Evaluation of the Permeability Behaviour of Sand-Bentonite
Mixtures Through Laboratory Tests K. K. Tripathi
B. V. S. Viswanadham Received: 1 June 2012 / Accepted: 27 July 2012 / Published online: 10 August 2012 Indian Geotechnical Society 2012 Abstract In recent years, when suitable impervious soils are not available for containing the waste, barriers con- structed using sand-bentonite mixtures are being frequently adopted to contain the waste. This paper presents the laboratory evaluation of permeability of sand-bentonite mixtures through falling head tests performed with rigid wall permeameter and oedometer on different categories of sand-bentonite mixtures. Five different categories of sand- bentonite mixtures were formulated by varying bentonite content in increments of 5 % from 5 to 25 % by dry weight. Atterberg limits and compaction characteristics of sand-bentonite mixtures were evaluated. With an increase in bentonite content, the unconned compressive strength of the sand-bentonite mixture was found to increase line- arly and a sharp decrease in permeability was registered up to a bentonite content of 15 % and beyond this the decrease in the permeability was marginal. Permeability tests were carried out with and without prior saturation of the sam- ples. It was found that permeability behavior of sand- bentonite mixtures was affected by the initial saturation process and type of permeability testing method. Keywords Bentonite Sand-bentonite mixtures Barriers Waste containment systems Permeability Laboratory tests Rigid-wall permeameter Introduction In the absence of natural impervious soils, compacted sand- bentonite mixtures are frequently used for constructing barriers in waste disposal projects [1, 2]. Typical other applications of compacted sand-bentonite mixtures are in: (i) waster water lagoons, and (ii) mounded oil and gas storage tanks [3, 4]. In order to design an economical sand- bentonite barrier, it is necessary to perform several per- meability tests to nd a suitable sand-bentonite mixture which has minimum bentonite content and which has permeability less than or equal to 1 9 10 -9 m/s. In case of sand-bentonite mixture, permeability varies with perme- ation time before reaching to nal steady state value. The variation in hydraulic conductivity with permeation time can be due to change in degree of saturation, hydration of bentonite, chemical instability, bacterial growth etc. Darcys law has been frequently used in all these transient conditions to calculate the permeability of sand-bentonite mixture [1, 2, 5, 6]. Also, different types of permeameters with different sizes of samples have been used for mea- suring the permeability. For water as the permeant, per- meability behavior of sand-bentonite mixture tested by using different permeameters is explained below. In the exible wall permeameter, permeability tests are conducted after saturation of the samples. Samples are saturated by applying back pressure, to achieve a degree of saturation close to 100 %. During the permeability test, bentonite gradually absorbs water and swells or hydrates in the voids of sand-bentonite mixture. Hence, permeability gradually decreases with permeation time till it reaches steady state condition, after which no appreciable change in permeability occurs. Final value of permeability corre- sponds to that of steady state condition. Haug and Wong [6] and Abichou et al. [7] have conducted permeability K. K. Tripathi Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Shivajinagar, Pune 411005, India e-mail: kamalesht@gmail.com B. V. S. Viswanadham (&) Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India e-mail: viswam@civil.iitb.ac.in 1 3 Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 DOI 10.1007/s40098-012-0020-8 tests on exible wall permeameter, for a minimum duration of 28 and 21 days respectively in order to get nal per- meability. Chapuis [1] has reported that in exible wall permeameter, steady state condition is reached in 27 days if hydraulic conductivity is in the range of 1 9 10 -9 to 1 9 10 -10 m/s. Few investigators [2, 5] have conducted permeability tests on rigid wall permeameter and oedom- eter, after saturating the sample using back pressure satu- ration facility. In these permeameters, samples were subjected to axial stress, which prevented side wall leakage during saturation of the sample. For saturating the samples before conducting