Animal By-Product Processing

EllisHorwood SeriesinFood ScienceandTechnology
H.W.Ockerman,
C.L.Hansen
AnimalBy-Product
-
Processing
VCH
H.W.Ockerman,C.L.Hansen
AnimalBy-Product
Processing
VCH
EllisHorwoodSeriesinFoodScienceandTechnology
SeriesEditors:I.D.Morton,formerly HeadofDepartment ofFoodScience,
King'sCollege(KQC),KensingtonCampus,CampdenHillRoad, London;
R.Scott,formerly UniversityofReading;
D.H.Watson,Ministryof Agriculture,FisheriesandFood;
M.Lewis,Department ofFoodScience,UniversityofReading.
PublishedTitles
paratDictionaryofFoodandNutrition J. Adrian, G. Legrand and R. Frangne
ThePsychobiology ofHumanFoodSelection L.M.Barker (Ed.)
MicrowaveProcessingandEngineering R. VDecareau and R. A. Peterson
FoodProcessingTechnology:Theory,Applications,Equipment P.Fellows
FundamentalsofFoodChemistry W.Heimann
Nitrosamines:Toxicologyand Microbiology M.J. Hill (Ed.)
SensoryEvaluationofFood:Theory andPractice G. Jellinek
HygienicDesignandOperationofFoodPlant R. Jowitt (Ed.)
Services,HeatingandEquipmentforHomeEconomists D. Kirk andA. Milson
SustainableFoodSystems D.Knorr (Ed.)
PhysicalPropertiesofFoodsandFoodProcessingSystems M.J.Lewis
TechnologyofBiscuits,CrackersandCookies D.J. R. Manley
PrinciplesofDesignandOperationofCateringEquipment A. Milson andD.Kirk
CerealsinaEuropeanContext:FirstEuropean Conference onFood Scienceand Technology
I.D.Morton (Ed.)
AnimalBy-ProductProcessing H. W.Ockerman and C. L. Hansen
TheRoleofFatsinHumanNutrition F.B.PadleyandJ. Podmore (Ed.)
FlavourofDistilledBeverages:Originand Development J. R. Piggott
AdvancedSugarChemistry: PrinciplesofSugarStereochemistry R. S. Shallenberger
BatterandBreadingTechnology D. R. Suderman and F.E. Cunningham
EnergyManagementinFoodservice N.Unklesbay and K. Unklesbay
FryingofFood:Principles,Changes,New Approaches
G. Varela,A. E. Bender and I.D. Morton (Eds.)
NaturalToxicantsinFood:Progressand Prospects D.H. Watson (Ed.)
FoodOilsandTheirUses,2ndEdition T.J. Weiss
SensoryQualityinFoodsandBeverages A. A. Williamsand R. K.Atkin (Eds.)
ForthcomingTitles
DeterminationofVeterinaryResiduesinFood N.T.Crosby and C M . Clark
FoodContainerCorrosion D. R. DavisandA. V Johnston
GasChromatographyinFoodAnalysis:Principles and Applications M.H. Gordon (Ed.)
FetaandRelatedCheeses:Their Production and Properties
M.S.Y.Haddadin and R. K. Robinson
FishProcessing:Scientific PrinciplesandTechnicalProcesses S.W.Hanson andW.F.A. Horner
MicrobiologyofChilledandFrozenFoods W.F.Harrigan
FoodTechnologyData M.J. Lewis
ImmunoassaysinVeterinaryPractice B.A. Morrisand A. E. Bolton (Eds.)
DistilledBeverageFlavour:Recent Developments J. R. Piggott
EggandPoultryProducts W.J. Stadelman, V M. Olson and G. A. Shemwell
HandbookofEdibleGums K. R. Stauffer
FoodContamination D.H. Watson
EllisHorwood Ltd., Chichester (England),1988
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H.W.Ockerman,C.L. Hansen
AnimalBy-Product
Processing
ELLIS HORWOOD
internationalpublishersinscienceandtechnology
Professor Herbert W.Ockerman
Professor ConlyL. Hansen
Department of Animal Science
Nutrition and Food Sciences Dept.
TheOhioState University
Utah State University
2029Fyffe Road
Logan,Utah 84322-8700
Columbus,Ohio43210
USA
USA
Deutsche Bibliothek CataloguinginPublication Data
Ockerman, Herbert W.:
Animalby-product processing/H. W.Ockerman ;C. L.
Hansen.- Cambridge ;NewYork,NY ;Basel (Switzerland)
Weinheim :VCH ;Chichester (England) :Horwood, 1988
(EllisHorwood seriesinfood scienceand technology)
ISBN3-527-26211-3(VCH,Weinheim) Pp.
ISBN0-89573-406-0(VCH,Cambridge . . . ) Pp.
NE:Hansen, Conly L.:
ISSN0930-3332
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData
Ockerman,H.W.(Herbert W.) 1932-
Animalby-productprocessing
1.Processing.Edibleby-products
I.Title II.Hansen,C.L.(ConlyL.) 1946-
664'.908
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Tableof contents
Preface 9
1. Introductiontoanimalby-productprocessing 11
2. Ediblemeatby-products 27
3. Rendering 58
4. Hideandskinby-products 89
5. Glueandgelatine 132
6. Edibletissuefrombone 158
7. Medicinalandpharmaceuticalusesofby-products 176
8. Sausagecontainers 202
9. Bloodutilization 232
10. Petorexoticanimalfood 256
11. Seafoodby-products 279
12. Poultryby-products 309
13. Animalprocessingwastedisposal,reductionandutilization 321
Index 361
Dedicatedto
FrancesJ. Ockerman
and
JoyceD. Hansen
Preface
Animalby-product utilization hasbeen aremarkable economicand publichealth
phenomenon,but,inspiteofthissuccess,publishedinformationinthisareahasbeen
extremelylimited.Themostwidelyquotedbookpublished intheU.S.hasa1927
copyright date and articlesinthescientific literature arealsoextremely limitedin
number. Fortunately some of the trade association and industry personnel were
extremelyhelpfulinsharinginformationwiththeauthorsonthissubjectmatter(see
referenceslisted).DrVernR.CahilloftheOhioStateUniversityandDrDivakaran
of the Oceanic Institute, Waimanald, Hawaii were also helpful consultants and
proof-readers. The increased economic squeeze on animal processors, increased
emphasisonpollution,theenergycrisisandcompetitionfromman-madeitemswill
challenge the by-products industry into the forseeable future, but with the track
recordithasalreadyestablished,itisreasonabletoexpectthatnewinnovationwill
continue. Any industry that turns waste into valuable products ought to be
applauded.Theauthorswouldappreciateadditionalinformation aboutthisvaried
industryfortheirfilesandincasearevisionofthistextiseverproduced.
Herbert Ockerman
ConlyHansen
1
Introduction toanimalby-product processing
INTRODUCTION
Animals are grown and slaughtered to provide nutritious meat for humans, and
withoutthisutilization,fewofwhatweconsider 'meat' animalswouldbeallowedto
existexcept asexamplesofspeciesinzoos.Astheeconomicstature ofacountry or
race increases there is often a shift in its diet and nutrition to include a greater
percentageoftasty,well-balanced proteinfrom animalsources.Withthisconsump-
tion of a well-balanced protein from meat, the people's size (particularly height)
usuallytendsto increase.
With allofthenatural advantagesof animalfood products,there stillremainsa
great quantity, often in excess of 50%, of animal by-products of rather unusual
physical and chemical characteristics which are not part ofthe normally consumed
steaksandroasts.Theefficient utilizationoftheseedibleandinedibleproductsisthe
subject ofthis book.
Thequantityofanimalby-productsavailablecanbeestimatedbysubtractingthe
dressing percentage (see Table 1.1) from 100.This large quantity of material can
thenbeincreasedbythequantityoffat andbonethattraditionallyremainswiththe
carcassattheslaughterstage;therefore,itisobviousthattremendoustonnageofthis
materialisinvolved.
Theeconomicsoftheworld'smeat industrydemand that animalby-products be
utilized so that the livestock industry can stay economically competitive with
vegetable protein sources. If animal by-products are not effectively utilized, of
course,avaluable sourceofpotential revenue islost,andthe added and increasing
costof disposal oftheseproducts isincurred bythe industry. Today the costof the
liveanimaloften exceedsthe sellingpriceofitscarcass;therefore, thevalue of the
by-productsmustpaytheexpenseofslaughter andgeneratetheprofit forthe meat-
slaughtering operation.
In addition to the economics involved, the meat industry has the obligation to
eliminatewastebysalvagingasmuchoftheanimalaspossible,sincethisisavaluable
naturalresourceandresponsiblepeopleareexpectedtobeeffective stewardsofthe
resourcesplaced attheirdisposal.Sincemuchoftheworld'svegetation canonlybe
12 Introductiontoanimalby-productprocessing [Ch.1
Table 1.1 Dressing percentage (carcass weight/live weight xlOO), when sub-
tracted from 100%,willgiveanestimate ofthequantity of by-products
U.S. grades
Cattle
Prime
Choice
Good
Standard
Commercial
Utility
Cutter
Canner
Calvesandveal(hide off)
Prime
Choice
Good
Standard
Utility
Lambs (wooled)
Prime
Choice
Good
Utility
Cull
Sheep(excludesyearlings)
Choice
Good
Utility
Cull
Dressingpercentages
Range Average
62-67 64
59-65 62
58-62 60
55-60 57
54-62 57
49-57 53
45-54 49
40-48 45
59-65 62
56-60 58
52-57 55
47-54 51
40-48 46
49-55 52
47-52 50
45-49 47
43-47 45
40-45 42
49-54 52
47-52 49
44-48 46
40-46 43
aved Barrowandgilt(hamfacings,leaffat, kidneysandhead removed))
U.S. No.1
68-72 70
U.S. No.2 69-73 71
U.S. No.3 70-74 72
U.S. No.4 71-75 73
Utility 67-71 69
Poultry
Chicken, broilers 70
Chicken,capon 68
Turkey, broiler 77
Duck, Peking 58
Pheasant 78
USDAMarketNews(1973),Mountney(1966).
harvested by animals and it takes energy to organize these chemical by-product
structures,itwouldbehoovemankindtoutilizetheseby-products,wherepossible,in
theorganizedform and notallowthemtobeconvertedtoalowerenergy state.
13 Ch.1] Introductiontoanimalby-productprocessing
Non-utilizationofanimalby-productswould,ofcourse,createamajor aesthetic
and catastrophic public-health problem. The effective utilization of animal by-
products and water- and sewage-treatment plants have probably been the major
influencesinupgradingpublichealthinthelastcentury.
Themodernlivestockindustryhasbeenaneffectiveutilizerofby-productsandit
hasoften beenstatedthat'allofthepigisusedexceptthesquealandthecurlinthe
tail'.Butinspiteofthisagreatdealmorecanbedone,sincemorethan2%ofthe
carcass(morethantheshrinkage)isoften unaccountedforandislosttotheserver.
Also,toachieveutilization,manyoftheproductsaredown-gradedinvalue.
Aflow-chartshowing the interrelationships between land, water, animalsand
animal by-products is illustrated in Fig. 1.1. Anotherflow-chartshowing a few
examplesofthetremendousvarietyofanimalby-productsthatmaybeinvolvedcan
befoundinFig. 1.2.
Someproducts such ashides are easy to classify as 'animal by-products', and
products such as steaks can easily be excluded from such a classification. Other
products,however,suchaslardorliver,aremoredifficult tocategorize.TheU.S.
meatindustryconsiderseverythingproducedbyorfromtheanimal,exceptdressed
meat,asaby-product(offal).Therefore,animalby-productsintheU.S.fallintotwo
categoriesandthedivisionsare'edible'and'inedible'.
InU.S.terminology'offal' referstomeat-slaughterby-productsandincludesall
oftheanimalwhichisnot apart ofthecarcass.'Variety meats'arethe wholesale
edibleby-products that are segregated, chilled and processed under sanitary con-
ditionsandwhichareinspectedbytheU.S.MeatInspectionService.Theseinclude
liver, heart, tongue, oxtail, kidney, brain, sweetbreads (thymus and/or pancreas
glanddependingontheanimal'sage),tripe(stomach),chitlingsandnaturalcasings
(intestines) and fries (lamb or calf testicles). In some areas of the world and to
different degrees,bloodisalsoutilizedasanedibleproductforhumans.IntheU.S.
meattrimmingsfrom thehead aredescribed as'edibleoffal' or'edibleby-product
items', and 'edible fats' are fats obtained during slaughter, such as 'caul fat'
surroundingtherumenand/orstomach,and'cuttingfat',whichis'backfat'orpork
'leaffat' (kidneyfat)or'rumen fat'.
A partial, and certainly not all-encompassing, list (American Meat Institute,
1958;Levie,1976)ofanimalby-productsincludesthefollowing:
(1) Variety(edibleby-productsincludingorgans)meatforhumanconsumption.
(2) Ediblefatsforshortening,margarine,sweetsandchewinggum.
(3) Boneutilized inthe mechanically deboningprocesstoproduce soft tissueor
bonesusedinsoupforhumanfood, orbonesusedforbuttons,knifehandles,
bonemeal,mixedwithpotteryclayorusedinrefiningsugar.
(4) Bloodforhumanconsumptionandforbloodmeal,adhesivesand fertilizer.
(5) Glycerinforhundredsofindustrialusessuchasnitroglycerin,ointmentbases,
solvents, vehicles for medicine, preservatives for food, plasticizers or
humectants.
(6) Intestinesforsausagecasings,musicalstringsandsurgicalligatures.
(7) Gelatinforconfectionery items,ice-creamandjelliedfoodproducts.
(8) Renninusedincheesemaking.
(9) Pharmaceuticals such as adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), albumin,
Fromvirginlandtogreenpasturesandfoodproducts
planning,integration,modern producti on methods,know-howof localconditions,management packaging,distribution
MEAT PRODUCTION | DAIRY PRODUCTION
LANDUTILIZATION
beef,poultry,pigs,sheepI cows,buffalo,sheep
FEEDPRODUCTIONCROP MANURE handling
- Greenfodder- silage treatment
o
a
n
*
5*
S
**
- By-product treatment
PREPARATION FEEDPROCESSINGCROP FODDERPROCESSING
- clearance
- Alfalfa/Lucerne - Dehydrated forage
- levelling
- Maize - Concentrates
Proteins Starch
- Sorghum - Protein
o
FERTILIZATION Steepingresidue Modifiedstarch
CULTIVATION
Glycose,dextrose
FOODPRODUCTIONCROP Dextrin
IRRIGATION
Fructose
HARVESTING 8L
"I
o
Yeast a
e
Ethanof
o
Methanol
Sugar
canesugar ' . PROCESSING
Molasses
beet sugar
n
Oil
Protein
VI
Vi
Fruitjuice
Concentrate
ore
Marmalade,jam
Soft drinks
Freshfish
Smokedfish
Frozenfish
Cannedfish
Fishprotein
Fishoil
n
15 Ch. 1] Introduction toanimal by-product processing
LIVE
ANIMAL
MANURE
SLAUGHTERED
e.g.methane production
BY-PRODUCTS MEAT
e.g.steak
NON-EDIBLE EDIBLE
INTESTINAL
PHARMACEUTICALS HIDE BONE BLOOD
HUMAN
ANIMALFEED DRIED
CONTENTS
FOOD
e.g.fertilizer e.g. insulin e.g. e.g. e.g. blood
leather bone meal,blood
meal, pudding
soup
STERILIZATION
DRIED
BYHEAT
eg
tankage e.g.blood
CHILLED
FURTHER
FROZEN
PROCESSED
e.g.oxtail e.g. iver
1 1
CHEMICALLY CUREDAND/OR
DRIED HEATED
TREATED SAUSAGE
e.g.tongue e.g.tripe e.g. e.g.gelatine
braunschweiger
Fig.1.2Flowdiagramofafewofthemeatindustryby-products.
bilirubin, epinephrine, insulin, liver extract, pepsin, pituitrin, testosterone,
thromboplastin, thymocrescin and thyroxin.
