1. The document provides an overview of steel shelters used in oil and gas plants, including different types of shelters, structural elements, and design considerations.
2. It describes open, partially closed, and fully closed steel shelters and the portal frame structure commonly used. Major components of portal frame shelters include the main frame, tie beams, bracings, and cladding.
3. Design details are discussed such as achieving large clear spans using I-section columns and rafters, and haunching the rafters near the columns to accommodate peak bending moments.
1. The document provides an overview of steel shelters used in oil and gas plants, including different types of shelters, structural elements, and design considerations.
2. It describes open, partially closed, and fully closed steel shelters and the portal frame structure commonly used. Major components of portal frame shelters include the main frame, tie beams, bracings, and cladding.
3. Design details are discussed such as achieving large clear spans using I-section columns and rafters, and haunching the rafters near the columns to accommodate peak bending moments.
1. The document provides an overview of steel shelters used in oil and gas plants, including different types of shelters, structural elements, and design considerations.
2. It describes open, partially closed, and fully closed steel shelters and the portal frame structure commonly used. Major components of portal frame shelters include the main frame, tie beams, bracings, and cladding.
3. Design details are discussed such as achieving large clear spans using I-section columns and rafters, and haunching the rafters near the columns to accommodate peak bending moments.
By Abir Mallick 2 2 Introduction Introduction This This presentation presentation is is developed developed as as to to provide provide aa basic basic guideline guideline of of Oil Oil & & Gas Gas Plant Plant Shelters Shelters. . Its Its objective objective is is to to provide provide technical technical knowledge knowledge and and information information for for design design of of Steel Steel Shelters/ Shelters/ Buildings Buildings. . The The information information provided provided is is based based on on common common design design and and construction construction practices practices for for steel steel structures structures. . 3 3 What Will You Gain From This What Will You Gain From This Presentation? Presentation? Basic Basic idea idea of of different different types types of of shelters shelters normally normally encountered encountered in in oil oil & & Gas Gas Plants Plants An An understanding understanding of of different different types types of of structural structural steel steel frames frames used used in in shelters shelters Different Different types types of of loading loading for for which which the the structure structure has has to to be be designed designed Basic Basic idea idea of of analysis analysis of of Portal Portal frame frame Understanding Understanding of of detailing detailing work work of of steel steel Portal Portal frames frames and and other other necessary necessary elements elements of of shelters shelters Different Different types types of of foundation foundation used used for for shelters shelters 4 4 Different types of Shelters Different types of Shelters Almost Almost all all Oil Oil & & Gas Gas Plants Plants will will have have Shelters Shelters to to cater cater to to the the need need of of equipment, equipment, personnel personnel or or as as an an enclosure enclosure for for production, production, storage storage. . Shelters Shelters can can be be open/ open/ partially partially closed closed or or fully fully closed closed. . Choice Choice of of whether whether to to provide provide closed closed or or open open shelter shelter depends depends upon upon requirement requirement of of equipment, equipment, outside outside environment, environment, personnel personnel and and client client requirements requirements. . Closed Closed shelters shelters are are also also termed termed as as Building Building. . Shelters Shelters can can be be made made of of Steel Steel Structures Structures or or Concrete Concrete Structures Structures or or even even composite composite structures structures as as well well. . From From operation operation point point of of view, view, Shelters Shelters can can be be categorised categorised into into two two:: Plant Plant Shelters Shelters related related to to direct direct operation operation of of plant plant equipment equipment ee. .gg. . Compressor Compressor House, House, Substation Substation etc etc. . Utility Utility buildings buildings like like Workshop, Workshop, Warehouse, Warehouse, Admin Admin Building, Building, Guard Guard house house etc etc. . 5 5 Different Types of Steel Shelters Different Types of Steel Shelters Open Shelter: Open Shelter: Only roofing, no side cladding. Only roofing, no side cladding. Partially closed Shelters Partially closed Shelters Roofing and partially closed side Roofing and partially closed side cladding cladding 6 6 Different Types of Steel Shelters Different Types of Steel Shelters Fully closed Shelters/ Buildings Fully closed Shelters/ Buildings Roofing Roofing and and full full side side cladding cladding to to provide provide controlled controlled environment environment inside inside the the Shelter Shelter. . Normally Normally proper proper HVAC HVAC systems systems are are installed installed to to provide provide controlled controlled environment environment. . Claddings Claddings are are also also made made insulated insulated to to keep keep HVAC HVAC system system effective effective. . 7 7 Different Types of Steel Shelters Different Types of Steel Shelters Truss type shelter Truss type shelter -- This This type type of of structures structures are are used used when when width width of of the the shelter shelter is is quite quite high high and and at at roof roof level, level, space space for for HVAC HVAC ducting, ducting, Electrical/ Electrical/ Instrumentation Instrumentation equipments equipments installation installation are are not not required required. . Truss Truss type type sometimes sometimes found found out out to to be be quite quite economical economical if if designed designed properly properly Portal Portal frame frame type type shelters shelters -- Because Because of of their their clean clean lines, lines, good good overhead overhead clearance clearance and and relatively relatively low low cost, cost, portal portal-- frame frame shelters shelters have have become become very very popular popular and and widely widely used used in in oil oil & & Gas Gas Plants Plants. . They They make make up up aa large large percentage percentage of of the the small small to to medium medium size size single single-- storey storey industrial industrial buildings buildings in in current current use use 8 8 Portal Frame Shelters Portal Frame Shelters Depending Depending upon upon the the requirements, requirements, Portal Portal framed framed shelters shelters can can be be varied varied in in shapes, shapes, sizes, sizes, arrangements arrangements etc etc. . Shelters with mono pitch roof Shelters with mono pitch roof Shelters with duo pitch roof Shelters with duo pitch roof Shelters with multi pitch roof Shelters with multi pitch roof Shelters with flat roof Shelters with flat roof Shelters with Multi bays Shelters with Multi bays Shelters with Multi story Shelters with Multi story 9 9 Portal frame Shelters Portal frame Shelters Portal Portal framed framed steel steel clad clad structures structures are are the the most most common common types types of of industrial industrial Buildings Buildings. . Major Major components components of of aa portal portal frame frame building building are are aa series series of of parallel parallel portal portal shaped shaped frames frames as as the the major major framing framing elements elements. . Each Each frame frame is is rigid, rigid, and and resists resists horizontal horizontal wind wind forces forces and and gravity gravity loads loads in in the the plane plane of of the the frame frame by by flexural flexural action action. . Longitudinal Longitudinal wind wind forces forces that that are are perpendicular perpendicular to to the the frames frames are are resisted resisted by by triangulated triangulated bracing bracing systems systems (in (in braced braced bays) bays) in in the the roof roof and and walls walls which which prevent prevent the the frames frames from from failing failing over over. . Depending Depending upon upon the the length length of of the the structure, structure, one one or or more more braced braced bays bays can can be be provided provided in in aa shelter shelter. . 