edium Figh
'ogistic in(luence on welding Aow 5edium 5edium Figh
1,uip$ent $aintenance in(luence on
welding
Aow 5edium 5edium Figh
2oint accessi0ilit! and design Figh 5edium 5edium Aow
1((ect on the accurac! o( asse$0l! Figh 5edium 5edium Aow
Capacit! to weld highstrength steel Aow 5edium 5edium Figh
$0% ,lexibility is defined as how easy it is to change the diameter and wall thickness of the pipe to be welded.
As well as the criteria shown in the table, further factors in the selection of the weld method are the type and
grade of the base material $steel%, specification requirements, company policy and economic aspects.
".*.# 3hoice of welding process
A detailed review of the many factors which influence the choice of the welding process is presented below8
<ipe strength
The increase in the grade of steel used for pipeline has caused some issues, especially when using cellulosic
electrodes which are sensitive to cracking on higher strength steels. &t is usually recommended to weld high-
strength steel with low hydrogen electrodes for all passes. Fowever, past experience has shown that high-
strength steel pipe can be successfully welded using a cellulosic root and hot pass with proper preheat and
filling the remainder of the 7oint with low hydrogen electrodes.
5atching strength
5atching strength is not formally defined, and sometimes it causes the wrong interpretation when using it either
to refer to the 7oint strength, or to the welding consumable specified minimum strength. These two variables are
completely different. The former refers to the strength of a welding 7oint with respect to the pipe base metal,
while the other refers to the standardized way to measure the strength of the weld metal of a given welding
consumable in certain conditions.
Goint strength is very important in pipeline construction. The welding consumable should be selected in order
that the welding 7oint strength matches $or overmatches% the strength of the pipe. &n other words in a match or
overmatch 7oint, the 7oint strength has to be equal to or greater than that of the base metal respectively.
&n order to clarify these concepts, it is necessary to explain that most of the material designations refer to the
yield strength $HI%, while welding consumable designations refer to ultimate strength $HD% . ,or example, A<&
*A rade J-1 has associated a minimum HI equal to -1 Ksi, while A(! /-10. has associated a minimum HD
equal to -1 Ksi. Aooking at those numbers, it seems that electrode will produce an under-match 7oint. Fowever,
the final strength of a 7oint will depend on a number of variables, in which can be included the following
variables8 base material chemistry, dilution, oscillation, travel speed, and others. 3onsequently, it is impossible
to perfectly predict the final strength of a welded 7oint.
5ost of the welding consumable standards specify the minimum mechanical requirements based on a particular
welding procedure, which is completely different to a typical welding procedure for pipeline. 3onsequently the
results obtained in those tests are 7ust reference values, and they cannot be related directly to the final strength
of a 7oint. ,urthermore, the actual yield strength HI of a welded 7oint is very difficult to defineE the size of a
typical weld used in pipeline is not large enough to insulate the weld metal for testing.
3onsequently, the terms under@over@match applied to the 7oint strength are only meaningful following the
results of tensile testing8 a 7oint that breaks on the base metal with a value over the minimum specified ultimate
strength HD of the base metal is not under-matched.
The need for very high minimum specified strength welding consumables to produce very high over matching
7oints is dependent upon the 7oint type and loading condition, and it is generally required for complete
penetration 7oint groove welds in tension applications. 5atching can be used for most applications, but in some
cases, it may not be the most economical or conservative choice. Dnder-match welding consumables might be
used when the hardness of the root pass is a concern, even if other higher strength consumables are to be used to
fill and cap the weld. This 9softer: root increases the resistance to certain types of weld cracking.
Aongitudinal and spiral seam welded pipe
!teel line pipe may be manufactured using many different methods. The two most popular methods of
manufacturing large diameter steel line pipe are longitudinal seam submerged arc welding and spiral $or helical%
seam submerged arc welding. These two types of line pipe can be discerned by locating the pipe weld seam
reinforcement and determining if it runs longitudinally or helically relative to the pipe axis.
(hile longitudinal seam submerged arc welded pipe is the most common type of steel line pipe used for cross-
country pipelines, spiral seam submerged arc welded pipe has been rapidly gaining popularity. &t is often lower
cost than longitudinal welded pipe and can be supplied in longer lengths, which lowers overall pipe laying time
and costs.
L0M Terms referred to tensile testing.
HI is define as the stress at which plastic deformation begins to manifest itself, while HD is the maximum
stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking. HD is higher than HI.
Fowever, some spiral seam pipes have issues with pipe ends not being round $out of roundness%, which may
result in excessive offset of the pipe walls during welding. &f not properly controlled, this offset results in
difficulties welding the root pass and possible inadequate penetration. The internal line-up clamping pressure
can be increased to reduce out of roundness, but this increases the risk of stress cracks, especially when using
cellulosic electrodes. ,acing this scenario characterized by poor fit-up, more robust welding processes and
welding techniques are needed. <ulsed gas metal arc welding $5A(-<% usually accommodates the effects of
poor fit-up, producing a thick root pass with low diffusive hydrogen. 3onsequently, cracking probability is
lower and penetration tends to be better than shielded metal arc welding $!5A(%.
<ipeline diameter and wall thickness
<ipe diameter plays a ma7or role in how long it will take to weld a root pass. Aarger diameter pipe, such as 0##1
mm, takes longer to weld than a small diameter due to the increased circumference. Thus, larger pipe diameter
results in slower pipe laying speeds. To offset this, the number of welders $or arcs% may be increased, or a faster
welding process may be selected.
&ncreasing pipe wall thickness usually results in higher weld zone hardness, which increases the tendency of
weld cracking at the root pass. This is due primarily to the following factors8
Thicker wall pipe tends to have more alloys and a higher carbon equivalent than thinner wall pipe to obtain the
same strength. This results in harder weld and weld zone, and consequently, lower weldability.
The greater mass of steel cools the weld faster, which increases the weld zone hardness.
Thicker pipe is more rigid, resulting in higher residual stress.
&t is more difficult for hydrogen to diffuse from the weld zone due to faster cooling and the increased distance it
need to travel to the surface.
Therefore, it should not be assumed that a root pass method that worked successfully on thin wall pipe would
perform as well on thicker wall. Figher preheat temperatures, lower hydrogen welding electrodes, or a different
welding procedure may be needed.
Also, heavy wall thickness pipes often require toughness evaluation at the root. &n this case, the selection of the
root pass procedure shall take into account a robust welding technique that can accommodate base metal
dilution and keep toughness properties.
(hen wall thickness is heavy, some codes and standard require post heat treatment of the weld. This will have a
strong impact on productivity and weld final properties. Toughness, in particular, could be negatively affected.
Feat input has to be carefully selected, as does welding technique in terms of welding consumable and
parameters.
<ipeline terrain and environmental conditions
<ipeline laying speed is highly dependent on the terrain and environmental conditions. ,ast laying speeds are
usually obtained on flat, dry plains. <ipe laying speed is slowed by conditions such as rocky, hilly or wet
terrain, bad weather, as well as river and road crossings. &f conditions are present for slow laying speeds, there
may be limited benefits by selecting a fast root pass method if the root pass welding crew is frequently slowed
down waiting for the right-of-way to be cleared.
/xtreme weather conditions like those in deserts or cold regions may affect the performance of welding
equipment and welding variables such as preheat and inter-pass temperature. &n particular in cold weathers, low
temperatures and fast welding process $low heat input% may present a tendency to create welding defects such as
lack of fusionE preheat temperature and particularly inter pass temperature should be carefully monitored.
Cther conditions such as altitude may affect some welding processes, not only reducing productivity but also
increasing the tendency to produce welding defects. Additionally, this fact is increased by the drop in efficiency
due to the negative effect of altitude on welder6s health and welding generators.
&n all those cases, robust welding techniques that overcome the extreme conditions should be selected
sacrificing productivity but assuring weld quality.
Aength of pipe
enerally, mechanized@automatic welding is more cost effective on longer, larger diameter pipelines, usually
above *1 km in length and more than #) to ). in. in diameter. Cn small pro7ects, the high initial capital costs
incurred may not be recovered. ?ental of the equipment might be more appropriateE however pro7ect delays
may then induce significant additional costs.
&nspection
&ncreasing the root pass welding speeds necessitates faster weld inspection speeds. The results of the traditional
method of radiography inspection follow production welding by approximately half to one day. This is due
primarily to the health and safety precautions that must be taken when working with a radioactive material or a
radiation source. This inspection delay may be satisfactory at traditional root pass laying rates of )1 7oints per
day. Fowever, automatic welding systems can lay pipe in excess of #11 7oints per day. This requires a faster
inspection method to keep up and follow closer to the production welders.
Automatic ultrasonic testing $ADT% is the preferred method for inspecting automatic pipeline girth welds.
?adiation hazards are eliminated. ADT inspection crews can work in close vicinity to others, including the
welding and pipe coating crews. &t is also fast, with the inspection data automatically processed by computer.
?adiography can have a difficult time detecting non-volumetric planar flaws, like lack-of-fusion, which is more
common with mechanized@automatic 5A( processes. ADT does an excellent 7ob in detecting these flaws.
Also, recent advances in ADT N such as time of flight diffraction $TC,=% and phased array N allow detection
of smaller defects and better defect sizing and location. (ith faster inspection speeds and results, the time to
bury the pipe into the ground is reduced, lowering spreads costs.
Aogistics
enerally it can be stated that the more sophisticated welding systems become, the more support is needed to
ensure they function correctly $spare parts, pipe-facing equipment, etc%. 5any of the pipelines being constructed
are in the emerging economies of the world. These pro7ects are often in remote, inhospitable climates and must
draw on local labour pools for welders. (ith the shortage of experienced manual pipeline welders, automatic
welding has been on the rise.
!ufficient training time should be scheduled, considering the skill level of the local labour pool.
3osts
3apital outlay and resulting rental or write off costs differ widely depending on the selected process. ood
production rates and welding speed are needed to control those costs.
5anual welding offers relatively low initial cost and equipment maintenance, but requires high welding skill, is
labour intensive and repair rates can be high. The initial cost for semi-automatic welding is higher than that for
manual welding, but lower than automatic welding. (ire feeding equipment and shielding gas bottles are
required with semi-automatic welding. Automatic welding has the highest capital outlay and requires expensive
logistical support. Therefore, automatic welding is typically best suited for large diameter and long length
pipelines. 5ore expensive equipment tends to be faster, but is not as economical for shorter pipeline distances.
".*.' 5anual welding
The use of manual welding offers a high level of flexibility with straightforward equipment and a broad choice
of welding consumables. The welder performs the welding function and maintains continuous control of the
welding operations by hand.
The manual welding processes used for pipeline welding are8
!hielded 5etal Arc (elding A!5/ process !5A( and &!C process number 000.
as Tungsten Arc (elding A!5/ process TA( and &!C process number 0)0
".*.'.0 !5A( $stick rod%
!hielded metal arc welding $!5A(%, also known as manual metal arc welding $55A or 55A(% or
informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses an arc between a consumable electrode
coated in flux and a weld pool to accomplish a weld.
An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is
used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be 7oined. As the weld is made, the flux
coating of the electrode gives off vapours that serve as a shielding gas and deposits a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
,ig. #8 <rocess principle !5A( welding
As welding progresses, the coated electrode becomes shorter and shorter. ,inally, the welding must be stopped
to remove the stub and replace it with a new electrode. This periodic changing of electrodes is the ma7or
disadvantage of the process in production welding.
The most typical welding defects associated with !5A( are porosity and slag inclusions. The latter is usually
related to an excessive high stick-out or humidity, while porosity is related to an incorrect welding technique.
The !5A( process is the simplest process, in terms of equipment requirements, but it is perhaps the most
difficult in terms of welder training and skill-level requirements. Although welder skill level is a concern, most
welders entering the field start as Ostick weldersO and develop the necessary skills through training and
experience. The equipment investment is relatively small, and welding electrodes $except for very reactive
metals, such as titanium, magnesium, and others% are available for virtually all manufacturing, construction, or
maintenance applications. !hielded metal arc welding has the greatest flexibility of all the welding processes,
because it can be used in all positions $flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead%, with virtually all base-metal
thicknesses $0.+ mm and greater%, and in areas of limited accessibility.
The versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation makes shielded metal arc
welding one of the worldPs most common welding processes. ,urther, the many possible variations in the
composition of the electrode coating and the large selection of the core wire chemistry in addition to providing a
smooth arc and uniform metal transfer characteristics add to the preference for this process.
&t dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding
is growing in popularity, !5A( continues to be used extensively in the construction of steel structures and in
industrial fabrications.