(10) Organpartsforimplantationintohumans,suchasheartvalves,skin,andbones
and, experimentally, evenwhole hearts.
(11) Livestock feed (usuallyhighinprotein orfat orminerals) manufactured from
by-products.
(12) Petfood andfeed for aquatic farming.
(13) Hides and skinsfor useasfur, leather orleather goods.
(14) Woolfor clothingandfurniture, and lanolin extraction.
(15) Inedible fats used for many industrial products, such as tyres, lubricants,
insecticidesand germicides.
(16) Hairforbrushes,felt, rugs,upholstery,plasterbinding,insulationand athletic
equipment.
(17) Feathers for insulation, pillows,sportinggoods,and animal feed.
(18) Glueusedincarpentry, for sizing,sandpaper, emerycloth,andmaking boxes
and plywood.
(19) Neat'sfoot oilusedintheleather industry and asalubricant.
(20) Fertilizer applied tosoilismanufactured from by-products.
(21) Animal manure used asfertilizer, animalfeed and/or methane production.
The division of cattle (Fig. 1.3) and sheep (Fig. 1.4) into various product
categoriesisillustrated inpiecharts.
In English commercial slaughterhouse practice (Garrard, 1972) the offal is
divided into red (head, heart, liver, lungs, melt (spleen), sweetbreads, tail, thick
skirt(diaphragm)andtongue)andwhite(fats,manyplies(thirdstomach),setofguts
and bladder, set of tripe (weasand, first, second and fourth stomach) and rectum)
and four feet and trimmings. Blood, hides and pharmaceuticals are usually con-
sidered as a separate category. The English Food Standards Committee (Food
Standards Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1972)
separated offal intotwocategories.ListAitemswhichmaybeusedincooked or
uncooked productsfrom mammalian speciescontainstissuessuchasdiaphragm
(skirt, cattle only), head meat (ox cheek, cattle only; bath chip, pig only), heart,
kidney, liver, pancreas (sweetbreads), tail meat (oxtail, skinned, cattle only),
thymus (sweetbreads, cattle and sheep only), and tongue and avian parts such as
heartandliver(giblets,whengizzardandneckoflistBareincluded).ListBitems
whichmaynotbeusedinuncookedproductscontainsportionsofthemammalian
species such as blood, blood plasma, brains, feet (cow heel, cattle only; sheep
trotters, sheep only; pig trotters, pig only), large intestines (chitlings, pigs only),
smallintestines,lungs(lites),oesophagusmeat,rectum,spinalcord,stomach (non-
ruminant), first stomach (tripe, after cooking), second stomach (tripe, after cook-
ing), fourth stomach, testicles (lamb fries, lamb only), udder and parts of avian
speciessuchasgizzard(giblets,whentheheartandliverarealsoincluded)andneck.
The percentages of by-products from different species, divided into major
categoriesbydifferent countriesmaybefound inTable 1.2.
Severalrequirements(Clemen, 1927)arenecessaryforanimalby-productstobe
effectively utilized and theseare:
(1) There must be a practical commercial process for converting the animal by-
product intoausable commodity.
(2) There must be an actual or potential market for the commodity that has been
produced.
(3) Theremustbealargeenoughvolumeofeconomicallypricedanimalby-product
materialinonelocationfor processing.
(4) Theremustbesomemethodofstoringtheperishableproductbefore processing
andtostorethemanufactured product after processing.
(5) There isoften acriticalneedfor highlytechnically trained operatives.
Gettingalloftheserequirementstogether atonetimeinoneplaceisnot always
an easy task. For reasons including these, animal by-products are often
underutilized.
HISTORY
Archaeological evidence suggeststhat someanimalby-product utilization waswell
established prior to recorded history. Use of organ tissue for food, utilization of
animal skins for clothing and housing, making of tools from bones, use of dried
manure asfuel, useofintestinal partsfor food containers and utilization offishfor
fertilizer inplanted cropsarejust afew known examples.
The books Rendering, The Invisible Industry (Burnham, 1978) and Darling-
Delaware Centenary(Dainty, 1981)describetheearlyrecordedhistoryofanimalby-
17 Ch. 1] Introduction toanimal by-product processing
Cattle
Fig.1.3Divisionofcattleintovariousproductcategories.FromFilstrup(1976).
product utilization and a summary of some of the milestones found in these
references areasfollows.
Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), a Roman scholar in the first century A.D.,
recordedman'sfirstwrittenrecordofanimalfat utilization.Hedescribedacleaning
compound(soap)madefromgoat'stallowandwoodashes,butitwasuncertainifthe
Romans got the idea for making soap from the wandering Bedouins, or from the
Celtswho are known to have made 'saipo'. Later descriptions of soap making and
'saponarius' can be found in the works of a Greek physician (A.D. 130-200), the
authorsTheodorusPriscianus(A.D.385)andJabirIbnHayyan (approximatelyA.D.
800). It was not until 1823,however, that the French chemist Chevreul described
saponification astheprocessofsplittingfat(triglycerides)withanalkaliintoanalkali
saltofafatty acid (soap) and glycerin.
Itisunclearhistoricallywhetheranopensaucercontainingoilandafibrouswick
(later developed into a lamp) or acandle with awick encased in solid fat (usually
cattle and/or sheepfat) wasdeveloped first. Itisrecorded that candle-dipping goes
18
Introduction toanimal by-product processing [Ch. 1
Sheep
Fig. 1.4Division of sheep intovarious product categories. From Filstrup(1976).
backtothedaysoftheRomans,andthattheEnglishusedreedsstrippedofthepith
andpluggedwithgreaseoroilasacommonmethod oflighting.Mouldingof better
candleswasdeveloped inthefifteencentury inFrance.
In the early history of California, meat wasinabundant supply and cattle were
used primarily to produce by-products of hides and tallow, whereas in the Great
Plains,soon after thewhite mancame,thebuffalo wasusedfor thissame purpose.
Muchofthetallowwasconverted intosoap.ButasAmericagrew,beef becamethe
primary product and the first meat packing operation was started by William
PynchonofBostonasearlyas1662.By1865,theChicagostockyardshadbecomethe
nation's livestock market and was often described as 'the busiest square mile of
territoryinalltheworld'.Inthe1850s,therailroadspushedwestandthegreatcattle-
drivesmoved animalstothe railheads. After the American CivilWar, refrigerated
freight carswere used by Swift, and fresh beef carcasses, rather than live animals,
were transported.
H. W. Heath established the first rendering company in the United States in
n
Table1.2Percentageofliveweightofby-productsfromvariousspeciesreportedindifferent categoriesindifferent countries
Cattle Sheep Pigs
Country Denmark" England* Sweden
c
U.S." U.S.
e
Denmark" U.S.
d
Denmark" Sweden
c
1U.S.'' U. S/
Carcassandotheredibleproducts 62-64 61-64 75-80
a
Carcass,meatandbone 50 54-58 69 56 56
S-
'
Retailcuts(bonein) 42 35
Retailcuts(boneless) 41 ^^
Organs 16 4 3.4-3.6 2 7 4 2.4 o
Red offal 6
Bone 8
1
Bone(driedweight) 1.5
Ediblefats 3-4 10 4 11 4-6 9 3 16 16
a*
Ediblefatrenderedweight 1.5-2.3
* <
Cracklings 2.7
Q*
White offal 10
Blood 3-4 3 3 4 3.5-4.5 4 3 4 3 ft
Inediblerawmaterial 8-10 5 17 6-8 22 6 8 15 54-
Tankage(driedweight) 1.5 "1
w
Hideand/orhair 7 6 8 11-15 15 6 1 ft
Hide(curedweight) 6 6.3-6.6
Waste 20 16 14 11 6 12 4 s*
Paunchandmanure 8 5.5-9.5
Shrinkage 2-10 25-30 0.5-1.5
"Filstrup(1976).*Gerrard(1977).'BengtssonandHolmqvist(1984).
d
Forrest et al.(1975).'AmericanMeatInstituteCommitteeonTextbooks(1958).'Romans et al.(1985).
I
n
t
r
o
Manchester, New Hampshire, in the late 1800s and from there the American
industry expanded. Air-dried tankagewassoonavailableasananimalprotein feed
substance,andcracklingssuppliedfatandproteintoanimalrations.Theearlytomid
1900s saw the animal by-products industry grow to tremendous proportions. The
meatandby-productsindustryalsomovedfurther westtothesourceoftheanimals,
andnowcentressuchasKansasCity,Omaha,andStLouisbecameimportanttothe
meat and rendering industries.
Today, the United States meat industry generates some 30 billion pounds of
inedible waste material each year that isrecycled into usable products by the by-
products industry.
In the United States, the animal by-products industry can be credited with the
developmentinthecountryofcommercialfertilizer,theuseofby-productsinanimal
feed, illustratingtheimportanceofproteininthediet,salvagingofleatherandwool
for clothing and industrial use, the manufacture of soap and candles, the develop-
mentofglueandgelatin,andthecollectionofpharmaceuticalrawmaterials,justto
mention afew.
Today, however, synthetic substitutes (i.e. imitation leather, detergents, shor-
tenings, electrical illumination, soybean-based protein products) for many animal
by-products are challenging the value of this industry and also challenging the
industrytodevelopnewproductsandnewusesforoldproducts,andtodevelopnew
markets.
QUANTITIES OF BY-PRODUCTS
Anestimate(Filstrup,1976;SimpsonandFarris,1982)oftheworld'ssupplyofpigsis
500000000; cattle, 1200000000; and sheep, 1000000000; and the combined beef
andpigpopulation isdistributed asfollows:
34% Asia (20%inIndiabut only20%ofthepopulation eats meat)
30% North and South America
25% Europe and USSR
8% Africa
3% Oceania (containstheworld'slargest concentration ofsheep slaughtering)
Thecattleandbuffalo populationsin1979weredividedaccordingtocountriesas
showninTable1.3andmeatproductionindifferent countriesiscategorizedinTable
1.4.
The total production of by-products can beestimated from the animals slaugh-
teredandtheirdressingpercentages,buttoseparatethequantitysalvagedfrom the
amount wasted is much more difficult. Comparing the animals slaughtered, and
consequently the by-products available, with the amount of by-products salvaged
canclarifythisrelationship.Thequantityandcurrentvalue(1983-84)ofby-products
intheU.S.(seeTable1.5)andthequantityofby-productsproducedinEngland(see
Table 1.6) can give some insight into the relationship in the developed countries
between theavailabilityoftheseby-productsandthosewhichare utilized.
o
Table1.3Worldcattleinventoryin1979
Region Headofcattle Percentageofworld Beefand buffalo Percentageofworld
(not buffalo) cattle meatproduction
0
beefandbuffalo meat
(thousands) (thousandsofheads)
**
Africa 170110 14 2852 6
|
o
NorthandCentralAmerica, 63521 5 2333 5
otherthanUSA o
s
USA 110864 9 9704 21 S
SouthAmerica 216119 18 6865 15
Asia 366579 30 5016 11 |
Europe 134535 11 10508 22
Oceania 36203 3 2525 5
USSR 114086 10 6966 16
|
Total* 1212017 100 46769 100
Developedworld 425019 35 31530 67
CM
Developingworld 786997 65 15239 33
(Centrallyplannedeconomics)
0
(217751) (18) (11685) (25)
CM
"Indigenousproductiononly,doesnotincludeimportedanimals.
^Totalscontainanestimateformissingcountries.
"Includepartofdevelopedanddevelopingworld.
FAOProductionYearbook (1979),SimpsonandFarris(1982).
i
n
g
Table1.4Meatproduction inselected countries (thousands ofmetrictonnes*) t o

Beefandveal Pork Lamb,mutton,andgoat Poultry
1976-80 1985 1976-80 1985 1976-80 1985 1976-80 1985
Regionandcountry Average Forecast Average Forecast Average Forecast Average Forecast
North America:
Canada 1058 995 655 870 484 561
Mexico 1086 1381 1014 1050 395 557
United States 11043 10459 6477 6682 149 150 5987 7739 o
o.
Subtotal 13187 12835 8146 8602 6866 8857
Caribbean:
c
n
o
Dominican Republic 40 49 o
to
Central America:
CostaRica 74 62
ElSalvador 33 30
Guatemala 86 65
Honduras 53 66
Nicaragua 74 45
Panama 45 50
Subtotal 365 318
SouthAmerica:
Argentina 2966 2500 126 105 201 230
Brazil 2226 2500 870 930 916 1520
Colombia 587 648 111 113
a
e
o
ft
Vi
eg
3*
ore
Uruguay 345 349 32 41
Venezuela 300 374 80 121 198 308
Subtotal 6424 6371 1061 1164 158 146 1315 2058
EuropeanCommunity:
Belgium-Luxembourg 291 300 658 745 3 124 165 9
Denmark
244
236 828 1140 1 99 108
France 1755 1783 1505 1577
162 174 977 1277
WestGermany 1463 1645 2588 2740 27 30 343 343
Greece 85 155 123 160
Ireland 386 353 138 145 41 45 45 57
Italy 1070 1180 877 1060 61 68 894 968
TheNetherlands 364 500 980 1240 16 12 344 425
UnitedKingdom 1049 1040 913 960 241 295 757 870
Subtotal 6622 7122 8487 9762 552 756 3583 4373
RestofWesternEurope:
Austria 187 218 345 384 59 67
Finland 109 120 155 173 13 19
Greece 106 128 119 114
Portugal 86 97 140 173 23 23 130 154
Spain 411 420 819 1230 141 140 739 830
Sweden 151 153 306 325 41 45
Switzerland 156 161 262 292 22 26
Subtotal 1206 1169 2155 2577 283 163 1118 1141
c r
< ^
n
a
1
e
*
a
s
o
to
3
5
EasternEurope:
TJ
Bulgaria 140 165 349 400 83 100 149 160
O
Czechoslovakia 421 452 808 820 7 7 181 215 e
*+
EastGermany 410 400 1157 1200 15 17 142 150
2
Q
O
\O
Romania 298 230 851 860 56 65 362 426 V)
Yugoslavia 335 345 740 805 60 61 246 305
era
Subtotal 2582 2457 6524 6473 250 275 1764 1886
USSR 6827 7300 5009 6100 882 850 1832 2800
MiddleEast:
Israel 22 20 149 186
Turkey 193 230 328 390
to
Subtotal 215 250
Hungary 151 145 884 1035 6 7 309 370
Poland 827 720 1735 1353 23 18 375 260
N)
Table1.4 (continued)
Beef andveal Pork Lamb,mutton,andgoat Poultry
1976-80 1985 1976-80 1985 1976-80 1985 1976-80 1985
Regionandcountry Average Forecast Average Forecast Average Forecast Average Forecast
North Africa: MM
Egypt 246 320 71 88 112 175
n
t
r

o
a
C
n
o*
^^
s
'
SL
a*
*^
13
1
n
Other Africa:
SouthAfrica, Republicof 580 581 164 180 296 555
SouthAsia:
India 285 301 440 494
OtherAsia:
China
People'sRepublicof (mainland) 8700 13300
Taiwan 9 4 494 657 200 355
HongKong 34 36 41 49
Japan 376 485 1283 1485 1010 1356
Korea,Republicof 111 158 175 330 87 177
Philippines 119 175 344 450
p
r
o
c
e
s
:
Subtotal 615 822 11030 16258 1338 1937

Oceania
Australia 1897 1310 202 238 542 520 251 331
NewZealand 551 459 518 685 ore
Subtotal 2448 1769 1060 1205
Total 41642 41664 42614 51174 4337 4697 18624 24299
"Metrictonne=2200lb.