10 10 Major parts of Portal framed Shelter Major parts of Portal framed Shelter Main Main frame frame (column (column & & Rafter) Rafter):: carry carry bending, bending, compression, compression, tension tension and and transverse transverse shear shear forces forces Longitudinal Longitudinal Tie Tie Beams Beams :: carry carry axial axial loads loads Vertical Vertical Bracings Bracings at at Braced Braced Bays Bays:: carry carry longitudinal longitudinal horizontal horizontal forces forces and and provide provide overall overall stability stability Horizontal Horizontal Bracings Bracings:: carry carry horizontal horizontal forces forces and and provide provide lateral lateral stability stability Purlin, Purlin, Horizontal Horizontal Girts Girts:: beam beam members members carrying carrying roof roof and and wall wall cladding cladding respectively respectively Crane/ Crane/ Monorail Monorail Supports Supports:: carry carry vertical, vertical, transverse transverse and and longitudinal longitudinal forces forces due due to to movement movement of of crane crane and and monorail monorail Cladding Cladding :: provide provide proper proper enclosure enclosure to to shelter shelter from from adverse adverse environmental environmental condition condition Sag Sag Rods Rods :: provide provide lateral lateral stability stability to to purlins purlins 11 11 Structural elements of a shelter Structural elements of a shelter Portal Portal Framed Framed Shelter Shelter with with all all the the major major elements elements 12 12 Portal frame Structural Elements Portal frame Structural Elements Large Large clear clear spans spans of of abut abut 40 40mm can can be be achieved achieved economically economically using using I I sections sections column column and and Beam Beam Rafters Rafters. . The The columns columns are are generally generally larger larger than than the the rafter rafter because because the the rafters rafters are are haunched haunched near near the the columns columns to to cater cater for for the the peak peak bending bending moments moments at at the the columns columns. . Length Length wise wise building building can can vary vary 30 30mm to to 100 100mm or or more more. . Sometimes Sometimes expansion expansion joints joints in in building building becomes becomes necessary necessary if if building building length length is is more more to to avoid avoid undue undue temperature temperature stress stress. . 13 13 Design of Portal Frame Shelters Design of Portal Frame Shelters Building Building design design nowadays nowadays usually usually carried carried out out by by aa multi multi-- discipline discipline design design team team. . An An architect architect draws draws up up plans plans for for aa building building to to meet meet the the clients clients requirements requirements. . The The structural structural engineer engineer examines examines various various alternative alternative framing framing arrangements arrangements and and may may carry carry out out preliminary preliminary designs designs to to determine determine which which is is the the most most economical economical. . This This is is termed termed the the conceptual conceptual design design stage stage. . For For aa given given framing framing arrangement, arrangement, the the problem problem in in structural structural design design consists consists of of:: a) a) Estimation Estimation of of loading loading;; b) b) Analysis Analysis of of main main frames, frames, trusses trusses or or lattice lattice girders, girders, floor floor systems, systems, bracing bracing and and connections connections to to determine determine axial axial loads, loads, shears shears and and moments moments at at critical critical points points in in all all members members;; c) c) Design Design of of the the elements elements and and connections connections using using design design data data from from step step (b) (b);; d) d) Production Production of of arrangement arrangement and and detail detail drawings drawings from from the the designers designers sketches sketches. . 14 14 Structural Framing Scheme Structural Framing Scheme Size Size of of the the Shelter Shelter depends depends on on several several aspects aspects like like space space required required for for equipment, equipment, lay lay--down down area, area, space space for for maintenance, maintenance, requirement requirement for for different different utility/ utility/ service service rooms, rooms, control control area, area, crane crane excess excess etc etc. . Generally Generally size size requirement requirement comes comes from from other other disciplines disciplines with with close close co co-- ordination ordination with with structural structural engineers engineers. . After After finalization finalization of of size, size, spacing spacing of of frames frames (position (position of of columns) columns) are are decided decided keeping keeping all all the the above above requirements requirements in in mind mind. . Keeping Keeping spacing spacing around around 7 7. .5 5mm found found out out to to be be aa good good industrial industrial practice practice. . Slope Slope of of the the roof roof also also depends depends upon upon various various aspects aspects like like roof roof access, access, protection protection against against extreme extreme weathers weathers etc etc. . The The standard standard practice practice is is to to keep keep slope slope around around 6 6 to to 15 15 degree degree (depending (depending upon upon the the cladding cladding type) type). . This This cambering cambering also also helps helps the the Portal Portal frame frame to to counter counter deflection deflection against against vertical vertical loads loads. . Depending Depending upon upon length length of of the the building, building, number number of of braced braced bays bays are are chosen chosen. . Up Up to to 50 50--60 60mm length length one one braced braced bay bay found found out out to to be be sufficient sufficient. . The The positioning positioning of of braced braced bay bay should should be be such such aa way way to to avoid avoid any any undue undue deflection deflection and and stress stress concentration concentration. . 15 15 Different types of Loads on Shelters Different types of Loads on Shelters The The loading loading of of aa building building structure structure can can take take on on aa wide wide variety variety of of forms forms. . In In many many cases cases the the exact exact loading loading will will not not fit fit neatly neatly into into aa specific specific category category. . Yet, Yet, loads loads can can usually usually be be considered considered to to be be:: 1 1. . Primary Primary Loads Loads Main Main loads loads which which are are normally normally used used for for design design like like Dead Dead Load Load Live Live Load Load Snow/ Snow/ Sand Sand Load Load Wind Wind load load Seismic Seismic Load Load Crane Crane load load etc etc. . 2 2. . Secondary Secondary Loads Loads -- Loads Loads are are those those due due to to Temperature Temperature load load Test Test load load Construction Construction Eccentricities Eccentricities Shrinkage Shrinkage of of structural structural materials materials Settlement Settlement of of foundation foundation etc etc. . 