SPECIAL FOUNDATION WORKS

Support material




















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Contents:

1. Diaphragm walls
2. Sheet piles walls
3. Ground anchors
4. Reinforced fills
5. Soil nailing
6. Bored piles
7. Displacement piles
8. Micropiling
9. Deep mixing
10. Deep vibration
11. Deep drainage
12. Grouting
13. Jet grouting




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1. DIAPHRAGM WALLS

Glossary

Clamshell (or grab): Excavation tool with two jaws to remove soil, rock or debris from an
excavation by an intermittent operation. Jaws are attached to a steel frame. There are two main
types of clamshells.
mechanical grabs using steel cables to open/close the jaws;
hydraulic grabs using hydraulic circuits to open/close the jaws.

Hydrofraise (or cutter or mill): Excavation tool with rotating wheels fitted with steel picks to
remove soil, rock or debris from an excavation by a continuous operation.

Chisel: Heavy steel tool used to break up obstructions, boulders and hard strata encountered in the
excavation or for socketing into hard soil or rock. There are particular types of chisels used to
rectify an excavation trajectory, to extract stop ends, etc.

Kelly (bar): Shaft, often telescopic, connected between the power drive and the digging tool which
allows deep excavation.

Cable(s): Steel cable(s) suspending the digging tool which allows deep excavation.

Excavation crane: Crane used to handle the excavation tool (clamshell or hydrofraise).

Handling crane: Crane used to handle the reinforcement cages and other equipment.

Water stop: Special flexible element attached longitudinally to a stop end in such a way that half
of the water stop is embedded in concrete in a panel after the concreting and stop end extracting
operations. When constructing the adjacent panel, the other half of the water stop is released and
also becomes embedded in concrete. As a result, the water stop surrounded in concrete at the
contact zone between two panels helps to limit water leakage through this critical surface. Two
water stops can be installed at a same joint if required.

Overlap: The distance of a panel excavation into the material of an adjacent panel to ensure
diaphragm wall continuity when no stop ends are used. The overlapping technique (no stop ends) is
always used for hardening slurry walls, often used for plastic concrete walls and sometimes used
for cast-in situ concrete walls where a hydrofraise (mill) can be employed to breakdown hard
concrete at joints.

Filter cake: Thin pastelike deposit formed by bentonite particles aggregating as water drains from
the suspension to the ground through the edge walls of the excavation during its progress. This
filter cake allows the bentonite suspension pressure to be maintained above the ground water
pressure such that the excavation edge walls remain stable.

Cutting back: Removal of surplus concrete (protrusions, etc) and bentonite cake when exposing
the diaphragm wall panels.

Trimming: Removal of surplus concrete above the cut-off level

Capping beam: Reinforced concrete beam built above the cut-off level to connect the cast-in situ
diaphragm wall panels together and/or to connect to overlying structural elements.

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Air lift: Pumping technique in which air is pumped into the base of a suction pipe to cause reduced
density of material in the pipe and induce upward flow to evacuate solids and fluids (flushing). The
air lift technique may be used to clean/replace the bentonite suspension before concreting.

Pre-blasting: Preliminary operation consisting in drilling holes along the alignment of a diaphragm
wall to place explosives in very hard material and blast it before commencing the diaphragm wall
excavation.

Lean concrete: Very low strength, low fines concrete poured in a panel excavation to stop
bentonite loss, to fill voids or to fill panel excavation deviation. The characteristics of the lean
concrete should allow its re-excavation with normal tools.

Concreting curve: Diagram representing the volume of poured concrete versus depth.

Excavation curve: Diagram representing the excavation depth versus time.

Desanding unit: Plant to remove sand and silt in order to clean the support fluid during excavation
and before concreting.


Specific materials and products used for the execution of diaphragm walls

Bentonite

Bentonite is a clay containing mainly the mineral montmorillonite.
Bentonite is used in support fluids, either as a bentonite suspension or as an addition to polymers. It
is also used as a constituent part of hardening slurries and of plastic concrete.
Bentonite can contain additives (i.e. polymers) in aqueous suspension.

Bentonite used in bentonite suspensions shall not contain harmful constituents in such quantities as
can be detrimental to reinforcement or concrete.

Polymers

Polymers can be used as rheological additive to bentonite suspensions with a content of 0,1 1,5
mass % in relation to bentonite dry weight or as sole constituent.

Polymers are materials formed of molecules from chained monomeric units.
There are different types of polymers ranging from natural gums to specially tailored blends of
synthetic products.

Support fluids

Bentonite suspensions

A bentonite suspension shall be prepared with either natural or activated sodium bentonite.
In certain cases, e.g. when the density of the suspension has to be increased, suitable inert materials
may be added.

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Others than in exceptional circumstances, the fresh bentonite suspension shall meet the conditions
shown in Table 1 and the "re-use" or "before-concreting" bentonite suspension shall meet the
conditions shown in Table 2.

At the stage "before concreting", an upper limit value between 4 % and 6 % for sand content may
be used in special cases (e.g.: non load bearing walls, unreinforced walls).

The values in Tables 1 and 2 may be modified in special circumstances, for example in the case of:
soils or rock with high permeability or cavities where loss of bentonite can occur;
high piezometric ground water levels (confined or artesian conditions);
very soft soils;
salt water conditions.

A bentonite suspension with sufficient flow limit can be required by the design, e.g in order to
reduce penetration into the ground.

Table 1 Characteristics for fresh bentonite suspensions



(1) see Table 2 , notes 1 to 3 for the test procedures

Table 2 Characteristics for bentonite suspensions



Notes
(1) The Marsh value, the fluid loss, the sand content and the filter cake can be measured, for
example, using the tests described in the American Petroleum Institute document "Recommended
Practice Standard Procedure for Field Testing Water-Based Drilling Fluids" (reference: American
Petroleum Institute Recommended Practice 13B-1, June 1, 1990).
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(2) The Marsh value is the time required for a volume of 946 ml to flow through the orifice of the
cone. A volume of 1 000 ml may be used, but in this case, the Marsh values given in tables 1 and 2
should be adjusted.
(3) The duration of the fluid loss test may be reduced to 7,5 min. for routine control tests. However,
in this case, the values for fluid loss and filter cake shall be adjusted. The fluid loss for the 7,5 min.
test will be approximately half of the value obtained in the 30 min test.
(4) Indicative values

Polymer solutions

Polymers may be designed to work in conjunction with bentonite or to be used as stand alone
support fluid.

Its use shall be based on full-scale trial trenches on the site or on the basis of comparable
experience in similar geotechnical conditions.

NOTE: EN 1997-1 defines comparable experience as an experience which relates to similar works
in similar conditions and is well documented or otherwise clearly established.

Fresh hardening slurries

The characteristics of the slurry shall be suitable to ensure satisfactory performance during
execution.

A hardening slurry may be prepared with calcium bentonite or activated sodium bentonite.

NOTE 1 Hardening slurries are generally used in the precast concrete diaphragm wall technique
and for slurry walls.
NOTE 2 Hardening slurries serve as support fluid during excavation, and, together with the fines
from the natural ground, form the final, hardened material.

Admixtures may be used to adjust setting time of the slury and its consistency during excavation
and during any subsequent insertion of elements.

Concrete

Unless otherwise stated, the concrete used in cast in situ concrete diaphragm walls or in precast
concrete diaphragm walls shall comply with SR EN 206.

For correct execution, the cast in situ concrete shall be designed to avoid segregation during
placing, to flow easily around the reinforcement, and when set, to provide a dense and low
permeability material.

The specified properties of the hardened cast in situ concrete, related to strength and durability,
shall be compatible with the consistency requirements.

In the case of a maximum aggregate particle size of 32 mm, the concrete mix shall have the
following characteristics:
sand content (d 4 mm) greater than 40 % by weight of the total aggregate ;
fine particles (d 80 m) in the concrete mix (including cement and other fine
materials) between 400 kg/m3 and 550 kg/m3.
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The minimum cement content shall be related to the maximum aggregate size in accordance with
Table 3.

Table 3 Minimum cement content for concrete



The water/cement ratio shall not exceed 0,6.

The admixtures allowed for concreting using tremie pipe(s) may be:
water reducing/plasticizing;
high range water reducing/super-plasticizing; and
set retarding.
Admixtures may be used:
to give a mix of high plasticity;
to avoid bleeding, honeycombing or segregation that might otherwise result from a high
water content ;
to prolong the consistency as required for the duration of the placement ;
to cater for any interruptions in the placement process.

Fresh concrete

Concrete used for diaphragm walls shall:
have a high resistance against segregation ;
be of high plasticity and good cohesiveness ;
have good flow ability ;
have the ability to self-compact ; and
be sufficiently workable for the duration of the placement procedure.
The slump test or the flow table test may be used to evaluate the consistence of the fresh concrete.

The consistence ranges of the fresh concrete in different conditions of use shall comply with Table
4.







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Table 4 Consistency ranges for fresh concrete in different conditions



Consistency of the concrete should be monitored with time. A minimum slump of 100 mm after
four hours is recommended.


Plastic concrete

Plastic concrete shall be designed in order to obtain the required deformability and permeability,
together with adequate workability and strength.

Plastic concrete is used for cut-off walls when, in addition to low permeability, high deformability
is required.

Their constituent parts are:
fine grain material (e.g. silt, clay or bentonite);
cement or another binder;
well-graded aggregates;
water;
and possibly additions and admixtures.

For plastic concrete limiting w/c ratio does not apply.


Considerations related to design of diaphragm wall made of panels

The panel dimensions should take into account the dimensions of available excavating equipment,
the method and sequence of excavation, panel stability during excavation and concrete supply.

The terminology used to define the dimensions and details of panels is shown on Figures 1 and 2.

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Key:
1 Wall thickness 7 Guide-wall
2 Horizontal length of reinforcement cage 8 Cut off level
3 Cage width 9 Vertical length of reinforcement cage
4 Length of panel 10 Reinforcement cage
5 Platform level 11 Depth of excavation
6 Casting level 12 Concave portion of curved joints

Figure 1 Geometry of a panel




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Key:
P Primary
S Secondary
1 Starter
2 Intermediate
3 Closure

Figure 2 Schematic examples of different types of panels and joints (plan view)

The width of the excavating tool shall be at least equal to the design wall thickness.

The design of the wall shall take into account the discontinuity of the reinforcement at the joints
between the panels and between adjacent cages in the same panel.

Space shall be allowed between reinforcement cages of adjacent panels to accommodate the type of
joints to be made and to take account of the construction tolerances.

Space shall be allowed in the reinforcement cage for the installation of the tremie pipe.

A reinforced concrete capping beam should be constructed along the top of reinforced concrete
diaphragm walls, where it is necessary to distribute loads or minimize differential displacements.
In exceptional cases where it is necessary to provide structural continuity across the joints, special
techniques are available.

Design shall consider that diaphragm walls cannot be expected to be completely watertight, since
leakage can occur at joints, at recesses or through the wall material. Damp patches and droplets of
water on the surface of the wall cannot be avoided under normal circumstances.

Design should not normally consider continuity of reinforcement between the cages and across the
joints but it may be constructed in exceptional circumstances.

Panel stability during excavation

The length of the panels and the level of the support fluid shall ensure the stability of the trench
during excavation.

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The excavation tools or procedures, especially where chiselling or blasting are used, can have an
influence on the trench stability.

Special precautions in chiselling and blasting have to be taken e.g in loose soil overlying a hard
rock.

To ensure trench stability the level of the support fluid shall be adjusted with respect to the highest
piezometric ground water level anticipated during excavation, and the support fluid level shall
always remain at least 1 m above the highest piezometric level.

In the case of loose sand or soils with cu < 15 kPa, it can be necessary to stabilise the soil by
increasing its strength or by raising the level of the support fluid and/or to increase its density
during excavation, and to minimize the time during which the trench is left open.

In case where a loss of support fluid can occur (e.g highly permeable, coarse soils or where there
are voids in the ground), special measures may be adopted, for example :
increasing the flow limit of the fluid by increasing the bentonite content in the
suspension;
adding a filler material to the bentonite suspension, either at the mixing plant or directly
in the trench;
in the case of voids, filling the trench to an appropriate depth with lean mix concrete or
other suitable material, and reexcavating;
grouting the layers concerned before excavating the trench.

The ground water level can change in relation with execution (e.g case of closing a box). Risk on
trench stability in relation with change in water level due to construction should be considered.
Also possible mitigation measures (e.g. dewatering as a way to reduce pore pressure) should be
considered.

The stability considerations shall take account of the following factors:
stabilizing forces due to the support fluid ;
groundwater pressures ;
earth pressures, including the three-dimensional geometry of the problem ;
shear strength parameters of the soils ;
effects of adjacent loads ;
constructions details of adjacent structures.

The trench stability during excavation includes two aspects:
the local stability of the soil at the walls of the trench;
the overall stability of the excavation.

The trench remains stable as a result of the stabilizing forces of the support fluid acting against the
walls of the trench:
in case of bentonite suspensions, the support effect in fine-grained soils is due to the
formation of a filter cake. In coarser soils, this effect is due to a limited penetration into
the pores of the soil;
in the case of polymer solutions, the support effect is caused by the seepage pressure of
the liquid flowing into the soil.

The penetration depth, which increases with time, is significant in the case of silty or sandy soils,
but remains small in the case of clayey soils.


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Reinforcement cages

The reinforcement within a panel may comprise one or more cages within the panel length.

Multiple cages and joints

The minimum clear distance between two cages in the same panel shall be at least 200 mm.

The maximum clear distance between two cages in the same panel should be 400 mm

The minimum clear distance between the ends of the cages and the joints formwork including
water-stop if any, shall be 100 mm and shall take into account the verticality tolerances, the shape
of the joints and the possible use of water stops.

A clear distance of 200 mm is recommended between the ends of the cages and the joints formwork
including water-stop if any.

In the case of the concave portion of curved joints, except special cases, the cage should not enter
into the concave portion of the joint.

This does not apply to the case of diaphragm walls with continuous horizontal reinforcement across
the joints.


Execution of diaphragm walls

Construction sequence

The phases of execution differ with the type of wall and support fluid used.

In the general case a support fluid is used.

The basic sequences for cast in situ concrete diaphragm walls are:
excavation, generally with a bentonite suspension or other support fluid;
cleaning the excavation including recirculation of bentonite;
placing the reinforcement;
concreting;
trimming.

The basic sequences for precast concrete diaphragm walls are:
excavation, generally with a hardening slurry, sometimes with a bentonite suspension ;
cleaning the excavation. When a bentonite suspension is used, it is replaced by a
hardening slurry. If required by the design, a stronger material such as mortar or
concrete may be placed at the bottom of the excavation, to support the precast panel and
applied loads ;
placing the precast element.

The basic sequences for cut-off slurry walls are :
excavation with a hardening slurry. In some cases (e.g. excavations of long duration), a
different support fluid may be used, which has then to be replaced by the hardening
slurry;
when required, placing elements such as membranes, reinforcement or sheet piles;
trimming and protective capping.
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The basic sequences for plastic concrete walls are:
excavation, generally with a bentonite suspension;
cleaning the excavation;
concreting;
trimming.


Preliminary works

Working platform

The working platform shall be stable, above the water table, horizontal and be suitable for traffic of
heavy equipment and lorries.

The area along the line of the wall shall be clear of underground obstructions.

Special care is to be taken for excavating and backfilling trenches in case of removal of disturbed
soil or underground obstructions.

Excavation and backfilling are to be done symmetrically along the axis of the wall, to a depth
corresponding at least to the level of undisturbed soil, with sufficient width and depth with regard
to the guide-walls.

The top of the working platform should be at least 1,5 m above the highest water-table anticipated
during excavation, taking into account possible fluctuations.

Guide-walls

Guide-walls shall be designed and constructed:
to ensure alignment of the diaphragm wall,
to serve as a guide for the excavating tools,
to secure the sides of the trench against collapse in the vicinity of the fluctuating level of
the support fluid,
to serve as a support for the reinforcement cages or prefabricated panels or other
elements inserted in the excavation until the concrete or hardening slurry has hardened,
to support the reaction forces of stop end extractors when necessary.

Guide-walls are usually made of reinforced concrete with a depth normally between 0,7 m and 1,5
m depending on ground conditions.

In the case of cut-off walls excavated continuously, if ground conditions should permit, guide-walls
may not be necessary.

Guide-walls should be propped apart until the excavation of the panel takes place.

The distance between the guide-walls should normally be 20 mm to 50 mm greater than the width
of the excavating tool.

The top of the guide-walls should normally be horizontal and have the same elevation on both sides
of the trench.


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Excavation

Supporting the walls of the excavation

Except special ground and site conditions, a support fluid shall be used during excavation.