USDA,ForeignAgricultureService(1984)
n
25 Ch. 1]
Introduction toanimal by-product processing
Table1.5United Statesby-product trading
Million dollars Million lb
fl
Imports Exports Production Export Domestic use
Variety meat
4.4 260.6
Tallow,grease and lard 3.8 587.2
Lard 950 55 920
Tallow 1300 100 1225
Inedible tallow and grease 0.6 697.1 6026 3035
Casings 52.7 19.0
1000Pieces
Production Export Domestic use
Hidesand skins 66.1 777.3
Cattle hides 37500 20500 12608
Calf hides 3020
Leather 318 275 16500
Wooland mohair 175.4 53.3
fl
Ub=453.59g.
AmericanMeatInstitute (1984),USDA (1980,1982,1983,1984), U.S.Hide,SkinandLeather Association (1983a,b).
Table1.6Englishproduction ofanimalslaughter by-products
Items Production
(thousand tons)
Blood (all animals) 100
Headmeat (deboned) 147
Tongues 18
Spleen .6
Stomach 64
Lungs 26
Oesophagus 2
Intestines 123
Mesentery fat 69
BritishFood Manufacturing Industries Research Association (1978).
REFERENCES
Alfa-Laval (1984) In the agro-food industry. Stockholm, Alfa-Laval.
AmericanMeat Institute (1984) Meat facts. Washington, American Meat Institute.
American Meat Institute Committee on Textbooks (1958) By-products of the meat
packing industry. Chicago,Institute ofMeat Packing,UniversityofChicago.
Bengtsson, O. and Holmqvist, O. (1948) By-products from slaughtering: a short
review. Fleischwirtsch64(3)334.
British Food Manufacturing Industries Research Association (1978) Research
report No. 292. Leatherhead, Surrey, British Food Manufacturing Industries
Research Association.
Burnham, F. (1978) Rendering, the invisible industry. Fallbrook, California, Aero
Publishers.
Clemen, R. A. (1927) By-products in the packing industry. Chicago, Universityof
ChicagoPress.
Dainty, R. B. (1981) Darling-Delaware centenary, 1882-1982. Chicago, Darling-
Delaware Company.
FAO (1979) Production yearbook. Rome, United Nations Food and Agricultural
Organization.
Filstrup, P. (1976) Handbook for the meat by-products industry. Denmark, Alfa-
Laval,Slaughterhouse By-Products Department.
FoodStandardCommitteeoftheMinistryofAgriculture,FisheriesandFood(1972)
Food standards committee report on offals in meat products. London,HMSO.
Forrest, J. C , Aberle, E. D., Hedrick, H. B., Judge, M. D. and Merkel, R. A.
(1975) Principles of meat science.SanFrancisco,W. H. Freeman.
Gerrard, F. (1972)What isoffal? Meat Trades Journal, September 14.
Gerrard, F. (1977) Meat technology. London,Northwood Publications.
Levie,A. The meat handbook, 2ndedn.Westport, Connecticut, AVI.
Mountney, G.J. (1966) Poultry products technology.Westport, Connecticut, AVI.
Romans, J. R., Jones, K. W., Costello, W. J., Carlson, C. W. and Ziegler, P. T.
(1985) The meat we eat.Danville,Illinois, Interstate.
Simpson,J. R. andFarris,D. E. (1982) The world beef business.Ames,Iowa State
University Press.
USDA. (1980) Foreign agriculture circular: meat and livestock, FLM-MT 8-80,
Washington, USDA.
USDA, (1983) Agricultural statistics. Washington, USDA.
USDA, (1984) Oil crops outlook situation.Washington, USDA.
USDA Foreign Agriculture Service (1984) FL and P 2-84. Carcass Weight. Wash-
ington, USDA.
USDAMarketNews(1973) Livestock marketing handbook. Washington,Livestock
Division,Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA.
U.S. Hide, Skin and Leather Association (1983a) Report of 4th Annual Meeting.
Washington, U.S.Hide,SkinandLeather Association.
U.S.Hide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1983b)Compiledfromofficial statisticsof
theU.S.Department ofCommerce.Washington, U.S.Hide,Skinand Leather
Association.
2
Ediblemeat by-products
INTRODUCTION
Theyield of edible by-products from meat animalsrangesfrom 20to30%(some-
timeshigherforfatanimals)oftheliveweightforbeef,porkandlambandfrom5to
6%oftheliveweightforchickens(Table2.1);therefore, moreattentionshouldbe
giventoedibleby-products.
Biologically, most non-carcass material is edible, with appropriate cleaning,
handlingorprocessing. Duetocustom,religion,palatability, andreputationofthe
product, however, variety meat is normally limited to the liver, heart, tongue,
kidney,sweetbreads,brain,tripeandsausagecasings,althoughthereareadditional
itemssalvagedand/orusedinmanycultures.
Thisnon-carcassmaterialisusuallyseparatedintocategoriesofdecreasingvalue
suchassausagematerial,edibleby-products,petfood,animalfeedorfertilizer.The
areaorcategoryintowhichameatprocessorplacesaspecificproductdepends,not
only on the possible utilization of that product, but also on the availability of a
potentialmarket.Manyedibleby-productsaredown-gradedbecauseofthelackofa
profitable market. Since the demandforvarietymeatislessthanfor othercutsof
meat, it is usually a very economical buy. Due to this lack of demand in many
producing countries and the fact that edible by-products are a very economical
sourceofhighqualityprotein,thereisasizableinternationaltradeintheseproducts.
AnexampleofthismaybefoundinTable2.2,whichshowstheimportandtheexport
figures forU.S. varietymeat.
Fortunately, manycooksandethnicgroupshavetheabilitytoprepareavariety
of interesting variations of very delicious variety meats and are usually large
consumers of this type of product. Many variety meats have excellent nutritional
properties, asshownbytheprotein,fat, mineral andvitamincontentstabulatedin
Table2.3, andthefatty acidcontents showninTable 2.4, andafew problems,as
listed in the cholesterol-contentfiguresshown in Table 2.5. In general, sausages
containingby-productsareoften considered nutritionallysuperiortotheirall-meat
counterparts.
Edibleby-products,ingeneral,duetotheirhigherglycogencontentandlesserfat
28
Ediblemeat by-products [Ch.2
Table2.1
Cheeks
Blood
Blood, dried
Brain
Chitlings
Cracklings
Edible killfat
Feet
Gizzard
Hanging tender
Head andcheek meat
Heart
Intestines
Kidney
Lips
Liver
Lungs
Pancreas
Rennet
Skirt
Spinalcord
Spleen
Sweetbread
Heart
Neck
Tail
Tongue
Tripe
Bible
Plain
Honeycomb
Weasand
Rendered ediblefat
By-product yieldbasedonliveweight
Percentage ofliveweight
Beef Hog(pig) Lamb
0.32
2.4-6 2-6 4-9
0.7
0.08-0.1 0.08-0.1 0.26
0.06
2.2
19
1-7 1.3-3.5 12
1.9-2.1 1.5-2.2 2.0
0.19
0.32-0.4 0.5-0.6
0.3-0.5 0.2-0.35 0.3-1.1
1.8 3.3
0.07-0.2 0.2-0.4 0.6
0.1
1.0-1.5 1.1-2.4 0.9-2.2
0.4-0.8 0.4-0.8 0.7-2.2
0.06 0.1 0.2
0.23
0.2-0.3 0.4-0.5 0.5
0.03
0.1-0.2 0.1-0.12 0.1-0.4
0.03-0.05
0.02
0.02
0.1-0.25 0.1
0.25-0.5 0.3-0.4
0.75-2.0 0.6 2.9-4.6
0.18
0.6
0.1
0.04-0.09 0.05
2-11 12-16 9
Chicken
(1.4-2.3kg
(3-5lb))
0.2-0.3
1.9-2.3
0.3-0.8
1.6-2.3
0.7
0.15
Sources:GerrardandMallion(1977),Ockerman (1975),Romans etal.(1985).
covering are more perishable than the carcass; therefore, they must be chilled
quickly, handled with ahigh degree ofsanitation, andcooked andserved assoon
after slaughter aspossible. The organs should be removed within 30minutesof
29 Ch.2] Edible meat by-products
Table2.2U.S.varietymeat, importsand exports
Imports Exports
($million) ($million) (metric tonnes)
U.S. Imports and Exportsin1983
Variety meat 4.4 260.6
Tallow,grease and lard 3.8 587.2
Casings 52.7 19.0
U.S. Exports, 1984to:
Denmark 1.0 391
United Kingdom 15.2 18926
The Netherlands 8.9 9705
Belgium-Luxembourg 10.8 8352
France 46.1 39330
West Germany 1.4 1387
Italy 0.016 20
Greece 0.007 5
Total EEC 83.8 78116
Sources:AmericanMeatInstitute (1984),Bischoff (1985).
bleeding the animal, but usually remain with the carcass until after governmental
inspection,whichisnormallylongerthan30minutes.Thekidneysoften remainwith
the carcass until it is cut. Reduction of temperature retards bacterial growth
tremendouslyandBijker (1981)illustrated adrasticincreaseinthebacterial growth
curve when products were stored at 4C (39F) compared with similar products
stored at 2C(68F). Even at 20C(36F)bacterial numberswere altered during5
days'storageofbeef,porkandlamborgans,asreportedbyHanna etal. (1982).The
changeinbacterialnumbersduringthisstorageperiodexpressedinlogio/cm
2
ranged
from0.12to0.57increaseforlivers,from-0.07 to0.62changeforkidneysand from
-0.28to1.18changeforhearts.Theremovalofthemucousmembranealsoreduced
(approximately 10-fold) the bacterial load and this reduction seemed to be main-
tained during reasonable storage (Bijker, 1981). The addition of carbon dioxide
snow (dry ice) to accelerate chilling of by-products on the slaughter floor greatly
reducesmicrobiological growth inthese products. Freezing isknown to cause sub-
lethalinjury and death tomanymicroorganisms infood; however, freezing (-20C
(-4F) for 4 days) of liver, kidney and heart did not significantly decrease the
bacterialnumbersontheseproducts (Hanna et al., 1982).Freezingcanbeexpected
to arrest bacterial growth (R. Strange, personal communication) as long as the
productremainsfrozen. Vacuumpackagingofliverandkidneyssuggestedthat after
7 days storage at 2C (36F), the bacterial level of the vacuum packages had not
increasedasmuchasthenon-vacuumpackagedproduct.Thisdifference inbacterial
levelsbetweenvacuumandnon-vacuumpackagedproductswasgreaterafter 14days
and in many cases vacuum packaging doubled the refrigerated shelf-life of these
Table2.3Rangeofcomposition ofvarietymeat/100grawedible portion
Pantothe-
O
nic Ascorbic
Protein Fat Ca P Fe Na K Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Vit.B6 acid Biotin Folacin Vit.B12 Vit. A acid
(g) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (Mg) (Mg) (mg) (IU) (mg)
Beef
Brain 10.4- 8.6 10 312 2.4 125 219 0.07- 0.22- 3.0- 0.10- 2.5 2.0- 6- 4.7- NU 18.0-
11.5 0.23 0.26 4.4 0.16 6.1 12 9.0 23.0
Heart 17.1- 3.6 5 195- 4.0- 86- 193- 0.24- 0.80- 6.3- 0.23- 1.2- 2.0- 4- 8.0- Trace 2.0-
28.5 230 4.9 95 320 0.68 0.90 7.5 0.29 2.3 7.3 110 13.0 3.0 7.0
Kidney 15.4- 2.6- 10- 219- 5.7- 176- 225- 0.28- 1.90- 5.4- 0.32- 3.4 24.0- 41 - 28.0- 690- 10.4-
24.7 6.7 11 230 7.4 180 230 0.37 2.55 6.4 0.39 92.0 77 31.0 880 15.0
Liver 20.0- 3.8- 6- 352- 6.5- 81 - 281- 0.23- 3.00- 13.4- 0.74- 5.5- 33.0- 81 - 65.0- 12709- 22.4-
22.9 7.8 8 360 7.0 136 320 0.28 3.30 21.0 0.83 8.3 100.0 330 110.0 44000 31.0
Pancreas
Tongue
17.6-
27.1
15.3-
7.3
14.6
8
6-
216-
330
170-
2.8-
8.4
2. 1-
67
73
276
197-
0.14
0.16-
0.34-
0.55
0.28-
3. 1-
5.8
3.9-
0.20
0.13-
3.8
2.0
14.0
1.0- 4
4.8-
5.0
7.0
Nil
NU
13.7-
14.0
3.3-
s
Ua
22.2 8 182 2.2 250 0.17 0.49 4.9 0.17 3.3 7.0
Veal Liver 19.2- 4.7- 7- 333- 8.0- 73- 281- 0.20- 2.70- 11.4- 0.30- 6.0 39.0- 46- 100.0 13530- 18.0-
21.5 7.3 8 360 8.8 93 330 0.52 3.30 16.5 0.54 75.0 240 22500 36.0
ft
Pork
Brain 10.4- 8.6 10 312 2.4 125 219 0.16- 0.26- 4. 3- 2.8 2.8 Nil 13.5- O"
12.2 0.23 0.28 4.4 18.0
Heart 16.8- 2.7- 3- 131- 3.3- 54- 106- 0.31- 0.81- 6.6- 0.29- 2.5 4.0- 2 2.4- Trace- 3.0-
23.5 4.4 6 220 4.8 80 300 0.48 1.24 9.6 0.35 18.0 8.0 106 5.0 o
Kidney 16.3- 2.7- 8- 218- 5.0- 115- 178- 0.26- 1.70- 7.5- 0.55 3.1 32.0- 42 6.6- 130- 14.0-
CL
25.4 3.6 11 270 6.7 190 290 0.58 1.90 9.8 130.0 14.0 230 14.2
ft
Liver 20.6- 3.7- 6- 356- 19.2- 73- 261- 0.30- 3.00 14.8- 0.68 0.9 27.0 110 25.0 Nil- 13.0-
21.6 6.8 10 370 21.0 87 320 0.31 16.4 10900 23.0
Pancreas 28.5 4.0- 18.9 0.11 0.46 3.5 4.6 6.5- Nil 15.0-
15.0 7.0 15.3
Lamb
Brain 10.3- 7.6- 10- 312- 1.6- 125- 219- 0.07- 0.24- 3.0- 0.10 2.6 2 6 7.3- Trace 18.0-
12.7 8.6 12 340 2.4 140 270 0.23 0.26 4.4 9.0 23.0
Heart 16.8- 9.6 11 249 0.31- 0.74- 4.6- 0.30 3.0 4 2 5.2- Trace- 7.0-
21.7 0.48 0.90 6.9 8.0 70 7.3
Kidney 16.8- 2.7- 10- 218- 7.4- 200- 230- 0.38- 1.80- 6.8- 0.30 4.3 37 31 26.0- 279- 7.0-
23.1 3.3 13 260 7.6 220 270 0.51 2.40 8.3 55.0 690 15.0
Liver 21.0- 3.9 10 349 10.9 52 202 0.27- 3.30- 12.0- 0.37- 8.1 41- 220 35.0- 50500- 10.0-
23.7 0.40 3.90 14.2 0.42 130 84.0 76756 33.0
Pancreas 14.7-
23.3
7.8-
19.9
8-
11
282-
400
1.0-
2.5
44-
75
217-
420
0.13 0.50 3.9 3.5 19.0 Nil 17.5-
18.0
n
Anon(1976),Kiernat et al.(1964),Ockennan (1983),Pauland Southgate (1978),USDA (1963),U.S.MeatExportFederation (2ndedition).