16 16 Dead Load on Shelters Dead Load on Shelters Dead Dead Load Load:: Dead Dead Loads Loads are are those those loads loads which which are are considered considered to to act act permanently permanently;; they they are are "dead," "dead," stationary, stationary, and and unable unable to to be be removed removed. . The The dead dead loads loads acting acting on on aa portal portal--framed framed industrial industrial building building arise arise from from the the following following items items:: Self Self Weight Weight Fireproofing Fireproofing Masonry Masonry Walls Walls (Brick (Brick and and Block Block Walls) Walls) Concrete Concrete Walls Walls and and Floor Floor Wall Wall Cladding Cladding Roof Roof Cladding Cladding Finishing Finishing Other Other permanent permanent loads loads (Equipment (Equipment and and Piping Piping Empty Empty Weight, Weight, Cable Cable Tray Tray load, load, etc) etc) These These loads loads should should be be estimated estimated as as per per unit unit weight weight of of materials materials used used in in the the construction construction. . Weight Weight of of equipment, equipment, piping piping and and cables cables should should be be furnished furnished by by respective respective disciplines disciplines. . 17 17 Live Load on Shelters Live Load on Shelters Live Live Load Load:: Live Live Loads Loads are are not not permanent permanent and and can can change change in in magnitude magnitude. . They They include include items items found found within within aa shelter shelter such such as as human human weight, weight, machinery, machinery, or or stored stored materials materials. . Different Different types types of of live live load load normally normally considered considered in in Shelter Shelter are are:: Floor Live Load Floor Live Load Roof Live Load Roof Live Load Operating Load (Product , Content of Pipe , etc) Operating Load (Product , Content of Pipe , etc) Maintenance Load Maintenance Load Storage Load Storage Load Other Temporary Loads Other Temporary Loads These These loads loads should should be be estimated estimated as as per per human human occupancy occupancy loads, loads, Operating Operating weight weight of of equipment, equipment, piping piping and and cables cables tray tray loads loads which which should should be be furnished furnished by by respective respective disciplines disciplines. . Following Following codes codes are are usually usually used used to to estimate estimate common common dead/ dead/ live live loads loads:: 1 1--UBC UBC 1997 1997 Chapter Chapter 16 16 2 2--IBC IBC 2006 2006 Chapter Chapter 16 16 3 3--ASCE ASCE 7 7--05 05 Chapters Chapters 3 3,,4 4 and and CC3 3,C ,C4 4 4 4--BS BS 6399 6399 Part Part 1 1 & & 3 3 Note Note that that civil/structural civil/structural specification specification of of client client is is the the main main reference reference for for calculation calculation of of dead/ dead/ live live load load along along with with above above mentioned mentioned codes codes and and standards standards. . 18 18 Snow/ Sand Load on Shelters Snow/ Sand Load on Shelters Snow/ Snow/ Sand Sand Load Load:: Snow Snow load load in in nature nature is is aa live live load load but but because because of of great great importance importance of of this this load load which which is is responsible responsible for for collapse collapse of of roofs roofs of of industrial industrial buildings buildings in in cold cold areas, areas, its its effect effect is is taken taken separately separately. . Similarly Similarly in in desert desert areas areas accumulated accumulated weight weight of of sand sand on on roof roof can can cause cause same same problem problem as as that that due due to to snow snow load load. . Snow Snow load load on on the the roof roof of of industrial industrial buildings buildings depends depends on on geometry geometry of of roof roof and and location location of of buildings buildings. . All All international international codes codes define define this this load load based based on on these these two two parameters parameters. . Following codes are frequently used to Following codes are frequently used to estimate snow loads: estimate snow loads: 1 1--ASCE 7 ASCE 7--05 Chapters 7 and C7 05 Chapters 7 and C7 2 2--UBC 1997 Chapter 16 UBC 1997 Chapter 16 3 3--IBC 2006 Chapter 16 IBC 2006 Chapter 16 4 4--BS 6399 Part 3 BS 6399 Part 3 19 19 Snow/ Sand Load on Shelters Snow/ Sand Load on Shelters This This sketch sketch shows shows how how Snow Snow load load is is taken taken for for calculation calculation purpose purpose on on gable gable roofs roofs as as per per ASCE ASCE 7 7--05 05. . Note Note that that civil/structural civil/structural specification specification of of client client is is the the main main reference reference for for minimum minimum snow snow load load in in the the location location of of project project as as per per available available meteorological meteorological data data and and local local codes codes. . It It is is also also advisable advisable to to check check the the chance chance of of snow snow accumulation accumulation on on one one side side of of roof roof because because of of wind wind effect effect which which can can result result to to unbalanced unbalanced loading loading on on roof roof. . Both Both ASCE ASCE 7 7 and and BS BS 6399 6399 are are addressing addressing this this matter matter. . Ice Ice load load in in very very cold cold areas areas is is also also aa concern concern and and should should be be calculated calculated as as per per requirements requirements of of codes codes (e (e. .gg. . ASCE ASCE 7 7--05 05 Chapters Chapters 10 10 and and CC10 10) ). . 20 20 Crane Load on Shelters Crane Load on Shelters Crane/ Crane/ Monorail Monorail Load Load:: Cranes, Cranes, including including runway runway beams, beams, brackets, brackets, bracing, bracing, and and connections, connections, shall shall be be designed designed to to support support the the maximum maximum wheel wheel load load of of the the crane crane and and the the vertical vertical impact, impact, lateral, lateral, and and longitudinal longitudinal forces forces induced induced by by the the moving moving crane crane. . Also, Also, the the runway runway beams beams shall shall be be designed designed for for crane crane stop stop forces forces. . The The methods methods for for determining determining these these loads loads vary vary depending depending on on the the type type of of crane crane system system and and support support. . 21 21 Crane Load on Shelters Crane Load on Shelters Crane loads on industrial Crane loads on industrial Buildings falls in to three Buildings falls in to three categories: categories: 1. 1. Vertical load plus impact Vertical load plus impact (Static + Dynamic Effect): (Static + Dynamic Effect): Vertical Vertical Dynamic Dynamic effect effect of of crane crane in in most most of of building building codes codes has has been been defined defined as as an an increasing increasing factor factor to to static static load load of of wheels wheels called called impact impact factor factor. . Normally Normally for for Electrically Electrically operated operated Cranes Cranes (EOT) (EOT) this this factor factor is is taken taken as as 25 25% %. . For For manually manually operated operated monorail monorail this this factor factor is is taken taken as as 10 10% %. . 22 22 Crane Load on Shelters Crane Load on Shelters 2. 2. Lateral Lateral Force Force (Surge (Surge load) load):: This This is is due due to to lateral lateral movement movement of of crane crane wheels wheels. . The The lateral lateral force force shall shall be be assumed assumed to to act act horizontally horizontally at at the the traction traction surface surface of of aa runway runway beam, beam, in in either either direction direction perpendicular perpendicular to to the the beam beam. . Normally Normally the the force force is is calculated calculated as as 10 10% % of of the the sum sum of of rated rated capacity capacity of of the the crane crane and and the the weight weight of of the the hoist hoist and and trolley trolley. . 3. 