".*.'.# TA( $T&%
as tungsten arc welding $TA(%, also known as tungsten inert gas $T&% welding, is an arc welding process
that uses an arc between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work piece to establish a weld pool. The
weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas $argon or helium%, and a filler
metal is normally used, though some welds, known as autogenous welds, do not require it. ?ecently, gas
mixtures have been used containing 3C# and hydrogen as shielding gases. A constant-current welding power
supply provides energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas known as
plasma.
,ig. '8 <rocess principle TA( welding
TA( is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as
aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. &t is also used to put in root and hot passes when welding pipelines in
critical services. Fence, its reputation as a high integrity process. The process grants the operator greater control
over the welding arc than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding,
allowing for higher quality welds. The flexibility of the process is another obvious advantage as TA( allows
the heat source and filler metal additions to be controlled independently. Thus excellent control of root pass
weld penetration can be maintained.
Fowever, TA( is comparatively more complex and difficult to master, and furthermore it is significantly
slower than most other welding techniques as deposition rates are lower. &f welding takes place in windy or
draughty environments, it can be difficult to shield the weld zone properly. A related process, plasma arc
welding, uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focussed welding arc and as a result is often
automated.
".*.) !emi-automatic welding
&n semi-automatic welding, defined as 9manual welding with equipment that automatically controls one or more
of the welding conditions: the welder manipulates the welding gun to create the weld while the electrode is
automatically fed to the arc.
The semi-automatic arc welding processes can be characterized as follows8
The welding gun is manually controlled and quality is directly related to physical dexterity
(ire feed is controlled by the system
Boltage is controlled by the system
The most common semi-automatic welding processes for pipeline construction are gas metal arc welding
$5A(% and flux-cored arc welding $,3A(% which can also be implemented as automatic welding
operations. !ubmerged arc welding $!A(% and plasma arc welding $<A(% are other semiautomatic welding
processes finding increasing relevance in pipeline construction.
".*.).0 5A(
as metal arc welding $5A(% is sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas $5&% welding or
metal active gas $5A% welding. 5A( uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld
pool. The electrode comes in a wire spool, which feeds the arc automatically by a mechanism of rollers that
push the wire into a liner to the end of the welding gun. The process incorporates shielding from an externally
supplied gas. 5A( was referred to as 5& since it was initially implemented as a high current density,
small-diameter, bare-metal electrode process using an inert gas for arc shielding. Along with the wire electrode,
a shielding gas flows through the welding gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the air.
,or pipeline welding 5A( can be further subdivided into three metal transfer modes8 short circuit, globular
and spray transfer modes, depending on the energy level of the arc. At lower energy level, the metal melting
rate is slow and this short circuit mode of transfer is used for root pass. lobular and spray modes using higher
energy levels are used to deposit fill and cap passes.
,ig. )8 <rocess principle 5A( welding
5A( is an efficient consumable-electrode process and overcomes the restriction of limited electrode length
encountered with !5A(. Fowever, the welding equipment required for 5A( is more costly and less
portable than that of !5A(. The welding arc must be protected against winds or air draughts in excess of *
mph, which may disperse the shielding gas. This limits outdoor applications unless protective shields are placed
around the welding area.
!urface tension transfer $!TT% welding as a variant of 5A(, is a modified 5& process that uses high
frequency inverter technology with advanced waveform control to produce high quality welds while also
significantly reducing spatter and smoke. !TT technology has the ability to control weld pool heat
independently of wire feed speed giving the welder more control over the pool and provides the ability to ad7ust
the heat input to achieve the desired root bead profile.
".*.).# ,3A(
,lux-cored arc welding $,3A(% is a semi-automatic arc welding process. ,3A( requires a continuouslyfed
consumable tubular electrode containing an internal flux. ,3A( can be used with or without external shielding
depending on the consumable design. ,3A( offers two ma7or variations8 self-shielded $,3A(!%E and gas-
shielded $,3A(-%, which adds great flexibility to the process. &n the gas-shielded method, the shielding gas
$3C# or a mixture of argon and 3C#% protects the molten metal from the oxygen and nitrogen present in air by
forming an envelope of gas around the arc and over the weld pool. !elfshielded flux core wires $,3A(-!% do
not require shielding gas, which makes them more practical in field construction. They are also less sensitive to
the deleterious effects of wind on weld quality as compared to ,3A(-.
Advantages include higher productivity, high quality weld metal deposit and excellent weld appearance.
Aimitations include higher equipment costs and the need to remove slag in between passes.
,ig. *8 <rocess principle ,3A( welding
".*.).' !ubmerged arc welding $!A(%
!ubmerged arc welding $!A(% is an arc welding process in which the arc is concealed by a blanket of granular
and fusible flux. Feat for !A( is generated by an arc between a bare, solid-metal $or cored% consumable-wire
or strip electrode and the base metal. The arc is maintained in a cavity of molten flux or slag, which refines the
weld metal and protects it from atmospheric contamination. Alloy ingredients in the flux may be present to
enhance the mechanical properties and crack resistance of the weld deposit.
,ig. +8 !ubmerged arc welding
Advantages of submerged arc welding include the following8
The arc is under a blanket of flux, which virtually eliminates arc flash, spatter, and fumes $thus making the
process attractive from an environmental standpoint%
Figh current densities increase penetration and decrease the need for edge preparation
Figh deposition rates and welding speeds are possible
3ost per unit length of 7oint is relatively low
The flux acts as a scavenger and deoxidizer to remove contaminants such as oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur from
the molten weld pool. This helps to produce sound welds with excellent mechanical properties
Aow-hydrogen weld deposits can be produced
The shielding provided by the flux is substantial and is not sensitive to wind as in shielded metal arc welding
and gas metal arc welding
The slag can be collected, reground, and sized for mixing back into new flux as prescribed by manufacturers
and qualified procedures
".*.* 5echanized welding
5echanized welding, also sometimes referred to automatic welding, is a method of welding in which the
principle operations, excluding the handling of the work piece, are performed by a machine $i.e. movement of
torch, wire-feed%. The welder6s intervention consists of ad7usting the equipment controls in response to visual
observation of operations.
5echanized welding uses the same welding processes as described under section ".*.'. <arameters may be
ad7usted by the welding operator in response to visual observation of the process. 5echanized welding can be
categorized as being in between manual and fully-automatic welding methods. This applies mainly for standard
bevel design $refer to section ".*.-%.
".*.+ Automatic welding
Automatic welding is using the same welding processes as described under section ".*.', can be characterized
as being an improved mechanized welding methodology in terms of8
2arrow weld bevel design compared with standard A<& bevel
3omputer controlled process of welding parameters
5onitoring of essential welding parameters
5inimum intervention by the operator
?epeatability and integrity of the welding parameters
&mproved weld production rate
?educed required welder skills
Advanced options include8
o Aaser scanning of bevel
o !eam tracking of weld 7oint while welding
&t is more difficult to achieve the highest standards of quality using manual welding. This is due to certain
welding positions, overhead and down-hand welds for example, that can lead to faulty welds due to restricted
access the user has in these welding positions. &n order to have complete control over the weld pool, a perfect
balance must be maintained between gravitational force and surface tension at every position of the torch. >y
using mechanized variants of the technique, certain parts of the welding process are handled by mechanical
components. 2ote that a welder will always be monitoring and controlling the process. &n an ideal situation, all
welding parameters would be fully programmed before welding is started. &n practice, however, the presence of
variable constraints means that it is often necessary for the welder to make corrective interventions. (ith
automated welding, the computercontrolled welding process runs completely independently, without the need
for any intervention from the operator. Fowever, the operator plays an active role in quality control through the
identification of the presence of weld discontinuities. (hen discontinuities are encountered, appropriate
measures must be taken on the part of maintenance or programming personnel to correct deviations.
The level of automation varies, but the influence of the welder on the weld parameters is, in most cases, limited
to pressing start and stop. The most important variable in automated weld processes is the operator. The
operator has to be well trained with a lot of discipline. >ecause of the high welding speeds lack of attention
could mean an imperfection in the weld that causes the re7ection of that specific weld. The drawings below
$section ".*.-% show some common used bevel designs.
Figh frequency resistance welding, though not an arc welding process, is an automated process and is not
adaptable to manual welding. The principal application of high-frequency welding continues to be in the
manufacture of seam-welded pipe and tube. Figh frequency welding processes rely on the properties of high-
frequency electricity and thermal conduction, which determine the distribution of heat in the work pieces.
".*.- !equence of welding passes
A circumferential girth weld for pipeline construction is composed of a number of welding passes. The
sequence of the welding passes is visualized in the below figure. The welding configuration used is typical for
the manual welding process, but the used terminology for the different welding passes also applies for
mechanized and automated welding techniques.
,ig -8 (elding passes terminology
".*.-.0 ?oot pass
The root pass is the first pass a welder makes on a pipeline girth weld and is 7udged to be the most critical weld
pass for several reasons. &t is generally the most difficult welding pass to make. The root pass speed determines
the speed with which the pipeline may be constructed. Any delay in the root pass slows down the pro7ect.
?epair of root defects may require removal of all weld passes, the most costly and time consuming type of
repair.
3omparing root pass processes8
<ulsed 5A( transfer mode $5A(-<%, manual shielded metal arc welding $!5A(%, and gas tungsten arc
welding $TA(% are the most extensively welding process used for root pass %. !imilar welding speed is
obtained when comparing !5A( cellulosic with 5A(-<, however, deposition rate is higher when using
5A(, which produces a thicker root pass.
TA( typically presents weld metal with excellent propertiesE however, the productivity is strongly affected
by the low travel speed associated with it. This welding process is used when fit-up is extremely poor and root
cracking is likely, or when near-perfect weld quality is required.
".*.-.# Fot pass
This is always the second pass and comes after the root pass. Fot pass is a terminology that has been introduced
when using !5A( cellulosic electrodes in the root pass. The hot pass is a fast pass that increases the metal
backing thickness to avoid burn-through when depositing the fill passes. ,or all other welding processes the hot
pass terminology is commonly used for the second pass $first fill%.
".*.-.' ,ill 4 cap
The fill passes complete the 7oint until almost covering the whole wall thickness. These passes usually are
deposited with high energy in order to maximize the deposition rate. There is always a difference of 1.*-0 mm
between the last pass of the fill and the top of the bevel. This difference is used as a reference to guide the
welder during the capping in order to deposit these passes with the correct overlap.
A detailed review of this sequence of welding passes is presented in section ".01.
9.3 +!pical weld i$per(ections and pipe $ill de(ects
=espite all the good workmanship that is put into every weld produced during pipeline construction, weld
imperfections are inevitable. The welding process may be affected by the condition of the base pipe material
and@or pipe end geometry.
&n sections ".+.0 through ".+.0. examples of imperfections can be found and section ".+.0" reviews the pipe
mill defects which may induce weld imperfections.
The relevant sections will address three general classifications of discontinuities8
<rocedure@process
5etallurgical
>ase metal
The cause of a weld repair can come from many sources including8
>ase material
(elding consumable
!hielding gas $when applicable%
(elding machine
Fuman error
<ipe misalignment
Typical pipeline girth weld defects can be seen in the following passages8
".+.0 5isalignment
The term misalignment is often used to denote the amount of offset or mismatch across a butt 7oint between
members of equal thickness. 5any codes and specifications limit the amount of allowable offset because
misalignment can result in stress risers at the toe and the root. The misalignment $Fi@Aow% of the pipe ends that
have to be welded together. This misalignment is in most cases caused by pipe ends being out of roundness and
often located close to the longitudinal or helical weld seams. The misalignment can be recognized on a film
when an abrupt change in film density across the width of the weld image is found.
,ig. .8 Fi-Ao pipe misalignment
".+.# 5isalignment and lack of penetration $AC<%
5isalignment of pipe ends could be the cause of root lack of penetration $AC<%. This is illustrated by an abrupt
density change across the width of the weld image with a straight longitudinal darker density line at the center
of the width of the weld image, along the edge of the density change.
,ig. "8 Fi Ao with lack of root penetration
".+.' =istortion
The welding operation commonly involves the application of heat to produce fusion of the base metal. !tresses
of high magnitude will result from thermal expansion and contraction and weld metal solidification, and will
remain in the weld after the structure has cooled. !uch stresses tend to cause distortion when the welding
sequence is not properly controlled. 3areful selection of the welding sequence, welding processes and 7oint
design can minimize this condition.
".+.) Cverlap
Cverlap is the condition in which weld metal protrudes beyond the weld interface at the toe of a weld. The
condition tends to produce notches which can be detrimental to weld performance. Cverlap is usually caused by
the use of either incorrect welding or by improper welding parameter settings. Cverlap can occur at the toe of
either a fillet or groove weld, as well as at the weld root of a groove weld.