31 Ch.2]
Ediblemeat by-products
Table2.4Percentage offatty acidsinorgan fats
Fattyacid Liver Heart Kidney Brains Spleen
Beef Pork Beef Pork Beef Pork Beef Pork Beef Pork
C10:0 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1
___ ^_
Tr.
C12:0 Tr. 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 Tr. Tr.
C13:0 Tr. 0.1 0.1
C13: l Tr. Tr.
C14: R
0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 Tr. 0.1
C14:0 0.8 0.8 1.3 1.9 2.0 1.1 1.1 0.3 1.3 0.9
C14: l 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.1 Tr.
C15:R 0.5 0.2 0.7 0.2
C15:0 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.8 0.1 2.1 0.1 0.4 0.1
C15: l 1.7 0.3 0.4 0.4 1.2 0.7 Tr.
C16:R
0.7 0.6 0.3 0.2
C16:0 15.0 16.2 16.2 20.0 22.4 21.4 16.4 16.0 24.2 21.6
C16: l 4.1 1.3 4.3 2.5 3.5 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.9 2.8
C16:2 0.8 0.8
C17:0 1.0 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.7 0.5 1.5 1.5
C17: l 3.7 1.7 2.3 0.1 0.9 0.3 2.8 1.1 1.0 2.3
C18:0 14.7 17.7 21.2 13.5 25.0 19.0 22.3 27.1 15.0 20.2
C18: l 19.8 27.9 29.4 39.7 29.2 39.6 30.2 34.5 31.5 29.0
C18:2 10.1 12.4 7.0 9.1 5.0 8.1 2.3 1.5 6.9 7.9
C18:3 3.2 1.1 2.0 4.5 1.5 1.7 3.9 2.9 1.6 2.2
C19:0 0.3 0.7 0.6 1.5 1.7 0.6 0.6 1.1 1.4 3.0
C20:0 4.3 1.1 1.7 1.9 0.4 0.1 1.7 0.4 2.2 0.8
C20: l 2.2 0.9
C20:2 4.2 2.2 1.9 0.8
0.4 1.5
C20:3
2.6 0.8 1.4 0.7 0.6 0.7
C20:4 8.3 9.7 1.5 0.9 2.6 2.6 8.0 7.8 5.2 2.4
C20:5 6.9 2.6 4.3 0.1
0.4 0.4
C21:0

0.7
1.5
0.3
C21:3
2.3
C22:0

1.5 0.7 0.6 0.4 1.4 0.6
2.1
C22:4
1.0
1.1
Saturated 37.3 38.3 46.0 40.9 56.5 43.8 48.4 46.1 46.8 50.6
Unsaturated 62.7 61.7 54.0 59.1 43.5 56.2 51.6 53.9 53.2 49.4
Tr. = trace. Renon et al.(1980).
stored organs (R. Strange, personal communication). In vacuum packaging, lactic
aci^bacteria (hojno-jmcyiej^ streptococci, Leuconostoc
spp7)~Becamethedominantlypes. Withorganspackagedinpolyvinylchloride (non-
vacuum packaged), gram-negative bacteria (i.e. Pseudomonas spp.) frequently
32 Ediblemeatby-products [Ch.2
Table2.5Cholesterol content
Variety meat Treatment Cholesterol
(mg/100g meat)
Brain Raw Morethan2000
Heart, beef Cooked 270
Kidney Raw 375
Kidney Cooked 800
Lard Rendered 95-240
Liver Raw 300
Liver, beef Cooked 435
Liver,calf Cooked 435
Liver, lamb Cooked 435
Liver, pork Cooked 435
Sweetbreads Raw 260
Tongue Raw 180
Tripe Raw 95
Sources:Ockerman (1983),USDA(1963).
becamedominant(Hanna et al., 1982).Inadditiontobeingutilizedfresh and frozen,
afewoftheseitemsarecured and/or smoked and/orpickled and/or canned.
The characteristics, storage and preparation, types and sizes, and cooking
methodsofvarietymeat,togetherwithabuyingguide,maybelocatedinTable2.6.
Although variety meat utilization is reasonably uniform between species and
between countries, there are a few differences. In spite of the fact that these
differences tendtooverlapamongareasoftheworld,anattempt hasbeenmade to
organizethemintobeef andveal(Table2.7),pork(Table2.8)andlamb(Table2.9)
forcontinentalEurope,theUnited KingdomandtheUnited StatesofAmerica. To
giveanindicationofthepercentageofby-productssaved,asurveyofselected U.S.
packersmaybefound inTable2.10.
LIVER
Liver in the beef animal isthick at the upper end, iselongated (58x 38cm (23x
15in))andtapering;willusuallyaverageabout5kg(11lb)(normalrange4.5-6.0kg
(9.9-13.2lb)) in a market weight animal, and has a thinner left lobe (called the
'thumbpiece') with aslighttail.Vealliverissimilartobeef liverbut isrounder and
muchsmaller, averagingonly 1.4kg(2.5lb),issofter intexture,hasmore rounded
edges,hasa'thumbpiece'thatismorebluntedinappearance.Anumbilicalveincan
alsobeseeninthevealliver.Sheepliverissimilartobeefliverbutsmaller(25x17cm
(10x6.5in),average0.45kg(1lb)for amarketweightlamb)andthe 'thumbpiece'
appears proportionately larger and tapers to apoint. Pork liver hasfivelobes and
tapers at the edges, and the connective tissue covering gives a 'nutmeg' (Morocco
Table2.6Preparingvarietymeat
n
Buyingguide Cooking
tr to
Kind Characteristics Storageand Typeand
Averageweight Servings preparation size Fry Broiled Braised Cookedinliquid
lb
Liver Veal,lamb,pork lbeef10 Ml b Frozen, Beef
(Beef, liversmoretender 1veal2.5 for four thawin 3-to4-lb
veal, thanbeef.Vealand 1pork3 refrigerator. piece, 2-2.5h
a
pork, lambliversmilder llamb 1 Fresh, sliced 20min 20-25min
fl
lamb) inflavourthanpork refrigerate, Veal(calf)
andbeef. usein24h. sliced 20min 8-10min W
Grind,for Pork cr
loavesor 3-3.5lb
ft
patties. whole, 1.5-2 h
a
3
n
sliced 20min 20-25min
a
M
Lamb cr
sliced 20min 8-10min
*<
o
Kidney
(Beef,
veal,
pork,
Veal,lamband
porkkidneysmore
tenderthanbeef,
alsomilderin
lbeef1
lvealI
4-6
3-4
Fresh,
refrigerate,
usein24h.
Beef
Veal(calf)
Pork
Lamb
10-12min
10-12min
10-12min
1.5-2 h
a
1-1.5 h
fl
1-1.5 h
a
Mh
a
1-1.5h
Mh
Mh
Mh
8.
1
lamb) flavour. Vealand 1pork \ 1-2
lambkidneysome-
times
cutwithchops. 1lamb$ 0.5-1
Heart Beefheartisleast lbeef 4 10-12 Frozen, Beef
(Beef, tenderbutall lveal I 2-3 thawin Whole 3-4h 3-4h
veal, heartsmustbemade 1pork \ 2-3 refrigerator. Sliced 1.5-2h
pork, tenderbyproper llamb \ 1 Fresh, Veal(calf)
lamb) cooking. refrigerate, Whole 2.5-3h 2.5-3h
usein24h. Pork 2.5-3h 2.5-3h
Lamb 2.5-3h 2.5-3h
Buyingguide Cooking
Kind Characteristics Storageand Typeand
Averageweight Servings preparation size Fry Broiled Braised Cookedinliquid
lb
Tongue Maybepurchased 1beef3.75 12-16 Fresh, beef 3~4h
(Beef, fresh, pickled, refrigerate, Veal (calf) 2-3h
veal, cornedorsmoked. 1veal1.5 3-6 usein24h.
pork, Mustbemadetender
lamb) bypropercooking. 1pork1 2-4 Smoked, Si
Porkandlamb refrigerate,
usuallypurchased 1lambI 2-3 usein3 Pork
readytoserve. days. Usually
ft
to
Pickled,
refrigerate,
sold
ready
f
usein7 toserve
days. Lamb
Tripe Plainandhoneycomb,Plain~~7 f-Hb Fresh, Beef 10-15min 10-15min
6
1-1.5h
(Beef) latter preferred. for four refrigerate,
C
n
sr
Purchased fresh, usein24h;
pickledorcanned. usuallycooked
Often purchased butrequires
precooked;requires Honeycomb morecooking.
further cooking. 1.5 Pickled,
soakbefore
use.
Canned,
heatandserve.
Sweetbreads
(Beef,
Dividedintotwo
parts;heartand
Veal
Neckandheart
1-1lb
for four
Frozen,
thawinhot
Alltypes Deepfat
10min
6
10-15min* 20-25min 15-20min
veal, throatsweetbreads. pair1 water,
O
lamb) Tenderanddelicate Piecesfoz Fresh,
in flavour. Beef refrigerate,
Neckonly usein24h.
Lamb2oz
Brains Verytenderand Beeff Mlb Frozen,
(beef, delicateinflavour; for four thawin
veal, vealmostpopular. Lamb \ hotwater.
pork, Fresh,
lamb) Porki refrigerate,
usein24h.
Oxtail Largeportionbone, l i b Frozen,
(Beef) finemeatflavour. fortwo thawin
Disjointed. refrigerator
Fresh,
refrigerate,
O
Alltypes 10-15 20-25min 15-20min
min
6
Beef Simmer2h
oruntil
tender.
w
usein24h.
Giblets Heart,liver, 3-4 l i b Frozen, Chicken Simmeruntil
(Poultry) gizzardand Chicken for four thawin liver10
a
n
min tender.
a
sometimesneck. Liver2oz refrigerator Liver
Heart0.5oz Fresh, 10-15min.
Gizzard0.11b refrigerate, GizzardandHeart:
usein12h. youngchicken
I-I
o
a
s
sr
30min;
oldchicken
l h
turkey
1.5-2 h.
"Ontopofrangeorina149-163C(300-325F)oven.
fc
Time requiredafter precookinginwater.
1lb=454g.McLeanandCampbell(1952),NationalLiveStockandMeatBoard(1974a,b),Ockerman(1975).
u>
36
By-products
Blood
Bloodplasma
Bone
Brain
CheekandHead
trimmings
Extract
Fat
Oleostock
Oleooil
Oleostearin
Edibletallow
Feet
Heart
Intestine,large
Intestine,small
Kidney
Liver
Oesophagus
Oxtail
Skintrimmings
Skirt,thick
Ediblemeatby-products
Table2.7Ediblebeef andveal by-products
Usedin Usedin
Continental Europe UnitedKingdom
Bloodfood preparation Blackpudding
Bloodsausage Bloodandbarleyloaf
Sausageingredient
Gelatin Gelatin
Soup Soup
Poach(warmorcold) Broil
Fry Sauce
Liversausage
Cookedsausage Stew
Coldwithvinegarsauce Processedmeat
Brawn
Soup Soup
Bouillon Bouillon
Shortening Drippings
Shortening
Shortening Shortening
Shortening Paste
Mincemeat Pudding
Mincemeat
Jelly Cowheel
Footjelly
Stew Bake
Fry Boil
Stuff Processedmeat
Sausagecasing Sausagecasing
Sausagecasing Sausagecasing
Stew Stew
Fry Pie
Soup
Fry(warm) Braise
Boil(cold) Liversausage
Grill(warm)
Sausage
Sausageingredient Sausageingredient
Soup Soup
Stew
Gelatin Gelatin
Stew Stew
Sausageingredient Sausageingredient
[Ch.2
Usedin
UnitedStates
Sausageingredient
Gelatin
Jelliedproducts
Refiningsugars
Soup
Precookinwater
Broil
Scramble
Fry
Cream
Sausageingredient
Soup
Bouillon
Oleomargarine
Shortening
Sweets
ChewingGum
Shortening
Shortening
Jelly
Braise
Cookinliquid
Loaf
Patty
Sausageingredient
Sausagecasing
Sausagecasing
Braise
Broil
Cookinliquid
Patty
Loaf
Braise
Fry
Broil
Loaf
Patty
Sausageingredient
Sausageingredient
Soup
Gelatin
Jellied food
Stew
Sausageingredient
Continued next page
37
Ch.2] Ediblemeatby-products
Table2.7 continued
Spleen Bloodpreparation Pie Varietymeat
Flavouring
Melt
Stomach
Rumen Tripe Tripe Tripe
Sausageingredient Sausageingredient Sausageingredient
Reticulum
Abomasum
Calf
Tripe
Sausageingredient
Sausageingredient
Tripe
Honeycombtripe
Sausageingredient
Redorblacktripe
Sausageingredient
Rennet
Tripe
Sausageingredient
Sausageingredient
Rennet
Rennet
Sweetbread
Thymus Cookinsauce Fry Precookinwater
Poach,withsauce Boil Broil
Fry Fry
Stew Braise
Cream
Varietymeat
Pancreas Cookinsauce Gutbread Precookinwater
Broil
Fry
Braise
Cream
Varietymeat
Tongue Boil(warmorcold) Saltandboil Cookinliquid
Cure,smoke,cook Sausageingredient Sausageingredient
Cure,smoke,cook Cure,smoke,cook
Udder Boil Boil
Fry Salt
Smoke
Fry
leather)appearance,makingevenasmallpieceeasilyspecies-identifiable. Porkliver
usually averages approximately 1.4kg (3lb) (25x 23cm (10x 9in)) on a market
weightanimal (3.2kg(7lb)for amaturesow).
Liversareremovedontheslaughterfloor,gallbladder(peartocigar-shaped)and
thebileductarecarefully removedtopreventtheyellow,bitter-flavoured bile from
contaminatingtheliver,andtheliveriswashedandquicklychilled.Thelivermaybe
packaged and shipped to the retail market inthiscondition or the capsula fibrosa,
largebloodvesselsandductsalongtheexternalsurfaceofthelivermayberemoved,
often by a mechanical skinner which contains a stationary blade above a rotating
burreddrum. Smallportionsofthecapsulafibrosaoften remainontheedgesandin
thecreasesoftheliver.The'thumbpiece'mayberemovedduringtheskinningofthe
liver.Thisskinningoperationmaybeaccomplishedatthepointoforigin,attheretail
level,orbytheconsumer.Liversmaybefrozen, butbeefliverbecomessofter dueto
freezing andfreeze-thaw fluctuations. Thequalityoffrozen stored liversdecreases
with increasing storage temperatures, increasing storage times and non-vacuum
packaging (Pierson, 1982).