3. Longitudinal Longitudinal Load Load (Braking (Braking load) load):: This This is is due due to to movement movement of of crane crane along along the the length length of of building building. . Longitudinal Longitudinal forces forces shall shall be be assumed assumed to to act act horizontally horizontally at at the the top top of of the the rails rails and and in in each each direction direction parallel parallel to to each each runway runway beam beam. . Normally Normally this this force force is is taken taken as as 5 5% % of of maximum maximum wheel wheel load load excluding excluding impact impact. . In In case case of of monorail monorail,, because because of of unidirectional unidirectional nature nature of of movement, movement, horizontal horizontal force force will will be be only only along along one one direction direction. . Typical Typical Crane Crane Girder Girder Section Section 23 23 Crane Load on Shelters Crane Load on Shelters At At each each end end of of gantry gantry girder girder crane crane stop stop is is provided provided to to stop stop the the movement movement of of crane crane and and avoid avoid any any damage damage to to the the building building structure structure due due to to impact impact 24 24 Wind Load on Shelters Wind Load on Shelters Wind Load: Wind Load: Wind Wind load load generally generally is is the the major major influence influence in in the the design design of of Industrial Industrial structure structure. . As As per per aerodynamics, aerodynamics, wind wind tunnel tunnel test test and and other other experiments, experiments, all all international international codes codes furnish furnish similar similar methods methods to to calculate calculate wind wind load load on on low low-- rise rise and and rectangular rectangular shaped shaped buildings buildings. . All All these these methods methods can can be be summarized summarized as as below below:: Get Get Basic Basic Wind Wind Speed Speed at at site site as as per per meteorological meteorological data data. . Basic Basic Wind Wind Pressure Pressure calculated calculated from from Wind Wind Basic Basic Speed Speed and and type type of of terrain terrain. . Calculate Calculate Wind Wind Pressure Pressure at at the the required required height height. . Calculate Calculate effect effect of of Geometry Geometry of of Structure Structure defined defined as as shape shape factors factors. . This This effect effect can can be be pressure pressure or or suction suction. . Wind flow around a low Wind flow around a low--rise building rise building Instantaneous external pressure distributions on the frame Instantaneous external pressure distributions on the frame of a low of a low--rise building and simplified code distributions rise building and simplified code distributions 25 25 Wind Load on Shelters Wind Load on Shelters Following Following International International codes codes are are usually usually used used to to estimate estimate common common wind wind loads loads:: 1 1--UBC UBC 1997 1997 Chapter Chapter 16 16 2 2--IBC IBC 2006 2006 Chapter Chapter 16 16 3 3--ASCE ASCE 7 7--05 05 Chapters Chapters 6 6 and and CC6 6 4 4--BS BS 6399 6399 Part Part 2 2 Two Two basic basic types types of of forces forces due due to to wind wind External Pressure (Cpe) External Pressure (Cpe) Internal Pressure (Cpi) Internal Pressure (Cpi) 26 26 Wind Load on Shelters Wind Load on Shelters Wind loads are well codified, Wind loads are well codified, and are function of local climate and are function of local climate condition, building height, condition, building height, building geometry and exposure building geometry and exposure as determined by the as determined by the surrounding environment & surrounding environment & terrain. terrain. Depending upon the direction Depending upon the direction of wind and severity of of wind and severity of magnitude, total building magnitude, total building structure is divided into structure is divided into different zones ( A, B, C, D, E different zones ( A, B, C, D, E etc) and accordingly pressures etc) and accordingly pressures are found out. are found out. 27 27 Wind Load on Shelters Wind Load on Shelters Both Both sketches sketches shows shows how how wind wind in in Transverse Transverse direction direction is is taken taken in in roof roof and and wall wall of of Building Building. . Forces Forces due due to to transverse transverse wind wind are are Transverse Transverse pressure pressure force force Longitudinal Longitudinal suction suction force force 28 28 Wind Load on Shelters Wind Load on Shelters Wind in Longitudinal direction Wind in Longitudinal direction Longitudinal pressure force Longitudinal pressure force Transverse suction Transverse suction Wind Longitudinal drag force Wind Longitudinal drag force Suction due to Longitudinal wind Suction due to Longitudinal wind 29 29 Seismic Load on Shelters Seismic Load on Shelters Seismic/ Earthquake Loads: Seismic/ Earthquake Loads: The The main main cause cause of of damage damage to to structures structures during during an an earthquake earthquake is is their their response response to to ground ground motions motions which which are are input input at at the the base base. . In In order order to to evaluate evaluate the the behavior behavior of of the the structure structure under under this this type type of of loading loading condition, condition, the the principles principles of of structural structural dynamics dynamics must must be be applied applied to to determine determine the the stresses stresses and and deflections, deflections, which which are are developed developed in in the the structure structure. . When When considering considering the the analysis analysis of of structures structures for for dynamic dynamic motions, motions, the the term term dynamic dynamic simply simply means means time time--varying varying. . Hence Hence the the loading loading and and all all aspects aspects of of the the response response vary vary with with time time. . Seismic Seismic loads loads are are established established by by building building codes codes and and are are based based on on:: Degree Degree of of seismic seismic risks risks The The degree degree of of potential potential damage damage The The possibility possibility of of total total collapse collapse The The feasibility feasibility of of meeting meeting aa given given level level of of protection protection 30 30 Seismic Load on Shelters Seismic Load on Shelters Seismic Seismic loads loads are are generally generally aa function function of of:: Geographic Geographic and and geological geological location location of of building building The The use use of of the the building building The The nature nature of of the the building building structural structural system system The The dynamic dynamic property property of of the the site site The The weight weight of of the the building building and and the the distribution distribution of of the the weight weight Following Following International International codes codes are are commonly commonly usually usually used used to to estimate estimate seismic seismic loads loads:: 1 1--UBC UBC 1997 1997 Chapter Chapter 16 16 2 2--IBC IBC 2006 2006 Chapter Chapter 16 16 3 3--ASCE ASCE 7 7--05 05 Chapters Chapters 11 11 to to 23 23 and and CC11 11 to to CC23 23 There There are are two two commonly commonly used used procedures procedures for for specifying specifying seismic seismic design design forces forces:: Equivalent Equivalent Static Static Force Force Dynamic Dynamic Analysis Analysis 31 31 Seismic Load on Shelters Seismic Load on Shelters In In the the equivalent equivalent static static force force procedure procedure,, the the inertial inertial forces forces are are specified specified as as static static forces forces using using empirical empirical formulas formulas. . The The empirical empirical formulas formulas do do not not explicitly explicitly account account for for the the "dynamic "dynamic characteristics" characteristics" of of the the particular particular structure structure