permeability tests, various authors have used different methods of saturation such as application of back pressure, by application of vacuum, or by upward ow of permeant or combinations of these methods as shown in Table 1. ASTM D 5084 [8] recommends the use of a exible wall permeameter for determining the hydraulic conductivity of a soil with the following key specications: (i) Maximum hydraulic gradient should not exceed 30, (ii) At no time, the hydraulic gradient cannot be less than 0.75 times the initial or maximum hydraulic gradient, and (iii) saturation of sample has to be achieved by applying back pressure and by using de-aired water. Rigid wall permeameter and oedometer are not gener- ally provided with back pressure saturation facility, as it may create potential leakage path between the sample and side walls [9, 10]. In these permeameters, permeability tests are generally conducted without pre-saturation of the sample. During permeability test, both saturation and hydration processes happen simultaneously and gradually. In such case, long term hydraulic conductivity can be higher than the short term hydraulic conductivity if inu- ence of increased degree of saturation is more than the inuence of hydration of bentonite. Hence, in order to be on safer side, it becomes necessary to conduct long term permeability test. Chapuis [1] reported that in case of rigid wall permeameter, 24 weeks or more may be required, depending upon bentonite content and thickness of the sample. From the review of literature, it was found that labora- tory studies on the permeability of sand-bentonite mixtures are limited. Inuence of the effect of pre-saturation of sand-bentonite mixture and varying bentonite contents on the permeability behaviour of sand-bentonite mixtures was not clearly understood. Hence, in the present study the permeability behaviour of sand-bentonite mixtures was studied in the laboratory through rigid wall and oedometer test setups with and without pre-saturation. Materials and Methods Bentonite used in this study is originated in the Gujarat state of India. X-ray diffraction spectra (Fig. 1) show that it is predominantly a montmorillonite with Maghemite, Hematite, Antase, Calcite and Kaolin traces. Chemical composition of bentonite (Table 2) as determined by X-ray uorescence spectroscopy conrms that it is predominantly Na-montmorillonite. Similar chemical compounds were observed in the Wyoming bentonite used by Mollins et al. [11]. The clay content (representing approximately the percentage of Montmorillonite) in the bentonite was found to be 86 % as per Mehtylene blue test. Sand is uniformly graded, ne silica sand; and is classied as SP according to the Unied Soil Classication System (USCS). The index properties of sand and bentonite used in this study were obtained using relevant BIS codes (IS 2720 Part III to Part V) and these are summarized in Table 3. For liquid limit and plastic limit tests, bentonite was mixed with distilled water, forming a thick paste and allowed to hydrate for about 24 h. For higher bentonite contents, considering the active nature of bentonite type used in the present study, hydration duration of 24 h was not adequate. However, Table 1 Details of permeability tests on sand- bentonite mixtures Not reported Investigators Permeameter type Hydraulic gradient Hydration period Method of saturation Kenney et al. [2] Oedometer cell 2050 Back pressure Haug and Wong [6] Flexible wall \40 24 h By applying vacuum and back- pressure and use of de-aired water. Yang and Barbour [15] Oedometer cell Gleason et al. [14] Rigid wall 48 h Kayabali [16] Rigid wall 2025 Santucci de et al. [4] Rigid wall 16 h Upward ow of pressurized water Stern and Shackelford [17] Flexible wall 30 Back pressure Abichou et al. [7] Flexible wall 1416 1 week Back pressure 268 Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 1 3 in order to maintain uniformity among all bentonite con- tents, hydration duration of 24 h was adopted. In the present study, ve categories of sand-bentonite mixtures were used with bentonite content range from 5 to 25 %, as shown in Table 4. The bentonite content was determined as the percentage of dry weight of bentonite with respect to total dry weight of sand-bentonite mixture. For this purpose, sand and bentonite were placed in the oven for at least 24 h before weighing and dry mixing. Liquid limit and plastic limit of the sand bentonite mixtures