In some cases, it can be possible to excavate using water as a support fluid.

In certain soils with cohesive properties or in rock, dry excavation may be used, provided the
ground strength is sufficient to ensure stability of the sides of the trench.

In soils where no comparable experience is available, a trial excavation should be made.

During excavation, the level of the support fluid will fluctuate, but it shall not be allowed to
drawdown below the level required for excavation stability.

The level of the support fluid shall remain above the base of the guide-walls, unless there is no risk
of caving of the soil below the guide-walls.

Excavation sequence

The excavation may be carried out continuously or in panels.

The sequence of excavation, panel lengths and distances between panels being excavated, depend
on the ground conditions, the type of wall, and the type of excavating tools.

The excavation of a panel shall not be started before the concrete, the plastic concrete or the
hardening slurry in the adjacent panel or panels has gained sufficient strength.

The use of chisels, other tools, or blasting, which affect the nearby panels already filled with
concrete or hardening slurry shall not be made before the material in these panels has sufficient
strength to resist the stresses developed during these operations.

Loss of support fluid

When a sudden and significant loss of the support fluid occurs during excavation, the excavation
shall be refilled immediately with an additional volume of support fluid, possibly containing
sealing materials.

If this procedure is insufficient, the excavation shall be backfilled as quickly as possible with lean
concrete or other material which can be readily re-excavated.

In situations where significant loss of support fluid can occur (e.g. highly permeable soils, cavities),
an additional volume of support fluid, and possibly sealing materials or suitable fill, shall be stored
in a readily accessible area.

Forming the joints

Stop ends shall be of adequate strength and properly aligned throughout their length.

The joints are normally formed either by using steel or concrete stop ends or by cutting into the
concrete or hardened material of the previously cast adjacent panel. In some cases, waterstops can
be incorporated into the joints.
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In the case of stop ends which are extracted laterally, the extraction shall be made upon completion
of the excavation of the adjacent panel.

In the case of stop ends which are extracted vertically, the extraction shall be made gradually
during the setting of the concrete.

Placing the reinforcement or other elements

Reinforcement cages, precast concrete panels or other elements (such as sheet piles, membranes)
shall not rest on the bottom of the excavation, but shall be suspended from the guide-walls.


Concreting and trimming

Concreting in dry conditions

Particular care shall be observed when concreting in dry conditions, to avoid segregation.

Direct pumping may be used in dry excavations.

Vibration of the concrete shall not be used.

Specific slump values are required for dry conditions.

Concreting under support fluid

The time elapsing between the start of excavation and commencement of concreting shall be kept
as short as possible.

The tremie pipe shall be clean and watertight. Its inner diameter shall be at least 0,15 m and 6 times
the maximum aggregate size. Its outer diameter shall be such that it passes freely through the
reinforcement cage.

The number of tremie pipes in a panel shall be adjusted to limit the horizontal distance the concrete
has to travel.

In normal circumstances, the horizontal distance the concrete has to travel should be less than 3,0
m.

Where there is more than one cage per panel, at least the same number of tremie pipes should be
used.

When several tremie pipes are used, they shall be arranged and supplied with concrete in such a
way that a reasonably uniform upward flow of the concrete is assured.

When starting concreting, the support fluid and the concrete in the charged tremie pipe shall be
kept separate by a plug of material or by other suitable means.

To start concreting, the tremie pipe shall be lowered to the bottom of the trench and then raised
approximately 0,1 m.

After concreting has started, the tremie pipe shall always remain immersed in the fresh concrete.
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The tremie pipe shall remain immersed into the fresh concrete for at least 6 m at the beginning of
concreting and before the first section of the pipe is drawn. Immediately after extracting the first
section, the immersion depth shall not fall below 3 m.

The immersion depth may have to be reduced when the concrete approaches ground level to
facilitate concrete flow.

An adequate supply of concrete shall be available throughout the whole placement process to
enable a controlled smooth operation.

In order to ensure concrete integrity, the rate of concrete rising over the full height of the panel
should not be less than 3 m/h.

Since the top of the cast concrete may not be of the required quality, sufficient concrete shall be
placed in the panel to ensure that the concrete below the cut-off level has the specified properties.

The required quality of the concrete at the cut-off level is achieved by providing a height of
concrete above the cut-off level.

The height of concrete above the cut-off level depends on the cut-off level, the wall dimensions and
the number of tremie pipes.

Trimming

Trimming of the concrete to cut-off level shall be carried out using equipment and methods which
will not damage the concrete, reinforcement or any instrumentation installed in the panels.

Where possible, some trimming above cut-off level may be carried out before the concrete has set.


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2. SHEET-PILE WALLS



Legend
a tubes + sheet piles
b U box piles + U sheet piles
c Z box piles + Z sheet piles
d H beams + Z sheet piles

Fig. 1 Examples of combined walls




Legend
a sheet piles e tie rod
b strut f anchor plate or screen
c waling g variable angle
d rock dowel h ground anchor or tension pile

Fig. 2 Example of a sheet pile wall structures





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Legend
a hammer
b driving cap
c sheet pile
d leader
e pile guide

Fig. 3 Examples of a sheet pile driving rig with fixed leader














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Legend
a hammer
b cushion
c leader
d sliding guide
e driving cap
f leader slide

Fig. 4 Example of a driving cap







Legend
a claw b tongue c driving direction

Fig. 5 Driving direction for Z-sheet piles with tongue and claw interlocks










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Legend
a sheet pile b waling c strut d support bracket e bag filled with concrete

Fig. 6 Bags filled with concrete or cement mortar in order to obtain a good connection
between waling and sheet piles


Dri vi ng of sheet pi l es

Sheet piles are installed in the ground by one or a combination of the following methods:
impact ;
vibration ;
pressing.

Vibrating is in many circumstances the most efficient method. In combination with leader guiding
it is also a very accurate method of driving sheet piles to the required depth. However, if very
dense sands and gravel above groundwater level or stiff clay layers have to be driven through,
vibrating may be ineffective. In these cases either driving assistance or impact driving may be
required. When obstacles are present and cannot be removed, either predrilling or careful impact
driving are the best methods to be used.

Generally driving with a vibrator causes a higher level of vibration in the surrounding ground than
impact driving. High frequency vibrators, where the eccentricity of the rotating mass can be varied
during the start up and stop phases of the driving process, can considerably reduce the adverse
vibrations of the process on the surrounding ground.

Vibrations from impact hammers and vibratory drivers are normally considerable and can travel
over relatively long distances. Foundations which are subjected to vibration will pick up part of
these vibrations and transfer them to the various elements of the supported structure. As a result
damage can be caused to sensitive buildings near to the source of the vibrations. Special care is
necessary if such structures are founded on loose sand, especially if it is saturated, because it is
subject to sudden settlement resulting from vibrations in the ground.

Where vibration or noise is considered a problem, pressing the sheet piles into the ground may
be a solution. Normally pressing is effective in cohesive soils. In difficult soil conditions pre-
boring and sometimes water jetting can be effective in assisting the sheet pile to reach the
required depth.

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Different types of pile driving equipment suitable for the installation of the sheet piles are
available. The most common types are:
free falling hammers ;
diesel hammers ;
hydro hammers ;
air hammers ;
high and low frequency vibrators ;
high frequency vibrators with a variable eccentricity of rotating mass;
high frequency vibrator with continuously variable excentricity and resonance free start and
stop phases ; pressing systems.

Installation and driving assistance
Driving method

In the 'pitch and drive' method a single or double sheet pile, is driven to full depth before pitching the
next one. This simple procedure has the advantage that the top of the sheet pile has only to be lifted a
distance equal to the length of the pile above the ground surface. Moreover it easily can be guided
manually into the interlock of the sheet pile which has already been driven.

In the case of dense sands, stiff cohesive soils and in soils containing obstructions, the 'pitch and
drive'method can lead to de-clutching problems in the free leading interlock and occasionally to rather
large deviations from the required position.

"Panel driving"and "staggered panel driving", enables better control of the position of the sheet piles
along the wall length. At the same time the danger of declutching is minimised.

As a whole panel is pitched it is not necessary to drive all the sheet piles to full depth in order to
maintain sheetpiling operations. If obstructions are encountered, individual sheet piles can be left
high without disruption to the installation process.

"Staggered driving" is a particular form of "panel driving" which may be applied when difficult soil
conditions are encountered. The sheet piles in the panel are driven in a sequence indicated in figure
7.

The disadvantage of the "panel driving" method is that interlocking the sheet piles requires
individual piles to be lifted to twice their length.


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Legend
a direction of sheet pile installation
b driving direction (1 3 5)
c driving direction (4, 2)
d upper guide
e lowerguide

Fig. 7 - Example of staggered driving of sheet piles D.2

Driving assistance

It is often necessary to loosen very dense sand layers.
Normally applied methods are

a) low pressure jetting with low water volumes
pressure : 1,5 Mpa to 2,0 MPa ;
discharge : 2 I/s to 4 1/s per tube ;
diameter of pipes : approx. 25 mm ;
number of pipes : 1 to 2 per sheet pile.

The pipes are welded to the sheet piles and left in situ.

b) high pressure jetting
pressure : 25 Mpa to 50 MPa (at pump outlet)
discharge : 1 1/s to 2 1/s ;
pipe diameter : 20 mm to 30 mm ;
nozzle diameter : 1,5 mm to 3,0 mm.

c) predrilling, with or without cement bentonite.
d) blasting in special cases.
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Low pressure jetting is mainly used in dense non-cohesive soils.
Low pressure jetting with low water volumes, in combination with a vibrator, enables sheet piles
to penetrate very dense soils. In general the soil characteristics are only slightly modified and there
is practically no settlement, although special care has to be taken when the sheet piles have to
carry vertical loads.

In addition, low pressure jetting is sometimes used for pre-treatment of the soil prior to pile
driving.

High pressure jetting or fluidisation can be very effective in very dense soil layers.

Limited amounts of jetting fluid, water or sometimes cement-bentonite, are introduced into the
ground through nozzles fixed to the sheet pile at a short distance above its tip. As a result of the
limited water consumption this method permits effective control of the pile. The soil properties
are only adversely effected in a limited area around the sheet piles. The overall performance will
not be significantly influenced.

Pre-drilling is sometimes carried out prior to the sheet pile driving. The soil is locally loosened by
this process. Normally flight auger drills are used.

Facturing by blasting is normally carried out if the sheet piles have to pass hard obstructions in the
soil or if they must penetrate bedrock.

Timber sheet piles and walings
Timber for sheet piles and walings in permanent sheet pile wall structures is normally of high
durability.

Tropical hardwood normally meets this requirement without any preservation. However
coniferous species when used in waterfront structures, need to be impregnated by a preservation
fluid pressed into the wood under vacuum conditions.

Cutting, boring and similar operations should preferably be carried out in the factory before the
timber is impregnated. When impregnated timber is subsequently cut, bored or similarly re-
shaped, it is necessary to treat the affected area with special protecting liquid.

Joints

Normally timber sheet piles are jointed by tongue and groove type interlocks of a trapezoidal
shape. However a rectangular shape is also used.

The dimensions of the tongue determine the size of the groove as shown in figure 8.

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Legend
A Tongue and groove with trapezoidal shape B Tongue and groove with rectangular shape

Fig. 8 Shape and dimensions of tongue and groove interlocks of timber sheet piles


Corner sheet piles

Corner sheet piles generally have a square crosss section with grooves to conne the
adjacent sheet piles (see figure 9.)




Fig. 9 Example of a timber corner pile with grooves

Execution

Normally timber sheet piles are only used in retaining structures with a limited retained height.
Typical uses are:
vertical or nearly vertical embankments along canals and ditches;
small quays in yachting harbours and similar.

Driving is usually carried out with light driving equipment. If a free falling mass is used the
height of the drop should not exceed 2,5 m.

When a vibrator is used, panels of several piles are driven as units.

In order to keep the sheet piling in the correct position, a guide frame is used. Low pressure water
25
jetting is often used to assist driving work in sand layers.

In order to ascertain a proper tongue and groove connection, the sheet piles are often bevelled at
the "free" side of the toe as shown in figure 10.



Legend
a driving direction
b bevel width
c ground pressure

Fig. 10 Bevelling at the toe and driving direction

3. GROUND ANCHORS

Ground anchors are covered by EN 1537.

Scope

to support a retaining structure;
to provide the stability of slopes, cuts or tunnels;
to resist uplift forces on structures,
by transmitting a tensile force to a load bearing formation of soil or rock.

Two types of ground anchors:
pre-stressed anchorages consisting of an anchor head, a tendon free length and a tendon bond
length bonded to the ground by grout (figure 1);
non pre-stressed anchorages consisting of an anchor head, a tendon free length and a restraint
such as a fixed anchor length bonded to the ground by grout, a deadman anchorage, a screw
anchor or a rock bolt.



Key
1 Anchorage point at jack during stressing 6 SoiI Urock
2 Anchorage point at anchor head in service 7 Borehole
3 Bearing plate 8 Debonding sleeve
4 Lold transfer black 9 Tendon
5 Structural element 10 Grout body

Figure 1 - Sketch of a ground anchor

Drilling methods

The drilling method shall be chosen with due regard to the ground conditions so as to
cause either minimum ground modification or the modification most beneficial to the
anchor capacity and to allow the design anchor
resistance (R
d
) to be mobilised.

Reasons for minimum ground modification are:
- to prevent collapse of the borehole wall during drilling and tendon installation (where
necessary a casing should be utilised) ;
- to minimise loosening of the surrounding ground in cohesionless soils ;
- to minimise change of ground water levels ;
- to minimise softening of the surface of the borehole wall in cohesive soils and degradable
27
rocks.

Techniques to counteract the water pressure and to prevent any blow-out, hole collapse and
erosion during drilling, installation and grouting operations shall be identified in advance and
implemented as and when required. In high water table situations it may be appropriate to use
heavy drilling fluids.

Possible preventative measures include
- the use of special auxiliary drilling equipment such as seals or packers;
- the lowering of the water table, after the risks of general settlement of the ground have been
assessed;
- pre-grouting of the ground.


Grouting

Grouting meets one or more of the following functions:
a. to form the fixed anchor length in order that the applied load may be transferred
from the tendon to the surrounding ground ;
b. to protect the tendon against corrosion ;
c. to strengthen the ground immediately adjacent to the fixed anchor in order to
enhance ground anchor capacity ;
d. to seal the ground immediately adjacent to the fixed anchor length in order to limit
the loss of grout.

If a grout volume injected is in excess of three times the borehole volume at pressures not exceeding
total overburden pressure, then general void filling is indicated which is beyond routine anchor
construction. In such cases general void filling may be necessary before grouting the anchor. For
functions c) and d) above only nominal grout consumptions should be expected.

Anchor grouting

Placement of grout should be carried out as soon as possible after completion of drilling.

When grouting by the tremie method, the end of the tremie pipe shall remain submerged in
grout within the fixed anchor length and grouting shall continue until the consistency of the
grout emerging is the same as that of the injected grout.

The grouting process should always start at the lower end of the section to be grouted. For
horizontal and upward inclined holes, a seal or packer is required to prevent loss of grout from
either the fixed anchor length or the entire hole.

Stressing

Stressing is required to fulfil the following two functions
- to ascertain and record the load carrying behaviour of the anchor ;
- to tension the tendon and to anchor it at its lock-off load.

Stressing and recording shall be carried out by experienced personnel under the control of a
suitably qualified supervisor, provided preferably by a specialist anchor contractor or stressing
equipment supplier.


28
Investigation test

Investigation tests may be required to establish for the designer, in advance of the installation
of the working ground anchors, the ultimate load resistance in relation to the ground conditions
and materials used, to prove the competence of the contractor and/or to prove a new type of
ground anchor by inducing a failure at the grout/ground interface.

Acceptance test

Each working anchor shall be subjected to an acceptance test.

The objectives of the acceptance test are as follows:
a) to demonstrate that a proof load, which will depend on the test method, can be sustained by
the anchor ;
b) to determine the apparent tendon free length ;
c) to ensure that the lock-off load is at the designed load level, excluding friction ;
d) the creep or load loss characteristics at the serviceability limit state, when necessary.


Definitions

permanent anchorage
anchorage with a design life of more than two years

temporary anchorage
anchorage with a design life of less than two years

acceptance test
load test on site to confirm that each anchorage meets the design requirements

suitability test
load test on site to confirm that a particular anchor design will be adequate in particular ground
conditions

investigation test
load test to establish the ultimate resistance of an anchor at the grout/ground interface and to
determine the characteristics of the anchorage in the working load range

4. REINFORCED FILLS

Reinforced fill, covered by EN 14475, is an engineered fill reinforced by the inclusion of horizontal
or subhorizontal reinforcement placed between layers of fill during construction.