being being designed designed or or analyzed analyzed. . The The formulas formulas were, were, however, however, developed developed to to adequately adequately represent represent the the dynamic dynamic behavior behavior of of what what are are called called "regular" "regular" structures, structures, which which have have aa reasonably reasonably uniform uniform distribution distribution of of mass mass and and stiffness stiffness. . For For such such structures, structures, the the equivalent equivalent static static force force procedure procedure is is most most often often adequate adequate. . A A dynamic dynamic analysis analysis can can take take aa number number of of forms, forms, but but should should account account for for the the irregularities irregularities of of the the structure structure by by modeling modeling its its "dynamic "dynamic characteristics" characteristics" including including natural natural frequencies, frequencies, mode mode shapes shapes and and damping damping. . Two Two method method commonly commonly used used for for dynamic dynamic analysis analysis:: Time Time History History Method Method Response Response Spectrum Spectrum Method Method Unless specified by Client, equivalent static method is normally followed Unless specified by Client, equivalent static method is normally followed to calculate seismic loading on single storey portal framed shelters. to calculate seismic loading on single storey portal framed shelters. 32 32 Other Loads for Shelters Other Loads for Shelters There are other types of load also which sometimes required to be There are other types of load also which sometimes required to be calculated while designing the Shelter structures: calculated while designing the Shelter structures: Blast Blast Load Load ::For For ballast ballast and and effects effects of of blast blast overpressure overpressure refer refer to to (ASCE (ASCE Document Document:: Design Design of of Blast Blast Resistant Resistant Buildings Buildings in in Petrochemical Petrochemical Facilities) Facilities). . Note Note that that the the concept concept of of design design of of buildings buildings against against blast blast in in general general is is to to reduce reduce damages damages and and losses losses as as per per project project specification specification and and ASCE ASCE document document. . Soil/Hydrostatic Soil/Hydrostatic Load Load Erection Erection Load Load Test Test Load Load Temperature Temperature // Thermal Thermal Load Load:: Only Only thermal thermal loads loads resulted resulted from from expansion expansion or or contraction contraction of of structure structure should should be be considered considered under under this this load load. . Thermal loads magnitude in structural elements basically depends on the Thermal loads magnitude in structural elements basically depends on the rigidity of structure. rigidity of structure. To reduce the effect of load, avoid using more than one braced bay in To reduce the effect of load, avoid using more than one braced bay in structure and as a good practice of engineering, in every 45 structure and as a good practice of engineering, in every 45--60 m 60 m consider an expansion joint in the structure. consider an expansion joint in the structure. 33 33 Temperature Load Temperature Load The The best best bracing bracing system system for for structures structures under under severe severe temperature temperature variation variation is is Chevron Chevron (inverted (inverted V), V), KK and and VV bracings bracings. . The The outcome outcome of of using using XX bracing bracing will will be be aa severe severe axial axial load load in in the the braced braced bay bay elements elements. . Braced Braced bays bays are are also also kept kept approx approx. . at at the the middle middle of of the the structure structure to to avoid avoid excessive excessive deflection deflection and and tie tie force force at at the the longitudinal longitudinal beams beams. . 34 34 Load combinations Load combinations Load Load combinations combinations are are formed formed by by adding adding the the effects effects of of loads loads from from each each of of the the load load sources sources cited cited above above. . Codes Codes or or industry industry standards standards often often give give specific specific load load combinations combinations which which must must be be satisfied satisfied. . It It is is not not always always necessary necessary to to consider consider all all the the loads loads at at full full intensity intensity. . Also, Also, certain certain loads loads are are not not required required to to be be combined combined at at all all. . Fr Fr example example :: Wind Wind load load is is not not considered considered acting acting simultaneously simultaneously with with Seismic Seismic load load. . In In some some cases cases only only aa portion portion of of aa load load must must be be combined combined with with other other loads loads. . When When aa combination combination does does not not include include loads loads at at full full intensity, intensity, it it represents represents aa judgment judgment as as to to the the probability probability of of simultaneous simultaneous occurrence occurrence with with regard regard to to the the time time and and intensity intensity. . Following Following International International codes codes are are usually usually used used to to estimate estimate combinations combinations of of different different loads loads:: 1 1--UBC UBC 1997 1997 2 2--IBC IBC 2006 2006 3 3--ASCE ASCE 7 7--05 05 Chapters Chapters 3 3 and and CC3 3 Dead Dead + + Live Live load, load, which which is is usually usually the the load load combination combination that that dictates dictates the the choice choice of of column column and and rafter rafter sizes sizes from from aa strength strength point point of of view view. . Dead Dead + + Wind Wind load, load, however, however, is is often often the the combination combination that that governs governs from from aa deflection deflection point point of of view view 35 35 Load Combination Load Combination A A typical typical strength strength design design load load combination combination is is given given as as per per UBC UBC 97 97. . 36 36 Design Methods Design Methods Analysis and Design of Building is based on three design theories: Analysis and Design of Building is based on three design theories: (1) Elastic design; (1) Elastic design; (2) Plastic design; (2) Plastic design; (3) Limit state design. (3) Limit state design. The The aim aim of of structural structural design design is is to to produce produce aa safe safe and and economical economical structure structure that that fulfills fulfills its its required required purpose purpose. . Elastic design Elastic design is the traditional method and is still commonly used. is the traditional method and is still commonly used. Steel is almost perfectly elastic up to the yield point and elastic Steel is almost perfectly elastic up to the yield point and elastic theory follows this methodology. Structures are analyzed by elastic theory follows this methodology. Structures are analyzed by elastic theory and sections are sized so that the permissible stresses are theory and sections are sized so that the permissible stresses are not exceed. not exceed. Plastic Plastic theory theory developed developed to to take take account account of of behaviour behaviour past past the the yield yield point point is is based based on on finding finding the the load load that that causes causes the the structure structure to to collapse collapse and and formation formation of of plastic plastic hinges hinges at at different different portions portions of of the the member member. . Finally, Finally, limit limit state state design design has has been been developed developed to to take take account account of of all all conditions conditions that that can can make make the the structure structure become become unfit unfit for for use use. . The The design design is is based based on on the the actual actual behaviour behaviour of of materials materials and and structures structures in in use use. . 