Studies on beef liver at the supermarket (Shelef, 1975) have indicated a
microbiological level of 10
5
/g consisting of gram-positive cocci, spore-formers,
38 Ediblemeat by-products [Ch.2
Table2.8Ediblepork by-products
By-products Usedin Usedin Usedin
Continental Europe UnitedKingdom United States
Blood Bloodfood preparation Blackpudding Sausageingredient
Bloodplasma Bloodfood preparation Sausageingredient Sausageingredient
Bone Gelatin Gelatin Gelatin
Mechanicallydeboned Mechanically deboned Jelliedproducts
tissue tissue Rendered shortening
Mechanicallydeboned
tissue
Brain Poach Fry Precookinwater
Fry Braise Broil
Scramble
Fry
Cream
Cheek andHead
trimmings Sausageingredients Bathchap Sausageingredients
Ears Stewedwithfeet
Fat Lard Lard Shortening,lard
Feet Bloodpreparations Cookinliquid Pickled
Liverpreparations Cookinliquid
Jellypreparations
Boil
Fry
Head Sausageingredient Boar'shead Sausageingredient
Jelly(cold) Salt,boil
Bloodsausage Brawn
Liversausage Sausageingredient
Pie
Heart Bloodpreparation Braise Braise
Sausageingredient Luncheonmeat Cookinliquid
Tnaf
Patty
Sausageingredient
Intestine,large Chitlings Chitlings Chitlings
Sausagecasing Sausagecasing Sausagecasing
Intestine,small Sausagecasing Sausagecasing Sausagecasing
Kidney Fry Grill Braise
Stew Broil
Soup Cookinliquid
Patty
Loaf
Liver Liverfood preparation Pates Braise
Processedmeat
Pates
Stew
Fry
Fry
Broil
Boil(cold) Liversausage Loaf
Fry Patty
Sausageingredient
Lung Bloodpreparation Petfood Petfood
Oesophagus Sausageingredient Processedmeat Sausageingredient
Omentum CoveringforprocessedmeatCoveringformeatpie Coveringforprocessed
Coveringforpate meat
Skin Rindemulsion Rindemulsion Gelatin
Gelatin Gelatin Jelliedfood products
Rind Rind French-fried porkskin
Spleen Fry
Bloodsausage
Pig'sfry
Flavouring
Varietymeat
Pie
Melt
Contined on next page
39 Ch. 2] Edible meatby-products
Table 2.8 continued
Stomach Sausageingredient Sausageingredient
Sausagecasing Sausagecontainer
Stomach,tripe Precookinwater
Braise
Fry
Boil
Tail Hotchpot Saltandboil Boil
Tongue Cured,boil Saltandboil Cure,smoke,boil
Sausageingredient Sausageingredient Sausageingredient
Blood-tongue sausage
Liver-tongue sausage
Tonguesalad
Tonguewithjelly
Processedmeat
coliform bacteria and gram-negative rods. After 7-10 daysof storage at5C(41F)
these liverswere unacceptable, with counts of 7-8 x 10
7
/g,and lactic acid bacteria
were the predominant type. Lactic acid bacteria are also the predominant type in
vacuum-packaged liver, and consequently a pH value on vacuum-packaged liver
below6.0often suggestsspoilage (Shelef, 1975).
Theliverisoften thin-sliced and cooked byavariety oftechniques (Table 2.6).
Liver may be ground and incorporated into many dishes, loaves, spreads and
sausages. For example, braunschweiger, liver cheese, liver loaf, liver mush, liver
paste, liver paste with truffles, liver pudding, liver sausage, liver spread and
liverwurst (for composition seeTable 2.11) must allhave aminimum of 30% fresh
liver if produced under USDA inspection. For example, braunschweiger is often
madefrom 50%liverwhichiscombined, individuallyorincombination, with fresh
orsmoked porkjowlsand/or 50/50pork trimmings.Theliversareplaced inameat
chopper and chopped until bubbles appear (approximately 10min) and then the
porkjowlsand/orpork trimmingswhich have been ground through a6.4mm (|in)
grinderplate areadded tothechopper. Twoandone-half percent salt,0.3%onion
powderand0.25%sugarareadded.Thefollowingquantitiesper45.4kg(100lbs)of
meat are also blended into the emulsion: 4.2g (0.15oz) sodium nitrite, 24.1g
(0.85oz)sodiumerythorbate,7.1g(0.25oz)whitepepperand14.2g(0.5oz)ofeach
of the following spices: allspice, cloves, sage, marjoram, nutmeg and ginger. This
mixtureischoppeduntilnofatspecksarevisibleintheemulsion.Theproductisthen
stuffed intoa7.0to7.6cm(2?to3in)casingandthen submerged incooking water
(82C)(180F)andcookedin71C(160F)watertoaninternaltemperature of67C
(152F).Thesausage isthen chilled inicewater to43C(110F)andthen chilled to
7C(45F)inacooler.Liverhaspoorbindingquality,highcollagencontentandhigh
colour parameters.
Liverscanalsobeconvertedtoauniform-shaped loaf(Percel,1979)bytrimming,
curing (5% pump with 82.5% water, 10.6% brinesalt (0.6% sodium nitrite and
99.4% salt), 6.4% phosphate and 0.5% sodium ascorbate), massaging (with 20%
additionalbrine)for2hours,andbeingplacedinspring-loaded moulds,cookedina
75C (167F) water-bath for 3 hours, cooled in tap water for 2.5 hours, vacuum
packaged andchilled ina1C(34F) cooler.
Table2.9Ediblelamb by-products
By-products
Blood
Blood plasma
Bone
Brain
CheekandHead
trimmings
rat
Oleostock
Oleooil
Oleostearin
Edible tallow
Feet
Heart
Intestine,large
Intestine,small
Kidney
Liver
Lungs
Oesophagus
Spleen
Stomach
Sweetbread
Testicles
Tongue
Usedin
Continental Europe
Blood sausage
Mechanically deboned
tissue
Soup
Poach
Fry
Boil,vinegaror
tomatosauce
Jelly
Roast
Braise
Sausageingredient
Sausagecasing
Sausagecasing
Fry
Boil
Grill
Fry
Grill
Sausage ingredient
Sausageingredient
Bloodsausage ingredient
Poachwithsauce
Fry
Boil
Stew
Jelly (cold)
Usedin
United Kingdom
Blackpudding
Sausageingredient
tissue
Soup
Poach
Fry
Boil
Sausageingredient
Shortening
Dripping
Shortening
Dripping
Jelly
Stuff
Roast
Braise
Luncheonmeat
Sausagecasing
Sausagecasing
Stew
Soup
Fry
Grill
Braise
Liversausage
Haggis
Petfood
Sausageingredient
Pie
Melt 1V1C11
Honeycombtripe
Containerforhaggis
Fry
Fry
Grill
Boil
Jelly
Usedin
United States
Sausage ingredient
Jelliedproducts
tissue
Soup
Gelatin
Precookinwater
Broil
Scramble
Fry
Cream
Sausage ingredient
Oleomargarine
Shortening
Sweets
Chewinggum
Shortening
Shortening
Jelly
Braise
Cookinliquid
Loaf
Patty
Sausage ingredient
Sausagecasing
Sausagecasing
Braise
Broil
Cookinliquid
Loaf
ratty
Braise
Fry
Broil
Loaf
Pattv
rally
Liversausageingredient
Petfood
Sausage ingredient
Varietymeat
Precookinwater
Broil
Fry
Braise
Cream
Fry
Cookinliquid
Raw liver, desiccated liver and liverextract have longbeen used asasourceof
vitamin B
12
and as anutritional supplement used in treating various types of
anaemia. Forthecomposition ofsomemodified liverproductsseeTable2.12.
41 Ch.2] Ediblemeatby-products
HEART
Beefheartsareconicalinshape(24x20cm)(9.5x8in)andaverageapproximately
1.4kg(31b) (normal range 1.4-2.0kg(3.0-4.4lb)from amarket-weight animal).
Theycontainthreefurrows (ventriculargrooves)usuallyfilledwithwhitefat(inold
cows, it may be yellow) and additional white fat is often attached to this fatty
material.Therearetwocartilages(bone-oscardis)presentintheaorticfibrousring.
Thecap-onhearthasthecartilage (bone-oscardis)removedbuttheleft andright
auriclesremainwiththeheart. Withthecap-off heart,thecartilages,theleft and
right auricles, the aorta, the pulmonary trunk and some of the fat tissues are
removed.Thedefatted heartisacap-off heartwithfatremovedinexcessof5%of
the heart weight. Veal heart is similar to beef heat but smaller (average (227g)
(ilb)).Porkheartissmaller(14.0x8.9cm(5.5x3.5in)average(227g)(ilb))than
beefheart,hastwocoronaryfurrows,containssoftwhitefat,andisdenserintexture
andmorepointedthancalfheart.Itisusuallysoldwiththeleftandrightauriclesleft
on,butcanbespecified withcap-off andwiththedesireddegreeoffattrim.Lamb
heartissimilartoporkheartbutsmallerinweight(average113g(ilb)foramarket
weightanimal)andusuallytheossacardisisabsent.
Theheartsareseparatedfromthelungsontheslaughterfloorandaresometimes
slashedopenforinspectionandremovalofclottedblood.Thecartilagesandsomeof
thefattissuesarealsousuallyremovedatthisstageofoperation.
The heart is less tender than the liver and requires long-term moist cooking
(Table2.6).Itcanalsobedicedandaddedtostews,orgroundandaddedtoother
meatforadditionalflavour. Thecavitiesoftheheartmaybefilledwithdressingand
the heart then roasted. Hearts are merchandized fresh or frozen, or used in
processed luncheon meat where they are not only a good source of high-quality
protein but, due totheir high myoglobin content and highcolour value, alsoadd
colour to thefinishedproduct. Hearts have alowto medium bind value and are
averageincollagen content. Thewater :protein ratioofheartsisshowninTable
2.13.
TONGUE
Beef tongueisthick 38x 10cm(15x4in), averaging 1.7kg(3.7lb)for short-cut
tongue,normalrangeis1.2-1.7kg(2.6-3.7lb),tapering,rough (hornyatthetip)
andpointed,withsixormorecircumvallatepapillaeoneachside.Itmaybewhite,
blackorvariegatedandfrequentlyhasblackspots.Tonguesaregradedaccordingto
surfaceintegrityasunbroken(No.1)orbroken(No.2).Thetonguemaybesoldas
long-cut (averaging2.3-3.1kg(5-6.75lb)),whichisthecompletetonguewiththe
root, even including the third tracheal ring trimmed but with the larynx and the
epiglottis remaining attached. The oesophagus, the pharynx and the great cornu
bone or cartilage (other hyoid bones or cartilages are left in) are removed. The
square-cut beef tongue isthewhole organ with the basecutparallel tothe blade
body,andwiththetipoftheepiglottisandthehyoidbonesorcartilages(exceptthe
greatcornuboneorcartilage)attached.Thelarynx,tracheaandfatonthebasethat
isparalleltothebladeareremoved.Thebaseretainstrimmablefatandglands.The
beef short-cut tongue (averaging 1.6-2.3kg(3.5-5lb))isseparated from the root
42 Edible meat by-products [Ch.2
Table2.10Percentage ofselected U.S.packerssavingedible by-products
Percentageamongthoserespondingforeach
species
Item Beef Pork
a
Lamb* Market Foreignmarkets
percentage inorderof
Saving Not Saving Not Saving Noi forall decreasing
saving saving saving species value
c
Bladder 20 80 50%U.S.
50% foreign SP
Bones 60 40 27 72 72 28 100%U.S.
Brains 50 50 50 50 28 72 35%U.S.
15% foreign E,Af
50%both
Bung 9 91 9%U.S.
91% both ?
Cheek/head 100 0 100 0 50 50 96%U.S.
meat 4%both ?
Ears - 90 10 44%U.S.
55%both CA,SP,C
Edible fat 64 36 100 0 20 80 67%U.S.
andoil 33% both E,CA,C,SA,ME
Feet 40 60 82 18 54%U.S.
46%both CA,SA,C
Hanging 100 0 72 28 42%U.S.
tenders 5% foreign SP,As,C,ME
58%both
Wholehead 20 80 9 91 88 12 100%U.S.
Hearts 100 0 100 0 100 0 49%U.S.
5% foreign C,E,CA,SA
46%both
Humps 12 88 100%U.S.
Intestines 50 50 45 55 85 15 69%U.S.
6% foreign E,SP,C,A
25%both
Kidney 100 0 91 9 100 0 40%U.S.
24% foreign E,C,ME,CA,SA,
Af
36%both
Liver 100 0 100 0 100 0 28%U.S.
4% foreign E,ME,C,CA
68%both SA,Af, As,SP
Salivary 80 20 75%U.S.
glands 25%both CA
Skirts 70 30 14%U.S.
14% foreign SP,E
72%both
Snouts/lips 100 0 91 9 40%U.S.
10% foreign CA,C,E
50%both
Continued on next page
Table2.10 Continued
Spleen 91 9 73 27 50 50 75%U.S.
25%both E,C,CA
Stomach/tripe 91 9 82 18 49%U.S.
12% foreign CA,SP,As,E,SA
39%both
Sweetbreads 91 9 30%U.S.
20% foreign E,CA,SP
50%both
Tail 100 0 91 9 57%U.S.
43% both CA,E,C,ME,SA
Tendons 40 60
75%U.S.
25%both SP,A
Testicles 100 0 88 12 88%U.S. E
12%both
Tongue 100 0 100 0 100 0 50%U.S.
13% foreign E,SP,CA,As,ME
37%both
Weasand 100 27 73 64%U.S.
22% foreign SP,As
14%both
Pancreas 100 100%U.S.
Lungs 100 100%U.S.
a
Elevenpackers
b
Eightpackers
c
Af, Africa; As, Asia; C, Canada; CA, Central America; E, Europe; ME, Middle East; SA, South
America;SP,SouthPacific.
University ofIllinoisandNationalLivestockandMeatBoard(1986).
Table2.11Percentage composition ofsomesausagesthat contain by-products
Components Liverwurst Pate,canned Headcheese Bloodsausage
Moisture 52.1 53.9 64.7 47.3
Foodenergy(kcal) 326 319 212 378
Protein 14.1 14.2 16.0 14.6
Totalfat 28.5 28.0 15.8 34.5
Carbohydrate 2.2 1.5 0.4 1.3
Fibre 0.0
Ash 3.1 2.2 3.1 2.3
USDA(1980).
44
Ediblemeatby-products [Ch.2
Table2.12Composition ofenzymatic hydrolysis
Percentageoftotalnitrogenin
Nitrogen Fat
indry indry Protein Polypeptide Free
matter matter aminoacid
Paste(20-30%moisture)
Liver 61.0 1.7 12.8 56.3 28.4
Rumen 62.0 1.7 26.5 49.5 22.0
Drypowder(8-10%mois-
ture)
Liver 79.0 2.3 9.5 54.6 33.6
Mitsyk etal. (1972).
Table2.13Water:protein ratio
Meatby-product Averagereportedor
maximumallowedinU.S.