The scope of reinforced fill applications includes (Figure1):
- earth retaining structures, (vertical, battered or inclined walls, bridge abutments, bulk
storage facilities), with a facing to retain fill placed between the reinforcing layers;
- reinforced steep slopes with a facing, either built-in or added or wrap-around, reinforced
shallow slopes without a facing, but covered by some form of erosion protection without a
facing, reinstatement of failed slopes;
- embankments with basal reinforcement and embankments with reinforcement against
frost heave in the upper part.






30



Definitions

fill
natural or man made material formed of solid particles, including certain rocks, used to construct
engineered fill

engineered fill
fill which is placed and compacted under controlled conditions

reinforced fill
engineered fill incorporating discrete layers of soil reinforcement, generally placed
horizontally, which are arranged between successive layers of fill during construction

reinforcement
generic term for reinforcing inclusions placed within fill

fill reinforcement
reinforcement which enhances stability of the reinforced fill mass by mobilising the axial tensile
strength of the fill reinforcement by soil interaction over its total length

31

geosynthetics
for the purpose of this European standard "geosynthetics" stands for "geotextiles and geotextile
related products"

foundation
foundation of a reinforced fill structure is the total area of the surface upon which the lowest layer
of reinforcement is installed

facing
covering to the exposed face of a reinforced fill structure which retains the fill between layers of
reinforcement and protects the fill against erosion

full height facing unit
facing unit equal to the height of the face of the structure

discrete facing unit
partial height facing unit used to construct incrementally a reinforced fill structure


hard facing unit
panel or block usually of precast concrete with intrinsically low vertical compressibility and high
bending stiffness.

deformable facing unit
preformed steel grid section, a preformed solid steel section or a rock filled gabion with
intrinsically vertical compressibility and low bending stiffness.

soft facing unit
soil fill encapsulated in a geogrid or a geotextile facing with no bending stiffness.

facing system
assemblage of facing units used to produce a finished reir forced fill structure

rigid facing system
facing system with no capacity to accommodate vertical differential settlement between fill and
facing.

semi-flexible facing system
facing system with some capacity to accommodate differential settlement between fill and facing

flexible facing system
pliant, articulated, facing system with capacity to accommodate differential settlement between fill
and facing

green facing
vegetative cover or infill used without facing units or as an adjunct to reinforced fill structures
constructed using facing units

cladding
false facing added in front of the facing to improve the aesthetics of a finished reinforced fill
structure

32
design life
service life, in years, required by the design

temporary structures
structures with a design life of 1 - 5 years (Class 1)

permanent structures
structures with a design life of more than 5 years (Class 2 - 5)


Materials and products

Construction of reinforced fill involves the use of the following major components:
- fill material;
- fill reinforcement, and if required;
- facing system.


Fill materials

The fill used within the reinforced zone shall be selected to meet the properties required by the
design and the project specification.

The suitability of a reinforced fill material is dependent on a number of factors that shall be
considered when selecting the material:

- fill workability;
- function and environment of the structure and long term behaviour;
- fill layer thickness and maximum particle size;
- facing technology;
- vegetation;
- drainage properties;
- aggressivity of the fill;
- fill - reinforcement interaction;
- fill - internal friction and cohesion;
- frost susceptibility.


Fill workability

The fill workability shall be such that it can be placed and compacted to produce the properties
required by the design.

Function and environment of the structure and long term behaviour

Some types of structure have a critical function where post construction settlement is very
important. e.g. bridge abutments, walls supporting railway tracks and buildings, or high earth
retaining structures etc. In these cases fill material which is easy to compact and which will have
subsequent low compressibility shall be selected.

Where a structure is exposed to flooding and subsequent rapid drawdown the drainage properties
of the fill shall be checked for compatibility with the design assumptions.
33
Reinforcement products

Fill reinforcements can be made from metals, generally steel, or polymeric materials.

Facings

Facings can be produced in a variety of materials and configurations with a variety of facing-
reinforcement connections and a variety of joint fillers and bearing devices.

Facing units and systems

Reinforced fill is constructed using successive layers of compacted, selected fill incorporating
intervening layers of horizontal or sub-horizontal fill reinforcement placed at spacing required by
the design.

Reinforced fill earth retaining structures, with a vertical, battered or inclined face (see Figure 2),
require a facing to retain the fill between the reinforcing layers. Depending on the particular
system, certain layers of fill reinforcements may however not be connected to the facing.

On shallow reinforced slopes, facing is generally not necessary. Such slopes are usually protected
by vegetation with / without erosion control materials.

The facing can be constituted of either hard units (typically made of concrete), or deformable units
(typically made from metal, steel grid or mesh, or gabion baskets), or soft units (typically made
from geosynthetic sheets or grids, or woven wire mesh).

Where hard or deformable facing units are used, these serve as a formwork against which the
selected fill is placed and compacted. Where soft facing units are used, it is generally necessary to
employ temporary formwork to maintain the face alignment during the construction of walls or
steep slopes.


Key:
1 Earth retaining structures
2 Reinforced slopes
3 Vertical
4 Vertical wall
5 Battered wall
6 Inclined wall Steep slope
7 Shallow slope
8 Some specific types of facings : panels, blocks, V2 elliptical
steel units, gabions
9 Specific types of sloping panel, eg for bulk storage
10 Some common types of facings: planter units, wire mesh,
wrapped around
11 No facing, erosion protection may be required
12 Line of 4:1 face slope angle
13 Line of 1:1 face slope angle
Figure 2 - Reinforced fill earth with a vertical, battered or inclined face
34

Facing units

Hard facing units: Hard facing units are usually produced in precast concrete, either un-
reinforced or reinforced.
Concrete facing units may be full height panels, partial height panels, sloping panels, planter units, or
segmental blocks. Many types of concrete facing units are proprietary and form part of proprietary
systems.
The reinforcements are connected to the units either by means of devices embedded or
inserted into the concrete units, or they are simply clamped between the units.

Full height panels: As the name suggests, full height panels (see Figure 3) are precast to the
required full height of the specific reinforced fill wall to be constructed. The breadth of full
height panels is typically in the range 1 to 3 m and the thickness in the range 100 to 200 mm.




Figure 3 - Full height panels

Partial height panels: Partial height panels (See Figure 4) are the most common and typically
have heights in the range 1 to 2 m and thickness in the range 100 to 200 mm. Distinctive shapes
correspond to specific ways of fitting panels together, and to particular construction
procedures. Simple rectangular shapes are also available. The panels are fitted with connecting
devices embedded into the back face. The edges are usually provided with nibs and recesses, or
tongues and grooves.



Figure 4 - Partial height panels



35
Segmental blocks: Facing units in the form of precast or dry cast un-reinforced concrete blocks
(see Figure 5) are usually referred to as modular blocks or segmental blocks. Units may be
manufactured solid, or with cores. The mass of these units commonly ranges from 20 and 50 kilos.
Unit heights typically range from 150 mm to 250 mm, exposed face length usually varies from
200 mm to 500 mm. Depending on the type of reinforcement, blocks may be provided with
connecting accessories (pins, rake). Otherwise the reinforcement is clamped between successive
courses of blocks.




Figure 5 - Segmental blocks



Figure 6 - King post and concrete planking

Deformable facing units

Semi elliptical steel units: facing elements of steel sheet (see Figure 7) formed into elliptical or
U-shaped half cylinders. Such units, placed horizontally, are typically 2 to 4 mm thick, 250 mm to
400 mm high and a few metres long. They are fitted with holes along the horizontal edges for
connection to the reinforcements.



Figure 7 - Semi elliptical steel units

Steel welded wire mesh: Facing units may be formed of open-backed welded wire mesh sections
(see Figure 8), either flat or pre-bent to the required slope angle. These units serve as a formwork
during construction. When used for inclined faces, such units may be vegetated to prevent long
36
term erosion of the face. When used for vertical or battered faces, such units may have an inner
layer of stone or crushed rock, or be backed with a geosynthetic liner, especially for temporary
applications.



Figure 8 - Steel welded wire mesh


Gabion baskets: Facing units may also be formed using polymeric geogrid or woven steel wire,
galvanized or plastic coated, or galvanized welded wire mesh gabion baskets (See Figure 9) which
are filled with stone or crushed rock. The size of such gabion baskets is usually in the range of
0,5 m to 1,0 m in height, 2 m to 3 m in length and 0,5 m to 1,0 m in depth. The gabion baskets may
be supplied with an extended tail that forms a frictional connection to the main reinforcement



Figure 9 - Gabion baskets

Tyres: Facing units may also be formed with tyres. These tyres are of similar size and are generally
stacked in a staggered arrangement to form the facing.

Soft facings units

The most widely used soft facing unit is the so called wrapped facing (See Figure 10) in which
full width reinforcement, such as polymeric grid or geotextile, or woven wire mesh, is extended
forward from the reinforced fill to wrap around the face of each intervening layer of fill. Where
polymeric grids or woven wire meshes are used these may be faced, or backed, with a suitable
geotextile to guard against erosion of the face.

To construct such slopes to an acceptable alignment it is common practice to use temporary
formwork.


37


Key
1 Bags
Figure 10 - Soft facing units


Some typical reinforcement forms



38


Figure 11 Steel reinforcement







Figure 12 Polymeric reinforcements


5. SOIL NAILING


The objective of soil nailing is to improve the stability of the soil in cases where the stability
conditions are adverse. The stability is achieved by inserting soil nails, consisting of reinforcing
bars, into the soil. Soil nailing is generally applied in connection with excavations, slopes and
occasionally tunneling and for improvement of soil stability. The soil nails mobilise frictional
forces along their entire length, which contributes to increasing the stability condition. The amount
of nails and the length of installation of the nails have to be adjusted in relation to the stability
conditions, encountered during the ongoing activities. Protection against corrosion in case of long-
term stability problems is required in aggressive soil conditions.

A soil nail construction can involve the following material components for:
a) soil nail system;
b) facing system;
c) drainage system.


Terms and definitions

bearing plate
plate connected to the head of the soil nail to transfer a component of load from the facing or
directly from the ground surface to the soil nail

drainage system
series of drains, drainage layers or other means to control surface and ground water

facing
covering to the exposed face of the reinforced ground that may provide a stabilising function to
retain the ground between soil nails, provide erosion protection and have an aesthetic function

facing drainage
system of drains used to control water behind the facing

facing system
assemblage of facing units used to produce a finished facing of reinforced ground

facing unit
discrete element used to construct the facing

flexible facing
flexible covering which assists in containing soil between the nails

hard facing
stiff covering, for example sprayed concrete, precast concrete section or cast in-situ concrete

production nail
soil nail which forms part of the completed soil nail structure

reinforcing element
generic term for reinforcing inclusions inserted into ground


40
reinforced ground
ground that is reinforced by the insertion of reinforcing elements

sacrificial nail
soil nail installed in the same way as the production nails, solely to establish the pullout capacity
but not forming part of the soil nail structure

soft facing
soft facing has only a short-term function to provide topsoil stability while vegetation becomes
established

soil nail
reinforcing element installed into the ground, usually at a sub-horizontal angle, that mobilises
resistance with the soil along its entire length

soil nail construction
any works that incorporates soil nails, and can have a facing and/or a drainage system

soil nail system
consists of a reinforcing element and may include joints and couplings, centralisers, spacers, grouts
and corrosion protection

test nail
nail installed by the same method as the production nails for the purpose of verifying the pullout
capacity and durability, and could be forming a part of the structure

proof load
load applied in the testing


Examples of uses of soil nailing

Soil nail systems are produced using a wide range of materials and configurations.



Vertical walls Slopes

Figure 1 - Safeguarding stability of excavations by the use of soil nailing





41

Tunnel excavation
Key
1 ground surface
2 soil nails
3 tunnel advances
Figure 2 Safeguarding tunnelling operations by the use of soil nailing


In the case of excavations, the sequence of excavation and soil nailing has to be adjusted in order
not to comprise the stability conditions of the site. Typical methods of excavation in combination
with soil nailing operations are illustrated in Figures 3 and 4.


Key
1 excavation
2 installing the nails
3 reinforced shotcrete (or prefabricated facing panels)
4 next excavation
Figure 3 Typical sequences of excavation and installation


Key
1 bulk excavation to proposed formation
2 berm
3 installed nails
4 existing ground
5 local trimming of face required to achieve agreed tolerances prior to nail installation of nail row "N"
N Nth row
Figure 4 Bulk excavation to form benches and face for row "N" of soil nails


42
Reinforcing element

The reinforcing element of the nail is usually produced from metals (typically steel) and to a lesser
extent from other materials, such as fibre reinforced plastics, geo-synthetics or carbon fibre.

NOTE: The reinforcing element may be a solid bar, a hollow bar, an angle bar or some other form
of cross-section.

When nails are to be grouted, they may be ribbed or profiled to improve the effective bond with the
grout.

Examples of soil nail systems

The soil nail systems include reinforcement bars, usually steel bars, inserted into and bonded with
the ground to the depth required with regard to safety conditions, and often provided with a head
plate and a facing system to ensure stability between the nails and also to avoid erosion problems.
There is a number of different soil nailing systems. Typical examples are given in Figure 5.


a) Pre-bored and grouted b) Self-boring

Key
1 facing 6 coupler
2 head plate 7 inner spacer
3 locking nut 8 grout annulus
4 outer spacer 9 reinforcing element
5 duct 10 drill bit
Figure 5 Typical components of soil nail system, pre-bored & grouted shown
with hard/flexible facing


FACING SYSTEMS

Facing systems are constructed using a variety of materials, configurations and connections to the
reinforcement. Facings exposed to frost should be protected by frost insulation and extra drainage.

The facing system shall be able to sustain differential settlements required by the design without
structural damage to the facing.

The suitability of the facing system shall be proven by comparable experience or by tests, proving
the serviceability of the system and the durability of the materials used for the design life of the soil
nail construction.



43
Examples of facing systems used in a soil nail structure

Hard facing

The combination of soil nails and facing has to fulfill the function of stabilising the slope between
the nails, and shall therefore be dimensioned to sustain the expected maximum destabilising forces.


Figure 6 Constructed hard facing with concrete (either sprayed or placed or precast)
(should be improved)






Figure 7 Strengthening of existing retaining structures (should be improved)

Flexible facing

Flexible facings are designed to provide the necessary restraint to the areas of slope face between
the bearing plates, as well as erosion control. The selection of type of flexible facing is dependent
upon slope angle, soil friction angle value, slope height and predicted loading. The common
flexible facings include geogrids steel fabrics and geosynthetic.


Figure 8 Wire mesh


44
Soft facing

The primary function of soft facing is erosion control and protection against surface ravelling. In
many cases, the soft facing has to reinforce the vegetation layer, either in the temporary or the
permanent situation. In some instances, nails serve only to retain the facing and not to stabilise the
slope.

Without facings

Nailing in case of critically inclined sliding surfaces (e.g. rock strata with reduced shear resistance),
however with a stable surface.


DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Water is detrimental to slope stability and has to be drained away from the surface as much as
possible. In this way, general or local erosion etc. and critical water pressures behind facings may
be minimised (specially important in case of a full cover or with a vegetation layer.

Three essential measures have to be distinguished:
a) prevention of surface runoff water;
b) surface drainage;
c) subsurface drainage.

Interception of surface water run off

Figures 9 and 10 show examples of drainage above the soil nailing structure.


Figure 9 Trenched drains above the soil nail structure guided to the sides of the slope


Key
1 e.g. Y-drains
Figure 10 Surface drainage above the soil nail structure
(e.g. in case of stratum water)
45
Surface drainage

Systems for flexible and soft facings with vegetation layers but also possible behind hard facings
(sprayed concrete).


Key
1 foot drainage
Figure 11 Seepage

Drainage systems for hard and impermeable facings

In case of concrete walls, prefabricated or cast in place, spread filters made of drainage material
and collector drains can be applied.

In any case, with impermeable facings, sufficient leakage holes have to be placed.




Key
1 drainage material
2 collector drain
3 weep-hole drain
Figure 12 Hard and impermeable facings



Subsurface drainage

Subsurface drainage will be required if water-bearing strata are predicted or encountered.
Subsurface drainage may be required if the groundwater table has to be lowered. Drainage
boreholes normally contain slotted or perforated pipes. They are normally wrapped with a
geotextile filter to prevent the ingress of fines. The characteristic opening size of the geotextile
should be chosen to minimise clogging while permitting water into the pipe.

46
The number, length and pattern of the drainage pipes depend on the expected amount and regime of
water. The inclination of the boreholes is typically 5 %.


Figure 13 Subsurface drainage


6. BORED PILES


The construction of bored piles is covered by EN 1536.