37 37 Design Methods Design Methods Normally Normally elastic elastic analysis analysis is is carried carried out out for for building building structures structures followed followed by by limit limit state state design design. . However, However, plastic plastic analysis analysis may may in in some some cases cases lead lead to to more more economical economical structures structures. . Sometimes Sometimes if if required, required, second second order order analysis analysis (P (P--Delta Delta analysis) analysis) is is also also done done to to cater cater the the additional additional forces forces induced induced in in the the frame frame due due to to the the axial axial forces forces acting acting eccentrically eccentrically to to the the assumed assumed member member centroids centroids as as the the frame frame deflects deflects under under load load. . Two Two types types of of checks checks are are done done to to ensure ensure the the stability stability of of structure structure:: Strength Strength check check:: this this takes takes care care the the most most severe severe load load combinations combinations Serviceability Serviceability check check :: It It is is to to make make sure sure the the structures structures behave behave satisfactory satisfactory and and can can perform perform its its intended intended function function at at service service load load. . It It also also limit limit excessive excessive deflection deflection of of structure structure and and some some cases cases prevent prevent excessive excessive vibration vibration. . Normally Normally Building Building specification specification will will provide provide proper proper deflection deflection limits limits to to be be considered considered for for each each elements elements of of the the structure structure. . Potential Potential problems problems to to excessive excessive deflection deflection are are:: Damage Damage in in cladding cladding Objectionable Objectionable sag sag in in rafter rafter and and suspended suspended ceiling ceiling etc etc. . Damage Damage to to external/ external/ internal internal masonry masonry walls, walls, mezzanine mezzanine floor floor concrete concrete slabs slabs and and other other architectural architectural finishes finishes. . Excessive Excessive deflection deflection of of column column at at crane crane gantry gantry level level may may cause cause damage damage to to the the alignment alignment of of crane crane bridge bridge. . 38 38 Structural Analysis & Design Structural Analysis & Design Analysis Analysis and and Design Design can can be be done done as as per per any any of of the the following following widely widely popular popular software software:: STAAD STAAD--Pro Pro Sap Sap 2000 2000 GTSTRUDL GTSTRUDL 39 39 Analysis of Building Analysis of Building Analysis Analysis of of shelter shelter is is done done by by modeling modeling the the structure structure in in 3 3DD space space frame frame with with proper proper support support conditions, conditions, member member releases releases etc etc. . Above Above sketch sketch shows shows one one 3 3DD Model Model of of closed closed Shelter Shelter generated generated in in Staadpro Staadpro 40 40 Bending Moment Patterns Bending Moment Patterns Loading and BMD for Transverse Wind Loading and BMD for Transverse Wind Loading Loading and and BMD BMD for for WL WL (Suction (Suction force force due due to to long long. . wind) wind) 41 41 Bending Moment Patterns Bending Moment Patterns Typical Output from Staadpro Analysis Typical Output from Staadpro Analysis Loading and BMD for DL/LL/SL etc. Loading and BMD for DL/LL/SL etc. Loading and BMD for Crane Load Loading and BMD for Crane Load 42 42 Building Detailing Building Detailing Roof Plan bracing Pattern Roof Plan bracing Pattern Transverse Elevation Transverse Elevation Longitudinal Elevation Longitudinal Elevation Basic details of different sections/ plans which are normally used in shelters are shown here 43 43 Base Plate & Gable Frame Base Plate & Gable Frame Column Base: Column Base: The The great great majority majority of of portal portal frames frames are are designed designed with with nominally nominally pinned pinned bases bases. . This This is is for for reasons reasons of of economy economy and and simple simple design design. . Not Not only only are are fixed fixed bases bases more more expensive expensive because because of of the the need need for for thicker thicker and and larger larger base base plates plates and and the the stiffening stiffening that that is is necessary, necessary, but but the the foundations foundations require require to to be be much much larger larger to to resist resist the the base base moments moments. . Only Only in in cases cases of of large large lateral lateral deflection, deflection, or or possibly possibly where where brick brick walls walls are are built built into into the the columns, columns, is is it it necessary necessary to to resort resort to to fixed fixed bases bases. . These These should should be be kept kept as as simple simple as as possible possible Gable Frame: Gable Frame: Where Where buildings buildings are are not not designed designed for for future future lengthwise lengthwise extension, extension, there there is is no no need need for for portal portal frames frames to to be be provided provided at at the the ends ends. . A A more more economical economical alternative alternative is is to to supply supply aa light light I I-- or or channel channel section section rafter rafter spanning spanning across across the the tops tops of of the the gable gable posts posts and and tied tied laterally laterally into into the the rafter rafter bracing bracing system system. . Both Both the the rafter rafter and and the the corner corner columns columns can can be be much much lighter lighter than than that that of of aa portal, portal, but but more more importantly importantly the the high high cost cost of of the the portal portal eaves eaves and and apex apex haunches haunches can can be be saved saved. . It It is is necessary, necessary, though, though, to to provide provide lateral lateral support support and and this this can can be be done done by by means means of of aa simple simple bracing bracing system system 44 44 Steel Connections Steel Connections Holding Holding Down Down Bolts Bolts (Anchor (Anchor Bolts) Bolts):: Anchorage Anchorage of of the the holding holding-- down down bolts bolts into into the the concrete concrete foundation foundation should should be be sufficient sufficient to to cater cater for for any any uplift uplift forces forces and and to to provide provide for for any any shears shears applied applied to to the the bolts bolts. . The The most most commonly commonly used used anchor anchor bolts bolts are are of of grade grade 4 4. .6 6// 5 5. .6 6. . Connection Connection Bolts Bolts:: The The most most frequently frequently used used bolts bolts in in steel steel connections connections are are non non preloaded preloaded bolts bolts of of strength strength grade grade 4 4. .6 6 and and 8 8. .8 8 (high (high strength) strength) used used in in 2 2mm mm clearance clearance holes holes. . There There may may be be aa situation situation where where engineer engineer may may encounter encounter large large load load reversal reversal in in the the joint joint (in (in high high seismic seismic zone, zone, supporting supporting vibrating vibrating equipment), equipment), in in those those cases cases high high strength strength friction friction grip grip bolts bolts are are used used to to avoid avoid any any failure failure due due to to fatigue fatigue. . 