Broth
135:1
Heart,beef 4.4:1 (Ave)
Heart,pork 4.8:1 (Ave)
Luncheonmeat
Heartsandtongues, 0.1-20% 3.8:1
20.1-40% 4.1:1
40.1-60% 4.3:1
Pottedmeatfood product
Tripe, 0.1-25% 5.0:1
25.1-50% 5.4:1
50.1-75% 5.8:1
Stock,beef 135:1
Stomach,pork 4.2:1(Ave)
Tongue,beef 4.4:1
Tongue,beef,cured 4.4:1
Tongue,beef,cooked,smokedand/ordried 4.4:1
Tongue,pork 3.9:1 (Ave)
Tripe,beef,cooked
5.1:1 (Ave)
Tripe,beef,raw
5.2:1 (Ave)
Tripe,beef,scalded
6.3:1 (Ave)
andgulletinfrontoftheepiglottisandbehindthethyroidprocessofthehyoidbones
orcartilage(thehyoidbonesorcartilagesareclippedandleftin,butthegreatcornu
boneorcartilageisremoved)andthetipoftheepiglottis,thelarynx,thetrachea,and
the salivary glands (except sublingual) are removed. The base of the tongue is
trimmedtothefalseleanwithonlyapproximately10%trimmablefatremaining.The
Swiss-cutbeeftonguehasallthehyoidbonesorcartilages,muscularrootandbase
musclesremoved, aswellasmostofthefat, leavingatonguecontaining95%lean
andconsistingofadeboned,defatted, bladebody.
Tongue root isderived from thelong-cuttonguewhenpreparingthe short-cut
tongue after removal ofthelarynx,the remnant oftrachea andthe epiglottis.No
hyoidbonesorcartilagesremainintheroot.
Vealtongueissimilartobeeftonguebutissmallerandaverages0.7kgor1.5lb
fortheshort-cuttongue.
Porktonguehasanextendedtongueshapewhichistriangularincross-section,
red in colour, and has a ridge extending along its length where the omentum is
attached. It averages0.3kgorflb(16.5x5.1cm)(6.5x2in).Theshort-cutpork
tonguehastherootcutbehindthehyoidbones,whichremainwiththetongue,and
thetracheaandtherootareremoved.Thegreatcornu,thelarynxandtheepiglottis
arealsoremoved,butthemucousmembranebetweentheepiglottisandthetongue
remains. The pork blade-only tongue (green or unscalded) is the tongue blade
remaining after removal of the great cornu, hyoid bones or cartilages, larynx,
epiglottis,tracheaandmostofthefat(95%lean),yieldingadeboned,defattedblade
body.Thepork blade-only tongue (scalded-scraped) istrimmed likethegreenor
unscaldedblade-onlytongue,butthetonguebladeisscaldedandscrapedtoremove
themucousmembraneascompletelyaspossible.
Lambtongueisshort,smooth,thick,oftenblack,andaverages0.2kgor \lb(8.9
x3.0cm)(3.5x1.2in).Theundersideonbothsidesatthetiptendstohavegrooves
andthereisadepressionrunningalongthecentre.Thelong-cutlambtongueisthe
wholetonguewithrootattached.Itcontainsthelarynx,theepiglottis,thefirstthree
ringsofthetracheaandallofthehyoidbonesorcartilages,exceptthegreatcornu
bone or cartilage which is removed. The oesophagus and the pharynx are also
removed.Therootistrimmed,evenincludingthethirdtrachealring.Theshort-cut
lambtongueiscutfrom theroot andistrimmed,withthetipoftheepiglottis left
intact,butwiththepharynx,theoesophagus,thegreatcornuboneorcartilage(other
hyoidbonesorcartilagesareleftin)andthetrachearemoved.Thetrimmablefatof
theglosso-epiglottalfoldandoftheglandsremainsonthesidesandonthebaseofthe
tongue. Lamb special-trim tongue is the portion of the tongue remaining after
removal of the tip of the epiglottis, the pharynx, the trachea, all hyoid bones or
cartilagesandthesalivaryglandsfrom thesides.
If not removed prior to being received by the consumer, the tough outer
membrane of the tongue can be removed more easily by blanching with a short
submersionperiodinboilingwater.Tongueisrathertoughandshouldbecookedby
long-term, moist-heat cookery (Table 2.6). In addition to being available fresh,
tonguemaybepurchasedpickled(corned),smokedorcanned;thewater :protein
ratioisshowninTable2.13.Smokedorpickledtonguemayrequiresoakingpriorto
cooking.Thetongueissliced,servedhotorcoldoftenwithgarnishesorwithsweet
orsoursauce,horseradish,mustardsauce,orspicysaucesordressingsandmay
alsobeaddedtocasserolesandsalads.
Beef tongues may be brine-cured by the long immersion-cure method. Thisis
accomplished byrinsingthetongue andchillingitfor 24hours,trimmingitclosely,
placingthetongueinan80(80%ofsaturation)brinefor24hours,andthenplacing
it in 26.5-30.31 (7-8 gallons) of 80 (80% of saturation) sweet-pickle brine per
45.4kg (100lb) of tongue. The product iscured at 2-3C (36-38F) for 5days and
then overhauled, with additional salt being added to the cure, and cured for 8or
more days depending on the size of the tongue. The curing shrinkage is normally
0.5-3%. Manytonguestodayareartery-cured usingthetwolingualarterieslocated
atthe baseofthetongue.Thetongueshouldnot behungbyahook atthetipsince
this interferes with brine distribution and tends to mark the tongue tissue. A 5%
(weight)cureisinjected intoeachartery(totalof10%pumpor10%pickupincure)
and the following mixture is often used: 378.5 1(100 gallons) of water, 45.4kg
(100lb)of salt, 680g(1.5lb)ofsodium nitrite,680g(1.5lb)of sodium nitrate and
2.5kg(5.5lb)ofsodiumerythrobate (isoascorbate).Thetonguesarethenplacedin
thesamecoverpickleasthatusedforpumpingandareallowedtocurefor 3daysat
3C (38F).Tongues are also sometimes smoked and cooked (82C, 180Ffor 5-6
hours depending on size). Unsmoked tongues are frequently shipped in 70-80
pickle.
Cured tongues are often canned. They are first soaked 12hours, covered with
water and boiled 1.5-2.5 hours, which results in an average of 32% shrinkage.
Cooking water may be utilized for manufacturing meat extract. The mucous
membraneofthetongueisremovedandthetongueisre-trimmed,losinganaverage
of 3.5% shrinkage. Cans are usually stuffed by hand, with agar solution (1-5%)
added, capped, then sealed under vacuum and processed under pressure. Cooking
pressureandtimedependonthecansize.Komarik et al.(1974)suggestthata1.4kg
(48-oz) can should be processed for 2.5 hours at 110C (230F) and then rapidly
cooled.
Tonguesmaybejelliedbycuring,watercooking,andgrinding;byaddinggelatin,
seasoning,andcookingstock;orbystuffing, placinginmoulds,coveringthemoulds,
pressingandchillingthem,whichproducesaveryperishablejellied product.
Potted tongues are produced in asimilar fashion except the product receives a
very fine grind after cooking, is mixed with seasoning and is then canned and
processed.
Tongue isalsoused asan ingredient inluncheon meat. It has amedium tolow
bindcharacter, ahighcollagencontent and anaveragecolourvalue.
KIDNEY
Animalshavetwokidneys.Inbeefanimalsthekidneyisverydarkbrownincolour,is
22.9x 10.2cm (9x4in),iscontained inthekidney knob (suet, fat), contains 15-25
lobes and, in a market-weight animal, averages approximately 454g (l i b) each
(normal range0.4-0.6kg(0.9-1.3lb)).When the beef animalchangesfrom amilk
diet to aroughage diet and the stomachs (four) increase in size,this displaces the
kidney knob tothe right and toward the tailand causesaslight rotation of the left
kidney (three-sided and movable). For this reason the left side of the carcass is
termed the 'raison' or 'open' side and usually contains less kidney suet (fat) than
the right side ('closed') that contains an elliptical kidney which is fixed to the
abdomen. Beef kidneyisusuallysoldwhole,with thebloodvessels,theureter and
thecapsulemembrane removed, or, issolddefatted, whenithasthe bloodvessels,
the ureter, the capsule membrane and the fat deposits in the fold of the kidney
removed.
Vealkidneyissimilartobeefkidneyexceptitissmallerinweight(averages340g
(Ilb))and issometimesleft aspart ofthelointoproducevealkidneychops.
Porkkidneyissingle-lobed,flat,bean-shaped 10.7x5.1cm(4.2x2in),reddish-
brown incolour, isencased in akidney knob and averages 113g(ilb)ina market-
weightanimal.Porkkidneyisusuallysoldwhole,withjustthebloodvessels,ureter
andcapsulemembrane removed.
Sheepkidneyhasone,bean-shaped8.9x5.1cm,(3.5x2in)lobe,darkbrownin
colour, also contained in a fat kidney knob and is smaller than pork kidney. It
averages57g(|lb)inamarket-weight lamb.Thekidneysarealsosometimesleft in
thelointoproducekidneychopsorEnglishlambchops.Theymayalsobe removed
and sold as whole kidneys with the blood vessels, ureter and capsule membrane
removed.
Kidneysmaybeincludedasaningredientinmeatcasseroles,stewsorpies.Lamb
and veal kidneys are usually more tender than beef kidney and may be broiled or
wrappedinbaconandcookedonaskewer.Beefkidneyshouldbecookedinliquidor
braised(Table2.6).Kidneyislowinbindcharacterandhighincollagencontent and
colourvalue.
SWEETBREADS
Sweetbreadsareobtainedfrom calves,lambsandyoungcattle;threedifferent tissue
locationsintheseanimalsaresometimeslabelled'sweetbreads'.Thewhitish-yellow,
lobulated thymus consists of two pairs. One portion (average 57g (| lb), normal
range 0.05-0.23kg (0.11-0.51lb)) is located in the cervical region in the neck
adjacent to the trachea and istermed 'neck bread', 'throat sweetbread' or 'throat-
bread', and the other isin the thorax region and islabelled 'heart bread' or 'heart
sweetbread' (normalrange0.05-0.1kg(0.1-0.2lb)).Thethymustissueislarge and
activeduring animalgrowth, but degenerates andisreplaced byfibrous tissue after
the animal has matured; therefore, the thymus is only available from younger
animals.
Thebrownish-yellow,lobulatedpancreasisoften soldas'gutbread'.Its function
istosecretedigestivefluids,andtheglandisseparatedfromtheliverand duodenum
on the slaughter floor. It weighs approximately 170g(glb) in market weight beef
animalsand85g(^ lb)insheep andpigs.
Thethymussweetbreads (Table2.6)aretenderanddelicatelyflavoured, but are
very perishable and should be frozen or precooked (simmer 30minutes in acid (1
tablespoon of lemon juice or vinegar per 946ml (quart)) water) unless used
immediately. The membrane from the sweetbreads should be removed (if liquid-
cooked, after cooking) and the sweetbreads may be scrambled (often with eggs),
reheated insauce,breaded and deepfat fried, used insaladsorcoated with butter
andbroiled (Block, 1977).Theyarealsolowinbindcharacterandcolourvalueand
highincollagen content.
TRIPE
Tripeisproducedfromthefirst(rumen,paunch)andsecondstomachs(reticulum)of
cattle. It is called plain (averages 3.2kg (71b)) and honeycomb (averages 680g
(1.51b), preferred), respectively. The omasum ('bible') is difficult to clean and
deteriorates quickly. Therefore, it is usually not used for human food but is
rendered.Thebrown,almostfurry, 'rawunscalded'beeftripeisthepaunch(insome
countries itincludes the paunch honeycomb) which hasbeen cold-water flushed to
removeitscontents.Thecream-coloured,scalded(denuded)beeftripeisthepaunch
(rumen) with or without the honeycomb (reticulum) which has been hot-water
washed (50-55C (122-131T)) washed (15-20 minutes) with diluted soda water
(limewater) andthe darkinternallininghasbeenscraped andremoved. The white
honeycomb (reticulum) beef tripehasbeenhot-waterwashedwithsodaashorlime
orwashingsoda,andthedarkinternallininghasbeenremovedbyscraping. 'Tripe,
cooked' isthe scalded tripe that iscooked to specifications and 'tripe, cooked and
bleached' is cooked tripe that is further bleached and neutralized with approved
chemicals. The dark cream-coloured mountain-chain beef tripe is the muscular
pillars,correspondingtothegroovesontheexteriorside,whichhavebeenwashedin
cold water (they are neither scalded nor treated with chemicals). The mountain-
chaintripeisusuallyproducedfrom maturecattle.Sheepstomachcanbeprocessed
inamanner similartobeef andwillyieldapproximately 1kg(2.2lb)oftripe.
The pork stomach isavailable as 'whole unscalded' (light to medium brown in
colour) in which the whole stomach is inverted, cleaned and trimmed; and, if so
specified, the lining may be removed. The pork stomach is also available in the
scaldedform(creamtolightbrownincolour)inwhichthewholestomachisinverted,
cleaned,trimmed andscalded;and,ifsospecified, theliningmayalsobe removed.
Tripe(Table2.6)issometimesprecooked(inwater)andsometimes fully-cooked
and may be packed in vinegar, pickled or canned. The clean stomach is manufac-
tured into tripe bycutting to the appropriate sizeand pickling in60salt brine, or
cooking andpicklinginaweaksaltandvinegar brine.
The water : protein ratio of various typesof tripe isshown inTable 2.13.The
precooked(usualform)triperequiresfurther salt-watercooking,maybeservedwith
sauces or dressings, or used in meat casseroles, stews or pies. Tripe is delicately
flavoured andisoften servedwithtomatosauce,buttered andbroiled,coveredwith
dressingandbaked,dippedinbutterandsauteed,oraddedtoathicksoup.Tripeis
lowinbindcharacter andcolour andhighincollagen content.
BRAINS
The brains of beef (average 454-482g(16-17oz)), veal, pork (average 113-127g
(4-4.5oz)) and lamb (average 127-142g(4.5-5oz))areremoved from theskullon
the slaughter floor. The 'whole pork brain' containing the cerebellum, cerebral
hemisphere,thalamus,andponsisseparatedfromthespinalcorddirectlybehindthe
pons, and the outer membrane may be retained (brain-unskimmed) or removed
(brain-skimmed).The'wholelambbrain'isagainthecompletebraincontainingthe
cerebellum, cerebral hemisphere, thalamus and pons, separated behind the pons;
themembrane coveringmayberetained or removed.
Brains, unless used immediately, should be precooked or frozen (Table 2.6).
Precookingaidsinremovingtheoutermembraneand'sets'thesofttissuetomake
slicing easier. Brains may also be soaked to aid in peeling. Brains are tender
delicaciesandareoftenthin-slicedanddippedinbatterorflour(breaded)anddeep-
fatfried. Theymayalsobebroiled,sauted,braisedorcookedinliquid,orbroken
intosmallpiecesandscrambledwitheggs.Brainsarelowinbindcharacter,colour
andhighincollagen.
OXTAIL
Beefoxtailisavailable'untrimmed'whenthetailisremovedfromthecarcassatthe
junctureofthesecond andthirdcoccygealveretebrae (insomecountriesbetween
the sacral and coccygeal vertebrae). Tipped and trimmed' oxtail is trimmed to
removeexcessfatcover(notexceeding6.3mm(|in))andhasthreeormoreofthe
endposteriorcoccygealvertebraeremoved(normalrange0.8-1.0kg(1.8-2.2 lb)).
Oxtailhasarichmeatyflavour(Table2.6)andaddstexturetosoups.Itisusually
brownedandthensimmereduntilthemeatistenderandeasilyseparatedfrom the
bone,whichmayberemovedpriortoserving.Thesoupstockmaybecombinedwith
othersoupingredients.