".+.* (eld profile
The profile of a finished weld may affect the service performance of the 7oint. The surface profile of an internal
pass or layer of a multipass weld may contribute to the formation of incomplete fusion or slag inclusions when
the next layer is deposited.
".+.+ /xternal concavity
An external concavity exists when the base material is thicker than the weld including the cap reinforcement.
Cn the position of the external concavity the film is darker than the density of the base material extending
across the full width of the weld.
,ig. 018 /xternal concavity
".+.- /xcessive penetration
/xcessive penetration exists when the root weld material extends past the inside diameter surface and is thicker
than the base material. Cn the position of the excessive penetration the film is lighter than the density of the
weld.
,ig. 008 /xcessive penetration
".+.. >urn through $>T%
(hen too much energy is used, especially when the second weld pass is being used, the root pass is remoulded
and a burn through $>T% will occur. This will result in a localized darker density with fuzzy edges in the center
of the weld image6s width. &t may be wider than the root pass image width.
,ig. 0#8 >urn through
".+." Aack of penetration
(hen insufficient energy is applied to melt both edges of the pipe ends together, will result in a lack of
penetration defect $AC<%. A darker density band, with very straight parallel edges, in the center of the weld
image will occur.
,ig. 0'8 Aack of penetration
".+.01 &nterpass slag inclusions
The !5A( and ,3A( processes produce a slag to protect the molten weld material when it solidifies. (hen
previous welds are not properly cleaned the slag becomes trapped between subsequent passes resulting in a slag
inclusion. Cn a film this will result in an irregularly-shaped darker density spot, usually slightly elongated and
randomly spaced.
,ig. 0)8 &nterpass slag inclusions
".+.00 /longated slag lines $wagon tracks%
(agon tracks are a typical defect that can be found in !5A( cellulosic welded pipe sections. The film will
show elongated parallel or single darker density lines, irregular in width and slightly winding lengthwise.
,ig. 0*8 /longated slag lines $wagon tracks%
".+.0# Aack of side wall fusion
Aack of fusion occurs when the weld metal doesn6t fuse with the pipe material. This imperfection is referred to
as lack of side wall fusion $AC,%. This defect can be recognized as elongated parallel, or single, darker density
lines which are very straight in the longitudinal direction.
,ig. 0+8 Aack of side wall fusion $AC,%
".+.0' &nterpass cold lap
(hen the previous layer is not re-melted by the covering subsequent weld pass, a lack of fusion between the
weld passes will occur. This type of lack of fusion is called interpass cold lap or interrun lack of fusion.
,ig. 0-8 &nterpass cold lap
".+.0) !cattered porosity
?ounded spots of darker densities, random in size and location, are referred to as porosity $<%. >asically this is
gas that has been trapped in the solidifying weld material. Dnder penetration is also classed as a defect where
the opening is too small and welding current too low.
,ig. 0.8 !cattered porosity
".+.0* 3luster porosity
A group of gas pores is referred to as cluster porosity $3<%. The rounded or slightly elongated darker density
spots in randomly-spaced clusters can easily be identified on the film.
,ig. 0"8 3luster porosity
".+.0+ 3racks
,or materials that are sensitive to cracking $3% special precautions are required to prevent the welded 7oint from
cracking. A crack can be recognized as feathery, twisting lines of darker density running across the width of the
weld image. The direction of the crack basically gives the name to the imperfection in the welded 7oint.
3racking of welded 7oints results from localized stresses that exceed the ultimate strength of the material. (hen
cracks occur during or as a result of welding, little deformation is usually apparent. Three different types of
cracks that can occur in weld metal include transverse, longitudinal and crater cracks.
,ig. #18 Transverse crack
,ig. #08 Aongitudinal root crack
".+.0- Tungsten inclusions
&n TA(, the weld arc is interrupted when the tungsten electrode touches the weld pool, causing the pool to
solidify. (hen this location is grinded insufficiently tungsten will remain in the weld causing an irregularly
shaped lower density spots randomly located in the film of the weld image.
,ig. ##8 Tungsten inclusions
".+.0. !urface irregularities
<erfectly acceptable welds will naturally exhibit some degree of surface roughness. Fowever, improper
technique or equipment ad7ustment can result in surface irregularities that exceed specification requirements.
Arc strikes
An arc strike is damage on the base material resulting from an accidental striking of an arc outside the weld
area.
(eld ripples
(hile depressions and variations in the weld surface are considered to be discontinuities, they may not affect
the ability of the weld to perform its intended purpose. The applicable standard should describe the degree of
surface irregularity permissible to prevent the presence of high stress concentrations.
!patter
!patter consists of metal particles expelled during fusion welding that do not form part of the weld. !patter
particles that become attached to the base metal ad7acent to the weld are the most detrimental. 2ormally, spatter
is not considered to be a serious flaw unless its presence interferes with subsequent operations, especially
nondestructive evaluations.
".+.0" <ipe mill defects
Aine pipes can be manufacturer using different methods, but in any case the pipe ends are not perfectly round.
The manufacturer is allowed to produce line pipes with some tolerance dimensions. !ome of them may strongly
affect field girth welding. &n the following the main pipe mill defects and their effects on welding are listed.
".+.0".0 Cut of roundness
The main characteristic of out of roundness is an oval shape, and its main effect on welding is misalignment
$Fi-Ao% . Therefore, the welding defects associated with it are incomplete root penetration, burn through, and
root undercut. ,or thin wall pipes, out of roundness is usually compensated for by the internal clamp. /specially
when the clamp is pneumatic or hydraulic, the even expansion force of the clamp deforms the pipe ends and
make them round. Cut of roundness effects are more deleterious in heavy wall line pipes, in which case the
clamp may have not enough force to compensate. &n those cases, proper root pass technique selection can help
to reduce the harmful effects. Typically, 5A(-< can overcome misalignment better than high cellulosic
!5A(. Also turning around the pipes to auto compensate the out of roundness may also help
,ig. #'8 Cut of roundness
".+.0".# =ifferent thicknesses
(elding defects similar to out of roundness can occur when welding two pipes with the same nominal pipe
thickness, but with excessive difference in the actual thickness. (hen inspecting with automatic ultrasound
technique, it also can cause a false alarm, resulting in an unnecessary repair.
".+.0".' ,lat spots
,lat spots are typically located near the seam weld. They depend on the manufacturing method, but they are
more likely to be present in heavy wall thickness line pipes. /ven though this defect has effects similar to out of
roundness, rotating the pipe to compensate for this geometric defect cannot help to reduce the deleterious
effects associated with it.
,ig. #)8 ,lat spot
".+.0".) Aaminations
Aaminations are non-metallic inclusions embedded in the pipe, and if they are present near the pipe end they
can cause welding defects such as lack of fusion or slag inclusion.
".+.0".* Axial misalignment
Axial misalignment occurs when the linepipe axis is not straight but curved. This pipemill defect has negative
consequences when the pipe rotates and the weld torch $or electrode% is fixed. This welding position is typically
used in double 7oint welding plants and it is associated with automatic or welding process such as !A( or
5A(. (hen the pipe rotates during welding, the arc length may vary as the pipe rotates, causing welding
defects such as lack of fusion or lack of penetration.
,ig. #*8 !traight and axially misaligned linepipe
9.4 .ield construction e,uip$ent
".-.0 >eveling equipment
,lame cutting equipment is commonly used for preparing a standard B-bevel preparation. ,lame cutting
equipment can vary in complexity from simple hand-guided machines to very sophisticated
numericallycontrolled systems. The mechanized equipment is analogous to the manual equipment in principle,
but differs in design to achieve higher cutting speeds and better cutting quality.
,ig. #+8 !emi manually-operated flame cutting system
,ig. #-8 5echanically-operated flame cutting system
".-.0.# 5echanical beveling equipment
5echanical beveling is applied for narrow gap welding. A pipe facing machine $<,5% is used for machining of
the pipe ends, and is used in combination with a hydraulic power unit $F<D%. The machining section of the
<,5 consists of a rotating faceplate with several tool holders. Tool holders are spring-loaded, and are following
the shape of the pipe end with a rolling gear. A typical mechanical beveling machine is shown below.
,ig. #.8 Typical setup for <,5 and F<D
,ig. #"8 ,acing operation with excavator handling and powering the <,5
".-.# <re-heating equipment
".-.#.0 ,lame torch heating
?adiation heating methods, such as those that employ gas torches or quartz lamps, transfer heat to the pipe
material by emitting electromagnetic radiation. ,or radiation heating to be effective, the heat source needs to be
placed in close proximity to the material being heated.
,ig. '18 ,lame torch heating of pipe ends
".-.#.# &nduction heating
&nduction heaters work by generating eddy currents in the pipe material, which is a very efficient method of
generating heat. The eddy currents are a result of an electromagnetic field that is generated by the induction
heater coils. The natural resistivity of the pipe material, along with the eddy currents, causes the pipeline to
increase in temperature from the inside by resistive heating. &nduction heaters have the same benefits as
conduction heaters, which are easy access to the weld 7oint and consistent and continuous heating. An additional
benefit of induction heating over conduction heating is that the heating elements themselves do not heat up. The
primary benefits of induction heating over conduction heating are improved operator comfort and possibly,
because of increased heating efficiency, the ability to achieve and maintain preheat temperature under extreme
thermal conditions.
,ig. '08 &nduction heating of pipe ends
".-.'.0 &nternal clamps
<ipe alignment may be maintained by any of the following machines8
".-.'.0.0 &nternal line-up clamp $&AD3%
&nternal line-up clamp $&AD3% provides line-up of two pipes prior to and during welding. Typically the clamp is
pneumatic and has an air tank to store energy to travel to the next 7oint, to break as it reaches the next 7oint and
to actually clamp the rear expander to be set in position to guide the arrival of the next 7oint.
&n steep slopes it is common to have to pull or retain the &AD3 with a steel cable attached to a tractor. &AD3s
are equipped with a reach-rod allowing &AD3 commands to be reached from the other end of the 7oint by
operating it and@or by using it as a conduit to transmit energy and command signals.
,ig. '#8 &nternal line-up clamp
Typically the internal expander of an &AD3 is based on a mechanism that can be best compared to the way an
umbrella is opened and closed, as is shown below in ,igure ''.
,ig. ''8 &nternal line-up clamp mechanism
".-.'.0.# !tronger internal line-up clamp $5ax-&AD3%
&n order to meet the requirements regarding hi-lo, special &AD3s have been developed to provide enough force
to round the pipe ends, so as to be able to match the pipe ends that have to be welded.
,ig. ')8 5ax-internal line-up clamp
".-.'.0.' &nternal welding machine $&(5%
The &nternal (elding 5achine is used to line up the pipe pieces. After the line up the first welding pass $root% is
welded from the inside of the pipe with the same equipment used for the line-up.
,ig. '*8 &nternal welding machine $&(5%
".-.'.# /xternal clamps
/xternal clamps are used on tie-ins and in specific conditions where, due to technical or safety reasons, the use
of an internal clamp is not possible. /xternal line-up clamps are not suitable to attain high productivity. The
line-up of the pipe is more time consuming, but since the clamp is reachable it is possible to make the necessary
ad7ustments to get the pipe within the specified tolerances. After welding a specified or qualified percentage of
the root the clamp has to be removed to finish the weld.
,ig. '+8 /xternal clamp $/3%
".-.) (elding
,or the transportation of the welding equipment on the right of way a pay welder is common used. !ince the
lifting capacity of the pay welder crane is limited the welding shack must be kept as light as possible. &n order to
achieve this, the welding equipment is mounted on the pay welder. enerally the welding inverters, electronic
control unit $/3D% and gas cylinders are on the pay welder. The wire feeder, water cooler and bug are installed
in the welding shack. The power leads and gas hoses are guided by the crane to go from the pay welder to the
welding shack. A typical $automatic% welding set-up is shown below.
,ig. '-8 Typical $automatic% welding set-up.
,ig. '.8 ,ield pictures
9.5 Welding sa(et! ha%ards
Added by Fenning =resp, last edited by Fenning =resp on 2ov 1+, #10' $view change%
..0 &ntroduction
(elding is associated with a number of risks, which are produced by the type of activity and physical
phenomena related to welding. 3ross-country pipeline construction in particular is always in a high productivity
scenario, and is an outdoor 7ob site, always in motion. Therefore, welded pipeline construction is associated
with very particular requirements in terms of safety. The following section discussed the main topics related to
safety.
"...# <ersonal protection equipment
A welder6s personal protection equipment shall take into account all the hazards associated with welding such
as sparks, spatter radiation, etc. The selection of this protection shall be based on the level of each hazard,
which depends on a number of factors which can include welding process, shield gas, base metal, etc. (elder6s
ergonomic comfort should be given due importance when choosing the protection. ,actors such as overweight
equipment, heat stress, motion and vision reduction must be taken into account in order to avoid negative
effects on welder performance. The personal protection system shall balance protection and comfort for the
welder.