were determined using the procedure given in relevant BIS code (IS 2720 part V). For liquid limit and plastic limit tests, sand-bentonite mixtures were mixed with distilled water forming a thick paste and allowed to hydrate for about 24 h. Compaction characteristics of sand-bentonite mixtures were determined by conducting reduced, standard and modied proctor compaction tests. Unconned compressive strength tests on sand-bentonite mixture samples moist-compacted at their maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content (standard proctor compaction) were also presented. Finally, permeability tests on formulated sand-bentonite mixtures were carried out with and without pre-saturation using a modied rigid wall permeameter and oedometer test setups. Atterberg Limits Table 4 presents summary of Atterberg limits (liquid limit and plastic limit) along with specic gravity of sand- bentonite mixtures. Figure 2 shows the positions of sand- bentonite mixtures plotted on Casagrandes plasticity chart. The A-line delineates the boundaries between clays (above the line) and silt and organic soils (below the line). The U-line denes the upper limit of correlations between plasticity index and liquid limit. The results of consistency limits of the soil should be below the U-line. From the Fig. 2, it can be seen that results of consistency limits of Fig. 1 X-ray diffraction spectra for bentonite: Cu-ka radiation Table 2 Chemical composition of bentonite Sr. No. Analyte % 1 SiO 2 54.36 2 Al 2 O 3 17.44 3 Fe 2 O 3 10.70 4 MgO 3.79 5 Na 2 O 2.17 6 CaO 1.95 7 TiO 2 0.90 8 P 2 O 5 0.20 9 K 2 O 0.14 10 SO 3 0.053 Loss on ignition (1,000 C for 1 h) 8.16 Clay content (as per methylene blue test) 86 Note: Chemical composition determined by X-ray uorescence spectroscopy; Sample dried at 105 C prior to testing Table 3 Summary of index properties of sand and bentonite Sr. No. Property Sand Bentonite 1 Hygroscopic moisture content 0.1 % 9 % 2 Specic gravity 2.67 2.94 3 Size fraction Coarse sand (24.75 mm, %) 0 Medium sand (0.4252 mm, %) 7 Fine sand (0.0750.425 mm, %) 92 Silt and clay (\0.075 mm, %) 1 4 Effective particle size d 10 (mm) 0.12 5 Coefcient of uniformity, C u 1.2 6 Coefcient of curvature, C c 3 7 Atterberg limits Liquid limit (%) 395 Plastic limit (%) 41.8 Plasticity index (%) 352.8 Not reported/relevant Table 4 Atterberg limits, specic gravity of sand-bentonite mixtures Sr. No. Sand- bentonite B % LL % PL % Specic gravity, G 1 M1 5 a 26.64 NP 2.68 2 M2 10 39.67 NP 2.69 3 M3 15 52.24 23.45 2.71 4 M4 20 74.22 23.36 2.716 5 M5 25 94.18 21.48 2.72 B bentonite content; LL liquid limit; PL plastic limit; NP non-plastic a 100 g of M1 = 5 g dry bentonite ? 95 g dry sand Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 269 1 3 the sand-bentonite mixtures used in the present investiga- tion lie in between A-line and U-line. It can be seen that sand-bentonite mixtures M3, M4 and M5 can be classied as CH soils. Sand-bentonite mixtures M1 and M2 are non- plastic soils. Compaction Characteristics The dry sand-bentonite mixture was mixed with approxi- mately 513 % initial water content and kept in a sealed plastic bag for about 24 h prior to the compaction test. The standard Proctor and modied Proctor tests were car- ried out by following procedures given in BIS: 2720 Part VII and BIS: 2720 Part VIII respectively. The reduced Proctor compaction is similar to the standard Proctor compaction, but 15 blows are applied per layer instead of 25 [12]. The compaction curves for standard, modied and reduced Proctor compaction for sand-bentonite mixtures M1M5 are presented in Figs. 3ae. Values of maximum dry unit weight, c dmax , and optimum moisture content OMC, obtained from standard, modied and reduced Proctor tests are summarized in Table 4. From the Table 4, it can be seen that for each compaction effort, the maxi- mum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content of different sand-bentonite mixtures varied within a narrow range. The observed compaction behaviour of sand-ben- tonite mixtures is found to be in agreement with the results reported by Kenney et al. [2], Santucci de et al. [4] and Abichou et al. [7]. From the compaction curves, it can be observed that for the sand-bentonite mixtures used in this study, the degree of saturation at the OMC varies from about 7083 %. Kenney et al. [2], Haug and Wong [6], Abichou et al. [7] and Chapuis et al. [18] have reported about the