STOCK
Otherbones(cookedoruncooked)suchasveal,lamb,porkorcrackedbeefbones
and meat scraps can also be utilized to make soup stock. Lamb and pork bones
producedistinctandstrongflavoursandshouldbeusedwithlambandporkrecipes.
Thestockprovidesaddednutritionandflavourandisveryeconomicalincost.
Thebonesareusuallyfirstroastedwithvegetablesandonionsuntilthemeaton
thebonesturnsbrown. Fat isseparated andthebonesareplaced inakettlewith
additionalvegetables,coveredwithhotwater,simmered(2-3hours),andskimmed.
Thestockisthenstrainedandcooled.Itmaybestoredrefrigerated orfrozen. This
stockcanbeutilizedinmeatdishes,soups,vegetabledishes,saucesorgravies.
MEATEXTRACT
Earlyworktoproduce ameatextractinvolved analcoholextract, oracoldwater
extract,ora90C(194F)waterextractorpressingofmeat(SwiftdeLaPlata,1957).
Moremodern techniques toproduce ameat extract maystillinvolvepressing,or
cold-water soaking, or hot-water cooking (e.g. rapid boilingofmeat that istobe
canned)toobtainajuicethatcanbeconcentratedintoanextract.Otheredibleby-
productsmaybeused asstartingingredientstoproduce aproduct similartomeat
extract.Theyieldandqualityofthefinalmeatextractaregovernedby:kindofraw
material(sexofanimal,cutofmeat,post-mortemageofcut,typeoftissuesuchas
red musclewhichyieldshigher organicsolubles and lower salt levelsthanbones,
sinewsorgelatinousproducts),sizeofcut(thesmallerthecut,thegreatertheyield),
fat content ofcut (lower thefat, greatertheyield),lengthoftimeused inboiling
(maximumsolidsatapproximately1hour),numberoftimesfreshtissueiscookedin
the same soup (each extra cooking sacrifices approximately 0.16% yield), and
treatment of soup (open pan evaporation and holdingtime darken extract). When
meat iscooked inthenormalmanner, itloses40%ofitsweightandthisshrinkage,
combined with water used to rinse the cooked meat, yields approximately 2.21of
soup per kilogram of meat (0.9qt of soup/lb meat). Often, however, it is more
economicaltocooknewlotsofmeattwo,three,orevenmoretimesinthesamesoup,
whichreducessteamutilizationfor evaporation becausethesoupwillhaveahigher
concentration ofsolids.
The product is normally cooked by boiling 1kg of meat in 1.4-1.6kg boiling
water(1lbmeatin1.4-1.6lbwater)for 14-30minutes;then,asecondbatchofmeat
isaddedtothesoup.Thisprocessisrepeatedforfourtosixcookings;thesoupisthen
skimmed to remove allsurface fat, and itisfilteredtoremove coarse particles and
suspended solids. It isboiled at 100C(212F)for 60minutestocoagulate protein,
refiltered, concentrated by vacuum evaporation (50.8-63.5cm (20-25in Hg)) to
50%solids,andheated(65C(149F))inopenpansto16%moisture(70-150hours).
Bones are handled inasimilar manner asmeat tissueexcept: three tofour partsof
water toone part ofbone areused, they arecooked at88C(190F)for 8-9 hours,
andthere maybe asmany as12batchesofbonescooked ineachbatchofsoup.
Meatextractisoftenproducedasafirstorsecondclassproductcomposedof16%
or 19.5%moisture,44or40%minimumorganicsolublematerial,7or6% creatine,
1.5% maximumwater-insolublecompounds,25%maximumash,4or5% maximum
salt, 0.01%maximum saltpetre and 0.01%maximum copper. Meat extract isalso
produced in the solid form and is the basis of various fluid extracts and bouillon
cubes,broths, 'teas',andsoups.
TRIMMINGS
The'beef outsideskirt'isthethinfree portion (wing)ofthediaphragm musclewith
thetendonousskintissue(pleura)remaining(normalrange1.9-2.5kg(4.2-5.5lb)).
Specifications may suggest the amount of fat and membrane trim. When used in
comminuted meatproducts,theskirthasanaveragepercentageofcollagen,lowto
medium bindcharacteristicsandlowtomediumpigmentcolour.Thebeef 'hanging
tender' (normal range is0.3-1.0 kg (0.7-2.2lb)) isthe thick portion (pillar) of the
diaphragm muscle that isadjacent to the spinal column. Again, specifications may
request the amount of fat and diaphragm remaining. The 'hanging tender' has a
moderately highcollagencontent andveryacceptablebindandcolourvalueswhen
usedinsausageproduction.The'beefweasand'isthesmoothmuscularliningwhich
surrounds the oesophagus from the larynx to the first stomach (paunch) and
specifications can request the degree of trim. The weasand has a high level of
collagen, good bind and good colour values when used in meat emulsion-type
products.These,and other beef trimmingssuchas'beef cheek meat', 'beef tongue
trimmings','beef meatfrom tonguetrimmings','beef head meat' and 'beef lips'are
used insausage production.
'Beefcheekpapillaeon'isthemuscletogetherwiththeliningofthemouththatis
external to the upper and lower jaw bones from the tip of the mouth back to the
parotidsalivaryglandsatthebackofthemouth.Itmayalsoincludethemusclelying
insidethelowerjawbone.Ithasnoneoftheexternallipremaining,butdoescontain
the papillae liningof the mouth. The 'beef cheek papillae off ('nut' or 'kernel') is
madebytrimmingthe'beefcheekpapillaeon'freeofthepapillaelining (Handbook
ofAustralian Meat, 1970).
Thetrimmingsfromtheheadareaarehighincollagen,andverylowtomediumin
bindandcolourvalueswhenusedasasausageingredient. Porktissuesuchas'pork
cheek meat', 'pork snoutslean in', 'pork snoutslean out', 'pork head meat',
'porkskirt'and'porkhangingtender'arealsousedinsausageproduction.Porkhead
hasbeen reported toyield 67.4% of raw or 54.1% ofcooked meat (Ryu and Kim,
1984).Porksnoutsarehighincollagen,lowinbindpropertiesandmediumtolowin
colourvalues;and,theotherpork products aresimilartotheirbeef counterparts.
PIGTAIL
Thetailofthepigisremovedbetweenthefourth andfifth caudalvertebraeandmay
bemildbrine-cured for 2daysorused asajellystockfor brawn (headcheese). The
reportedyieldfrom pigtailis67.6%rawmeator47.6%cookedmeat(RyuandKim,
1984).
PIGS'FEET
'Pigs'feet' or'trotters'arecleanedontheslaughterfloorafter scaldingandwhilethe
carcassisstillhotbypullingthetoenailsandremovingtheskinandhairbetween the
toes.Thefeet arethen scrapedcleanofhairandthecarcassischilled.Therear feet
arecutfrom theham, dependingontheintended useoftheham,andfor long-term
countrycureareseparatedatthemiddleofthehockjoint,wheretheboneissolid,to
retardbacterialentranceintotheham.Formostotherusesoftheham,moreofthe
rearfootisremoved.Thehindfootisusuallynotusedforhumanfoodbecausethere
isahighproportion ofbone,verylittlemuscle andthetendons areexposed during
slaughterinordertohangthecarcass;however,sometimesthesmallmeatyportions
arepickled and are called 'tid-bits'. The forefoot isremoved atthejunction of the
foreshank boneandthefootbone.Theforeshank ismoreoftenusedforhuman food
sinceithasahigherpercentageofmuscle(46.1%rawand34.3%cookedmeat)anda
lowerpercentageoftendonandbonethantherearshank(RyuandKim,1984).The
foreshank isusedforpickledpigs'feet, bonedandusedforsausage,ortoproducea
jellystockforbrawn-likeproducts.Largefeet (greaterthan0.5kg(1lb))areusually
pickled boneless or semi-boneless and smaller feet may be split ('split foot') or
prepared boneless.
Pickledpigs'feetorporkhocks(0.5-0.7kg(1to1.5 lb)oflowershankportionof
picnic shoulder), which may be fresh or frozen and thawed, are cured in 191(5
gallons) of water, 2.3kg (5lb) of salt, 45g (1.6oz) of sodium nitrite per 45.4kg
(100lb)offeetorhocks.Thepickleandtissueareheatedto93C(200F),theheatis
turnedoff, theproductcoveredandthetissueallowedtocure18hoursinthewarmed
pickle.Someprocessorsuseacoldcure(40F,4C)for7-14days.Theproductisthen
reheatedto82C(180F)andwatercooked(someprocessorsusevinegar-acidulated
water)untilthemeatistender, hotshowered toremovefat, andcold-water chilled.
Thefeet orhocksarethenboned andplacedina35-grainvinegarfor 18hours.The
productispackedinjarswhicharefilledwitha45-55-grainvinegarcontaining4.5kg
(10lb)ofsalt, 142g(5oz)ofascorbicacid, and spicesand condimentstotaste, per
3781(100gallons) of vinegar. The product isusually held for 2weeks at 13-16C
(55-60F) for continued pickling and absorbs 20-25% of the pickle liquid. Pickled
pigs'feetmusthaveapHof4.5orbelowinordertobeconsideredashelf-stableitem.
They arethen readyfor retail distribution.
JELLIEDPRODUCTS
Jellied products such asheadcheese (brawn),souse and scrapple usehigh collagen
meatsourcessuchasporkskinsandheadtrimmingsorgelatin.Headcheese (brawn,
souse) isoften made from pork tongues,hearts,cheeks,earsand snoutswhich are
cured for one week. Pork skin gelatin may be used as the binding agent and
sometimesnon-fatdrymilkisalsoadded.Theproductisseasoned,hot-watercooked
(96C (205F)) for 2.5 hours, meat cubed, pork skins ground, mixed, stuffed into
casings (beef cap-ends, pork stomach or artificial casings),cooked in 82C(180F)
watertoaninternaltemperatureof77C(170F),thencold-waterchilledandplaced
ina1C(34F)coolerforthefinalchill.Sometimestheproductiscold(27C)(80F)
smokedorwashedin45-grainvinegarbeforeshipping(toretardmouldgrowth).The
product ishighlyperishable butmayalsobe canned.
HAGGIS
Haggis-typeproductsaremadefromhearts,lungsandliversofcalvesandsheepwith
oatmeal added, and areheavilyseasoned andcooked inasheep's stomach.
INTESTINES
Pork large intestines and stomach are collected at slaughter and are immediately
thoroughlycleaned.Theyshouldbewell-cooked,oftenwithsauce,andareservedas
chitlings. In somecountries asmallportion (0.5m(20in))ofthe smallintestineof
thebeefanimalisalsousedaschitlings.Theintestinesandotherpartsofthedigestive
tractofcattle,pigsorsheepareusedassausagecasingsandthisusewillbediscussed
inlaterchapters.
TESTICLES
'Bull testes' are the complete gland with the epididymis removed. A bull's testicle
averages 0.2-0.3kg (7-12oz), a ram's averages 0.2-0.3kg (6-10oz) and a boar's
averages 127g (5oz). Pear-shaped lamb testicles (from 2-3 month-old rams) and
elongated ovalcalffriesortesticles(mountainoysters)areoften thin-sliced, dipped
inbatter orflour (breaded),anddeep-fat fried.
PORKSKINS
Porkskinsareutilized asabindingsubstanceforjelliedproducts,forproductionof
gelatin,toprepareapoppedsnackitemorasapre-emulsionforsausageproduction.
Tanned pigskins are discussed in the chapter describing leather manufacturing.
Poppedporkrinds(baconskins,'skeens')arepork-skin snackfoodsthathavebeen
processedsothattheypuff orexpandtomuchlargerthantheiroriginalvolume.The
flavour of this high-collagen protein product is bland (it may be altered with
seasoning);thetextureiscrisp,andtheproductislesshygroscopicthanmost puffed
snack items. The raw material to produce popped pork rinds isgreen belly skins,
greenback-fat skins,greenhamskins,andcuredandsmokedbaconskins,whichare
usuallyremoved from thepork wholesalecutusingastationary bladeheld abovea
rotaryburreddrum.Thisproducesskinswithaslittleas6mm(|in)ofadhering fat,
dependingusuallyonthevalueoftheskinsand/orfat. Someprocessors(Matz,1976)
diptheskins(for30seconds)inahot100C(212F)brinecomposedof5.9kg(13lbs)
of dextrose, 5.7kg (12.51b) of sucrose, and 34kg (75lbs) of salt per 3781 (100
gallons)ofwater.Theporkrindsarethendrained,cooled,andcutintoappropriate-
size squares (1.3-2.5cm (f-l in) square) for the retail market. The next step is
rendering,wheretheskinsareheated(110to116C(230-240F)for4hours)inprime
steam-lardwithviolent agitation. After heating,thepelletsareallowedtocool and
drainandarethenplacedinawholesalepackage.Inthisstatetheycanbestored up
to6monthsinanunrefrigerated condition. Theretaildistributor maydipthe skins
(AndersonandSmith,1958)for 15secondsinanaceticacidsolution(toincreasethe
percentagethatwillpuff) orvinegarbutusuallyjustpuffs theproduct in204-218C
(400-425F) oiland coatsthe surface withsalt and seasonings.Thispuffed product
willhavea3-8weekunrefrigerated shelf-life. Atypicalanalysis(Matz, 1976)would
be99%totalsolids,57%protein, 34%fat, 5%carbohydrate and4% ash.
Pork rindsthat willbe used in asausage emulsion-type product are handled in
threedifferent ways(Wilson et al., 1981).Therindisremovedfrom thecarcasswith
as little adhering fat as possible, cooked in boiling water for 1.5 hours, or more
quicklyin aretort under pressure, chilled and minced (20.7% protein, 28.9% fat).
The hot-cooked pork rind can also be incorporated into a pre-emulsion, which
contains pork fat (50% pork rind and fat), water (44%) and an emulsifying or
stabilizingagent(6%)suchassoyaproteinisolateorsodiumcaseinate.Thisproduct
ismore heat stable than cooked rind and the pre-emulsion may be used hot when
prepared, or may be chilled for later use. Both of these products are added at the
mixing or chopping stage in the manufacturing of sausage, and both have some
adverseeffect onthetextureoftheproduct. Becausetheseproductsare perishable
and inconvenient to handle, a market has also developed for dried (5% moisture,
10-15% fat) rind in the granular form. It is convenient to store and rehydrates
readily.
BLOOD
Bloodisusedinmanycountriesasasourceofhumanfood, usuallyinsausages.The
morecomplicated usesandnutritionalvalueswillbediscussedingreaterdetailina
laterchapter, butthe makingofblood sausageisfairly straightforward.
A hollow knife connected to a collection tube (Fig.2.1) is used to obtain the
bloodinassanitaryafashion aspossible.Ananti-coagulant maybeadded(Fig.2.2)
ordefibrinated, curedbeefbloodmaybeproducedbyaddingandstirring57g(2oz)
ofsaltand7g(ioz)ofsodiumnitrateintoeach3.81(1gallon)ofbeefblood.Thered
beef blood isallowed to cure at 1C(34F)for 2dayswith occasional stirring. The
bloodisstrainedandanemulsionisformedwhenthecuredbeefbloodismixedwith
54
Edible meat by-products
[Ch.2
Fig.2.1 Hollow knife for blood collection. From Filstrup (1976).
chopped, cooked, ground and defatted pigskins. This emulsion, and other meat
tissues such as cured pork tongues, cured pork jowls, cured pork snouts, cured
backfat andcuredshankmeat,aremixedwithcuringandseasoningingredients.The
mixture is stuffed into beef bungs or moulds and water-cooked at 82-93C
(180-200F)untilaninternaltemperatureof77C(170F)isreached (approximately
3-3.5hours).Thebloodsausageischilledincoldwaterfor2hoursandfinallychilled
in a cooler at 2C(36F).The beef bung-stuffed product isnormally cold smoked
(27C(80F))andthen rechilled (Table2.10).