Definitions

The term pile is used for circular section structure and the term barrette for other shapes. Both are
bored piles.

bored pile
pile or barrette formed with or without a pile casing by excavating or boring a hole in the ground
and filling with plain or reinforced concrete (Fig. 1) Designation for bored pile are given fig.8

barrette
discrete length of diaphragm wall, usually short, or a number of interconnecting lengths cast
simultaneously (e.g. L-, T- or cruciform shapes), used to support vertical and/or lateral loads. (fig.
2)

end bearing pile
bored pile transmitting actions to the ground mainly by compression on its base.

friction pile
bored pile transmitting actions to the ground mainly by friction and adhesion between the lateral
surface of the pile and the adjacent ground.

skin friction
frictional and/or adhesive resistance on the bored pile surface

negative skin friction
frictional and/or adhesive action by which surrounding soil or fill transfers downward load to a
bored pile when the soil or fill settles relative to the bored pile shaft

continuous flight auger pile (CFA-pile)
pile formed by means of a hollow stemmed continuous flight auger through the stem of which
concrete or grout is pumped as the auger is extracted (see figure 11, figure 12)

prepacked pile
pile where the completed excavation is filled with coarse aggregate which is subsequently injected
with cement mortar from the bottom up.

pile base grouting
pressure injection of grout below the base of an installed bored pile base in order to enhance
performance
under load

pile shaft grouting
injection of grout carried out after bored pile concrete has set for the enhancement of skin friction
by the use of grouting pipes which are installed down the shaft, normally placed with the bored pile
reinforcement


48
enlarged base
base of a bored pile formed to have an area greater than that of its shaft. For bored piles, normally
constructed by the use of special underreaming or belling-out tools (see figure 3).

integrity test
test carried out on an installed bored pile for the verification of soundness of materials and of the
pile geometry.

sonic test
integrity test where a series of sonic waves is passed between a transmitter and a receiver through
the concrete of a bored pile and where the characteristics of the received waves are measured and
used to infer the state of continuity and section variations of the bored pile shaft.

sonic coring
sonic integrity test carried out from core drillings in a bored pile shaft or from a pre-placed tube
system

test pile
bored pile to which loads are applied to determine the resistance deformation characteristics of the
pile and the surrounding ground

trial pile
bored pile installed to assess the practicability and suitability of the construction method for a
particular application.

static pile test
loading test where a bored pile is subjected to chosen static axial and/or lateral actions at the bored
pile head for the analysis of its capacity.

maintained load test
static loading test in which a test pile has loads applied in incremental stages, each of which is held
constant
for a certain period or until pile motion has virtually ceased or has reached a prescribed limit (ML -
test).

constant rate of penetration test
static loading test in which a test bored pile is forced into the ground at a constant rate and the force
is measured (CRP-test).

dynamic pile test
loading test where a dynamic force is applied at the pile or the barrette head for assessment of pile
capacity.

socket
bottom part of a bored pile in hard ground (usually rock)

grout
fluid mixture of a binding and/or setting agent (usually cement), fine aggregate and water that
generally hardens after being placed in position.




49
Shapes


Bored piles can be of two kind of shapes:
with circular shape (see figure 1) and
barrettes (see figure 2), provided the section is concreted in a single operation.





Bored piles can have:
uniform cross-section (straight shaft);
telescopically changing shaft dimensions;
excavated base enlargements; or
excavated shaft enlargements

Te European Standard EN 1536 applies to bored piles with the following dimensions:
depth to width ratio larger or equal to 5 ;
shaft diameter : 0,3 D 3,0 m (see figure 1, figure 3);
dimension for barrettes :

Wi 0,4 m (see figure 2);

ratio between the dimensions : Li / Wi 6
where:
Li is the largest dimension of the barrette and
Wi is the least dimension of the barrette;

cross-sectional area of barrettes : A 10 m ;
50




The European Standard EN 1536 also apply to piles with the following rake (see figure 4):
n 4 ( 76) ;
n 3 ( 72) for permanently cased piles.

Shaft or base enlargements covered by the European Standard EN 1536 are:
base enlargements in non-cohesive ground :

D
B
/ D 2 and
in cohesive ground : D
B
/ D 3;

shaft enlargements in any ground : D
E
/ D 2;
slope of the enlargement in non-cohesive ground :

m 3 and
in cohesive ground : m 1,5
(see figure 3).

The provisions of the European Standard EN 1536 apply to:
single bored piles;
bored pile groups (see figure 5);
walls formed by piles (see figure 6).




51


The bored piles which are the subject of the European Standard EN 1536 can be excavated by
continuous or discontinuous methods using support methods for stabilizing the excavation walls
where required.

Bored piles can be constructed:
of unreinforced (plain) concrete,
of reinforced concrete,
of concrete reinforced by means of special reinforcement such as steel tubes, steel sections
or steel fibres,
of precast concrete (including prestressed concrete) elements or steel tubes where the
annular gap between the element or tube and the ground is filled by concrete, cement or
cement-bentonite grout.
(see figure 7).


52



Excavation

When constructing bored piles measures shall be taken to prevent uncontrolled inflow of water
and/or soil into the bore.
An inflow of water and/or soil could cause for instance :
a disturbance to or instability of the bearing stratum or the surrounding ground;
loss of support by the removal of soil from beneath adjacent foundations;
unstable cavities outside the bored pile;
damage to the unset concrete in the bored pile or bored piles recently installed nearby;
voids in the shaft during concreting;
washing out of cement.

There are increased risks in :
loose granular ground;
soft cohesive ground; or
ground which is variable.
53

In soils liable to flow into the bore or where there is a risk of collapse, means of support shall be
used to maintain stability and thereby prevent the uncontrolled entry of soil and water.

Common means of support of bore walls are :
casings;
support fluid;
soil-filled auger flights.

Bored pile bores shall be excavated until they reach :
the specified bearing stratum, or
the anticipated founding level,
and shall be socketed into the founding material where and as required by the design.

In cases of
unfavourable stratification of the bearing layers,
founding on bedrock, or
sloping surface of the bearing layers
the excavation shall be carried down to provide full face contact.

Bored piles can be excavated in an intermittent or continuous process :
tools for intermittent excavation are for example: grabs, shells, augers, boring buckets and
chisels ;
tools for continuous excavation are for example: augers, drilling or percussion tools for
excavation combined with
augering or flushing methods for soil removal.

The employment of
temporary or permanent casings
support fluids, or
soil-filled flights of a continuous flight auger
can be necessary to support the excavation walls.

The type of boring tool shall
be appropriate to the given soil, rock, groundwater or other environmental conditions,
be selected with a view to preventing loosening of material outside the bored pile and below
its base, and
allow the bores to be excavated quickly.

It can be necessary to change the method or tool employed to meet the requirements.
Special tools and/or techniques other than those used for excavation may be used for the cleaning
of bases.

In situations where water or support fluid is present inside the bore, the choice and operation of
tools shall not impair bore walls stability.

A piston effect with negative influence on the stability of the bored pile walls can occur and the
operating speed of the tool should be adapted accordingly.

Excavations supported by casings

Raking piles shall be cased over their entire length if their inclination is: n 15 (86) unless it can
be shown that uncased bores will be stable (see figure 4).
54

Casings may be installed during the excavation process using :
oscillating or
rotating equipment
or they may be driven prior to the excavation using :
piling hammers or
vibrators or other.

Where a bored pile is excavated
below the groundwater table in permeable ground, or
in artesian conditions
an internal excess pressure shall be provided within the casing by a head of water or other suitable
fluid of not less than 1,0 m which shall be maintained until the bored pile has been concreted.

In unstable bores the casing shall be maintained in advance of boring.
The advancement in relation to the excavation shall be adjusted to suit the ground and groundwater
conditions.

The insertion of the casings ahead of boring is necessary to prevent an inflow of soil and
disturbance below the bored pile base which can affect the bored pile performance ("caving in",
"bottom heave"). The creation of a cavity outside the casing can endanger the integrity of a
concreted bored pile if and when the casing is withdrawn ("necking").
Zones of loosening can also move upwards to the surface and can there cause subsidence.

Excavations supported by fluids

The properties of a support fluid shall be in accordance with previously given conditions.

There are two types of excavations supported by fluids:
direct circulation boring system (fig. 9)
reverse circulation boring system (fig. 10)

The upper part of an excavation shall be protected by a lead-in tube or guide wall
to guide the boring tools;
to protect the bore walls against collapse of upper loose soils; and
for the safety of site personnel.

At all times during boring and concrete placement the level of support fluid shall be maintained :
within the lead-in tube or the guide wall, and
at least 1,5 m above the external ground-water level.


Boring with continuous flight augers

Piles may be formed without other means of support of the bore, by using a continuous flight auger
in such a way that the stability of the bore is preserved by the material on the flights (fig.11, fig.12).

Continuous flight auger piles shall not be constructed with inclinations of n 10 (84), unless
measures are taken to control the direction of the excavation and the installation of the
reinforcement.

Boring with continuous flight augers shall be carried out as fast as possible and with the least
practical number of auger rotations in order to minimize the effects on the surrounding ground.
55

Where layers of unstable soil are encountered with a thickness of more than the pile diameter, the
feasibility of the construction shall be demonstrated by means of trial piles or local experience
before the commencement of the works.

Unstable soils are considered to be :
uniform non-cohesive soils (d60/d10 < 1,5) below the groundwater table;
loose non-cohesive soils with relative density Dr < 0,3;
clays with high sensitivity;
cohesive soils with undrained shear strength cu < 15 kPa.

Uniform non-cohesive soils with 1,5 < d60/d10 < 3,0 below the groundwater table can be sensitive.

During excavation the advance and speed of rotation of the auger shall be adjusted in accordance
with the soil conditions so that soil removal is limited to such an extent that :
the lateral stability of the bore wall will be preserved, and
over-excavation will be minmized.
For this the boring tool shall be provided with sufficient torque and traction power.

The pitch of the flights shall be constant over the whole length of the auger.

A system of closure shall be provided in the hollow auger stem to prevent the entry of soil and
inflow of water during drilling.

When the required depth has been reached, the auger shall be lifted from the bore only if
the surrounding ground is stabilized by the rising concrete, or
the surrounding ground remains stable.

If a pile can not be completed and the auger has to be removed, the auger shall be withdrawn by
back-screwing and the bore hole shall be back-filled with soil or support fluid.

Unsupported excavation

Excavation without the provision of support to bore walls is permissible in ground conditions
which remain stable during excavation and where a collapse of ground material into the bore is not
likely.

The stability of the unsupported excavation shall be demonstrated by means of trial bored piles or
comparable experience before the commencement of the works.

The upper part of the excavation shall be protected by a lead-in tube unless
the excavation is carried out in firm soil, and
the diameter D is smaller than 0,6 m.

Concreting and trimming

The interval between completion of excavation and commencement of concrete placement is
required to be kept as short as possible.
Prior to concrete placement the cleanliness of the bore shall be checked.

The bored pile trimming operation:
shall be carried out only when the concrete has obtained sufficient strength,
56
shall remove all concrete which is contaminated or of lower quality than required from the
top of the bored pile, and
shall continue until sound concrete over the whole cross section is revealed.

Concreting in dry conditions

The procedure for placing concrete in dry conditions shall not be followed if there is standing water
at the base of the bore.

A check shall be carried out immediately before the placement.

If water is recognized concrete should be placed as for submerged conditions.

Concreting shall be carried out in such way as to avoid segregation. The concrete shall be directed
vertically into the centre of the bore by means of a funnel and an attached length of pipe so that the
concrete does not hit
the reinforcement, or
the walls of the bore.

The internal diameter of the concreting pipe shall not be less than 8 times the maximum size of the
aggregate.

Concreting in submerged conditions

In order to avoid mixing between concrete and bentonite, the instantaneous velocity of concrete
rising should not be less than 3 m/h.

The main purpose of the tremie pipe is the prevention of segregation of the concrete during
placement or its contamination by the fluid inside the bore.

Submerged concrete shall not be compacted by internal vibration.

Compaction is dependent on the flow characteristics of the concrete in relation to its self weight
and the surcharge of the fluid above the concrete column.

The tremie pipe, including all its joints, shall be water tight.

It shall be equipped at its upper end with a hopper to receive the fresh concrete and prevent spillage
of concrete which otherwise could fall freely into the bore, segregate or become contaminated.

The tremie pipe shall be smooth to allow free flow of concrete and have a uniform internal
diameter of at least
6 times the maximum size of the aggregate, or
150 mm
whichever is the greater.

The external shape and dimension of the tremie pipe, including its joints, shall allow its free
movement inside the reinforcement cage.

The maximum outside diameter of the tremie pipe including its joints should be not more than:
0,35 times the pile diameter D or the inner diameter of a casing ;
0,6 times the inner width of the reinforcement cage for piles; and
0,8 times the inner width of the reinforcement cage for barrettes.
57

The immersion of the tremie pipe into the concrete should be not less than 1,5 m, particularly when
disconnecting sections of the pipe and when recovering and disconnecting sections of temporary
casing.

For piles with a diameter D 1,2 m the immersion should be at least 2,5 m and for barrettes at least
3,0 m, particularly when two or more tremie pipes are used.

When concrete is placed under support fluid:
a sample of the fluid shall be taken from the base of the bore, and
any major filtercake or debris shall be removed from the bottom of the bore
immediately before the start of the placement.

Extraction of casings

The extraction of temporary casings shall not begin until the concrete column has reached a
sufficient height inside the casing to generate an adequate excess pressure.
to protect against inflow of water or soil at the tip of the casing; and
to prevent the reinforcement cage from being lifted.

The extraction shall be carried out while concrete is still of the required consistency.

During the continued extraction a sufficient quantity and head of concrete shall be maintained
inside the casing to balance the external pressure so that the annular space vacated by the removal
of the casing is filled with concrete.

The supply of concrete, and the speed of extraction of the casing shall be such that no inflow of soil
or water occurs into the freshly placed concrete, even if a sudden drop of concrete level should
occur when a cavity outside the casing is uncovered.

Concreting of continuous flight auger piles

Concreting of piles excavated with continuous flight augers may be carried out by placing concrete
through the hollow central stem of the auger, the stem being closed at its base, to avoid entry of
water or soil until concrete placing commences.

Once boring has reached the final depth, concrete shall be placed through the stem to fill the pile as
the auger is withdrawn.

External grouting of bored piles

Shaft and/or base grouting shall be carried out only after the cast-in-situ concrete has set.

Only permanent grouting pipes are allowed and their arrangement shall be appropriate to the zones
and materials to be grouted.

Base grouting can be carried out:
through steel pipes attached to cages;
by means of a flexible box structure (see Figure 13) installed with the reinforcement,
allowing the spread of grout over the whole base area of the bored pile; or
with sleeved perforated cross pipes arranged at the bored pile bottom.

58
Shaft grouting shall be carried out through grouting pipes fixed to the reinforcement cage or tube or
a precast concrete element as applicable (see figure 14).

Pile walls

A template of steel or concrete should be installed at the working platform for the maintenance of
the pile positions where specified accuracy requires.

Excavations should be supported by temporary casings in the construction of secant pile walls.

Normally in the construction of secant pile walls, alternate piles only should be reinforced. These
reinforced piles should be constructed after the initially installed unreinforced piles on either side
are in place.

Where all piles are to be reinforced, the primary piles shall be constructed so as not to impair the
later alternate pile installation.

The construction sequence of secant and contiguous pile walls, and the concrete composition
employed, shall be chosen as such that the concrete of the primary piles has achieved sufficient
strength for stability but has not developed a strength that would be too high for an intersection to
be achieved.

In the construction of secant pile walls, hardening slurry may be used for primary piles instead of
concrete.


Bored pile testing

The principal requirements for bored pile testing shall comply with EN 1997-1. The following
notes contain general remarks, which may be supplemented by national application documents, as
applicable (as long as respective European Standards are not available).

Bored pile tests may be used for proof of :
- resistance/deformation characteristics in the general range of specified actions;
- the soundness and proper construction of a pile.

Bored pile tests can consist of :
- maintained load tests;
- constant rate of penetration tests;
- dynamic pile tests for the determination of the pile capacity; and
- integrity tests which measure the acoustic or vibration properties of the bored pile in order
to determine the presence of possible anomalies within its body.

59




Fig. 8 - Bored pile: Designations

60


Fig. 9 - Direct circulation boring system



Fig. 10 Reverse circulation boring system

61


Fig. 11 - Auger





Fig.12 - Continuous flight auger drilling

62


Fig. 13 - Pile base grouting (examples)



Fig. 14 - Shaft grouted pile


7. DISPLACEMENT PILES

Displacement piles are covered by EN 12699.