At a minimum, a welder should wear boots $steel toes%, cuff-less trousers made of natural fibres, a flame-
resistant welding 7acket, leather gloves with wrist and forearm coverage, safety glasses, and a welding helmet
with a skull cap.
"...' 5ain risks
The main risks associated with welding pipelines are the following8
>urns
?adiation
,umes
Fard particle pro7ectiles
,ire
/xplosion
/lectric shock
/ngine-powered welders
"...) >urns
>urns in the welding process are caused by two sources8
Thermal8 skin burns from hot metal, spattering slag and from handling hot tools or electrodes
/rythema8 skin burns primarily by ultraviolet light
,lash burn8 caused when a surge of DB light hits the eye, causing a OsunburnO-like condition on the cornea
<rotective material
The two most commonly-used materials for welder protective apparel are chrome-tanned leather and specially
treated, fire-resistant cotton. Aeather is durable and will last several years if dry cleaned regularly whenever the
garment becomes noticeably stiffened from accumulated dirt and grime. Treatedcotton garments come in a
range of material weights, allowing welders a choice8 when working in hot summer environments, they can
select lighter-weight materialsE otherwise they can opt for heavier weight, more durable garments. All but the
most inexpensive treated-cotton garments can be laundered using normal temperatures and cycles without
affecting the fire-resistant treatment.
>uyers of welder apparel should avoid garments that offer a place for sparks to land. Aook to buy trousers,
overalls, and coveralls with no cuffs or pockets. (elders should not roll up their sleeves either.
Cther fabrics
Figh-heat fabrics made of KevlarQ blended with fiberglass, which withstand temperatures of '11R3, are
gaining favour for aprons, sleeves, and gloves. Another option is SetexQ, a highly-textured form of silica fabric
that is inert and will not burnE it withstands temperatures to *11R3. Setex <lusQ comes coated, and is good to
0111R3. These materials also resist cuts and abrasion. ,urthermore, to improve protection from radiant heat,
clothing made of any of these materials can carry an aluminized layer. Aluminized fabrics can be used in
gloves, aprons, leggings, and hand pads.
Gackets offer full torso and arm protection, but may be too heavy for some working conditions. A lighter, cooler
alternative is a cape sleeve, which protects the arms and chest while leaving the back open. <air a cape sleeve
with a bib to protect the upper torso to the waist.
Another option is the bib apron. !pecify a split-leg apron for optimum freedom of movement, useful, for
example, if the welder needs to kneel a lot. &f the welderPs arms are heavily exposed, use sleeves, which come in
0.- and #'-inch lengths.
<rotecting the lower body, safety trousers are usually worn over the welderPs regular trousers. 3haps offer a
good alternative for welders needing the extra protection of leather without the extra weight or warmth. 3haps
protect the front of the legs, leaving the back open. They fasten to the legs with straps. <rotect only the lower
portion of a welderPs legs with leggings, which have extensions for foot protection. !pats protect only ankles
and feet. !pats, as well as the extension on leggings, keep sparks from falling into the openings on the top of
shoes.
,or one-piece, top-to-bottom protection, select either a coverall or overall. =ue to the weight and expense of
these large garments, they are usually ordered in fire-resistant cotton.
love selection
(elders can select among two types of gloves - welding gloves and gas tungsten arc welding $TA(% gloves,
the welding type being much heavier. TA( gloves tend to be unlined for optimum feel, and are often
manufactured of leather other than cowhide, including sheepskin and pigskin. TA( gloves, which generally
wear faster than welding gloves, come sized for optimum fit and feel.
The standard length of welding gloves is 0) in., enough to cover half of the welderPs forearm. ,or protection to
the elbow, specify an 0.-in. glove.
5ost welding gloves are of varying grades of leather. <remium gloves are of side-split cowhide, a better grade
than shoulder split. ,or optimum flexibility, durability, and protection, look for these features8 welting, thumb
strap, Kevlar thread, one-piece back, and a comfortable, durable lining.
,or optimum protection from radiant heat, specify a glove with 5ylarQ, an aluminized material. 5ylar can be
placed either between the lining and leather outer shell or on the back of the hand outside of the leather.
Another option8 add a 5ylar-covered hand pad placed over a regular welding glove.
"...* ?adiation
&ntroduction
(elding arcs emit radiation over a broad range of wavelengths from #11 nanometers $nm% to 0,)11 nm. This
includes ultraviolet $DB% radiation $#11 to )11 nm%, visible light $)11 to -11 nm%, and infrared $&?% radiation
$-11 to 0,)11 nm%.
3ertain types of DB radiation can produce an in7ury to the surface and mucous membrane $con7unctiva% of the
eye called Oarc eyeO, OweldersP eyeO or Oarc flash.O These names are common names for Ocon7unctivitisO - an
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the front of the eye. The symptoms include8
pain - ranging from a mild feeling of pressure in the eyes to intense pain in severe instances
tearing and reddening of the eye and membranes around the eye
sensation of Osand in the eyeO or abnormal sensitivity to light
inability to look at light sources $photophobia%
The amount of time required to cause these effects depends on several factors such as the intensity of the
radiation, the distance from the welding arc, the angle at which the radiation enters the eye, and type of eye
protection that the welder or bystander is using. Fowever, exposure to 7ust a few seconds of intense DB light
can cause arc eye. These symptoms may not be felt until several hours after exposure. Aong-term exposure to
DB light can produce cataracts in some persons. The intensity of radiation of the welding processes most
extensively used in the pipeline construction is shown in ,igure '" below.
DB radiation in a welding arc will burn unprotected skin 7ust like DB radiation in sunlight. This is true for
direct exposure to DB radiation as well as radiation that is reflected from metal surfaces, walls, and ceilings.
!urface finishes and certain paint colours can reduce the amount of DB radiation that is reflected.
Bisible light from welding processes is very bright and can overwhelm the ability of the iris of the eye to close
sufficiently and rapidly enough to limit the brightness of the light reaching the retina. The result is that the light
is temporarily blinding and fatiguing to the eye $flash burn%. /xposure to infrared light can heat the lens of the
eye and produce cataracts over the long term.
,ig. '"8 DB exposure comparison among some welding processes
(elder helmet
The helmet is made of a material that is an electrical and thermal insulator, noncombustible, and opaque to
visible, ultraviolet and infrared light $see ,igure )1 below%. The eyes are protected from the ultraviolet radiation
by a filter shade mounted on the welder6s helmet. The shell of the helmet is hinged so that it can be raised and
then lowered during welding. 5any welders have been observed 7erking their neck back to raise the helmet,
rather than manually raising it. This 7erking motion tends to increase the incidence of neck strain.
Fand shields or helmets provide eye protection by using an assembly of the following components8
Felmet shell T this must be opaque to light and resistant to impact, heat and electricity. &t has to cover all of the
welder6s face in order to avoid skin exposure
Cuter cover plate made of polycarbonate plastic which protects from DB radiation, impact and scratches.
,ilter lens made of glass containing a filter which reduces the amount of light passing through to the eyes.
,ilters are available in different shade numbers ranging from # to 0). The higher the number, the darker the
filter and the less light passes through the lens.
3lear retainer lens made of plastic prevents any broken pieces of the filter lens from reaching the eye.
asket made of heat-insulating material between the cover lens and the filter lens protects the lens from sudden
heat changes which could cause it to break. &n some models the heat insulation is provided by the frame mount
instead of a separate gasket.
,ig. )18 (elder helmet components
Aens shade selection
The selection of the appropriate lens shading depends on the welding process and arc energy level. Table 0
presents the shade grade for a variety of welding@cutting processes.
Auto-darkening lenses are available also, which can be set electronically in a range of shade grade and reaction
time also. This type of lenses has no shade when the welding arc is off, providing clear vision to the welder
before welding, therefore a precise position of electrode or welding torch is possible an instant before the
welding arc starts. 3onsequently, the welder comfort is increased while welding defects associated with bad
initial arc position are reduced.
6peration 1lectrode Si%e
1732 in. )$$*
&rc Current )&* "ini$u$
8rotective Shade
Suggested Shade
9o. )Co$(ort*
!hielded metal arc welding Aess than ' $#.*%
'T* $#.*T)%
*T. $)T+.)%
5ore than . $+.)%
Aess than +1
+1T0+1
0+1T#*1
#*1T**1
-
.
01
00
T
01
0#
0)
as metal arc welding and
flux cored arc welding
Aess than +1
+1T0+1
0+1T#*1
#*1T*11
-
01
01
01
T
00
0#
0)
as tungsten arc welding Aess than *1
*1T0*1
0*1T*11
.
.
01
01
0#
0)
Arc carbon
Arc cutting
$Aight%
$Feavy%
Aess than *11
*11T0111
01
00
0#
0)
<lasma arc welding Aess than #1
#1T011
011T)11
)11T.11
+
.
01
00
+ to .
01
0#
0)
<lasma arc cutting $Aight%UU
$5edium%UU
$Feavy%UU
Aess than '11
'11T)11
)11T.11
.
"
01
Torch brazing ' or )
Torch soldering #
3arbon arc welding 0)
Table 08 Aens shading selector
"...+ Bentilation and fumes
&n order to improve working conditions of welders, extensive research has performed. (elding fumes and gases
have been particularly extensively studied due to their relationship with a number of illnesses and respiratory
diseases. 5uch of the confusion driving the research is related to the difficulty of associating a particular illness
with a specific constituent of the welding fume or gas.
=etermining a direct relationship between an occupational illness and welding is difficult because of the
complexity of fumes and gases, the synergistic effect of certain constituent and non-occupational factors $e.g.
smoking%, and because most of the illnesses are long-term, and take time to manifest themselves. &n any case,
using correct ventilation considerably reduces any effect of welding fumes and gases on welders6 health.
&n case welding is performed in an enclosed space such a welding shack, a minimum ventilation rate is required.
Those values depend on the base metal, welding process, the consumable type, welding consumable diameter,
etc. &ndicative values are given in Table #. &n the case of welding shacks used in cross-country pipeline
construction, the ventilation system typically consist of an extractor fan for general ventilation and a welding
fume extraction system on top of the welding area $see ,igure )' below%. /ach country has its own
requirements on this matter. 3ontractors shall take into account the applicable regulations when designing the
ventilation system.
&n case extra protection is needed, personal respirators provide a practical, portable solution. These type of
devices can be either powered, in which filtered clean air is blown into the welding helmet, or passive, in which
a filtration mask is placed over the welder6s nose and mouth. The former provides also a cooling effect that
tends to reduce the welder6s heat stress and visor fogging.
Coated 1lectrodes :ase "etal -ate; c($
!teel, *@'# in. diam. !teel #*1
!teel, '@0+ in. diam. !teel )11
!teel, 0@) in. diam. !teel -11
Alloy $flouride coated%, *@'# in. diam. Alloy !teel #*1
!teel, *@'# in. diam. alvanised !teel 0111T0*11
Table #8 !uggested ventilation rates for !5A( Lfrom The (elding /nvironment- A(!M
,ig. )08 Typical ventilation system used in welding shacks
,ig. )#8 <ersonal respirator for welders.
"...- Fard particle pro7ectiles
&ntroduction
<ortable grinders $including angle grinders% are intended for cutting, grinding, sanding or brushing metal, stone
and timber materials, depending on the type of disc fitted to the machine.
The main parts of a typical manual grinder are shown below8
,ig. )'8 5ain parts of a manual grinder
Dsually, manual grinders are associated with a high spin speed. Typically, a point at the outer part of a disc can
present a velocity of .1 m@sec which is equivalent to #.. km@hr. Therefore, a disc failure will spall out
dangerous hard particles at high speed.
Types of discs
The consumables of the manual angular grinders that usually are used in pipeline construction are made of a
reinforced glass fiber@resin composite disc on which the abrasive material is mounted or wire-brush type. There
are a number of different tools that may be fitted to a portable grinder design for a verity of applications. ,or
example8
bonded grinding and cutting discs
bonded wheels
diamond grinding and cutting discs
flap discs
flexible and semi-flexible discs
pneumatic wheels
rotary hacksaws
ultra-thin cutting discs
wire brushes
woodcarving blades
,ig. ))8 =ifferent types of manual grinder tools
Fazards identification
There are numerous hazards associated with operating a manual grinder, which include8
/lectric shocks
,alls
&mpact
3uts
>urns
,ire
/xplosion
,ume@dust
2oise
Bibration
3hoosing the correct tool and controlling the risks
/ach tool used in manual grinders is designed for a specific type of application. 3onsequently, each tool is
associated with certain variables such as material $carbon steel, stainless steel, high alloy steel, etc%, use $cut,
grinding, cleaning, etc.%, dimensions, maximum rotary speed, etc. Dsually the essential parameters are clearly
expressed in the tool6s operating manual.