degree of saturation of the sand-bentonite mix- tures at the OMC in the range of 7090 % (Table 5). Unconned Compressive Strength Tests Figure 4 presents the variation of deviatoric stress with strain for different sand bentonite mixtures. From Fig. 4, it can be seen that as the bentonite content increases the peak deviatoric stress or unconned compressive strength q u of the sample increases. The axial strains at which different sand-bentonite mixture samples have experienced failure was observed to vary between 2 and 3 %. From Fig. 4, it can be observed that the q u value increases almost linearly, with an increase in bentonite content of the mixture. Permeability Tests Rigid Wall Permeameter The rigid wall permeameter had a cylindrical mould made out of brass with about 76.5 mm internal diameter and an effective sample thickness of 60 mm (Fig. 5). In order to perform permeability tests on ve sand-bentonite mixtures simultaneously, a falling head test-setup was custom designed and developed. The test setup consisted of ve glass tubes of 1,200 mm length and 10 mm internal diameter. Beside each glass tube, a graduated scale with an accuracy of 0.1 mm was xed to record measurements from time to time. Beside each glass tube, graduated scale was tted. Each glass tube was connected through a ex- ible rubber tube with water inlet provision at the top of the permeameter (Fig. 5). Considering the negligible outow through the sample, only inow was measured. However, an adequate care was taken to prevent evaporation losses. Oedometer In order to verify results of permeability tests on sand- bentonite mixtures using a rigid wall permeameter, a modied oedometer was used. The oedometer was modi- ed to conduct falling head permeability test. The modi- cation was carried out to ensure the water tightness and prevention of swelling of the sample [10]. The modied oedometer was eventually a rigid wall permeameter with small thickness of sample and upward ow of water. Kenney et al. [2] have also conducted falling head tests in oedometer. The indirect evaluation of the hydraulic con- ductivity from consolidation test may be unreliable [10]. The oedometer cell has 75 mm diameter internally and a sample height of 25 mm, as shown in Fig. 6. For restraining the swelling of sample, loading plate was held at a constant position with the help of a locking plate. However, no normal load was applied. Both the perme- ameters are effectively rigid wall cells and the later one is modied to conduct falling head permeability tests, as the indirect evaluation of the hydraulic conductivity 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Liquid Limit (%)
P l a s t i c i t y
I n d e x
( % )
M3 M4 M5 CH CL Ip=0.73 (LL-20) A-line U-line Ip=0.9 (LL-8) MH & OH ML & OL CL-ML Fig. 2 Plot showing sand-bentonite mixtures on Casagrandes plas- ticity chart 270 Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 1 3 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Water content (%) D r y
u n i t
w e i g h t
( k N / m 3 ) Modified Standard Reduced Sr=100% Sr=80% Sr=70% (a) For M1 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Water content (%) D r y
u n i t
w e i g h t
( k N / m 3 ) Modified Standard Reduced 100% 80% 70% (b) For M2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Water content (%) D r y
u n i t
w e i g h t
( k N / m 3 ) Modified Standard Reduced 80% 100% 70% (c) For M3 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Water content (%) D r y
u n i t
w e i g h t
( k N / m 3 ) Modified Standard Reduced 80% 100% 70% (d) For M4 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Water content (%) D r y
u n i t
w e i g h t
( k N / m 3 ) Modified Standard Reduced 80% 100% 70% (e) For M5 Fig. 3 Compaction characteristics of sand-bentonite mixtures Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 271 1 3 computations from the coefcient of consolidation values during loading increments was found to be unreliable [10]. Sample Preparation Required quantities of dried sand and bentonite were taken and mixed thoroughly to arrive at desired sand-bentonite mixtures. Required amount of tap water corresponding to optimum water content was added and mixed thoroughly. Wet sand-bentonite mixture was sealed in a polythene bag and kept in a desiccator to hydrate for about 24 h. The rigid wall permeameter was coated with thin layer of silicon grease along its inner sides. Required quantity of hydrated