Terms

displacement pile
pile which is installed in the ground without excavation or removal of material from the ground
except for limiting heave, vibration, removal of obstructions or to assist penetration (see Figure 1,
2, 3)

prefabricated (displacement) pile
pile or pile element which is manufactured in a single unit or in pile segments before installation
(see Figure 9b)

cast in place (displacement) pile
pile installed by driving a closed ended concrete shell or permanent or temporary casing, and
filling the hole so formed with plain or reinforced concrete(see Figure 5 and 9a)

screw pile
pile in which the pile or pile tube comprises a limited number of helices at its base and which is
installed under the combined action of a torque and a vertical thrust. By the screwing-in
and/or by the screwing-out, the ground is essentially laterally displaced and virtually no soil is
removed

jacked pile
pile pressed into soil by means of static force

grouted pile
prefabricated pile fitted with an enlarged shoe to create along a part or the full perimeter of the
pile a space which is filled during driving with grout, mortar or microconcrete. See Figure 7

post grouted pile
pile where shaft and/or base grouting is performed after installation through pipes fixed along or
incorporated in the pile. See Figure 8

driving
method to bring the piles into the ground to the required depth, such as hammering, vibrating,
pressing, screwing or by a combination of these or other methods

leader
steel sections used for guiding driving equipment and/or pile during driving. See Figure 6

impact hammer
tool of construction equipment for driving piles by impact (striking or falling mass)

vibrator (vibrating hammer)
tool of construction equipment for driving or extracting piles, drive tubes or casing by the
application of vibratory forces

helmet
device, usually steel, placed between the base of the impact hammer and the pile or drive tube so
as to uniformly distribute the hammer impact to the top of the pile. See Figure 6
64

hammer cushion
device or material placed between the impact hammer and the helmet to protect the hammer
and the pile head from destructive direct impact. The hammer cushion material shall have
enough stiffness to transmit hammer energy efficiently into the pile.

pile cushion
material, usually softwood, placed between the helmet and the top of a precast concrete pile.

follower
a temporary extension, used during driving, that permits the driving of the pile top below
ground surface, water surface, or below the lowest point to which the driving equipment can
reach without disengagement from the leaders

driving criteria
driving parameters used to be fullfilled when driving a pile

jetting
use of pressurised water to facilitate the driving of a pile by means of hydraulic displacement of
parts of the soil

preboring (preaugering, predrilling)
boring through obstructions or materials too dense to penetrate with the planned pile type and
driving equipment

set
mean permanent penetration of a pile in the ground per blow measured by a series of blows

drive tube
steel tube used to displace the ground during the formation of a driven cast in place pile. Drive
tube is withdrawn during concreting

casing
steel tube used temporarily or permanently to support shaft walls during the construction of a pile.
In permanent situation the casing can act as a protective or load bearing unit

mandrel
a steel core for driving that is inserted into a closed-end tubular pile. After installation the mandrel
is withdrawn

test pile
pile to which a load is applied to determine the resistance deformation characteristics of the pile
and surrounding ground

trial pile
pile installed to assess the practicability and suitability of the construction method for a particular
application

preliminary pile
pile installed before the commencement of the main piling works or section of the works for the
purpose of establishing the suitability of the chosen type of pile, driving equipment and/or for
confirming the design, dimensions and bearing capacity

65
driven pile
pile which is forced into the soil by driving, the soil being displaced by the pile or drive tube

maintained load pile test
static loading test in which a testpile has loads applied in incremental stages, each of which is
held constant for a certain period or until pile motion has virtually ceased or has reached a
prescribed limit (ML - test)

constant rate of penetration pile load test
static loading test in which a test pile is forced into the ground at a constant rate and the force is
measured (CRP - test)

dynamic pile load test
loading test where a pile is subjected at the pile head to a dynamic force for analysis of its load
bearing capacity

sonic test , low strain integrity test
integrity test where a series of waves is passed between a transmitter and a receiver through the
concrete of a pile and where the characteristics of the received waves are measured and used
to infer continuity and section variations of the pile shaft

sonic coring
sonic integrity test of pile concrete carried out from core drillings in a pile shaft or from a pre-
placed tube system

working level
level of the piling platform on which the piling rig works.

Classification and examples



Figure 1 Family tree chart for displacement piles

66






Figure 2 Examples of shafts and bases of displacement piles

67



Figure 3 Examples of cross sections for displacement piles
68




Figure 4 Examples for toe protection for prefabricated displacement piles

69



Figure 5 Examples of construction of cast in place displacement piles



70




Figure 6 Examples of piling rig with impact hammer

71



Figure 7 Example of grouted pile

72



Figure 8 Example of post grouted pile

73


Figure 9 Displacement piles, termes and levels




8. MICROPILES

Micropiles are covered by EN 14199

Classification, domains of use

There are two types of micropiles from execution stand point:
- drilled micropiles with a shaft diameter not greater than 300 mm;
- driven micropiles with a shaft diameter or a maximum shaft cross sectional extension not
greater than 150 mm

Micropiles are structural members to transfer actions to the ground and may contain bearing
elements to transfer directly or indirectly loads and or to limit deformations. Their shaft and base
resistance may be improved (mostly by grouting) and they may be constructed with (see Figure 1):
- uniform cross section (straight shaft); or
- telescopically changing shaft dimensions;
- shaft enlargements; and/or
- base enlargement.

Other than practical considerations, there are no limitations regarding, length, rake
(definition of rake, see Figure 2), slenderness ratio or shaft and base enlargements.

Micropiles can act as (see Figure 3):
single micropiles;
micropile groups;
reticulated micropiles;
micropile walls.

The material of micropiles can be:
steel or other reinforcement materials;
grout, mortar or concrete;
a combination of above.

Micropiles may be used for:
- working under restricted access and/or headroom conditions;
- foundations of new structures (particularly in very heterogeneous soil or rock formations);
- reinforcing or strengthening of existing structures to increase the capacity to transfer load
to depth with acceptable load settlement characteristics, e.g. underpinning works;
- reducing settlements and/or displacements;
- forming a retaining wall;
- reinforcing of soil to form a bearing and/or retaining structure;
- improving slope stability;
- securing against uplift;
- other application where micropiles technicques are appropriate.
75

Figure 1 Example of micropile shafts and bases


Figure 2 Definition of rake



Key
1 Single micropile
2 Micropile groups
3 Reticulated micropiles
4 Micropile walls

Figure 3 Examples of micropile structures
76
Terms and definitions

micropiles
piles which have a small diameter (smaller than 300 mm shaft diameter for drilled piles and
not greater than 150 mm shaft diameter or maximum shaft cross sectional extension for driven
piles).

drilling
method of removing the soil or rock in an intermittent or continous process

drilling fluid/ mud
water or a suspension of bentonite, polymers or clay, in water with or without cement and
other additions, for stabilization of borehole walls and for flushing

driving
method to bring the micopile into the ground to the required depth, such as hammering,
vibrating, pressing screwing or by a combination of these or other methods

casing
tube used to support the micropile hole during the construction of a micropile. The casing can
be permanent or temporary. Permament casing may act as a load bearing element and/or as a
corrosion protection

drive tube
steel tube used to displace the ground during the formation of a driven cast in place micropile.
The drive tube is withdrawn during grouting or concreting

grout
a setting material, usually cement and water, containing sometimes additives or a limited
amount of fine aggregates, which transfers load from the bearing element or the micropiles
shaft to the ground and/or contributes to corrosion protection

mortar
concrete with very small aggregates(< 8 mm)

grouting
pumping of grout or concrete into the borehole with a pressure which is higher than the
hydrostatic pressure

tube--manchettes
a regularly slotted sleeved tube through that grout injections are possible using a packer device

filling
grouting under no applied fluid pressure other than the height of grout fluid. Sometimes
referred to as gravity grouting or as tremie grouting

test micropile
micropile to which a load is applied to determine the resistance and deformation
characteristics of the micropile and the surrounding ground

preliminary micropile
micropile installed before the commencement of the main piling works or section of the works
for the purpose of establishing the suitability of the chosen type of micropile and/or for
77
confirming the design, dimensions are bearing capacity

trial micropile
micropile installed to assess the practicability and suitability of the construction method for a
particular application

working micropile
micropile which is part of a structure

integrity test
test carried out on an installed micropile for the verification of soundness of micropile
components

static load test
loading test where a micropile is subjected to chosen axial and/or lateral forces at the
micropile head for the analysis of its capacity and deformation characteristics

maintained load test (ML test)
static loading test in which a test micropile has loads applied in incremental stages, each of
which is held constant for a certain period or until micropile motion has virtually ceased or has
reached a priscrebed limit

constant rate of penetration test (CRP test)
static load test in which a test micropile is forced into the ground at a constant rate and the
force is measured

Execution of micropiles

The micropiles shall be executed and supervised by trained and experienced personnel.
A method statement should be provided before starting the execution of micropiles. This method
statement should contain (but is not limited to) the following information:
- identification , objective and scope of the micropiles;
- soil description; (possibly by reference to site investigation report);
- environmental issues;
- technical requirements;
equipment and working procedure for:
- drilling and/or driving;
- installation of reinforcement or bearing element;
- filling, grouting or concreting;
- measures to ensure the boring accuracy:
- grouting parameters;
- site installation and working areas;
- spoil management;
- quality control procedures.

Special care shall be taken for the execution of tangent or secant micropiles for the formation
of walls (spacing, deviation, sequence of drilling, constitutive material).
Where possible the preliminary, trial or test micropiles should be installed close to positions of
soil investigation.




78
Drilling

When constructing micropiles by drilling, continuous drilling with flushing for the removal of soil is the
most common method.
Micropile boreholes shall be drilled until they reach:
- the specified embedment in the bearing stratum; or
- the anticipated founding level; or
- the prescribed length.

When uncontrolled inflow of water and soil into the borehole can occur or when there is a
risk of collapse, special measures shall be taken to maintain the stability and thereby prevent
the uncontrolled entry of soil and water.
An inflow of water and/or soil could cause for instance:
- a disturbance to or instability of the bearing stratum or the surrounding ground;
- loss of support by the removal of soil from beneath underpinned or adjacent foundations;
- damage to the unset grout, mortar or concrete in the micropile or micropiles recently installed nearby; - defaults
in the shaft;
- washing out of cement.
There are increased risks in:
- loose granular soil;
- soft cohesive soil;
- ground which is variable;
- when using air as drilling fluid with direct circulation under the groundwater table.

Use of flushing

Drilling can be performed with water, air and drilling fluids.
When drilling methods with air as flushing medium are used for underpinning works, special
care should be taken to avoid disturbance or fracturing of the ground.

Boreholes supported by casings

Casings should be used when the borehole is unstable or there is a significant fluid loss or when
filling or grouting is performed through the casing.

Drilling with continuous flight augers

No special limitations exist concerning the inclination on the basis that the direction of
excavation is controlled and the installation of the reinforcement can be achieved correctly.
Normally grout or mortar is used for the execution of micropiles with continuous flight augers.

Driving

When impact or vibrating driving methods are applied for underpinning works, their feasibility shall
be proven (e.g. with comparable experience taking into account the soil type and the condition
of the structures to be underpinned).

Enlargements

Micropile enlargements may be formed:

- by excavation;
- by driving compacted quantities of concrete below the bottom of the drive tube or permanent
casing;
79
- by installing an expanded body.

Grouting

The following methods may be employed for filling and grouting the borehole:
- filling the borehole with grout;
- grouting:
- single step grouting through a temporary casing;
- single step grouting through a bearing element;
- grouting during driving and/or drilling;
- single or multiple step grouting through tubes--manchettes, special valves or
post-grouting tubes (= multi-stage grouting).
Filling or grouting meets one or more of the following functions:
- to create or improve the bond between the micropile shaft and the surrounding ground to
allow the design shaft bearing capacity to be mobilised;
- to protect the reinforcement against corrosion;
to improve the bearing capacity of the micropile;
to strengthen and seal the ground immediately adjacent to the micropile in order to enhance the
micropile bearing capacity.

Filling the borehole with grout

The interval between the completion of the borehole drilling and the filling up of the borehole
with grout shall be kept as short as possible.
Measures shall be taken to ensure that the micropile length is completely filled with grout.
When filling the borehole with the tremie pipe or through the drill rods or tubular bearing elenients,
the end of the tremie pipe or drill rods shall remain submerged in the grout and grouting shall
continue until the consistency of the grout emerging on top is almost the same as that of the injected
grout (Figure 5).
When filling the borehole, air and drilling fluid shall be able to escape to permit complete grout
filling.
For drilled boreholes the remaining cuttings shall be able to escape when filling the borehole.

Single step grouting through a temporary casing

The reinforcement shall be placed before the temporary casing is extracted.
During extraction of the temporary casing the grout level within the casing shall be brought back
up to ground level before the next length of casing is removed (Figure 6).
The grouting pressure should be applied at least every 2 m during the extraction of the casing.

Single step grouting through a load bearing element

When tubes are used as bearing element, single step grouting can be applied at the bottoni of the
bearing element (Figure 7).
When the specified grouting pressure cannot be applied, re-grouting shall be performed after a
certain waiting period until the specified grouting pressure can be applied.

Grouting during drilling

When grouting is applied during drilling, the bearing elements are fitted with a drill bit and they are
drilled into the ground.
For grouting during drilling, the grout pressure and flow rate should be adjusted depending on the
grout susceptibility to penetrate the ground loosened by the drilling process and contained within
80
the annulus around the reinforcing element.
When grouting during drilling, grout flushing should be carried out at a constant rate and the
flush should be re-established each time a new section of bearing element are added prior to
advancing the drill bit.

Multi-stage grouting

Multi-stage grouting may be executed by single step grouting through tube--manchettes
(Figure 8) or by multiple step grouting through tube--manchettes or special valves (Figure 9) or
by single step grouting through several post-grouting tubes staggered in length (Figure 10).
The multi-stage grouting phase(s) shall take place only after the grout placed into the borehole
has set.
The grouting shall be carried out either in single or multiple step(s) and in single or multiple stage(s),
according to the project specifications.
When the specified grouting pressure cannot be applied additional step(s) of grouting shall be
performed after a certain waiting period until the specified grouting pressure can be applied.
The grouting tubes shall be flushed with water after each grouting step and filled with grout
at the end of the whole grouting process.

Micropile testing

Tests on micropiles can be performed on preliminary micropiles and/or working micropiles.


Static load tests

Static load tests on micropiles may consist of:
a) maintained load tests;
b) constant rate of penetration tests.

Static load tests on preliminary micropiles

Static load tests on preliminary micropiles shall be performed when:
a) new techniques are used for the execution of the micropiles;
b) micropiles have to be installed in ground conditions for which previous tests are not
available;
c) higher working loads are applied than those already adopted in similar ground
conditions;
d) when the results of static load tests are used to determine the design load.

Static load tests on working micropiles

In the project specifications it shall be specified if static load tests have to be performed on
working micropiles.

For micropiles working in compression static load tests on at least two micropiles should be
performed for the first 100 micropiles and 1 for each next 100 micropiles.

For micropiles working in tension static load tests on at least two micropiles should be
performed for the first 25 micropiles and 1 for each next 25 micropiles.



81
Dynamic load tests and integrity tests

The use of dynamic load tests and integrity tests can not be generalised for micropiles because the
interpretation of the results concerning the bearing capacity and integrity may be difficult due to the small
diameter andlor shape of the micropile and the presence of a bearing element. So the use of dynamic load
tests and integrity tests has to be limited to cases where experience or comparison with static load tests has
demonstrated that the results can he interpretated in a confident way.
For dynamic load tests the micropile shall be allowed to gain sufficient strength after
installation and before testing.



Figure 5 Filling up a borehole with grout


Figure 6 Single step grouting through a temporary casing
82


Figure 7 Single step grouting through a load bearing element


Figure 8 Single step grouting through a tube--manchettes

83

Key
1 Packer

Figure 9 Multiple step grouting through a tube--manchettes or special valves


Figure 10 Single step grouting through several post-grouting tubes











84
9. DEEP MIXING


Deep mixing works are carried out by two different methods: dry mixing and wet mixing and form
the objects of EN 14679.

Deep mixing considered in EN 14679 is limited to methods, which involve:

a) mixing by rotating mechanical mixing tools where the lateral support provided to the surrounding
soil is not removed;

b) treatment of the soil to a minimum depth of 3 m;

c) different shapes and configurations, consisting of either single columns, panels, grids, blocks,
walls or any combination of more than one single column, overlapping or not:

d) treatment of natural soil, fill, waste deposits and slurries, etc.;

e) other ground improvement methods using similar techniques exist.