45 45 Steel Connections Steel Connections The The most most important important aspect aspect of of structural structural steelwork steelwork for for buildings buildings is is the the design design of of the the connections connections between between individual individual frame frame components components. . Basically Basically there there are are three three types types of of connection, connection, each each defined defined by by its its structural structural behaviour behaviour. . Simple Simple connection connection-- It It transmit transmit negligible negligible bending bending moment moment across across the the joint joint. . The The connection connection is is detailed detailed to to allow allow the the beam beam to to rotate rotate. . The The beam beam behaves behaves as as simply simply supported supported beam beam. . Continuous Continuous connection connection-- The The connection connection is is designed designed to to transmit transmit shear shear force force and and bending bending moment moment across across the the joint joint. . This This connection connection will will have have sufficient sufficient stiffness stiffness to to take take moment moment. . Semi Semi--continuous continuous connection connection-- It It is is in in between between the the first first two two connections connections where where it it can can take take some some amount amount of of moment moment along along with with shear shear. . 46 46 Eaves & Ridge Connections Eaves & Ridge Connections The The types types of of eaves eaves and and apex apex haunches haunches shown shown in in Figure Figure are are the the ones ones almost almost universally universally used used because because of of their their relative relative simplicity simplicity and and the the ease ease with with which which the the frame frame can can be be erected erected. . The The critical critical design design condition condition is is usually usually gravity gravity loading loading with with the the rafter rafter--to to-- column column connection connection having having to to sustain sustain aa high high negative negative moment moment and and the the apex apex connection connection aa smaller smaller positive positive moment moment. . The The moment moment at at the the eaves eaves produces produces aa high high tensile tensile force force in in the the upper upper flange flange of of the the rafter rafter that that is is transmitted transmitted through through the the upper upper tension tension bolts bolts and and the the end end plate plate to to the the inner inner flange flange of of the the column column. . The The compressive compressive force force in in the the lower lower flange flange of of the the haunch haunch is is transferred transferred in in bearing bearing through through the the end end plate plate onto onto the the column column flange flange and and into into the the web web. . The The transfer transfer of of moment moment at at the the apex apex is is similar, similar, except except that that here here the the moment moment is is positive positive so so the the forces forces are are reversed reversed. . The The haunch haunch and and apex apex regions regions are are vitally vitally important important parts parts of of the the frame frame and and must must be be carefully carefully proportioned proportioned. . 47 47 Connection Details of Portal Frame Connection Details of Portal Frame Another Another type type of of rafter rafter--to to--column column connection connection (shown (shown in in this this Figure) Figure) is is widely widely used used for for portal portal frames frames. . Here Here normally normally the the rafter rafter and and column column have have the the same same section section size size and and are are shop shop-- welded welded with with their their flanges flanges beveled beveled to to receive receive complete complete penetration penetration groove groove welds welds. . This This is is aa simple simple connection connection and and is is supplemented supplemented by by aa site site--bolted bolted splice splice some some way way up up the the rafter, rafter, at at aa point point of of reduced reduced bending bending moment moment. . The The location location of of the the splice splice should should be be such such that that the the length length of of the the column column--rafter rafter component, component, as as appropriate, appropriate, is is within within transport transport limitations limitations. . The The apex apex joint joint is is also also shop shop--welded welded. . The The length length of of the the rafter rafter to to the the opposite opposite splice splice should should meet meet transport transport requirements requirements. . In In these these type type of of connections, connections, proper proper protection protection need need to to be be observed observed to to avoid avoid drilling drilling holes holes at at the the location location of of weld weld for for connection connection for for ridge/ ridge/ Eaves Eaves beams beams. . 48 48 Bracing Details of Portal Frame Bracing Details of Portal Frame Bracings Bracings:: These These structural structural system system are are used used to to resist resist lateral lateral loads loads. . These These can can be be continuous continuous or or wind wind-- moment moment frames frames or or braced braced-- bay bay or or combinations combinations of of both both Braced Braced Bay Bay:: These These are are positioned positioned in in such such aa way way to to provide provide minimal minimal impact impact in in upon upon planning planning of of the the building building. . Braced Braced bay bay act act as as vertical vertical trusses trusses which which resist resist the the wind wind loads loads by by cantilever cantilever action action. . The The bracing bracing member member can can be be arranged arranged in in various various fashion fashion designed designed to to carry carry solely solely tension tension or or alternatively alternatively tension tension & & compression compression. . X X is is the the most most common common form form of of tension tension bracing bracing and and K K is is the the most most common common type type of of compression compression bracings bracings. . 49 49 Connections of different Connections of different elements elements Bracing connection for heavy compressive loading Bracing connection for heavy compressive loading Beam splice connection Beam splice connection Beam to column simple shear connection Beam to column simple shear connection 50 50 Connections of different Connections of different elements elements Gable end middle column connection Gable end middle column connection Sometimes sliding connection is Sometimes sliding connection is provided to ensure that vertical load provided to ensure that vertical load from gable rafter should not transfer from gable rafter should not transfer to mid column. to mid column. Crane Gantry bracket connection Crane Gantry bracket connection 51 51 Detailing of Crane Girder Detailing of Crane Girder Side sway due to crane load Side sway due to crane load Different arrangements to absorb crane surge force Different arrangements to absorb crane surge force Gantry Girder showing bumper location Gantry Girder showing bumper location Stiffeners to avoid local failure Stiffeners to avoid local failure 52 52 Purlins & Girts Purlins & Girts Purlins Purlins & & Girts Girts are are immediate immediate supporting supporting members members of of roof roof and and wall wall sheeting sheeting respectively respectively. . They They act act principally principally as as beams, beams, but but also also performs performs as as struts struts and and as as compression compression braces braces in in resisting resisting rafters rafters and and columns columns laterally laterally against against torsional torsional buckling buckling. . In In some some buildings buildings purlins purlins and and girts girts act act as as axial axial members members to to transfer transfer end end wall wall wind wind loads loads to to the the braced braced bays, bays, while while in in some some small small shelters shelters they they may may even even act act as as the the struts struts of of the the triangulated triangulated roof roof bracing bracing system system. . Depending Depending upon upon the the load load it it is is carrying, carrying, purlins purlins and and girts girts can can be be hot hot rolled rolled channel/ channel/ I I sections sections or or cold cold rolled rolled Z Z or or CC section section. . As As Purlins Purlins are are inclined inclined members, members, these these are are designed designed to to withstand withstand bi bi-- axial axial forces forces. . 