sand-bentonite mixture was dynamically compacted in the permeameter in three layers, using a rammer at its respective optimum moisture content and corresponding maximum dry unit weight. The achieved densities were found to be comparable with the target densities. The nal layer was compacted with the help of a collar arrangement. Top cap was tightened after placing a lter paper, a per- forated plate and a rubber gasket. Bottom plate was tight- ened after placing a ne wire mesh (150 lm). No lter paper was used at the bottom of sample, as it might be clogged during saturation process and permeability test. Then, the soil sample was clamped thoroughly between two thin rectangular perforated plates. In case of permeability tests using oedometer, oedom- eter cell was coated with thin layer of silicon grease. Required quantity of hydrated sand-bentonite mixture was dynamically compacted using a rammer, in single layer with the help of a collar arrangement. To prevent the migration of sand or bentonite from the sample during saturation process, special care was taken as the sample thickness was less. A lter paper and a ne wire mesh were placed at the top as well as at the bottom of the oedometer Table 5 Compaction characteristics of sand-bentonite mixtures Sr. No. Sand- bentonite Standard compaction Modied compaction Reduced compaction OMC (%) c d max (kN/m 3 ) OMC (%) c d max (kN/m 3 ) OMC (%) c d max (kN/m 3 ) 1 M1 17.5 16.8 13.9 18.1 18.2 16.4 2 M2 17 16.9 13.4 18.5 19.5 16.45 3 M3 15 16.94 13.3 18.9 17.6 16.7 4 M4 16 16.9 13.6 18.8 17 16.8 5 M5 16.75 16.85 13.7 18.4 19.5 16.6 OMC optimum moisture content, c d max maximum dry unit weight 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Axial Strain (%) D e v i a t o r i c
s t r e s s
( k N / m 2 )
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 Fig. 4 Variation of deviatoric stress with axial strain for sand- bentonite mixtures (UC test) Rubber tube 76.5 mm Compacted sand-bentonite mixture Air release valve Top cap Rubber gasket Top perforated plate Perforated base plate Wire mesh 60 mm (L) h1 h2 Water level at time t1 Water level at time t2 Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of conventional rigid wall permeameter (not to scale) h2 h1 Sand-bentonite mixture 75 mm dia., 25 mm height Porous stone Porous stone Loading Pad Acrylic base plate Oedometer base Acrylic pipe Locking plate Rubber tube Inlet glass tube (10 mm diameter) Spacer Rubber gasket Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of modied oedometer setup (not to scale) 272 Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 1 3 cell. Then, it was clamped between two thin rectangular perforated plates to make it ready for saturation process. Saturation Saturation was achieved by immersing the samples of sand- bentonite mixture into water in the vacuum desiccator and by application of vacuum. For granular soils, Chapuis and Bass [13] suggested that full vacuum should be created in both permeameter and the water tank so that specimen can be saturated by creating small hydraulic gradient and migration of ne particles can be prevented. According to ASTM D5084, soaking under water is applicable for ne grained soils, when there are continuous air voids in the specimen and initial degree of saturationis below70 %. However, Haugand Wong [6] applied vacuum as well as back pressure saturation methods, for saturating the sand-bentonite mixture samples with initial degree of saturation of about 80 %. The vacuum was applied in the specimen as well as in the cell water to minimize the resulting effective stress. Keeping these points in view, following procedure was adopted for enhancement of degree of saturation of samples of sand-bentonite mixture (with initial degree of saturation of about 80 %). The rigid wall permeameter and clamped oedometer cell were immersed in water in the vacuum desiccator for about 2 weeks. For rigid wall permeameter, no vacuumwas applied in the rst day, to minimize the washing out of bentonite. In case of oedometer, submergence period without vacuum was increased up to 3 days as the sample thickness was less. In the subsequent days, vacuumof 700 mmHg was applied daily for about 5 min. Gradually, the duration of application of vac- uumwas increased from5 to 10 min during the second week. In this way, total duration of application of vacuumwas about 8090 min in the period of 2 weeks. Slight turbidity was observed