Definitions

dry mixing (malaxare n uscat)
process consisting of mechanical disaggregation of the soil in situ and its mixing with binders with
or without fillers and admixtures in dry powder form

wet mixing (malaxare umed)
process consisting of mechanical disaggregation of the soil in situ and its mixing with a slurry
consisting of water, binders with or without fillers and admixtures

binder (liant)
chemically reactive materials (lime, cement, gypsum, blast furnace slag, fly ash, etc.)

admixture (aditiv)
dispersant, fluidifier, retarding agent

filler
non-reacting material (sand, limestone powder etc.)

column
pillar of treated soil manufactured in situ by a single installation process using a mixing tool. The
mixing tool and the execution process govern the shape and size of the cross section of a column

mixing tool
tool used to disaggregate the soil, distribute and mix the binder with the soil, consisting of one or
several rotating units equipped with several blades, arms, paddles with/without continuous or
discontinuous flight
augers

penetration (downstroke)
stage/phase of mixing process cycle, in which the mixing tool is delivered to the appropriate depth
and initial mixing and fluidisation of the soil take place
retrieval (upstroke)
85
stage/phase of mixing process cycle, in which the final mixing and retrieval of the mixing tool take
place


Material and products

Construction of deep mixing involves the addition of a binder and, if needed, one or more of the
following components to the soil:

a. admixture;
b. water;
c. filler;
d. structural reinforcement.

Practical aspects of deep mixing


The objective of deep mixing is to improve the soil characteristics, e.g. to increase the shear
strength and/or reduce the compressibility, by mixing the soil with some type of chemical additives
that react with the soil. The improvement becomes possible by ion exchange at the surface of clay
minerals, bonding of soil particles and/or filling of voids by chemical reaction products. Deep
mixing is classified with regard to the binder utilised (cement, lime/cement and possible additives,
such as gypsum, fly ash, etc.) and the method of mixing (wet/dry, rotary/jet-based, auger-based or
blade-based).

The development of deep mixing was started in Sweden and Japan in the late 1960's. Dry mixing,
using granular quick lime (unslaked lime) as a binder, was put into practice in Japan in the middle of
the 1970's. Approximately at the same time, dry mixing originated in Sweden as lime (powdered
lime) mixing to improve the settlement characteristics of soft, plastic clays. Wet mixing, using
cement slurry as a binder, was also put into practice in Japan in the middle of the 1970's. Deep
mixing has since spread into other parts of the world. More recently, the combination of cement and
lime with gypsum, fly ash and slag has been introduced.

Recently, hybrid techniques have been developed by combining deep mixing with other soil
improvement methods (such as jet grouting) or other machinery (surface mixing).

Fields of application

A variety of applications for deep mixing exists for temporary or permanent works and either on land
or marine, Figure 1. The main applications are reduction of settlement, improvement of stability and
containment.

Execution

The execution consists typically of positioning, penetration and retrieval. During penetration, the
mixing tool(s) cut and disaggregate the soil to the desired depth of treatment. During retrieval, the
binder is injected into the soil at a constant flow rate, as the retrieval speed is kept constant. The
mixing blades rotate in the horizontal plane and mix the soil and the binder. There are, however,
some variations of machines, in which the binder is injected during the penetration phase and both in
the penetration and retrieval phase.
Deep mixing can be carried out by two different methods: dry mixing where the binder is introduced
by air and wet mixing where the binder is in slurry form.
86
In dry mixing the binder is usually a mixture of cement and lime (unslaked), or a combination of
cement, lime, gypsum, blast furnace slag or pulverized fuel ash (PFA) in granular or powdered form.
Air is used to feed (or incorporate) the binder into the soil. (The moisture content of the soil needs to
be 20%).



Figure 1. - Applications of deep mixing for various purposes

In wet mixing the most common binder is cement.
Dry mixing is primarily utilised to improve the characteristics of cohesive soil, whereas wet
mixing is applied also in order to improve the characteristics of granular material. For certain
applications, such as prevention of liquefaction, dry mixing has also been used in loose granular soil.
Dry mixing
Dry mixing is normally carried out in accordance with some general principles.
As can be seen in the flow chart, the binder is fed into the soil in dry form with the aid of
compressed air. Two major techniques for dry mixing exist at present: the Nordic and the Japanese
techniques.

87

Figure 2. - Sequence of installation

The installation is carried out according to the following procedure, from left to right (Figure 2):

1) the mixing tool is correctly positioned;
2) the mixing shaft penetrates to the desired depth of treatment with simultaneous disaggregation of
the soil by the mixing tool;
3) after reaching the desired depth, the shaft is withdrawn and at the same time, the binder in
granular or powder form is injected into the soil;
4) the mixing tool rotates in the horizontal plane and mixes the soil and the binder;
5) completion of the treated column.

Nordic technique

Equipments used in the Nordic countries are able to install columns to a depth of 25 m with a
column diameter of normally 0,6 m to 1,0 m. The columns can be inclined up to about 70' in
relation to the vertical. The machines have one mixing shaft with the injection outlet positioned at
the mixing tool. Mixing energy and amount of binder are monitored and in some cases
automatically controlled to achieve uniform treated soil.

The mixing tool is drilled down to the final depth and a predetermined amount of binder is
added through an inner tube with an opening at the mixing tool (during the retrieval phase).
During the retrieval phase, the soil and binder are mixed by continued turning of the mixing tool.
Both phases can be repeated for the same location, if required.

Japanese technique

There are several variations of execution machines, which have either one or two mixing shafts.
Each mixing shaft of these machines have several blades with a diameter of 0,8 m to 1,3 m and are
able to install columns to a depth of 33 m. The binder, usually cement powder, is brought to the
mixing machine by compressed air.



88
Comparison of the Nordic and Japanese dry mixing techniques

Wet mixing
In wet mixing the binder is usually cemnt slurry. Filler (sand and additives) may be added to the
slurry when necessary. The specific quantity of slurry added can vary with depth. For machines with
the outlet below the mixing tool the slurry need not be added during the retrieval phase.
Whereas flight augers may be sufficient for predominantly granular soils, increasing fineness
and stiffness requires more complicated mixing tools provided with mixing and cutting blades of
different shapes and arrangements The rotary drives, turning the shaft, need to have enough power
to destroy the matrix of the soil for intimate mixture with the slurry.

Depending on the type of soil and slurry, a mortar-like mixture is created which hardens during
the hydration process. Strength and permeability depend strongly on the composition and
characteristics of the soil (fines content, organic content, type of clay, shape of the grains,
grain size distribution, grain hardness), the amount and type of binder and the mixing
procedure.

The wet mixing process can be interrupted on condition that the slurry has not begun to harden and
the mixing tool starts again at least 0,5 m in the soil already treated.

Pumps for transport of the slurry to the outlet need to have sufficient capacity (delivery rate and
pressure) to safely deliver the design quantity of slurry.
Wet mixing is common in Central and Southern Europe, North America and Japan.

Patterns of installation
Depending on the purpose of deep mixing, a number of different patterns of column
installations are used (Figures 3, 4, 5, 6). If the main purpose is to reduce settlement, the columns
are usually placed in an equilateral triangular or in a square pattern. If, on the other hand, the
purpose is to ensure stability of, for example, cuts or embankments, the columns are usually
placed in walls perpendicular to the expected failure surface. Overlapping of the columns is
particularly important when the columns are installed for containment purposes. Overlapping is
normal in block type, wall type and grid type installations.
89

Key
1 Strip 3 Triangular
2 Group 4 Square
Figure 3 - Examples of treatment patterns in dry mixing


Figure 4 - Block type pattern in dry mixing with overlapping columns



Key
1 Wall type
2 Grid type
3 Block type
4 Area type
Figure 5 - Examples of treatment patterns in wet mixing on land




90



Key
1 Wall type 5 Tangent column
2 Grid type 6 Tangent wall
3 Block type 7 Tangent grid
4 Area type 8 Tangent block


Figure 6 - Examples of treatment patterns in marine conditions


Hybrid methods
There are several methods, which use techniques reminding of deep mixing. These methods,
which in this context are named hybrid methods, are continuously under development to tackle
particular ground conditions and foundation problems. They typically combine hydraulic and
mechanical mixing.



Mass stabilisation
In cases where the soil conditions are very bad, e.g. peat, gyttja or organic clay and soft clay
deposits, mass stabilisation can be required, in which the whole soil mass is treated down to a
depth of normally 2 m to 3 m. The maximum depth of treatment presently is 5 m. The mass
stabilisation machines differ essentially from the column stabilisation machines. The binder is fed
to the mixing head while the mixer rotates and simultaneously moves vertically and horizontally.
Mostly the mass stabilisation machine is a conventional cavator but equipped with a mass
stabilisation mixer.
In Figure 7 are shown two types of mass stabilisation.
91

Key
1 Stabiliser tank + scales
2 Execution machine
3 Mixing tool
4 Mass stabilised peat, gyttja or clay
5 Peat, gyttja, clay
6 Direction of mass stabilisation
7 Geotextile (reinforcement)
8 Preloading embankment

Figure 7 - Two types of mass stabilisation

92
10. DEEP VIBRATION


Ground treatment by deep vibration achieved by depth vibrators and compaction probes is the
object of EN 14731.

The following types of treatment are covered by EN 14731:
deep vibratory compaction to densify the existing ground;
vibrated stone columns to form a stiffened composite ground structure by the insertion of
granular material which itself shall be densified. Generally, stone columns have a diameter
greater than 0,6 m and lower than 1,2 m.

The following treatment methods are covered by EN 14731:

methods in which depth vibrators, containing oscillating weights which cause horizontal
vibrations, are inserted into the ground;
methods in which compaction probes are inserted into the ground using a vibrator which
remains at the ground surface and which in most cases oscillates in a vertical mode.


Definitions

deep vibratory compaction
type of ground treatment by deep vibration in which the main purpose is to densify the soil. The
treatment is applicable to many granular soils and normally results in increased strength and
stiffness, reduced permeability and reduced susceptibility to liquefaction

vibrated stone columns
type of ground treatment by deep vibration in which a depth vibrator is used to form continuous
stone columns from the maximum depth of penetration up to the ground surface, and hence to form
a stone column/soil structure which should have an increased strength and stiffness compared with
the ground in an untreated state. The treatment is applicable to a wide range of soils and in granular
soils some densification may also be achieved. Three installation processes, the dry top-feed
process, the wet process and the dry bottom-feed process are described in Annex B

depth vibrator
basic component of ground treatment equipment used in the installation of vibrated stone columns
and in vibro compaction, which vibrates horizontally by means of an eccentric weight rotating
about its longitudinal axis, and penetrates into the ground. The penetration in the ground can be
made easier by air or water flushing

top vibrator
vibrator which remains above the ground surface

compaction probe
tool for deep vibratory compaction which is inserted into the ground to transmit vibrations from a
top vibrator which remains at the ground surface; wings, drainage or water flushing can be provided
to facilitate the compaction process

vibrating tool
item of equipment which is inserted into the ground to cause vibration at depth; commonly a depth
vibrator containing oscillating weights or a compaction probe inserted into the ground using a top
vibrator which remains at the ground surface

93
wet process
method of installing vibrated stone columns in which flushing water removes soft material,
stabilises the hole and allows specified granular material to reach the tip of the depth vibrator
where it is compacted (the process is described in Annex B)

dry bottom-feed process
method of installing vibrated stone columns in which specified granular material is delivered
directly to the tip of the vibrator via a feed pipe attached to the vibrator, with the vibrator
remaining in the ground during the construction of the column to maintain the stability of the hole
(the process is described in Annex B)

Materials for deep vibratory compaction

Material may be added during deep vibratory compaction. This may be the natural granular material
being compacted at the site or imported material.

Added materials shall be sufficiently hard and chemically inert so as to remain stable during the
treatment process and subsequent working life in the anticipated soil and groundwater conditions.

Materials for vibrated stone columns

Material used to form stone columns shall be:

sufficiently hard and chemically inert so as to remain stable during column construction and
subsequent working life in the anticipated soil and groundwater conditions;
graded appropriately for compaction to form a dense column fully interlocked with the
surrounding ground and in compliance with other requirements such as drainage;
compatible with the plant used and flow freely within bottom-feed and through-feed delivery
systems without arching which may block these systems.

Gradings typically used with the different processes are given in the following table.

Process Grading in mm
Dry top-feed process 40 to 75
Wet process 25 to 75
Dry bottom-feed process 8 to 50


Deep vibratory compaction

Deep vibratory compaction is usually restricted to granular soils; increasing fines content will
reduce the compaction efficiency. It is often found that a fines content of more than 10 % causes
difficulties. Soils exhibiting inter-particle bonding due to cementation, suction or some other
cause may not be suitable for this type of ground treatment. In some cases, compaction efficiency
can be increased by using water flushing, or in combination with vertical drains. Compaction up
to ground surface is only possible applying additional measures.

Deep vibratory compaction of granular soils can be achieved by methods which use either a
depth vibrator or a top vibrator.
94


Key
1 Eccentric weight (within)
2 Extension tube
3 Isolator
4 Water or air jets
5 Motor (within)
6 Fins to prevent twist
7 Nose cone
Fig. 1 - Depth vibrator

Where a top vibrator is used, it is connected to the top of a compaction probe, which is designed
to transfer the vibrations to the soil as efficiently as possible. Several different types of
compaction probes are available including the vibro-wing (Figure 2) and other flexible probes.
Conventional vibrators for sheet-pile driving can be used, but special vibrators have been
developed. Although the top vibrator usually vibrates vertically, the probe will cause horizontal
accelerations which may locally be greater than the vertical ones. The compaction increases
when resonance is created between the vibrating system (vibrator and compaction probe) and
surrounding soil. By means of vibration sensors placed on the ground, and a vibrator with
adjustable frequency, the frequency can be adapted to amplify ground vibrations; this method is
known as resonance compaction.
95


Fig. 2 - Vibro-wing

Compaction is achieved by inserting the probe at treatment points usually on a triangular or
rectangular grid. Spacings are typically from lm to 4 m depending on the type and size of the
compaction probe and vibrator capacity. At each treatment point the probe is inserted into the soil
to the depth to which compaction is required. The compaction is obtained during penetration or
during penetration and extraction. The compaction time at each point varies typically from 5 min to
40 min and the time required increases with the fine content of the soil. Compaction can be effected
using several passes, with closer spacings in the later passes.


Installation of vibrated stone columns

There are three principal methods of installing vibrated stone columns, dry top-feed process, wet
process and dry bottom-feed process, and for each method the installation of a single column is
described. With the vibrated stone column processes, column installation is repeated for further
columns at a predetermined spacing to effect the desired treatment. All three processes use a
similar type of depth vibrator, which is an eccentric weight assembly rotating rapidly within a
heavy tubular steel casing. The general arrangement of the ciepth vibrator is
,
'shown ,in Figure A.1.
The nose of the vibrator is tapered to aid penetration on the ground, whilst vertical fins prevent the
vibrator rotating during penetration.

The following descriptions are given as typical. In practice small differences in detail may be
noticed.

Dry top-feed process

In granular soils, this method is usually only possible above the water table. The whole
assembly is suspended from a crawler mounted crane and the vibrator is lowered onto the ground.
Penetration of the fill and/or underlying weak soil is effected by a combination of the weight of the
96
vibrator, the high frequency vibration and compressed air. A compressor supplies the depth
vibrator with air, which emerges from nozzles in the main steel housing just above the vibrator tip.
The general arrangement is shown in Figure 3. After reaching the required depth, the vibrator is
held in the ground for a short time and then withdrawn. A small charge of clean, inert granular
material is tipped into the hole and the vibrator is lowered again to compact the granular material
and interlock it with the surrounding soils. By adding successive small charges of granular material
and compacting each one to chosen levels of power consumption, a dense stone column is built up
to ground level. Typically gradings for the granular material are within the range from 40 mm to 75
mm.


Key

1 Stone column being formed
2 Stockpile of granular infill
3 Vibrator

Fig. - Dry top-feed process



Wet process


The wet process is used where the dry top-feed process cannot be used because of unstable ground.
The depth vibrator is similar to that used for the dry process but is equipped with water
flushing.
The depth vibrator (Figure 4) is suspended from a suitable crane, lowered onto the ground and
the water jets are opened. The vibrator penetrates quickly through weak soils under its own
weight aided by the water flushing and vibrations. The vibrator is partially withdrawn and is
sometimes surged to flush out the weak soils accumulating in and adjacent to the bore. Following
formation of an open hole the vibrator is kept in the ground and the water flow reduced whilst
clean inert granular material is successively heaped around the top of the vibrator bore at ground
level. The granular material then passes down between the vibrator and the surrounding soils to
permit the construction of a stone column in short lifts and repenetration steps. It is important that
the water flow is maintained until the vibrator reaches ground surface. The vibrator compacts the
granular infill and interlocks it tightly with the surrounding soil. The cycle is repeated until a
compact stone column is built up to ground level. Typically gradings for the granular material are
within the range from 25 mm to 75 mm.
97



Key

1 Stone column
2 Stone stockpile
3 Water flushing
4 Vibrator

Fig. 4 - Wet process


Dry bottom-feed process

As the vibrator remains in the hole during column construction, the process can operate successfully
in unstable hole conditions and can be used instead of the wet process in most cases. The bottom-
feed depth vibrator has a heavy duty supply tube located down one side and permanently fixed to
the vibrator forming a fully integrated vibrator/granular material supply. The supply tube bends
inwards at the vibrator tip to ensure a central location for the supply of granular material. The
general arrangement is shown in Figure 5.