>efore using a certain tool, the 7ob to be performed must be analyzed in order to select the correct tool. Dsing
the tool incorrectly, in circumstances for which it was not designed, may cause its failure.
,ollow the manufacturer6s information
>efore using a portable grinder for the first time, read the manual.
/nsure operators are trained
Cperators must be trained in selecting, fitting and removing, caring for and inspecting discsE and the safe use of
portable grinders.
/nsure operators are supervised
/mployers, managers and@or supervisors must carry out checks to ensure grinding operations are being done in
a safe manner, and that operators are observing the required safety precautions.
Dse the correct disc
/nsure any disc to be fitted to the grinder is8
the correct type for the material being worked with
capable of being safely used at the maximum speed of the machine, stated as revolutions per minute, meters per
second or feet per second
the correct size for the grinder
free of any damage, flaws, dampness, warping or distortion that may result in the disc shattering
fitted in accordance with the manufacturer6s instructions $discs may be flat or have depressed centers and
require different methods of setting up. ?efer to the machine6s manual%
Always unplug the grinder from the power supply, or remove the battery, before fitting or removing a disc.
!et the equipment correctly
(hen the disc is replaced, rotate the disk by hand in order to ensure it is centered and it does not touch the
guard. After that, ad7ust the locking nut
2ever ad7ust the disc by hand, use the ad7usting tool
>efore starting working, always let the grinder runs for a minute to ensure it is functioning correctly
Dse personal protective equipment
(hen using a grinder, always use personal protective equipment $<</%8
eye protection
hearing protection
Any additional safety equipment, including respiratory protection, gloves, sturdy shoes, apron and hardhat.
>eware of loose clothing that may be grabbed by the grinder.
/nsure guards are in place
2ever use a portable grinder without the guard being in place and correctly ad7usted. A properly ad7usted guard
will minimize sparks hitting the operator and in7ury in the event of disc shatter.
Dse all the safety features
Although in most cases only premium products have especial feature such as soft anti-vibration handles and
dead man6s switch, in order to have full protection this type of feature should be taken into account when
selecting portable manual grinders. ,or safe operation, it important that all safety features are kept in good
condition.
Angular grinder T safe techniques
2ever use a portable grinder one-handed. Always have the auxiliary handle fittedE hold the grinder with both
hands and have a stable stance.
&f it6s not possible to use the grinder with both hands in place, then the grinder is the wrong tool for the 7ob.
=o not expose the discs to lateral force, torsion, or excessive pressure. ,ailure, overheating, efficiency lost,
reacting forces and involuntary motion may result.
,or thin cutting discs, the tool shall be always positioned perpendicular to the material being cut. Thin cutting
discs should never be used in oblique positions. ,or intermediate cutting discs $thicker than ).. mm% the
maximum inclination angle shall not exceed +1R.
rinding discs $thicker than +.'* mm% shall be operated at a minimum inclination angle of '1R. This type of
disc shall not be used for facing small diameter pipes because the localized over-wearing at the other part of the
disc may cause its failure.
2ever use the grinder over the shoulder level because in case of an involuntary motion or reactive force the
machine can hit the operator6s face, shoulder or arm.
(hen working out of position, any involuntary motion or reactive force must move the grinder away from the
operator, otherwise it can hit the operator.
/nsure the work piece is rigidly supported and firmly clamped. 5ovement in the work piece during grinding
may result in disc shatter or grinder kickback, with the potential for operator in7ury.
Cther considerations when grinding
!elect a grinder appropriate for the work to be done. ?emember that grinders have variable speed control,
clutch systems and anti-kickback.
/nsure the grinder is turned off before plugging in.
Apply the grinder to the work piece only once the grinder has reached operating speed.
2ever put a grinder down while the disc is still turning.
>e aware of others in the vicinity of the work area, as sparks and material may be e7ected over considerable
distances.
3heck to make sure there are no flammable materials that may be hit by sparks and check the area for any
smouldering material when the work is completed.
2ever clamp a portable grinder in a vice N a portable grinder is not a bench grinder nor a substitute for one.
Dse a dust collection@control system whenever possible N some dusts may be carcinogenic, flammable or
explosive.
".... ,ire protection
The risk of fire is always present in welding operations. ,or a fire to survive there must be oxygen, fuel and heat
present. &f any of these is removed the fire will be extinguished.
,ire precautions should include8
&nspect every location before cutting and welding commences to ensure the potential for a fire to occur is
eliminated
!uitable fire-fighting facilities are available near the work area and operators know where they are located. Are
the fire-fighting facilities adequate for the potential hazardV
(ork areas being clear of all rubbish and flammable material such as rags, oil etc. These materials should be
removed to a safe distance before cutting and welding
?emoval and@or protection of flammable material.
3lear, or soak with water, dry grass and scrub in surrounding area
Cperators should check their clothing is not impregnated with oil or grease
3onveyor belting or other combustible materials should be suitably protected from cutting and welding and its
sparks
&nspecting the site after cutting and welding has been performed to ensure that the potential for a fire to occur is
eliminated
"..." /xplosion @ gas containers
3ylinders gas containers should generally comply with the following8
,illed, inspected and maintained in accordance with applicable standard and regulations
as safety data sheets to be kept at all sites
3ylinder valves should be tightly closed when not in use or where cutting activities are stopped for a period of
time, e.g. lunch
2ever leave an empty cylinder connected to a process
2ever sling or lift a cylinder by the valve cap
=o not sub7ect cylinder to abnormal mechanical shocks
3ylinders shall be located so that sparks, slag and molten material cannot fall on hoses or on the cylinders or
attachments
The following considerations for the storage should be taken into account8
All cylinders should be stored in accordance with the applicable standard and regulations.
All cylinders should be kept upright, away from any sources of heat, electrical circuits and oil or grease during
use.
3ylinders should be stored at least 0*m away from fuel bays, fuel outlets and mobile equipment under repair.
All oxygen and acetylene cylinders should be placed on a stable footing and be secured to prevent falling.
!torage areas should be fitted with lockable doors, level floors and should be raised at least 0*1mm above the
surrounding floor.
=ry powder extinguisher should not be positioned less than .m or more than 01m from the storage area.
3ylinders should be returned to a safe storage area when operations are completed and kept isolated. 2ever
leave them in the right of way in an unprotected area.
rease, oils or other combustible substances should not be in contact with the valves of cylinders containing
oxygen, nitrous oxides or other oxidants. Cils and any fuels in the presence of oxygen may ignite
spontaneously.
Cxygen cylinders should be stored more than 'm away from fuel cylinders.
Transport8
3ylinders should be made secure when being transported and attached to a rigid support.
Acetylene and A< as cylinders should be transported in an upright position.
3ylinders should not be rolled on the ground.
(here possible use an appropriate trolley for transporting cylinders, even over short distances.
All cylinders must be labelled, colour-coded and accounted for and removed from the work area after use.
3ylinder valve guards should be used during transport.
3ylinders should be lifted in a manner as recommended by the manufacturer.
&gnition8
An ignition safety device $flint gun% for flame cutting and burning activities should be used at all times.
5atches, cigarette lighters, wicks, smouldering material and other similar devices should not be used to ignite a
gas.
Foses8
Foses should comply with the applicable standard and regulations.
Foses should be protected from sparks, hot slag, hot ob7ects, sharp edges and open flames.
An automatic hose reeling system should be used when cutting and welding from heights or in a trench.
&f hoses are burnt in a flashback or damaged they should be replaced.
=o not use hoses which are longer than necessary.
Foses should be checked for leaks daily.
"...01 /lectric shock
<rimary circuit8
<rimary circuit protection shall be in accordance with the applicable regulations and standards. (here mains-
fed welding machines are to be used next to each other, the main connections shall be phased out to ensure that
the open circuit voltage between ad7acent electrodes does not exceed the extra-low voltage. &f this is not
possible fixed barriers should be installed so a person cannot gain access to both electrode holders at the same
time. /nsure multiple A3 welding machines are installed in phase.
Cutput circuit8
/lectric shocks in welding occur when a person6s body is in simultaneous contact with any exposed part of the
secondary circuit electrode conductor and any metal or conducting material connected to the work terminal.
All parts of the welding circuit including the return path is Wlive6, therefore the welding operator must ensure
that no part of the body is placed in a position such that it completes a path through the body for the passage of
the electric current.
To prevent electric shock from the secondary circuit, it is important that8
(elding cable is in good condition and suitably rated, located, protected and insulated, to contain all welding
currents within the cable, and not allow any stray currents to occur.
The work return lead $cable% is fastened as close as practicable to the welding location to avoid stray currents
2ote8
$i% ears, bearings, brushings, pipes, etc should not be used to form part of the return circuit. This is to prevent
damage to the equipment and arcing or sparking within the gear cases.
$ii% <articular care should be taken when using two or more welding machines in close proximity.
$iii% The lead $cable% connecting the welding machine to the work is called the 9work return lead $cable%:.
The work return lead $cable% is commonly $incorrectly% called the earth lead $cable%. =eliberate or accidental
connection of the work return lead $cable% to earth creates hazardous situations and allows stray currents of
significant magnitude to be generated by welding circuits.
The electrical connection between the work return lead $cable% clamp and cable is secure.
(elding operators should ensure that no part of their body is placed in a position to create a return path for the
circuit.
/lectrode holders are not defective.
(elding machines must be switched off and isolated from supply before connecting and disconnecting leads.
(hen welding has stopped for a period of time, power should be turned off and the electrode removed from the
holder in order to prevent inadvertent operation.
<revent bare skin contact with the work piece and always use dry insulating gloves. loves should always be
used to handle electrodes.
An output circuit safety switch, between the welding machine and the hand piece, is recommended.
Two electrode leads are not alongside each other
,or A3 welding machines the electrode terminal is connected to the electrode lead and the work terminal is
connected to the work return lead, and not vice versa
3onsideration should be given to the risk of electromagnetic induction with other circuits
(elding cables8
The welding cables should not be extended beyond "m in length without consideration of voltage drops. The
current-carrying capacity of the work return and electrode cable should be determined in accordance with8
?ated output of the welding machine
=uty cycle of the welding machine
The distance of the work from the welding machine
Boltage reduction devices $B?=%8
B?=s are a safety enhancement that greatly reduce the risk to welding personnel from exposure to the
potentially hazardous voltages produced by a welding power source. The B?= function is to reduce the voltage
from the electrode to a safe value when the welding machine is not being used.
A system $B?= or alternative% shall be provided to reduce the no-load voltage or open circuit voltage $C3B%, to
a no load voltage of8
a% '*B for A3, or
b% '*B peak, #*B rms for A3 circuits, or
c% less when the resistance of the output circuit exceeds #11 Chms. 2ote
$i% Alternative systems may include triggers, switches and open circuit safety switch being operated when
changing electrodes.
$ii% 5&s and T& machines reduce the voltage to zero when the trigger is not operated.
?esponse time for B?=8 the turn off time $reaction time% for the B?= to reduce the voltage to the low voltage
state after the circuit resistance reaches or exceeds #11 Chms shall be less than '11 ms.
"...00 !afety precautions for engine powered welders
Always operate in an open well-ventilated area or vent the engine exhaust directly outdoors.
2ever fuel the engine while running or in the presence of an open flame.
(ipe up spilled fuel immediately and wait for fumes to disperse before starting the engine.
2ever remove the radiator pressure cap from liquid cooled engines while they are hot to prevent scalding
yourself.
!top the engine before performing any maintenance or troubleshooting. The ignition system should be disabled
to prevent accidental start of the engine.
Keep all guards and shields in place
Keep hands, hair, and clothing away from moving parts
"...0# Cther risks
Cther risks associated with any other industrial activity are also present in pipeline construction, even the more
unexpected ones such as falls. 3are must be taken in all the aspects and hazards in order to control them and
avoid accidents.
9.9 1ngineering stages (or pipeline welding
This section describes the engineering stages that need to be accomplished and approved before field welding
activities can commence.
".".0 ?eview of pro7ect specifications
>ased on the pro7ect design criteria, subsequent parent material selection and regulations governing the pro7ect,
the welding methods and processes are reviewed and evaluated to determine the best application and production
welding methodology. 3riteria for acceptance of girth weld discontinuities are set at this stage and usually
depend on the criticality of the in-service pipeline. 3riteria may be based on achievable standards of good
workmanship, general fitness for service criteria or an engineering critical assessment.