in the initially clean water of vacuum desiccator at the end of 2 weeks. This indicates slight washing out of bentonite from samples, which could be from the top and bottom ends of sample. However, slight washing out of bentonite would lead to the deter- mination of appropriate quantity of bentonite on safer side. Permeability Testing After saturation of the samples, rigid wall permeameters were connected to the falling head test set up. In case of oedometer cell, its clamping was removed and new lter papers were placed at the top and bottom of oedometer cell. The bottom lter paper was required to prevent ne par- ticles migrating into porous stone. Then, oedometer cell was xed to the oedometer falling head setup. For both, rigid wall permeameter as well oedometer, dis- tilled water was lled inthe glass tubes. Water was lled inthe outlet tank, time to time to compensate for evaporation loss. The glass tube was relled with distilled water whenever the hydraulic gradient reaches 10 from 15. This satises the requirement of ASTM D 5084. Hydraulic conductivity was calculated using the expression given for falling head test, for subsequent intervals of time (ASTM D 5084 method- B). Hydraulic Conductivity Calculation The hydraulic conductivity was calculated with the help of the measured water level in the inlet glass tube at different periods, using the expression given for the conventional falling head test as follows (ASTM D 5084 method- B, constant tail water pressure): k aL A t 2 t 1
ln h 1 h 2
1 where, h 1 is the hydraulic head at time t 1 , h 2 is the hydraulic head at time t 2 , a is the cross sectional area of tube, A is the cross sectional area of the soil sample, L is the length of the soil sample (Figs. 5, 6). Equation (1) is based on the Darcys law and generally used for the satu- rated soils. However, in the present study, Eq. (1) has been used for the unsaturated sand-bentonite samples. Test Programme For evaluating hydraulic conductivity of sand-bentonite mix- tures, four series of permeability tests were conducted as shown in Table 6. All the samples were moist compacted at their optimummoisture content andmaximumdryunit weight as per standard Proctor compaction. Permeability tests of series-A were carried out in rigid wall permeameter, and permeability tests of series-B were carried out in oedometer, after saturating the sample for 2 weeks. Permeability tests of series-C were carried out in rigid wall permeameter without saturation pro- cess. Permeabilitytests of series-Dwere carriedout toverifythe repeatability of test results of series A and series-C. In this series, permeability tests were conducted only on sand-ben- tonite mixture M1 by maintaining identical boundary condi- tions. In the mixture M1, highest variation of hydraulic conductivity was expected because of low bentonite content. Permeabilty Behaviour of Sand-Bentonue Mixtures Variation of Hydraulic Conductivity with Permeation Time Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10 show the variation of hydraulic con- ductivity with permeation time obtained fromdifferent series. When tests were conducted after the saturation process (Ser- ies-A and series-B), hydraulic conductivity was observed to decrease upto1020 days of permeationtime andthereafter it Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 273 1 3 was found to remain constant within 30 days. This decrease is more pronounced in the tests AM1 and BM1, because ben- tonite has large pore spaces to swell and affect the hydraulic conductivity. Similar trend was reported by Haug and Wong [6] and Abichou et al. [7] for the permeability tests conducted after the saturation process using exible wall permeameters. Thus, inuence of adopted saturation process can be observed in the tests of series-A and series-B. In case of series-C Table 6 Test programme for permeability tests on sand-bentonite mixtures Test series Sr. No. Sand-bentonite mixture Permeameter type Test legend w (%) c d max (kN/m 3 ) Saturation period A 1 M1 Rigid wall AM1 17.5 16.8 2 weeks 2 M2 Rigid wall AM2 17.0 16.89 2 weeks 3 M3 Rigid wall AM3 15 16.94 2 weeks 4 M4 Rigid wall AM4 16 16.89 2 weeks 5 M5 Rigid wall AM5 16.75 16.8 2 weeks B 6 M1 Oedometer BM1 17.5 16.8 2 weeks 7 M2 Oedometer BM2 17.0 16.89 2 weeks 8 M3 Oedometer BM3 15 16.94 2 weeks C 9 M1 Rigid wall CM1 17.5 16.8 10 M2 Rigid wall CM2 17.0 16.89 11 M3 Rigid wall CM3 15 16.94 D 12 M1 Rigid wall DAM1 17.5 16.8 2 weeks 13 M1 Rigid wall DCM1 17.5 16.8 Permeability tests carried out without pre-saturation process 1.E-12 1.E-11 1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 100 10 1 Permeation time (days) H y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y