53 53 Purlins & Girts Purlins & Girts Strength is not the only criteria when Strength is not the only criteria when designing purlins. Purlin spacing must designing purlins. Purlin spacing must be chosen to suit the type of roof be chosen to suit the type of roof sheeting and ceiling system. sheeting and ceiling system. Purlin deflection aspect also need to be Purlin deflection aspect also need to be taken into consideration while deciding taken into consideration while deciding the spacing. the spacing. Purlin spacing can vary from 1.2m to Purlin spacing can vary from 1.2m to 2.5m. 2.5m. Fly bracing Fly bracing helps to reduce purlin span and helps to reduce purlin span and also it helps to provide lateral restraint to also it helps to provide lateral restraint to compression flange of rafter compression flange of rafter 54 54 Sag Rods Sag Rods Sag Sag rods rods are are generally generally provided provided to to give give sufficient sufficient lateral lateral restraint restraint and and stability stability to to Purlins Purlins. . It It is is aa standard standard practice practice to to provide provide sag sag rods rods at at roof roof--purlin purlin level level when when purlin purlin span span is is high high. . Sag Sag rods rods are are designed designed for for axial axial tension tension force force only only. . For For duo duo--pitch pitch roof, roof, at at the the ridge ridge portion portion sometimes sometimes plate/ plate/ angle angle (diaphragm (diaphragm plate) plate) is is provided provided to to take take compression compression and and to to provide provide proper proper stability stability to to roof roof sag sag rod rod system system. . 55 55 Architectural Details of Shelters Architectural Details of Shelters Cladding Cladding:: Cladding Cladding is is required required to to be be weather weather tight, tight, to to provide provide insulation, insulation, to to have have penetration penetration for for daylight daylight and and access, access, to to be be aesthetically aesthetically pleasing pleasing and and last last the the maximum maximum time time with with aa minimum minimum maintenance maintenance consistent consistent with with the the budget budget. . Two Two types types of of cladding cladding are are broadly broadly used used for for both both roofing roofing and and wall wall sheeting sheeting purpose purpose. . Single Single skin skin steel steel sheeting sheeting Double Double skin skin insulated insulated sandwich sandwich steel steel panels panels 56 56 Architectural Details of Shelters Architectural Details of Shelters Roof/ Roof/ wall wall sheeting sheeting spanning spanning is is the the most most important important data data to to have have before before structural structural detailing detailing work work. . Sheeting Sheeting can can span span horizontally horizontally as as well well as as vertically vertically. . Accordingly Accordingly purlin purlin spacing, spacing, requirement requirement of of girts girts and and their their spacing spacing are are worked worked out out. . Generally Generally cladding cladding manufacturer manufacturer provides provides data data for for minimum minimum roof roof pitch, pitch, maximum maximum allowable allowable spanning, spanning, support support requirements requirements etc etc. . Other Other details details like like fixing fixing door, door, window, window, gutter, gutter, rain rain water water down down--comer comer etc etc. . can can be be finalized finalized and and details details as as per per respective respective manufacturers manufacturers data data and and catalogues catalogues. . Accordingly Accordingly finish finish schedule, schedule, door door-- window window schedule, schedule, secondary secondary wall wall (masonry) (masonry) detail detail drawings drawings need need to to be be prepared prepared. . 57 57 Miscellaneous Structures inside Shelters Miscellaneous Structures inside Shelters Maintenance Maintenance Platforms Platforms surrounding surrounding Equipment Equipment Foundations Foundations (e (e. .gg. . Compressor) Compressor) Mezzanine Mezzanine floor floor supporting supporting Equipments Equipments (e (e. .gg. . AHU) AHU) Fan Fan supports supports outside outside building building 58 58 Miscellaneous Structures inside Shelters Miscellaneous Structures inside Shelters HAVC HAVC ducts ducts hanging hanging from from Roof Roof ties ties and and purlins purlins. . Other Other equipment equipment supports supports and and access access Platforms Platforms attached attached to to Shelters Shelters Pipes Pipes and and cable cable trays trays supported supported from from Building Building structure structure. . 59 59 Shelter Foundation Shelter Foundation Foundation Design: Foundation Design: Depending Depending upon upon the the soil soil property property shelter shelter foundations foundations can can be be Shallow Shallow footings footings (isolated, (isolated, combined, combined, strip strip etc etc. .) ) or or Piled foundation Piled foundation Different Different checks checks to to be be performed performed for for shallow shallow foundations foundations are are Bearing pressure check Bearing pressure check Sliding check Sliding check Overturning check Overturning check Buoyancy check Buoyancy check For For pile pile foundation foundation design, design, normally normally individual individual pile pile capacities capacities are are given given by by Client/ Client/ Soil Soil investigation investigation reports reports and and accordingly accordingly rigid rigid pile pile foundations foundations are are designed designed as as per per standard standard codal codal provisions provisions. . Piled Foundation (3 & 5 piled Pile caps) Piled Foundation (3 & 5 piled Pile caps) 60 60 Shelter Foundation Shelter Foundation Foundation Foundation layout layout drawing drawing showing showing isolated isolated footings footings with with tie tie beams beams Plan Plan & & Sectional Sectional views views of of isolated isolated footings footings Plan & Sectional views Plan & Sectional views of combined footings of combined footings 61 61 Shelter Foundation Shelter Foundation Inside Inside shelter shelter grade grade slab slab model model and and 2 2DD drawing drawing showing showing position position of of different different equipments, equipments, supports, supports, trenches trenches etc etc. . 62 62 Shelter Foundation Shelter Foundation Slab Slab on on Grade Grade-- Design Design of of grade grade slab slab is is an an important important aspect aspect of of Building Building design design as as the the actual actual loading loading for for design design is is unknown unknown. . Normally Normally UDL UDL is is assumed assumed for for design design of of slab slab and and nominal nominal reinforcement reinforcement is is provided provided for for crack crack control control as as bending bending moment moment will will not not develop develop due due to to UDL UDL. . Sometimes, Sometimes, loads loads due due to to forklift forklift movement, movement, maintenance maintenance work, work, pipe pipe or or other other platform platform supports supports need need to to be be considered considered for for slab slab design design as as those those are are non non--uniform uniform and and concentrated concentrated in in nature nature. . Extra Extra precautions precautions need need to to taken taken to to cater cater those those concentrated concentrated loads loads on on slab slab. . Generally Generally local local thickening thickening of of slab slab with with extra extra reinforcement reinforcement surrounding surrounding those those supports/ supports/ areas areas are are done done to to avoid avoid punching punching failure failure. . 63 63 END END THANK YOU THANK YOU