".".# !election of welding and 2=T methodology
,or the selection of the welding method the quality $mechanical properties and 2=T contingency% and quantity
$production rate% are the two ma7or criteria that have to be taken into account. !ection ".*.0 shows a table with
more detailed selection criteria.
3riteria that are evaluated areE
<ipe base material certificate
/nvironmental conditions
(elding consumable certificate
".".' (elding procedures qualification $(<;%
(elding qualifications are carried out to demonstrate the integrity of the weld system, weld parameters $such as
heat input%, and mechanical performance for both the parent material and the weld material. (eld qualifications
are governed by industry specifications such as =2B, A<&, A!, >! or &!C with frequent supplementation from
the owning company6s specific requirements.
2ormally several welds are made using the proposed welding technique. The weld parameters are optimized to
ensure quality and repeatability. The qualification welds are inspected by the required 2=T method according
to the applicable standard. (hen the quality is demonstrated $acceptable welding% the welds are sent to the
destructive testing laboratory.
(hen mechanical testing is completed and the required mechanical properties are met, the procedure
qualification record $<;?% is approved. This documentation is signed off on by both the contractor, and the
owning company and the qualified welding procedure specification $(<!% can be issued for construction. The
design and preparation of a 7oint for production welding is also an important engineering stage and should be
carefully optimized during the welding procedure qualification. 5ost pipeline welding documents require that
the qualification tests closely resemble production conditions.
There are five basic steps in the qualification of a welding procedure8
<reparation and welding of suitable samples
Testing of representative specimens
/valuation of overall preparation, welding, testing, and end results
<ossible changes in procedure
Approval
".".) (elder and welding operators approval and testing
After the (<! of the welding methods@processes has been approved for pipeline construction, welder@operator
training will be started. After the training has been completed, the welder @ operator has to demonstrate the
ability to produce acceptable weld$s% in compliance with the (<!. (elder, welding operator, and tack welder
qualification tests are used to demonstrate the ability of those tested to produce acceptably sound welds using a
qualified welding procedure specification. These tests are not intended to be used as a guide for welding during
actual construction, but rather to assess whether an individual has a certain minimum skill level. The welder
performance is documented in a welder performance qualification record $(<;?%.
9.1< "ainline construction stages
The next subsections describe the different stages of the preparation, welding and controlling activities during
field construction.
,ig. )*8 5ainline construction stages
!urveying and clearing right of way
Trenching and excavation
!tringing pipe along the right-of-way
<ipe bending equipment
<ipe facing equipment
Aining up the pipe ends
(elding the pipe 7oints
(eld inspection
,ield 7oint coating
<ipe protection
>uoyancy control products
Aowering in
<adding and backfill
3leanup and restoration
".01.0 <ipe end inspection
>elow is a summary of requirements and@or recommendations that control the quality of pipe ends and pipe end
surfaces8
<ipe and pipe-end surfaces must be smooth, uniform and free of laminations, tears, scale slag, grease and paint
that might adversely affect the welding.
,usion faces on pipes and ad7acent material must be free from fins, planar flaws, scale, rust, paint or grease
prior to welding.
After completion of circumferential weld, prior to DT testing, a compression wave test of the parent metal
material must be performed, on both sides of the weld, minimum distance 0.#*x the longest surface skip
distance.
The parent metal, in the scanning zone surface, must be examined with straight beam probes, prior to or after
welding, unless it can be demonstrated $by the pipe mill% that the angle probe testing of the weld is not
influenced by the presence of imperfections or high attenuation.
/xamination of the pipe ends for the presence of laminations should be performed after a significant length of
pipe has been removed
&n modern pipe mills, the pipe ends already undergo various non-destructive tests to ensure sound parent
material $see detailed descriptions of techniques used in section 01.* 92=T at the material supplier and vendor
inspection:%. &n most cases, the parent metal inspection is waived in lieu of the lamination checks that are
performed at the pipe mill.
".01.# <ipe end preparation
The pipe end preparation area should be kept neat and clean. (aste material should be avoided by placing a
metal tray under the pipe being cut, following best practices and waste policy.
<ipe ends needs to be machined by a pipe facing machine $<,5% with the same bevel design performed during
the qualification of the welding procedure specification $(<!%. /ach bevel is checked for dimensional
conformance at four to six locations evenly spaced around the pipe circumference. 3orrect and accurate bevel
profile preparations are essential for the production of sound, defect-free welds. The importance of this step
cannot be over-emphasized.
".01.#.0 !tandard bevel design $B-prep% for manual welding
roove welds are the most used 7oint design for butt 7oints in pipe welding. There are various types of groove
preparations for butt 7oints for !5A(. roove welds should be designed so that complete penetration is
possible with the least amount of welding. (elds must extend completely through the cross-section of the pipe
being 7oined. Also, complete fusion without slag entrapment, excessive porosity, or cracking must be obtained
for a satisfactory weld. The most extensively-used bevel design is single B-+1R. (hen the pipe wall thickness is
over '@) inches $0" mm%, a compound bevel design is recommended for reducing the amount of filler metal.
Fowever, for this range of thicknesses, semiautomatic, mechanized or automatic welding should be considered.
The root opening $?% is the separation between the members to be 7oined. A root opening is used for electrode
accessibility to the base or root of the 7oint. The smaller the angle of the bevel, the larger the root opening must
be obtain good fusion at the root.
&f the root opening is too small, root fusion is more difficult to obtain and smaller electrodes must be used, thus
slowing down the welding process. &f the root opening is too large, weld quality does not suffer but metal is
requiredE this increases welding cost and will tend to increase distortion. >ackup strips are used on large root
openings.
?oot opening and 7oint design will directly affect weld cost $kilograms of metal required%, and a choice should
be made with this in mind. Goint preparation involves the work required on pipe edges and includes beveling
and preparing the root face.
Dsing a compound bevel, in preference to a single-groove, cuts in half the amount of welding. This reduces
distortion and makes it possible to alternate the weld passes on each side of the 7oint, again reducing distortion.
,ig. )+8 Typical preparation for cellulosic !5A(
".01.#.# 2arrow gap welding design
,or pipes with thicker walls $above 0"mm%, generally semi-automatic, mechanized or automatic welding is used
and compound or G bevel reduces the amount of welding material as shown below8
,ig. )-8 Typical bevels designs used for ,3A( for heavy wall pipes
".01.' <re-heat
>efore the first weld pass is made, the weld 7oint is pre-heated. The minimum pre-heat temperature shall be in
compliance with the specified minimum temperature in the applicable welding procedure specification $(<!%.
Additionally, the interpass temperature is generally controlled between a minimum $typically equal to the
minimum preheat temperature% and a maximum level which is a function of the metallurgy and required
mechanical properties. The interpass temperature is checked prior to starting each weld pass.
".01.) Aining up the pipe ends
The next pipe section is lifted by the front end side boom and transported to the mainline. Aine up is performed
by the front end foreman, the side boom driver and some helpers. (hen the next pipe is aligned with the
mainline, an internal line up clamp $&AD3 diameter X+:% is used to maintain the alignment of both pipe ends.
".01.* 5anual welding
".01.*.0 ?oot pass welding using !5A(
Cne of the most extensively-used welding processes in a cross-country pipeline, used to deposit the root pass, is
shielded metal arc welding $!5A(%. =epending on the 7oint configuration and other welding variables, the
welding consumables that typically are used are the following8
5anual /JJ01 $e.g., /+101% cellulose electrode, vertical-down progression. This is the traditional and most
popular method and offers the fastest welding speeds $ranging from #*-)1 cm@minutes%. 3ellulosic electrodes
may also be used vertical-up with slower travel speeds to handle greater variations in 7oint fit-up scenarios, such
as a tiein.
5anual /JJ0+ or /JJ0. $/-10+ or /.10.% basic low-hydrogen electrode, either vertical-up or vertical down
progression. (hile travel speeds in both case is slower than cellulosic electrode, this is the only option for
welding a manual low-hydrogen root pass.
3ellulosic electrodes can also be used in vertical-up progression in the case fit-up is very poor.
Fowever, there are two main drawbacks8
&t leaves deep undercut grooves along the edges of the weld face, commonly referred to as wagon tracks
&t is usually necessary to expose these wagon tracks so they can be consumed by the next weld pass N the 9hot:
pass. This is done by removing the weld crown by grinding.
Thus, using cellulosic electrodes requires extra time after welding the root pass to remove part of the weld and
then replace with new weld metal. Also, cellulosic electrodes produce weld metal with relatively high levels of
weld diffusible hydrogen, rendering it crack sensitive when used on higher strength pipe grades.
A low hydrogen manual root pass produces welds with a flat face $no wagon tracks% and less weld
reinforcement on the inside of the pipe than with cellulosic electrodes. &t produces a thick, crackresistant low
hydrogen root weld. Fowever, with basic electrode in vertical- down progression the 7oint geometry is different
from that of cellulosic. (ider gap and smaller root shall be used in order to compensate the less forceful arc. &f
the bevel geometry is not changed, then the production may slow down.
(hen comparing !5A( welding consumables for root pass, high-cellulose electrodes offer superior welding
speeds. This is the main reason for the predominant use of high-cellulose electrodes. Fowever, the weld metal
of high-cellulose electrodes contains higher amounts of diffusible hydrogen than that of low-hydrogen
electrodes.
".01.*.# (elding techniques using !5A(
A number of factors will determine how many welders will be needed to weld the root pass. &n any case, it is
best to have welders either $0% weld opposite one another or $#% evenly spaced around the pipe. (hen the pipe
diameter is larger than )+: three welders may be used, but one of the welders should be ambidextrous. This will
minimize the amount of distortion in the pipe and prevent the gap from opening or closing. &f possible, it is also
desirable not to finish a weld in exactly the bottom of the pipe because the tie-in can be more difficult.
!imilarly, it is best to avoid starting at exactly the top of the pipe $0# o6clock position%.
As a rule of thumb, for a *@'#: $).1mm% cellulosic electrode, the welding time for one electrode should be
approximately one minute and the length of weld should be approximately the same as the length of electrode
consumed. This would produce a travel speed of approximately '11 mm@min $0# in@ min%, but this is extremely
sensitive to 7oint preparation and exact welding conditions.
The root pass is welded with a 9drag: technique. The tip of the electrode is held in contact with both pipes and
dragged around the circumference of the pipe, progressing vertically down. The electrode initially should be
held roughly perpendicular to the pipe. &f there is a proper fit-up and the proper current is used, a small
9keyhole: will be seen following behind the electrode. &f the keyhole is not seen, the electrode is not penetrating
through to the inside of the pipe. The remedies for this would be8
Figher current.
Apply more pressure on the electrode which lowers voltage and yields a colder puddle $depending on the type
of welding machine%.
Dse a push angle $although this is not always advisable%.
!lower travel speed.
&f the keyhole becomes too large and difficult to control, the remedies would be8
Aower the current.
Travel faster until the size of the keyhole decreases.
Dse more of a drag angle while using faster travel speed until the keyhole becomes more manageable.
Apply less pressure on the electrode which creates a bigger keyhole
&f it is necessary to interrupt the arc before the run is ended, the tip of the electrode must be rapidly snapped
down. This prevents slag inclusion in the weld pool. ?emove the slag from the crater and from the last *1 mm
of the weld. The restart should be made starting on the weld metal approximately 0# mm before the crater and
moving towards it with an arc length slightly above normal. Then push the electrode to the bottom of the 7oint
to fill the crater and continue welding in the normal manner.
".01.*.' Fot pass using !5A(
Cn one hand the main purpose of the root pass is to bring a fast first metal backing, and when using high
cellulosic !5A( welding, the weld is usually very thin $0.*- # mm in thickness%. Cn other hand, in order to
increase productivity fill passes are performed by using a high energy welding technique $high current, high
deposition rate%. Therefore, if the metal backing deposited by the root pass is too thin, then burn-through will
occur. 3onsequently, the main ob7ective of the hot pass is to bring a thicker metal backing for the high energy
stage of fill.
Another ob7ective of the hot pass is that after the root pass is welded by using high cellulosic !5A(
consumable type, the root bead is generally very convex on the exterior of the pipe. The normal procedure is to
grind the root pass to eliminate the excessive convexity. 2ormally, the entire weld is not ground out, rather only
enough to expose 9wagon tracks:. These are lines of slag that are on either side of the built up convex region.
Then, another purpose of the hot pass is to burn out the 9wagon tracks:. &deally, this is achieved leaving the
7oint free of undercut and some filling of the 7oint is also accomplished. To do this, a high current is normally
used.
The hot pass should be started as soon as possible after completely finishing the root pass. Too long a delay
may cause cracks in the root pass. The time between root pass and hot pass is a very important variable when
using high cellulosic electrodes. ,or that reason, many pipeline constructions standards and codes consider it an
essential welding variable.