( m / s )AM1 AM2 AM3 (a) Variation of hydraulic conductivity with permeation time 1.E-12 1.E-11 1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 100 10 1 Permeation time (days) H y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y
( m / s ) AM4 AM5 (b) Variation of hydraulic conductivity with permeation time Fig. 7 Results of permeability tests for series-A 1.0E-12 1.0E-11 1.0E-10 1.0E-09 1.0E-08 1.0E-07 100 10 1 Permeation time (days) H y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y
( m / s ) BM1 BM2 BM3 Fig. 8 Results of permeability tests for series-B 1.E-12 1.E-11 1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 100 10 1 Permeation time (days) H y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y
( m / s ) CM1 CM2 CM3 Fig. 9 Results of permeability tests for series-C 274 Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 1 3 (Fig. 9), initial hydraulic conductivity is high for a short duration (within 5 days), and then it remained almost con- stant. In this series; for samples with higher bentonite content, scattering of data is more pronounced as compared to series-A and series-B. Figure 10ab show the results of repeatability tests (series-D) on sand-bentonite mixture M1. From these gures, it can be observed that the trends of hydraulic con- ductivity obtained from series-D are almost similar to trends obtained from series-A and series-C. Thus, reproducibility of test results is established from tests of series-D. Inuence of Bentonite Content on Short Term Hydraulic Conductivity In the present study, for most of the permeability tests, hydraulic conductivity variation with permeation was observed to stabilize within 30 days. In case of rigid wall permeameter, steady state of hydraulic conductivity may not necessarily mean nal state of hydraulic conductivity, how- ever, 30 days of permeation is generally considered as ade- quate for obtaining a steady sate. Hence, the hydraulic conductivity behaviour within 30 days of permeation is con- sidered and referred herein as the short term hydraulic con- ductivity k s . Figure 11 shows the variation of short term hydraulic conductivity for different sand-bentonite mixtures with bentonite content. As expected, with an increase in the bentonite content, there is a decrease in the short-term hydraulic conductivity of sand-bentonite mixtures. The variation of short term hydraulic conductivity with ben- tonite content in series-A, is found to have good agreement with Kenney et al. [2], Gleason et al. [14] and Abichou et al. [7]. From Fig. 11, it can be seen that, for sand- bentonite mixtures with 5 % bentonite content, values of hydraulic conductivity obtained from series-A and series-B are on higher side, when compared to series-C. The reason for getting lower values for permeability tests conducted in series-C could be attributed to inadequate saturation of the sand-bentonite mixtures. For sand-bentonite mixtures with higher bentonite contents (10 and 15 %), hydraulic con- ductivity value obtained from series-A, series-B and series- C are almost equal. This shows that, for higher bentonite content, initial saturation process does not signicantly inuence the short term hydraulic conductivity. The permeability tests in series-A and series-B, were conducted after following almost similar procedure of initial saturation process. However, hydraulic conductivity values of series-B are higher than corresponding values of series-A. This could be attributed to (i) increase in the degree of saturation of sample due to thin sample thickness and upward ow of water and (ii) slight washing out of bentonite during saturation process and during permeabil- ity testing. The above discussion shows that conducting perme- ability tests after the initial saturation process can lead to estimation of higher amount of bentonite content. Between the rigid wall permeameter, and oedometer, oedometer provides more safe hydraulic conductivity value. Results of this research demonstrate the effectiveness of adopted saturation process for the rigid wall permeameter and oedometer. Further study can be done with different 1.E-12 1.E-11 1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 100 10 1 Permeation time (days) H y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y