The cycle of operations for this completely dry process is as follows. The vibrator is positioned
on the ground at the treatment point location; and the whole system is charged with granular
material. With the granular material in the supply tube acting as a plug at the tip of the vibrator,
assisted as necessary by compressed air and under the combined action of the vibrations and its
weight, using an additional pull down force if necessary, the depth vibrator penetrates the
ground to the required depth. The stone column is then formed and compacted by lifting the
vibrator, holding the lift for a short time to allow the granular material to run, and then forcing the
vibrator down on the charge of granular material to compact and tightly interlock it with the
surrounding soil. This is repeated, charging the system with granular material as necessary, until
a compact stone column is formed up to ground level. Typically gradings for the granular material
are within the range from 8 mm to 50 mm.
98


Key

1 Pressure chamber
2 Vibrator
3 Stone stockpile
4 Stone feed bucket
5 Stone delivery tube
Fig. 5 - Dry bottom-feed process


99
11. VERTICAL DRAINAGE


In cases where external loading of low-permeability soils, such as clay, gyttja (Decomposed plant
and animal remains; may contain inorganic constituents), decomposed peat etc., causes a stress increase
exceeding the pre-consolidation pressure of the soil, excess pore water pressure will be induced,
followed by a consolidation process in which pore water is squeezed out of the soil. The volume
decrease of the soil caused thereby is accompanied by a gradual increase in effective stress
and a corresponding decrease in excess pore water pressure. The consolidation process will
continue until the excess pore water pressure has completely dissipated and the load is carried by
effective stresses, a process whose duration depends on the consolidation characteristics of the soil
and the drainage paths (the longer the drainage paths, the longer the consolidation process). The
aim of vertical drain installation is to shorten the drainage paths and the time required for the
excess pore water pressure, induced by the loading operation, to dissipate. The time of excess pore
water pressure dissipation (the consolidation time) will be shorter the closer the drains are installed.

Vertical drainage is covered by EN 15237.

Fields of application

The installation of vertical drains is carried out as a means of speeding up Iong-term
consolidation settlements caused by loading. Another objective is to improve stability conditions by
an overall increase in shear strength. In seismic regions vertical drainage can also be used for the
purpose of mitigating liquefaction phenomena.

Examples of areas where this technique has generally been applied are: - embankments for roads and
railroads;
- construction and reinforcements of dikes;
- embankments for construction sites of housing estates, industrial estates, terminals etc.; -
preloading for landfills;
- marine constructions and near-shore applications;
- land reclamation, ports and airports.

A growing area of application is in the environmental field, remediation of contaminated ground.
Contaminated water squeezed out through the drains may have to be treated before disposal.

The required life span of vertical drains is normally limited to a maximum of about 5 years,
with the exception of drains used for liquefaction mitigation where the lifetime needs to be
significantly longer.

Execution of vertical drainage

The functional requirements of the project form the basis for the geotechnical design of vertical
drainage. The execution of a vertical drainage system includes the creation of a working
platform, the placement of a drainage blanket, positioning of the drain pattern and installation
of the drains, followed by the loading operation and monitoring.

Prefabricated drain types have gradually replaced sand drains, which previously were
frequently used. The installation of vertical drains may detrimentally affect the original
properties of the soil (e.g. decrease the shear strength and coefficient of consolidation). A
possible decrease in shear strength has to be taken into account in cases where stability under
loading conditions may be threatened. Vertical drainage and preloading are illustrated in
Figure 1. Due to the excess pore water pressure created by loading, pore water is squeezed
out of the soil in the horizontal direction towards the drains and thereafter in the vertical
100
direction through the drains. A generally smaller amount of water is also squeezed out of the
soil in the vertical direction between the drains (contributory effect of one-dimensional
consolidation).



Key
1 surcharge load
2 drainage blanket
3 vertical drains
4 clay layer
5 pore water flow

Figure 1 - Sketch showing fully penetrating drains (drains in contact with drainage layers at
top and bottom), drainage blanket and surcharge load

Depending upon the installation method and procedure used, the installation of vertical drains may
affect the original properties of the soil (e.g. decrease the shear strength and coefficient of
consolidation). This should be considered in the design.

Drain types

Band drains

Prefabricated band drains consist typically of a central core surrounded by a filter sleeve, Figure
2. The width of the band drains is typically 100 mm.

a) Channel-shaped core with glued filter

b) Channel-shaped core with wrapped filter

c) Geo-mat with edge-sealed filter

d) Cusp-shaped core with wrapped filter

Figure 2 - Examples of band drains

101
Band drains are installed inside a hollow mandrel with rectangular, rhomboid or circular cross-
section. The size of the mandrel is normally adapted to leave a free inside space for the band
drain during installation. Moreover, the bending rigidity of the mandrel needs to be high enough
to ensure verticality of the drain installed.

An anchor, which is fixed to the drain tip before installation, prevents the drain from being
dragged up when the mandrel is withdrawn, Figure 3. During installation the soil should be
prevented from intruding between the inside surface of the mandrel and the drain. Otherwise, the
drain will be subjected to high tensile forces upon withdrawal. The shape of the mandrel and the
anchor needs to be fitted to prevent soil intrusion into the mandrel.

The penetration of the mandrel is either performed by means of a static load or by dynamic
action, using a vibratory or impact hammer. Static installation is preferable in soils sensitive to
disturbance.

After withdrawal of the mandrel, the drains should be cut in a way to ascertain good contact with
the drainage blanket, preferably about 25 cm above the working platform.



Figure 3 - Example of band drain anchor

Prefabricated cylindrical drains

Types of drains

A prefabricated drain consists of a tubular core, typically 50 mm in outer diameter and 45 mm
in inner diameter, made of annular-corrugated perforated plastic, resistant to crushing, shocks,
rapid tension and ageing, surrounded by a filter sock made of non-woven geotextile.

Method of installation

The prefabricated cylindrical drains are installed inside a hollow, cylindrical mandrel with an
external diameter of typically 100 mm. The mandrel, which is normally pushed into the soil by
static loading, needs to have sufficient rigidity. An anchor plate is fixed to the drain tip before
installation and prevents soil from intruding into the mandrel during installation.
102

Upon withdrawal of the mandrel the drains are cut in a way to ascertain good contact with the
drainage layer, preferably 25 cm above the working blanket.

Sand drains

Types of drains

Sand drains usually consist of sand columns, 18 cm to 50 cm in diameter, which are installed into
the soil and are in direct contact with the soil.

The sand used for sand drains should preferably fall within the grain size limits shown with cross-
ruled area in Figure 4. However, there are many case histories where sand drains have functioned
successfully having wider grain size distributions, falling outside the limits of the cross-ruled area.
The grain size distribution of the sand used in these case histories falls within the limits given by the
outer unbroken lines in Figure 4.



Key

1 sand
2 gravel
3 grain size d, mm
4 content of grains <d in wt, % of total mass
Fig. 4 Grain size limits of granular material to be used in sand drains

Methods of installation

Sand drains are either installed by so-called non-displacement methods or by so-called
displacement methods.

The non-displacement methods comprise shell and auger drilling, powered auger drilling, water
jetting, flight augering and wash boring. The auger method consists in screwing the auger down to
the required depth, then pulling it upwards while sand is transferred to the hole below the auger tip
through the axis. The hollow auger method consists of screwing the auger down to the required
depth and then pulling it upwards while sand is transferred to the hole below the auger tip through
103
its hollow axis. In the water jetting method, the hole, which will be filled with sand, is first created
by water jetting at a pressure and flow adjusted to the soil condition. Sand is then poured into the hole
without compaction.

The displacement methods comprise mandrel or vibro installation methods. In the mandrel method a
hollow mandrel with a flap at its lower end is driven into the ground. As the mandrel is withdrawn,
the flap opens and water-saturated sand filled into the mandrel thereby creates the sand drain. In the
vibro installation method, a mandrel with or without a flap on its lower end is inserted into the soil
to the required depth by means of a top vibrator mounted on the mandrel. After installation the
vibrator is continuously pulled upwards without compacting the sand fill exerting from the lower
end of the mandrel.

Alternatively, the drains are installed by means of a depth vibrator, which after installation is
continuously pulled upwards without compacting the sand fill.

Drainage blanket and working platform

For the efficiency of the vertical drainage system an appropriate drainage blanket (a layer of
granular material of appropriate thickness and/or a geotextile or geotextile-related products)
should be installed. The consolidation settlement causes a depression of the central part of the
drainage blanket. Temporary wells for removing drained water from the drainage blanket may
therefore be required, especially in cases where the width of the drainage blanket is large.
Protection of the drainage blanket against frost effects should be considered when relevant.
The execution of a vertical drainage project requires the presence of a working platform with an
upper surface suitable to facilitate the vertical installation of the drains. The working platform needs
to be capable of carrying the installation equipment. The presence of pockets and lenses of soft
soil in the working platform can significantly reduce the local bearing capacity and result in
overturning of the installation rig. The placement of a geotextile separation layer underneath the
working platform may be a way of avoiding the risk of heterogeneities in the working platform.

Loading

The loading operation usually consists of placing a surface load on top of the drainage blanket.
This is a critical phase of vertical drainage projects. Loading needs to be carried out in such a way
that the stability of the ground is not endangered. Therefore, the unit weight of the fill used for
loading has to be defined and controlled. The un-drained shear strength of the soil may be
detrimentally affected, not only by the drain installation in itself, but also by the loading operation
if carried out with heavy equipment. In most cases, it is important that the filling operation is
monitored by settlement and pore pressure observations.

If the shear strength of the soil is too low to permit placement of the fill to full height, loading
berms are required. Alternatively, loading has to be carried out stepwise, followed by
investigation of the gain in shear strength and dissipation of excess pore water pressure during the
consolidation process, required to permit the placement of the next load-step, and so on. In the case
of stepwise loading the specified thickness of each embankment layer need to be checked in order to
avoid excess loading and consequential failure.

Groundwater lowering in permeable strata in connection with the drains can also be used as an
alternative to, or in combination with, external loading.

At sites of drain installation where the stability conditions are unsatisfactory, the surface load can be
replaced or augmented by the vacuum method, Figure 5. In this case the drainage blanket is
overlain by an airtight cover and sealed hermetically along its outer borders. The drainage blanket
is connected to a vacuum pump, which produces under-pressure in the drains in relation to the pore
104
water pressure in the soil and results in consolidation [9] [10]. The under-pressure achieved by the
vacuum method in this case is maximum 70 kPa to 80 kPa.



Key

u
d
.

= pore water pressure in the drains
u
vac
= under-pressure (assumed equal to a vacuum of 70 % of atmospheric pressure)
a) pore pressure dissipation caused by the drains
b) pore pressure dissipation without drains
1 airtight cover
2 to vacuum pump

Figure 5 Sketch of the vacuum method and its effect on power water pressure, both
for horizontal pore water flow towards the drains (a) and
for vertical pore water flow between the drains (b)

Monitoring

The effect of vertical drainage should be monitored by both settlement and pore pressure
measurements. The measured values are used to check the actual rate of consolidation and the
assumptions made in the design. It is important that the monitoring system is installed in due time
before the installation of the drains, both with regard to the effect of drain installation itself
(excess pore pressure due to disturbance caused by drain installation and its possible negative
influence on stability) and with regard to the interpretation of the results of observation subsequently
achieved.

The aim of soil improvement by vertical drainage is generally to prevent unacceptable settlement
from taking place. Therefore, settlement observations are a necessary ingredient in the monitoring
system.

Excess pore pressure observations by means of piezometers installed at different depths is
doubtless the most appropriate way of checking that the degree of consolidation has reached the
set level according to the design. The piezometers should be placed in the centre between the drains
where the rate of consolidation is a minimum.

Typical locations for observations of settlement and pore pressures for a case with homogeneous
ground of limited thickness are shown in Figure 6 and for a case with stratified ground in Figure 7.
The number of measurement profiles depends on the extent of the site and the thickness and
105
layering of the compressible layers that are treated by vertical drainage.



Key
1 embankment 5 underlying permeable layer
2 drainage blanket and working platform 6 settlement gauge
3 vertical drain 7 piezometer
4 compressible soil

Figure 6 - Typical instrumentation for monitoring the efficiency of
vertical drainage (simple case)


Key
1 embankment
2 drainage blanket and working platform
3 vertical drain
4 compressible soil
5 underlying permeable layer
6 settlement gauge
7 piezometer
8 permeable sand layer
9 compressible soil

Figure 7 - Typical instrumentation for monitoring the efficiency of
vertical drainage (site with different layers)

In practice, one needs to consider the degree of consolidation achieved in the soil layers having
the lowest coefficient of consolidation (usually having also the most unfavourable compression
characteristics). In homogeneous soil condition, the lowest degree of consolidation is achieved
where the effect of vertical onedimensional consolidation is minimal, i.e. in the middle of the clay
layer. If the discharge capacity of the drains is too low this will strongly influence the degree of
consolidation achieved with increasing depth of installation. Using only surface settlement
observations as a means of checking the degree of consolidation achieved throughout the soil layer
may consequently lead to wrong conclusions.



106
12. GROUTING
Grouting for geotechnical purposes (geotechnical grouting) is a process in which the remote
placement of a pumpable material in the ground is indirectly controlled by adjusting its
rheological characteristics and by the manipulation of the placement parameters (pressure, volume
and the flow rate).

The following principles and methods of geotechnical grouting are covered by EN 12715:
- displacement grouting (compaction grouting, hydraulic fracturing) ;
- grouting without displacement of the host material (permeation, fissure grouting, bulk
filling).


Definitions

grout
a pumpable material (suspension, solution, emulsion or mortar), injected into soil or rock, which
stiffens and sets with time

displacement grouting
injection of grout into a host medium in such a manner as to deform, compress, or displace the ground

compaction grouting
a displacement grouting method which aims at forcing a mortar of high internal friction into the
soil to compact it without fracturing it

hydraulic fracturing (hydraulic fracture, claquage grouting)
the fracturing of a ground initiated by the injection of water or grout under a pressure in excess of
the local tensile strength and confining pressure; also called hydrofracturing, hydrosplitting,
hydrojacking or claquage

non-displacement grouting
substitution of the natural interstitial fluid in the accessible existing voids of the ground by a grout
or mortar without any significant displacement of the ground. The term includes penetration
grouting and bulk filling

permeation (impregnation) grouting
the replacement of interstitial water or gas of a porous medium with a grout at injection pressures low
enough prevent displacement

penetration grouting
grout injection of joints or fractures in rock, or pore spaces in soil, without displacing the ground.
The term includes permeation (impregnation), fissure and contact grouting

fissure grouting
the injection of grout into fissures, joints, fractures and discontinuities, particularly in rock

contact grouting
the injection of grout into the interface between man-made structures and the ground

bulk filling
bulk filling is the placement of grout with a high particulate content to fill substantial voids

107

Grout materiais

a. Hydraulic binders and cements

Hydraulic binders include all cements and similar products used in water suspension for
making grouts.
Microfine (ultra-fine) hydraulic binders or cements are characterised by a particle size d
95
of less
than 20 m.
The granulometric curve, especially of the microfine products used, shall be known.

b. Clay materials

Natural clays, activated or modified bentonites can be added to cement based grouts in order
to reduce bleeding and filtration under pressure, to vary the viscosity and cohesion (yield) of the
grout, or to improve the pumpability of the grout.
The mineralogy, particle size, water content, and Atterberg liquid limit of the clay should be known.

c. Sands, gravels and fillers


Grouts

Grouts are classified as:
- suspensions: either particulate or colloidal suspensions ;
- solutions: either true or colloidal solutions ;
- mortars.



Figure 1 - Grout classification

The following intrinsic properties shall be considered when choosing a grout:
- rheology (viscosity, cohesion, etc.), Setting time, Stability ;
- particle size, if applicable ;
- strength and durability ;
- toxicity.

Suspensions

Suspensions are characterised by:
- the grain size distribution of the solid particles ;
- their water/solid ratio ;
- the rate of sedimentation and bleeding ;
- their water retention capacity under pressure filtration.