&n the case that the root pass is deposited by 5A(-<$or other technique that assures a thick metal backing
without excessive convexity%, then hot pass is not necessary and the fill stage can start over the root pass.
,ig. ).8 Figh cellulosic root pass in as weld condition. 2otice the high convexity and the typical Owagon tracksO
The most extensive technique used for hot pass is high cellulosic !5A( $/JJ01%. &n some cases, the hot pass
may be performed using the same technique used for fill. &n this case a highly-skilled welder is required because
the probability of burn-through is high due to the high energy welding technique typically used for fill.
Dsually *@'#: $).1mm% cellulosic electrodes are normally used. Typically a current of 0+1 - #11 amps is used
with electrodes, but note that if using higher current values, the electrode can overheat. Aarger $'@0+: diameter%
electrodes can also be used, with currents around 0.1 amps. Fowever, larger electrodes have a tendency to fill
rather than dig.
5aintain an arc length equal to the electrode diameter. =o not increase the arc length during movement. &f the
arc is interrupted before the bead is complete, remove the slag from the crater, restart the arc starting on the
bottom bead, approximately 0# mm in front of the second bead and move back up to the crater.
5ake sure that you have filled the crater, then restart welding as indicated previously. 3arry out the second half
of the run with the same procedure. &t should be noted that the 9pulling: technique with which the root bead is
laid causes an incomplete fusion and slag inclusion 9tramlines:% at the seam edges. =ue to the higher current
used, the second or 9hot: pass does not transfer much metal to the 7oint, but its greater heat frees the slag and
completes the fusion between the weld edges and the base metal.
,ig. )"8 !tarting the arc in hot pass
".01.*.) ,ill and cap
The main ob7ective of fill is to complete the type 7oint, until the weld metal thickness almost equals the pipe
thickness, while the purpose of the cap passes is to reinforce the 7oint and create a smooth finishing 7oint
surface.
To carry out the filling passes, the starting position and trailing angles of the electrode are the same as indicated
for the root and hot passes, but electrodes of *.1 mm diameter with current set at 0*1-0.1A must be used. Dse a
swinging movement, maintaining an arc length equal to the electrode diameter $,igure *1%. <ause with the tip of
the electrode on the edge of the previous bead. 5ove towards the opposite edge, descending by half the
electrode diameter.
&f it is necessary to restart the arc, use the same procedure as indicated for the hot pass. After having welded the
second half of the 7oint, completely remove the slag.
To fill the 7oint up to 1.. mm from the external pipe surface it may be necessary to deposit additional passes on
the whole circumference $,igure *0%. These beads should generally add a 0.+ mm thick layer. Dse the same
techniques indicated for the previous passes. Cften, after having made all these layers, the 7oint is thicker in the
upper and lower zone than in the side zones of the pipe, making it necessary to fill it evenly before making the
cap $,igure *#%. &n this case stripper beads are laid with the same techniques illustrated previously.
,ig. *18 !winging technique used for fill passes
,ig. *08 3ompletion level for fill passes.
,ig. *#8 Aeveling beads
The technique used for the cap pass is the same as indicated for the penultimate bead, but the swinging
movement must be wider. A 9S: or 9half moon: weaving technique may be used $,igure *'%. =well with the tip
of the electrode on the edges of the previous bead. Advance at a speed that makes it possible to obtain a 1.. to
0.+ mm thick reinforcement and an overlap of approximately 0.+mm at the edges $,igure *)%.
,ig. *'8 OFalf moonO weaving technique.
,ig. *)8 3ap pass. Typical dimensions
".01.+ !emi-automatic welding
This section presents a brief introduction of the use in cross country pipeline construction of semiautomatic
welding processes, which include 5A(, 5A(-< and ,3A(.
".01.+.0 ?oot pass with semi-automatic welding
5A( is used for root pass when using no backing. ,3A( can be used in the root pass only when using
copper backing. !ince this pass needs low and very controlled energy, 5A( globular and spraymetal transfer
mode are not used. Although regular short circuit transfer mode provides low energy, it is not used in
semiautomatic welding, but is emulated by pulsing the current $5A(-<%.
(ith 5A(-< and the advance in power supply technology, there are two additional metal transfer modes
available8 pulsed short circuit and pulsed spray. &n both cases, the current is not constant in time and its
variation can be represented by a wave with low and high levels $pulses%. This wave signature will have direct
effect on the metal transfer phenomenon and its custom design can give precise control over the weld
deposition, heat transfer and other variables.
<ulsed short-circuit mode is used in pipeline construction for root pass deposition. &t brings a faster and thicker
root pass compared to !5A(. <ulsed spray transfer mode is associated with high deposition rates and good
balance of the heat transfer which has a positive effect on mechanical and toughness properties. ,or that reason,
it used in mechanized welding for fill and cap passes.
The 7oint design used in 5A(-< in root pass is similar to !5A(. The root opening can vary in the range of
0.*-) mm, and the land can be 1-' mm. This welding process has shown be very robust to overcome pipe fit-up
problems. /ven with important misalignment $hi-lo% or irregular gaps, this process can perform a sound root
pass.
,ig. **8 5A( typical preparation for root pass
".01.+.# ,ill and cap using semi-automatic welding
The welding processes that are typically used for fill and cap are ,3A(-! and ,3A(-!!. These
semiautomatic welding processes lead to higher productivity than 5A(. !ince ,3A( and 5A( are very
similar in terms of equipment and logistics, ,3A( is the choice of most contractors $particularly when welding
heavy wall pipes%.
,3A(-! in particular tends to be the most productive of the semiautomatic welding processes. (hen it is
combined with 5A(-< in the root pass, ,3A(-! can duplicate the productivity of manual welding.
Fowever, this welding process is very sensitive to wind and requires the use of tents or shacks. &t is very prone
to create porosity if the wind protection is inadequate.
The bevel design has an important influence on productivity for pipes thicker than 0-mm. 3ompound or G bevel
can diminish the total volume to fill. 3onsequently, the total time to complete a 7oint can be quite low with
respect to that of single B +1R. <roductivity can be improved even further when semi-automatic welding is used.
&n that case the saving time can be up to '* minutes when using 5A(-<@,3A(-!. The saving is based not
only on higher deposition rates but also on less dead time. !5A( is associated with low efficiency due to the
need to stop and change electrode, grinding, etc. All those unproductive times are increased even further in the
case of single B-+1R bevel.
".01.+.' (elding technique using semi-automatic welding
5A( and ,3A(-! are typically welded in up-hill progression, while ,3A(-!! is used downhill. The
oscillation technique can vary in terms of pattern, but in any case it is important to limit oscillation. <articularly
in the case of ,3A(-!! excessive oscillation can increase the chances of having porosity. The maximum width
of any weld bead shall not exceed 0# mm $0@#:%. >eyond that oscillation, multiple beads should be used. Torch
oscillation also is important in terms of shielding and heat distribution. The maximum tilt angle shall not exceed
+1R.
All the concepts explained in the manual welding section regarding re-starting technique, levelling bead and
capping technique are applicable for semiautomatic welding.
".01.- Automatic and mechanized welding
".01.-.0 &ntroduction
The generic terms automatic and@or mechanized welding are used around the world with different meanings.
Fere, we propose definitions applicable for the purpose of this document to help readers identify some key
differences, enabling them to further develop their knowledge when speaking with specialists.
enerally the welding head, or 9bug:, will not complete a '+1R circumference but 0.1R or less, depending on
the total number of welding bugs used. The same scenario is replicated on either side on the pipe at each
welding station.
The basis of mechanized welding is setting a torch of a semi-automatic system on a carriage $bug%E which will
turn around the pipe along its guiding band. &n this case the welding system will produce effects including, but
not limited to, translational motion, oscillation, metal feeding, arc distance setting, etc. =uring welding, the
operator can ad7ust some of the welding parameters as needed. The typical application is ,3A( uphill.
Automatic welding is a term that refers to any welding system in which the operator has almost no control on
the weld operation, other than the start and stop. All the welding operational control is performed by the system.
They are basically a more controlled system than the mechanized ones. Their typical application is solid wire
downhill.
As computing and welding technology have evolved over the past century, so has the level of automation.
5echanized and automatic welding for pipeline construction has been available for more than )1 years. The
first systems were tested onshore and naturally found their way into the offshore market in the early 0"-1s. The
evolution of this technology has mirrored the computing revolution and technology advances in welding power
supplies and electrodes.
?equirements in pipeline design and the micro-alloying of pipeline steels have increased the potential for
mechanized@automatic welding. 3onsistent heat inputs and superior mechanical performance are drivers for the
high performance welds required in today6s construction environment. ,inancial drivers such as increased
production rates and the ability of operators to be trained to make high quality welds in short time periods
continue to make automation attractive. (orldwide resurgence in the pipeline market to fuel the energy needs
of both developed and developing countries have led to a rapid growth of mechanized welding in recent years.
".01.-.# The systems and the main components
The main focus of a system is to assist the operator and make them more efficient. 5echanization also
decreases the physical strain during welding and increases the productivity. !everal welding variables are
mechanized and automated to ensure consistency of the welds produced. As technology improves so do the
capabilities of the systems.
>ug and band welding systems are typically engineered with the following components8
uiding band or travel guide
A chassis $also known as a carriage, or bug% to mount to the guiding band and hold the required components
5otor and wheels for travelling
5otor$s% for manipulating the weld torch $oscillation and stick out control%
3omputer control board$s%
(elding power supply with interface module
(ire feed unit$s% with interface module
!hielding gas $if required%
rounding
".01.-.' 3ontrol variables
The level of automation depends on the welding system that is selected for the specific application. The
components are designed to work together to control travel speed, the electrode feed rate, torch angle, contact
tip to work distance, oscillation rate, oscillation width and centering of the torch in the bevel. The sensing and
computing monitor make ad7ustments to the electrical characteristics through the welding power supply.
The variables described above are interlinked in the systems and they help ensure consistency of the welds
produced. =epending on the type of system used, operators will have some control of the variables within the
specified limits as allowed by the approved welding procedure specification $(<!%.
".01.-.) Automation level
The decision on how to select whether mechanization or automation is right for each specific pipeline pro7ect,
and sections of itE depends on several variables. Typically these variables are driven by either technical
requirements or financial reasons. >elow is a list of some of the variables to consider when investigating
whether the use of mechanized welding is 7ustifiable.
Aength of the pipeline
<ipe chemistry
3ondition of the terrain the pipeline will cross
2=T techniques
!ervice environment of the pipeline $F#! and 3C# content, operating temperature and pressure%
(all thickness of the pipeline
!kill set of the workforce
!ervice condition of the pipeline $fatigue and critical zones%
?efer also to section ".*.#
".01.-.* (elding processes
=uring the 0"-1s and 0".1s, semi-mechanized gas metal arc welding $5A(% proliferated with the advances
in power supply technology. The process became well-established and proved more reliable. The development
of this reliable and stable weld process brought the mechanized and automatic welding systems to a new
technical level. (ith the evolution in computer technology it is now possible to control the welding arc digitally
in real time. Analogue welding controls are still in use today but the new systems emphasise $thanks to reliable
new digital electronics% high level ;A@;3 control and weld parameter monitoring. These developments make it
possible to build machines that are much closer to achieving full automation.
The welding processes that are used for mechanized and automatic girth butt welding are8
as metal arc welding $5A(% T typically in short arc mode or 9dip transfer:
5odified short arc 5A( T used to run root passes without either back up support or cross penetration
<ulsed gas metal arc welding $5A(-<%
,lux cored arc welding $,3A(%
!elfshielded flux cored arc welding $,3A(-!%
5etal cored arc welding $53A(%
as tungsten arc welding $TA(%
!ubmerged arc welding $!A(% in the case of double 7ointing only
The most common used welding techniques are 5A(, <-5A( and ,3A(.
".01.-.+ Crbital motion mechanism
There are a variety of mechanisms that provide the orbital motion of the system8 chain, flat band, gear band, etc.
3hain mechanism uses a chain around the pipe and the tension is used to fix the bug and make it move. The
advantage of this system is that the chain is part of the system itself and it does not need any work prior to
welding. &n contrast, flat and gear bands need to be set in place before the welding bag arrives at the 7oint.
Dsually, in a typical pro7ect using mechanized welding for fill and cap, several bands are needed. They are set
in place in advance in the 7oints to be welded. After welding is completed, they are removed and move ahead of
the welding crew to be set in place in new 7oints. ,lat bands are usually also used for ADT systems. Then, the
same band is used to weld and to inspect the 7oint.