( m / s )DAM1 AM1 (a) Comparison of hydraulic conductivity for tests DAM1 and AM1 1.E-12 1.E-11 1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 100 10 1 Permeation time (days) H y r d a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y
( m / s )DCM1 CM1 (b) Comparison of hydraulic conductivity for tests DCM1 and CM1 Fig. 10 Results of permeability tests for series-D (repeatability) 1.E-12 1.E-11 1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Bentonite content (%) S h o r t
t e r m
h y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t o i v i t y , k s
( m / s ) Series-A Series-B Series-C Fig. 11 Variation of short term hydraulic conductivity with bentonite content Indian Geotech J (OctoberDecember 2012) 42(4):267277 275 1 3 grades of sand and bentonite. The study for improving the saturation process and evaluation of the degree of satura- tion can be useful. Long term permeability tests and comparing the results with permeability tests on exible wall permeameter can be useful. Conclusions Based on the analysis and interpretation of experimental investigations on sand-bentonite mixtures, the following conclusions can be drawn: (a) Out of ve evaluated sand-bentonite mixtures (ben- tonite content 525 %), sand-bentonite mixture with a bentonite content up to 10 % exhibited non-plastic characteristics. For sand-bentonite mixtures with ben- tonite content C15 %, sand-bentonite mixtures exhibit behaviour of clay of high plasticity (CH type soil). (b) For all the bentonite contents considered in the present study, maximum dry unit weight is higher for higher compactive efforts and optimumwater content is lower for higher compactive effort (which is typical for ne- grained soils). Maximum dry unit weight increases up to 1520 %bentonite content, and then it decreases for higher bentonite contents for all compactive efforts. This effect is found to be more prominent with modied proctor compaction rather standard and reduced Proctor compaction. Optimum water content was observed to decrease up to 1520 % bentonite content and then increase for standard and modied proctor compaction. This effect is found to be less prominent with modied proctor compaction. The observed compaction behaviour is attributed to particle size and gradation of base material (i.e. type of sand) to which bentonite is added. (c) The values of hydraulic conductivity of sand-benton- ite mixtures were found to depend on the type of permeability test. Permeability tests conducted with oedometer test setup yield higher values than those obtained from rigid-wall permeameter. This could be attributed to (i) increase in the degree of saturation of sample due to thin sample thickness and upward ow of water and (ii) slight washing out of bentonite during saturation process and during permeability testing. With an increase in the bentonite content, a steep decrease in the hydraulic conductivity of sand- bentonite mixture was observed up to a bentonite content of 15 % and beyond 15 % bentonite content, its variation was found to be marginal. For sand- bentonite mixtures with higher bentonite contents (10 and 15 %), hydraulic conductivity value obtained from series-A, series-B and series-C are almost equal. This shows that, for higher bentonite content, initial saturation process does not signicantly inuence the short term hydraulic conductivity. (d) The adoption of pre-saturation of sand-bentonite blended samples, while conducting permeability tests using rigid wall permeameter and oedometer test setups was quite effective. Also, lesser scattering of hydraulic conductivity values was observed as com- pared to permeability tests without initial saturation process. When permeability test was conducted after completion of the pre-saturation, the values of short- term hydraulic conductivity values are on the higher than those obtained for the samples without pre- saturation process. This can lead to selection of sand- bentonite mixture (fullling the desired hydraulic conductivity) having higher bentonite content. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the staff at the geotechnical engineering laboratory of the Indian Institute of Tech- nology Bombay for their active involvement and untiring support during the course of the study. 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