108
Solutions

Some types of silicate grout are not stable with time and their use should be carefully assessed.

Organic silicate gels may lead to the proliferation of bacteria in the ground.

Resins are usually applied under the circumstances given in Table 2.

Table 2 - Application of resin grouts



Mortars

Mortars showing high internal friction are used for compaction grouting or for the filling of voids.
Their rheological behaviour is usually determined by slump tests.

Mortars flowing under their own weight are generally used for filling cavities, large cracks,
open fissures and voids in granular soils. They shall be stable and their rheological behaviour
(similar to suspensions) is usually characterised with suitably selected flow cones.

When used for compaction grouting, the mortar should contain a minimum of 15% of fines pass 0,1
mm.


Grouting principles and methods

The introduction of grout in a host medium is achieved either wiht or without displacement of the
ground. Figure 2 illustrates the various injection methods associated with these two principles:


Figure 2 - Grouting principles and methods

109

Grouting without ground displacement (non-displacement grouting)

Permeation (impregnation) grouting

Permeation grouting aims at filling the accessible interstices between grains in permeable soils
by a grout without destruction of the integrity of the ground. It reduces the permeability of the host
material and usually increases the strength and density.

In order to avoid displacement, permeation grouting shall be carried out at carefully
controlled pressures and flow rates.

Fissure and contact grouting

Fissure grouting aims at filling open fissures, fractures or joints in a rock mass with grouts
without creating new or opening existing fractures, in order to reduce the permeability and/or
increase the strength of the grouted mass.

Bulk filling

Bulk filling is used for the filling of large natural or man made openings. The term is generally
applied to the placement of large volumes of grout under gravity or at low pressures.

Bulk filling may be followed by a phase of grouting under pressure to fill the remaining voids.

Grouting with ground displacement (displacement grouting)

Displacement grouting refers to the injection of grout under pressure with the deliberate intent of
spatially displacing the host medium. The term includes injection methods such as compaction
grouting, and hydraulic fracturing (claquage). The method is used to increase the density of a
plastically deformable materiai, 3.nd the volume of the treated mass where the plastic deformation
limit is reached.

Controlled displacement grouting can be employed to strengthen the ground under existing
structures.

Hydraulic fracturing

Grouting by hydraulic fracturing is used to:
- reinforce or stabilise the ground (soil or rock) ;
- produce controlled uplift of structures ;
- achieve watertightness by creating compartments.

It is difficult to control the propagation of an hydraulic fracture plane. Hence, the grouting
objective should usually be achieved by an incremental series of injections, spread over a period of
time.

Compaction grouting

Compaction grouting refers to the intrusion of a comparatively stiff (viscous) particulate grout
into the ground to induce displacement and deformation. The grout is usually extruded from
open-ended injection tubes. The grout consistency is such that the grout remains as a
homogeneous mass and neither permeation nor hydraulic fracturing of the host medium occurs.
Compaction grouting is most often used to compact and densify loose ground and to raise and
110
support structures which have settled.

The final grid of grout holes is generally defined during the grouting process, in accordance with
the results of control tests performed in the centre of the primary grid.


Grout

In soils, a groutability ratio, such as the D
10
/d
90
or D
15
/d
85
criterion, can be used to assess the
penetrability of particulate grouts. In rock, the maximum particle size to fissure width is considered
(a ratio of three is commonly used).

Applicability

The type of grout applicable for different types of ground are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Indicative grouts for different types of ground



Grout placement

The injection process is governed by:
- the grout volume V per pass ;
- the injection pressure P;
- the flow or placement rate Q;
- the grout rheology.
111

The design should indicate how to adapt Q, Vand Pfor a given mix design, or the rheology of the
mix design, to the anticipated ground response during grout placement.

For permeation, the flow (injection) rate Q should be controlled to ensure that the effective
pressure remains lower than the ground fracturing pressure.

Drilling pattern and borehole design

The number, position, spacing, depth, diameter, inclination and orientation of boreholes and
injection points shall be based on geological conditions, the type of structure to be grouted, the
results to be obtaineti, the grouting method and purpose, the type of grout to be used, injection
pressure and rate of grout take. The design shall make adequate provision for any variation in the
above parameters.

Grouting sequence

In its simplest form, a sequence constitutes a single grout type introduced through a single hole.

The grout placement sequence may progress to multiple stages, over many holes, with each
stage requiring a sequence of injection passes of differing grout types.

Grouting pressure

In general practice, the grouting pressure is measured at the grout delivery pump and/or at the
hole collar. However, variations in hydraulic head, and friction losses in the delivery system, will
result in this 'working pressure' being different from the 'effective pressure' acting in the ground.

During non-displacement grouting of soils, the effective (or limit) grouting pressure is dependent on
the confining pressure at the point of injection.

For non-displacement grouting, the permissible injection pressure is the maximum pressure at
which a grout is allowed to be introduced into the ground in order to avoid any undesirable
deformation of the ground.

In non-displacement grouting, a value for the permissible injection pressure shall be given in
the design.


Execution

The equipment required to perform a grouting operation includes:
- drilling and driving equipment ;
- mixing and proportioning equipment ;
- pumping equipment ;
- injection piping ;
- packers ;
- monitoring and testing equipment.

Drilling

The following drilling methods may be employed:
- rotational drilling ;
- percussion drilling using either an external or down-the-hole hammer ; cased percussion
112
drilling ;
- grab-, chisel- and bailer borings ;
- driving of lances ;
- vibrating of casing or drill pipes.
In unstable ground full borehole penetration may require:
- the use of drilling muds, grouts or foams ;
- temporary casing ;
- direct insertion of sleeve pipes ;
- progressive stabilisation as the borehole advances.

Grout placement

The method of grout placement will be determined by the ground condition, the works requirement
and the type of grout used. The basic approaches are the following

a) injection in unsupported boreholes in stable ground ;

b) injection via sleeve pipes previously placed in a temporarily cased borehole, in unstable ground ;

c) injection through the drill string in unstable ground, generally considered as a pre-grouting
phase and to be followed by approaches a) or b) ;

d) compaction grouting is usually performed through a casing retrieved during upstage grouting.

Soil grouting can be achieved with casing, grout sheath, pierced casing, and sleeve pipes.

Sleeve pipes which are permanently seaied into the ground by use of a support mix (sleeve grout)
allow a repeated use of the injection points.

Large openings (voids, cavities, etc.) are generally filled under gravity, either directly, or via a
tremie pipe extending to the base of the opening.

Packers are used to isolate a grouting stage. Packers are either passive, mechanical or pneumatic,
and have to be long enough to minimise the risk of grout bypass through the medium being grouted.

Packers shall ensure tight sealing between the grout hole wall and the injection pipe at maximum
grouting pressure.

Grouting sequences

Descending or downstage grouting is commonly reserved for the treatment of unstable rock. If
several holes are grouted using downstage grouting, the uppermost stage in all holes is drilled and
grouted before drilling and grouting the next stage in all neighbouring holes.

Upstage grouting is only used in open holes in stable rock or if the aim is compaction grouting.

Multistage grouting, using sleeve pipes is generally used in soils and sometimes in unstable rock.

Combinations of these techniques are possible.

113
13. JET GROUTING


The jet grouting method is covered by the EN 12716.

Definitions

jet grouting
the jet grouting process consists of the disaggregation of the soil or weak rock and its mixing with,
and partial replacement by, a cementing agent; the disaggregation is achieved by means of a high
energy jet of a fluid which can be the cementing agent itself

jet grouted element
volume of soil treated through a single borehole. The most common elements are:
- jet grouted column : a cylindrical jet grouted element (Fig.1 a) ;
- jet grouted panel : a planar jet grouted element (Fig.1 b).

jet grouted structure
an assembly of jet grouted elements which are partially or fully interlocked. The most common
structures formed are:
- jet grouted diaphragm : a wall structure (Fig.2 a) ;
- jet grouted slab : a horizontal structure formed by essentially vertical jet grouting (Fig.2 b) ;
- jet grouted canopy : a structure formed by horizontal jet grouting - see 3.8 below (Fig.2 c) ;
- jet grouted block : a three-dimensional structure.

single system
the jet grouting process in which the disaggregation and cementation of soil are achieved by a high
energy jet of a single fluid, usually a cement grout (Fig.3 a)

double (air) system
the jet grouting process in which the disaggregation and the cementation of soil are achieved by
one high energy fluid (usually a cement grout) assisted by an air jet shroud as a second fluid (Fig.3 b)

double (water) system
the jet grouting process in which the disaggregation of the soil is achieved by a high energy water jet
and its cementing is simultaneously obtained by a separate grout jet (Fig.3 c)

triple system
the jet grouting process in which the disaggregation of the soil is achieved by a high energy water
jet assisted by an air jet shroud, and its cementing is simultaneously obtained by a separate grout jet
(Fig.3 d)

horizontal jet grouting
treatment performed from a horizontal or sub-horizontal borehole (within 20 from the horizontal
plane)

jet grouting rig
rotary rig able to automatically regulate the rotation and translation of the jet grouting string and tool

jet grouting string
jointed rods, with simple, double or triple inner conduit, which convey the jet grouting fluid(s) to the
monitor


114
monitor
the tool mounted at the end of the jet grouting string, to enable jetting of the fluids into the ground

nozzle
a specially manufactured device fitted into the monitor and designed to transform the high pressure
fluid flow in the string into the high speed jet directed at the soil

radius of influence
effective distance of disaggregation of soil by the jet, measured from the axis of the monitor

spoil return
the surplus mixture of soil particles and introduced fluids arising from the jet grouting process, and
normally flowing to the ground surface via the annulus of the jetting borehole

jet grouting parameters
the jet grouting parameters are defined:
- pressure of the fluid(s) within the jet grouting string ;
- flow rate of the fluid(s) within the jet grouting string ;
- grout composition ;
- rotation speed of the jet grouting string;
- rate of withdrawal or insertion of the jet grouting string.

prejetting
the method in which the jet grouting of an element is facilitated by a preliminary disaggregation
phase, with a jet of water and/or other fluids

Prejetting is also widely known as prewashing or precutting.

fresh-in-fresh sequence
the sequence of work in which the jet grouted elements are constructed successively without waiting
for the grout to harden in the overlapping elements (Fig.4 a)

primary-secondary sequence
the sequence of work
,
in which the execution of an overlapping element cannot commence before
a specified hardening time or achievement of predetermined strength of the adjacent elements
previously constructed (Fig.4 b)

jet grouted material
the material which constitutes the body of a jet grouted element

reinforced jet grouting
jet grouted columns reinforced by steel or other high strength material

115


Figure 1 a) Jet grouted column Figure 1 b) Jet grouted panel
Figure 1 Examples of jet grouted elements



Figure 2 a) Jet grouted diaphragms


116


Figure 2 b) Jet grouted slab Figure 2 c) Jet grouted canopy
Figure 2 Examples of jet grouted structures



Key
1 Monitor
Figure 3 a) Single system


117

Key
1 Monitor

Figure 3 b) Double (air) system



Key
1 Monitor

Figure 3 c) Double (water) system

118


Key
1 Monitor
Figure 3 d) Schemes of jet grouting systems



Figure 4 a) Fresh in fresh sequence



Figure 4 b) Primary secondary sequence

Figure 4 Work sequences
Materials

Mixes composed of water and cement are usually adopted.
Hydraulic binders other than cement can be used.
In water/cement mixes the water/cement ratio by weight should range between 0,5 and 1,5.
Water reducing, stabilizing, plasticising, waterproofing or antiwashing admixtures can be
added to the water/cement mix.
Other materials, such as bentonite, filler, fly-ash, can also be added to the mix.
When bentonite is to be used in the mix, a water/bentonite suspension should be prepared before
adding cement.




119
Examples of applications

Jet grouting can be applied in either temporary or permanent works for different purposes.
For example:
providing foundations for structures to be erected (Fig.5 a) ;
underpinning existing foundations (Fig.5 b) ;
creating low permeability barriers ;
creating retaining or supporting structures ;
complementing other geotechnical works ;
reinforcing a soil mass.



Figure 5 a) Foundation for structure to be erected



Figure 5 b) Underpinning existing foundation
Figure 5 Examples of applications

120
Execution

The execution of jet grouting works requires knowledge and experience in this type of construction.

The high pressure employed in the jet grouting process is to generate a high speed jet to disaggregate the soil and is
not intended to be applied to the surrounding soil.

Jet grouted column execution method

The phases of execution usually consist of:
drilling a borehole of a predetermined length ;
- introducing to the end of the borehole a monitor connected to the jet grouting string. This
is unnecessary in some cases as the string and monitor are used for drilling ;
- jetting of the disaggregating and cementing fluid(s) through the monitor, simultaneously
withdrawing and rotating the rods, with pre-established withdrawal and rotational speed,
pump pressure and flow rate for each fluid.

Jet grouted panel execution method

The phases of execution are the same as defined for jet grouted columns, with the exception that
during jetting the rods are withdrawn and not rotated. Alternatively the rods can be rotated about
limited angles. The resulting panel is placed in a plane on the drilling axis, or is formed by two or
more sections on planes intersecting the drilling axis (Fig.1 b).

Alternative execution methods

If required by soil conditions, alternative execution methods may be adopted, both for column or
panel processes. Among alternatives the most usual is prejetting. An element can also be
executed in sequential treatment for a given length from the borehole collar is completed and
allowed to gain strength. Then, after redrilling the treated soil, the process is repeated at a deeper
stage, and so on, until the design length of the treatment is reached.

Equipment <

The jet grouting equipment usually comprises:
- the drilling rig ;
- the jet grouting rig (often is also the drilling rig) provided with the jet grouting string,
the monitor and the devices able to drive the jet grouting string at predetermined rotation
and translation speeds ;
- the mixing and pumping plant supplying the jet grouting fluid (or fluids) ;
- the high pressure lines connecting the jet grouting pump to the rig ;
- equipment to monitor pressures, fluids flow rates and volumes, rate of rotation and
withdrawal, depth.

The jet grouting string
- for the single system, one conduit conveying the high pressure the cement mix to the monitor;
- for the double system, two conduits separately conveying the two fluids (air and cement
mix, or water and cement mix respectively) to the monitor;
- for the triple system, three conduits to allow for the high pressure water, the compressed
air and the cement mix to the monitor.

The jet grouting mixing and grouting plant, for the different systems, mainly comprises
- for the single system : cement and other materials storage, colloidal mixing plant, agitator
tanks, high pressure grout pump ;
121
- for the double (air) system: as for the single fluid system plus an air compressor ;
- for the double (water) system: as for the single fluid system plus a high pressure water
pump and a grout pump ;
- for the triple system: as for the double fluid (water) system plus an air compressor.

Drilling

Drilling can be performed with air or water or muds or grouts or foams as flushing media. If
required casing is used.

Jet grouting

Jet grouting shall be executed and supervised by trained and experienced personnel.

Jet grouting should be executed with a sufficient thickness between the upper nozzle and the
ground surface, to avoid possible local hydrofracturing.

The above thickness may vary from 0,5 m for vertical boreholes to 2,0 m for horizontal boreholes and
can be reduced in the presence of an adequate restraint to the surface, such as a slab or a wall.

Placing the reinforcement

Reinforcement can be installed in the fresh jet grouted material during or immediately after the
completion of the jet grouting operations. Alternatively it can be installed in a borehole drilled into
the element after hardening.

Ranges of jet grouting parameters

The jet grouting parameters usually adopted for the different systems fall within the following
ranges:

Jet grouting parameters
Single
fluid
Double fluid
(air)
Double fluid
(water)
Triple fluid
Grout pressure (MPa) 30 to 50 30 to 50 > 2 > 2
Grout flow rate (I/min) 50 to 450 50 to 450 50 to 200 50 to 200
Water pressure (MPa) N/A N/A 30 to 60 30 to 60
Water flow rate (I/min) N/A N/A 50 to 150 50 to 150
Air pressure (MPa) N/A 0,2 to 1,7 N/A 0,2 to 1,7
Air flow rate (m
3
/min) N/A 3 to 12 N/A 3 to 12
N/A Not applicable.

The disaggregating effect is obtained by the high velocity of the jet, mainly dependent on the
pressure of the fluid used for the disaggregation : grout in single and double (air) fluid systems,
water in double (water) and triple fluid systems.

For single and double (air) fluid systems, grout pressure usually ranges between 30 MPa and 50
MPa, as defined in the table above. Lower limits down to 10 MPa have also been adopted in
particular cases, such as small diameter jet grouted columns in very loose soils.

The most recent developments in pumping equipment enable the pressure of the disaggregating fluid to reach
up to 70 MPa or flow rates up to 650 I/min.