".01.-. 5echanized welding
The basis of mechanized welding is setting a torch of a semi-automatic system on a welding bug and the typical
application is ,3A( uphill. Typically this process is using a single torch per bug.
The root pass is generally performed from the outside with no back support and a gap, 7ust like on a typical stick
rod or semi-automatic weld. This root pass can be 9mechanized: but is quite often welded using a manual stick
rod $!5A(% or semi-automatic $manual with a gun% modified short arc 5A( using either solid or metal core
wire or manual TA(.
;uite often as well, a second pass, or even a third pass is performed using one of the above processes to create a
strong enough support for the more powerful mechanized welding process to be applied on a sound and solid
foundation.
,or the remaining filling and capping, which are usually the 9mechanized passes: the most used welding
processes are ,3A(-!E therefore consumables are the flux cored wires, typically with gas, but selfshielded
wires are also used $,3A(-!!%.
Typically these types of welding system are simple and robust. The automation level is low. Travelling and
oscillation are usually automatic. The rest of welding parameters are manually controlled by the operator.
".01.-.- Automatic welding
The basic idea is to further integrate together the welding and carriage systems to optimize the welding arc
properties, the quality and the productivity.
!ingle or multiple torches can be set on each single welding bug and single or multiple wires can be fed through
each single torch.
Cne of the main reasons to use automatic welding is to achieve high production rates and high quality welds. To
reach that goal narrow-groove bevel designs are used. The design of the bevel reduces the weld volume which
reduces the arc time.
Therefore, with automatic welding, the bevel must be re-machined on site therefore a pipe facing machine
$<,5% will be required.
".01.-.-.0 The root pass and the hot pass
The achievable production rate for pipeline welding is based on the speed of root pass welding $first station%.
<roduction can only move forward when the root pass and the hot pass are completed and focus on optimizing
the cycle time in station 0 is critical. ,or root pass welding the following technologies can be used8
5echanized root pass welding $external deposition%
3opper back-up root pass welding $external deposition%
&nternal root pass welding $internal deposition%
A. 5echanized external root pass welding
?ecent technology based on hybrid short arc and pulsed waveforms have allowed for more control in the way
metal is transferred from the electrode into the molten weld pool. This technology was initially intended for
manual welding of the root pass in an open gap scenario and has now been automated to provide advantages.
The pipe is first lined-up with a standard internal line-up clamp $see ,igure *+%. The bevel types used for this
method are usually a standard B-bevel or a G->evel. (hen welding a standard B-bevel a root gap of #-)mm is
usually to be applied. The opening depends on the selected weld technique. The G-bevel can be welded with or
without a gap. &n an open gap scenario the arc must be initiated on the side wall of the bevel and brought into
the gap area. ,or closed roots the arc is started in the weld 7oint at the faying interface.
An advantage of using a standard B-bevel is that it is not necessary to re-bevel the pipe ends. A disadvantage is
a much lower weld speed compared to other root pass weld methods.
>. 3opper back-up root pass welding
The copper backing shoes are mounted on an internal line-up clamp. The backing shoes are applied to support
the weld puddle and allow it to quench without adherence to the surface. !everal systems use this method of
root pass deposition. The backing ring allows high arc energy in order to achieve higher welding speeds $up to
0*1 cm@min%. The applied bevel type is normally a G-bevel with a closed root gap.
The advantage of using copper backing clamps is the increase of the weld speed over open root procedures. A
disadvantage is that in case of excessive misalignment of the pipe-ends copper pick-up can occur if the welding
procedure is not followed.
Aine-up clamps with copper backing are available for pipe diameters of ): and greater.
,ig. *+8 &nternal lineup clamp with copper backing shoes
3. &nternal ?oot <ass (elding
The internal welding machine was first debuted in 0"+". This machine has three functions8
Aine up
3lamping and holding the weld 7oint together
=epositing the root pass internally
The internal welder is a line-up clamp equipped with multiple welding heads to deposit the root pass. This
automated innovation was a ma7or step in increasing the weld speeds for root pass welding. >y using multiple
heads simultaneously, an effective 7oining speed approaching # m@min can be achieved. This industry
benchmark explains why newer welding processes have found it so hard to gain acceptance. An advantage of
the internal welder is the highest root weld speed in the industry. A disadvantage is the size limitation as it is
only for pipes with a diameter of #): $+1",) mm% and greater. The weight may limit the maximum slope in
which the system can move itself.
,ig. *-8 &nternal welder with multiple weld heads
".01.-.-.# ,illing and capping passes with automatic welding
5ost commonly the filling and capping passes are completed using either solid or metal core wire going
downhill.
The welding processes used are either 5A( T pulsed or dip transfer $short arc%. The capping can be
performed in 0 single wide pass or in # thinner passes deposited during the same run with a double torch bug.
!hort circuit is typically used for the second pass $hot pass%. This pass has to provide extra metal thickness to
the root pass in order to form a metal backing strong enough to resist the high energy fill passes. Then this pass
is made typically using a fast low energy welding arc. The welding systems for this application are typically
simple and robust. The level of automation is low. Aittle $or no% oscillation is used and the operator controls the
torch position only in order to keep it centred.
,or fill and cap spray or globular transfer modes are used. !ome welding systems use pulsed arcs, which
provide a good balance among productivity, mechanical and impact properties. &n order to increase productivity
some welding systems include multiple torches in the bug or multiple arcs in each torch $twin arc%.
The automation level can be high. !ome welding systems offer some features such as arc length control,
electrical and laser tracking. (elding parameters such as current or wire feed are automatically controlled as a
function of the welding position. Tilting sensors inside the bug provide a precise measuring of the actual
position of the bug.
".01.-.. Advantages @ disadvantages
5echanized @ automatic welding offers the following advantages as compared to manual @ semiautomatic
welding8
The training time of the welders is quite short and in a few days they will be able to produce high quality welds.
The welding productivity is higher and fewer welders are required.
(elding quality is higher. 5echanical and impact properties are generally better
5echanical properties of the produced 7oint can be very high, as flux cored wires can be chemically tailored to
suit the purpose.
(ith the use of a narrow groove, the volume of filler material is lower.
The disadvantages are8
/quipment cost is higher.
5obilization is more expensive.
5ore specialized maintenance personnel is required.
".01.. (eld finish
(hen the welding is finished, the weld needs to be cleaned, and spatter on the outer surface removed, as it may
interfere with the 2=T process.
".01." 2=T
The final stage of welding activities is the non-destructive testing $2=T% to identify whether the weld quality is
in accordance with the acceptance criteria. The 2=T inspection crew should remain as close as possible behind
the mainline welding crew.
9.11 9ew welding technologies

".00.0 (elding technologies of today
The different factors that are taken into consideration to select a particular welding technique to be used in a
cross-country pipeline construction pro7ect are described in section ".* 9(elding methods and processes:.
5eanwhile, the latest trends and requirements, already implemented on offshore pro7ects, are gradually being
introduced to the landline market8
Figh quality welds8 the ability to ensure weld integrity in all types of welding environmentsE improved quality
leads to lower repair rates and higher productivityE
Figh productivity8 the ability to weld quickly, with minimal operational requirements, and thus, costs.
Bersatility8 the ability to weld a large range of materials $carbon steels, corrosionresistant alloys% with different
pipeline dimensions, in different positions and on pipes sub7ect to varying levels of criticality $steel catenary
risers@fatigue-sensitive lines, offshore offloading lines%.
?eliability8 the high complexity of off-shore pipe lay operations requires that all welding equipment used
should be as reliable as possible to prevent extra costsE
3ustomized solutions8 the ability to deliver operational support and expertise in the accomplishment of seamless
pro7ects.
".00.# Technologies of tomorrow
/nhanced weld quality, improved spread efficiency of equipment and productivity, risk-mitigation based on off-
shore pro7ect processes are the different factors that have all contributed to successful accomplishment of
pro7ects at a global level. Fence, most research is centered on solid-state welding processes8
Cff-shore-driven technology developments in pipeline welding are based on increasingly stringent weld quality
requirements for given operational constraints and pipeline design.
Cff-shore innovations or pro7ect service models made to suit the more unpredictable on-shore pipeline
construction market, adapting highly technical and state-of-the-art welding equipment, solutions and pro7ect
management, while overcoming the challenges created by onshore pipeline construction, such as8
- control of linear welding energy capabilities
- fracture mechanics
- pipe end measurements
- pipe sorting
- pipe counter boring
- pipe high grade
- out of roundness clamps
Tomorrow6s welding process must be compatible and meet the following requirements
strain based design
high strength material
increased exposure to sour service conditions
corrosion
tight acceptance criteria
stringent health, safety and environment $F!/% trends
".00.#.0 Fybrid laser $FAA(%
Fybrid laser 5A( welding is an automated, high performance welding process which results in a very
narrow heat-affected zone $FAS% with deep penetration and high travel speeds compared to more traditional
processes. This breakthrough approach combines the highly focussed intensity of a laser with the 7oint filling
capability of the traditional 5& process.
>y combining the two processes, hybrid laser welding provides a unique opportunity for thicker welds with less
filler metal or higher travel speeds than typical welding, depending on the material thickness. An added benefit
is that weld pool stability is greatly improved.
The hybrid laser presents a potential interest in terms of mechanical performance, and also productivity and
quality. Feat input is close to the minimum required to fuse the weld metal. Feat induced distortion of the work
piece and metallurgical effects in the heat-affected zone are minimized. /lectrodes are not normally required to
conduct current to the work piece, thereby eliminating electrode contamination, indentation, or damage from
high currents used in other welding processes. Fowever, start and stop problems are still an issue and must be
resolved before this technology can be implemented in the field as well as finding ways of reducing the high
expense of the equipment involved, that will hinder its development. ,urthermore, 7oints must be accurately
positioned laterally under the laser beam and at a controlled position with respect to the laser beam focal spot.
Cnce the technical hurdles are overcome, FAA( may find its first use on offshore lay barges or spool bases.
/ventually, it may be an option for an onshore pipeline construction. Fowever, at this point, it remains in the
?4= realm.
".00.#.# ,riction welding
,riction welding is a solid -state process that produces a weld when two or more workpieces, rotating or moving
relative to one another, are brought into contact under pressure to produce heat and plastically displace material
from the weld interface. The two main variations of friction welding are direct drive friction welding $,?(-
==% and inertia friction welding $,?(-&%.
Although friction welding is a solid-state welding process, under certain circumstances a molten film may form
at the weld interface during the heating stage. ,iller metal, flux, and shielding gas are not required with this
process.
Advantages include no filler metal being required for all similar and most dissimilar material 7ointsE
solidification defects and porosity normally are not a concernE and operators are not required to have manual
welding skills. Aimitations include that the alignment of the workpieces may be critical to developing uniform
frictional heat
".00.#.' ,riction !tir (elding
,riction stir welding $,!(% is a variant of friction welding that produces a weld between two $or more% work
pieces by the heating and plastic material displacement caused by a rapidly rotating tool that traverses the weld
7oint. Aike conventional friction welding processes, the ,!( process is solid-state in nature. Fowever, ,!(
differs from friction welding in one important aspect8 in friction welding, the relative motion is between the
work pieces that are held in compression, whereas the relative motion in ,!( is between the work pieces and a
rotating tool.
&n friction stir welding, a cylindrical-shouldered tool, with a profiled threaded@unthreaded probe $nib or pin% is
rotated at a constant speed and fed at a constant traverse rate into the 7oint line between two pieces of sheet or
plate material, which are butted together. The parts have to be clamped rigidly onto a backing bar in a manner
that prevents the abutting 7oint faces from being forced apart. The length of the nib is slightly less than the weld
depth required and the tool shoulder should be in intimate contact with the work surface. The nib is then moved
against the work, or vice versa.
,rictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant welding tool shoulder and nib, and the material of the
work pieces. This heat, along with the heat generated by the mechanical mixing process and the adiabatic heat
within the material, cause the stirred materials to soften without reaching the melting point $hence being known
as a solid-state process%, allowing the traversing of the tool along the weld line in a plasticized tubular shaft of
metal. As the pin is moved in the direction of welding, the leading face of the pin, assisted by a special pin
profile, forces plasticized material to the back of the pin while applying a substantial forging force to
consolidate the weld metal. The welding of the material is facilitated by severe plastic deformation in the solid
state, involving dynamic recrystallization of the base material.
Actually this process is in its preliminary stages on metallic materials. The main disadvantage is the tool6s
limited lifetime, and the main concern is the 7oint6s performance with respect to fracture mechanics and
corrosion. Another limitation is that the 7oint is not self-supporting and must be properly restrained.
Advantages include that ,!( normally is done in a single pass with full penetration and with little or no 7oint
preparation. ,urther minimal distortion occurs during welding, provided proper clamping is used.