SPLEEN
The spleen isaspecially-designed lymphaticorgan, contained inthe abdomen and
attached to the rumen but not part of the digestive system. All loose tissue is
removed. In a beef animal of market weight, the spleen will weigh 0.9-1.4kg
(2-3lb),isbluishincolourandisanelongatedovalshape(51x15cm(20X6in)).In
thepigitiselongated (28x5cm(11x2in))andtongueshaped, triangularincross-
section,weighsanaverageof170g(6oz)andisreddishincolour.Insheepitisoyster
shaped (8x 10cm (3x4in)),reddish brownincolour andweighs57-85gor2-3oz
(Wilson,1968).
Spleen maybefried, used inpieor asmelt, used asflavouring orused inblood
preparations or in blood sausages. Spleen isdark in colour and has poor binding
ability. It is also high in collagen, which gives sausage a gristle-like texture. The
collagen canberemoved bypassingthespleenthrough amechanical deboner with
55 Ch. 2] Edible meat by-products
100%
Raw blood
from animal
Anti-coagulant
Centrifugal
separation
60- 70% ' 30- 40 %
Plasma consisting of Red blood corpuscles
7-8 %protein
consistingof
1-2% other DM
34-38 %protein
91 %water
1-3% other DM
62 %water
Cooling,freezingor drying Black sausages,etc.,or
drying into meal
Fig.2.2Processingofbloodforhumanconsumption.FromFilstrup(1976).
adesinewinghead.Whenthecollagen-removed spleenwasused(Bittel et al., 1981)
in a comminuted meat product, the colour was darker, firmness was decreased,
binding was lowered and the overall product acceptance was lowered, but the
greatestdecreaseinacceptancewasreportedinproductscontainingbetween 10and
15% spleen. A consumer panel considered all (tested up to 15%) the products
acceptablebut thosecontaining added spleenhad aspicy,moreintenseflavour and
weresofter and somewhat similartoliversausageintexure.
POULTRY GIBLETS
Theheart,liverandgizzardareremovedfromtheremainingvisceraontheslaughter
floor (Table2.1).Thegallbladderiscutandpulledfromtheliver,andthepericardial
sacandarteriesarecutfromtheheart.Thegizzardisremovedbycuttingitinfrontof
theproventriculus and then severing the entering and exitingtracts.Thegizzard is
thensplit, emptied and washed, and the liningremoved with agizzard peeler. The
gibletsarenormallywrappedin23x30cm(9x12in)sheetsofparchmentpaper, or
placedinparchmentbagsorfilm,andinsertedintothepoultrybodycavity.Thewet
weight of the paper should not exceed 41kg (90lb) per ream and the moisture
absorbed should not exceed 200% of the dry weight of the paper. The giblets are
easiertoplaceinawarmcarcass,butifthecarcassischilledbyatumblingactionthey
are then placed in the cold carcass, which increases the shelf-life of the giblets
(Mountney, 1966).Gibletsmayalsobewrapedinparchmentpaperandfrozen inside
frozen birds.Giblets(mayalsoincludetheneck)maybewashed,salted,wrappedin
aluminiumfoilandcooked(Table2.6)withthepoultrycarcassormaybesimmered
insalted wateruntiltender. Thegibletscanthenbeground and addedto crumbled
bread,cornbreadorcookedricetoproducestuffing. Milkandcookingbrothmaybe
added to the ground giblets to form gravy. Poultry livers are often flavoured with
bacon byfrying them together for approximately 10minutes.
REFERENCES
American MeatInstitute (1984) Meat facts. Washington,AmericanMeat Institute.
Anderson, M. G. and Smith,C.F.(1958) Method of puffing bacon rinds.U.S.Pat.
2855309,Oct.7.
Anon. (1976) The nutritive value of meat and other protective foods. Chicago,The
National LiveStock and Meat Board.
Bijker, P. G. H. (1981) Hygienic aspects of edible offals. UnivesityofUtrecht, The
Netherlands, DoctoralThesis.
Bischoff, J. (1985) The dollar's current strength undermines the competitive edge
held by U.S. variety meats. Meat Industry31(5)52.
Bittel,R. J., Graham,P.P.,Young,R.W.andBovard,K.P.(1981) Mechanically
separated spleen: its composition and protein efficiency ratio. J. Food Sci. 46
336.
Block, B.(1977) The meat board meat book. NewYork, McGraw-Hill.
Filstrup (1976) Handbook for the meat by-products industry. Alfa-Laval, Stock-
holm, Sweden.
Gerrard, F. and Mallion, F.J. (1977) The complete book of meat. London, Virtue
Press.
Handbook of Australian Meat (1970) Handbook of Australian meat, offals, fancy
meats. Section7,Sydney,Australian Meat Board.
Hanna, M. O., Smith, G. C , Savell, J. W., McKeith, F. K. and Vanderzart, C.
(1982)Microbialfloraoflivers,kidneysandheartsfrombeef,porkandlamb.J.
Food Protection 4563.
Kiernat, B.H.,Johnson, J. A. andSiedler, A.J. (1964) A summary of the nutrient
content of meat. Bulletin No.47. Washington, American Meat Institute
Foundation.
Komarik, S. L., Tressler, D. K. and Long, L. (1974) Food products formulary,
Vol. 1, Meat, poultry, fish, shellfish. Westport, Connecticut, AVI.
McLean, B.B.and Campbell,T. H. (1952) Martha Logan's meat cook book. New
York, Pocket Books.
Matz,S.A. (1976) Snack food technology.Westport, Connecticut, AVI.
Mitsyk, V. E., Konyushenko, N. F. and Pshenichnaya, E. P. (1972) Enzymic
hydrolysisofmeatoroffals inproductionofdieteticandremedialfoods. Trudy,
Ukrainskii Nauchano-issledovatel'skii Institut Mayasnoi i Malochnoi Promysh-
lennosti,No.2, 1,60-63.
Mountney,G.J. (1966) Poultry products technology.Westport, Connecticut, AVI.
National LiveStock and Meat Board, (1974a) Lessons on meat. Chicago, National
LiveStockand Meat Board.
National Live Stock and Meat Board, (1974b) Recipes for variety meat. Chicago,
NationalLiveStock and Meat Board.
Ockerman, H. W. (1975& 1983) Chemistry of Meat Tissue,8thedn. and 10th edn.
Columbia, OhioState University.
Paul,A.A. andSouthgate,D.A.T. (1978)In The Composition of Foods, 4thedn.
McCane,R. A. andWiddowson, E. M. (eds.),London, HMSO.
Percel,P.J.(1979) Influence of curing method, massaging and phosphate on quality,
yield and chemical composition of pork liver loaf. The Ohio State University,
Columbus,MS.Thesis.
Pierson, C. J. (1982) Influence of time and temperature of frozen storage and
packaging method on functional properties and quality characteristics of beef
and pork livers.The OhioState University, Columbus,PhD Dissertation.
Renon, P., Comi, G., Cantoni, and Persiani, G. (1980), Acidi grassi del grasso
d'organd dianimalidomectici. Industie Alimentari 19(6)507-510.
Romans, J. R., Jones, K. W., Costello, W. J., Carlson, C. W. and Zeigler, P. T.
(1985) The meat we eat,12thedn. Danville,Illinois Interstate.
Ryu,B.H.andKim,H.S.(1984)Nutritionalevaluationofhead,feet andtailtissue
ofpig. /. of Korean Society of Food and Nutrition13(2) 149-155.
Shelef, L. A. (1975) Microbial spoilage of fresh refrigerated beef liver. / . Appl.
Bacteriol 39273.
Swift de la Plata (1957) Accumulated information on meat extract. La Plata,
Argentina, Swift deLa Plata.
UniversityofIllinoisandNational Livestock andMeat Board (1986). Unpublished
surveybyBy-Products, Chicago.
USDA (1963) Composition of foods, agricultural handbook no. 8. Washington,
Agricultural Research Service.
USDA (1980) Composition of foods, sausage and luncheon meats, raw-processed-
prepared, agriculture handbook 8-7. Washington, Science and Education
Administration.
U.S. Meat Export Federation (no date) Variety meat from the U.S.A. a buyers
guide, 2ndedn. Denver, Colorado.
Wilson,A. (1986) Practical meat inspection. Oxford, England, Blackwell Scientific
Publications.
Wilson,N.R. P.,Dyett, E.J., Hughes,R. B.andJones,C.R. V.(1981) Meat and
meat products, factors affecting quality control.London,AppliedScience.
3
Rendering
So-called animal by-products used by the Tenderers and consisting of excess fat,
bones, hoofs, and offal have long been useful to man. Tallow wasprobably used
prehistoricallyforsoftening andwaterproofinggarmentsandforlighting.Although
soap-makingbeganmanythousandsofyearsago,tallowcandleswereinwidespread
usebythecommonpeoplebeforetallow-basedsoap.Towardsthelatterpartofthe
nineteenth century an industry evolved which transformed by-products into
fertilizer.
SoapmayhavebeenmadebytheBabyloniansasearlyas2800B.C.Otherrecords
indicate the Phoenicianswere makingsoapin600B.C.(Encyclopedia Americana,
1985).Thereisevidencethatsoap-makingwasknowntotheRomans.Notwithstand-
inganapparentgeneralknowledgeofsoap,itsusewaslimitedtocleaninghairand
body until the mid 1800s. Soap was apparently a fine luxury, for even Queen
ElizabethIinthelatersixteenthcenturywasreportedtohaveindulgedinahotbath
withsoapbutonceamonth.TherewasalsoastifftaxonsoapinEnglandfromthe
twelfthtothenineteenthcentury(Burnham,1978).
Beforesoapwaswidelyused,candleswerethemainproductmadefromtallow.
Thiswastrueuntilthelatterpartofthenineteenthcentury(Burnham, 1978).Even
thecommon tallowcandle wasconsidered somewhat of aluxury. Itwasportable,
unlikethefireplace,anditdidprovide alittle artificial illumination. Candleswere
madeinoneofthreeways:dipping,mouldingorladlingmeltedoilorwaxoverthe
wick.Thecandlemakerwasatradesman,butmanycandlesweremadeathome.
Thedevelopmentofanindustrytoutilizeby-productsforfertilizercameduring
thenineteenthcentury(Dainty, 1981).Thehighlyperishableandevil-smelllingby-
productsoftheslaughterhousesentrails,heads,hoofswereconsideredwaste
untilaboutthe1850s.Somemeatpackerswouldsimplyburythematerialadjacentto
theirplants.Someenterprisingmeatmensoondiscoveredthattheycouldtransform
thesematerialsintofarmfertilizerandrealizeafairprofitfromtheoperation.Infact,
whentheserawproductswereavailableatnocost,whichapparentlywastheusual
situation,therewasmoreprofitfromprocessingthemthantheprofitfromthemeat-
packing business itself (Dainty, 1981). Proteinaceous by-products would yield
nitrogenfertilizer,whereasboneproducedphosphate fertilizer.
Therenderingindustrytodayproduceshundredsofusefulproductswhichcanbe
59 Ch.3] Rendering
broadlyclassified asedibleandinedibleoils,chemicals,meatmeals,andbonemeals.
These valuable products are produced from animal by-products (viscera, bones,
trimmings, dead stock, feathers) that otherwise would, for the most part, be
considered waste. Fig. 3.1 gives the composition of various raw materials. The
100
90
S = Fat-freedry solids
80 W= Water content
F = Fatcontent
70
60
W
50 -W-
-w-
40
W
30
_S
20
10
0)
JS
0)COO "D
0J
C Z00 (O CO
Q3 . CD 0>
.3
0J *-" x
T5
^3
"o
.c
Ol CO O)
<2-S "5.
O
Fig.3.1Compositionofvariousrawmaterials.FromFilstrup(1976).
amountofby-productrecycledintousefulproductsisverylarge:solargeitisdifficult
to comprehend. As examples, consider that about 30 billion (30xl0
9
) pounds of
inedible animal by-product isproduced in the United States each year (Burnham,
1978).Thisisroughlyequivalenttothehouseholdwastethatwouldbegeneratedby
acityof 1millionpeople in6000years.Thirty to sixtyper cent of the hundreds of
thousands of cattle,hogs (pigs),sheep and poultry slaughtered dailyinthe U.S.is
recycledbytherenderer.Thehandlingandprocessingofsuchlargevolumesofwaste
hasledtothe development ofsophisticated equipment andprocesseswhichwillbe
discussedlaterinthis chapter.
PRODUCTS OF RENDERING
Tallow/lard
Generally tallow isreferred to asthe rendered fat of cattle and sheep. Lard isthe
renderedfat ofthehog.However, amore accuratedefinition istorefer totallowas
animalfatwithatitreofgreaterthan40C(104F)(Austin,1949).Lardorgreasehas
o
n
e
;
60 Rendering [Ch.3
alowertitre.Titrerefers tothesoftness orhardnessofanimalfatsexpressed asthe
temperature atwhicrTTfieTatty aclds~bfthegivenfat solidify.
Animal fats aretriglycerides; amolecule ofglycerol (C
3
O
3
H
8
) bonded to three
fatty acidswithesterlinkagesasfollows:
H 0
I II
H - C - O - C - (CH
2
)
7
- C = C - (CH
2
)
7
- CH
3
(oleicacid)
O
I
H IH
H - C - O - C - R ^ ~
N
0 unsaturationsite
1
H
H-C-O-C-R
I t
H _
3ester linkages
Thedegreeofunsaturation (doublebonding) andfatty-acid chainlengthmayvary.
The unique characteristics of tallow are due to this chemical configuration. For
example,thisisthereasonthattallowcanbesoeasilysplitintoessentialandvaluable
chemicalsincludingfatty acidsandglycerol,and,after additionalprocessing,soaps,
cosmetics, rubber, plastics, and anti-spalling (chipping) agents for concrete and
explosives. Unfortunately, the unique chemical properties of tallow include a
propensity to biological and chemical decay including rancidity by oxidation,
deterioration byhydrolysisandbrowningbyoverheating.
Thequalityofanimalfatbothedibleandinedibleisjudgedbytitre,freefattyacid
(FFA),FACcolour(standardsetupbytheFatAnalysisCommitteeoftheAmerican
Oil Chemists Society) or Lovibond colour, moisture impurities (insoluble) and
unsaponifable matter (MIU).Jones(1984)outlineswhateachofthetestsfortallow
quality entails:
Titre
Thisrefers tothe softness or hardness of atallow or the temperature atwhich fats
solidify. Fat of different species of animals such ascattle, sheep (higher) and pigs
(lower)havedifferent titres.Withineachparticularanimal,fatshavedifferent titres
dependingonlocation.Forexample,thetitreoffattrimmedfromtheloinisdifferent
from kidneyfat (higher).
Typeoffeedcanaffect thetitre.Forexample,pigsfedonpeanutsproducetallow
withadifferent titrefrom thatofthosefedoncorn(higher).Also,thewell-beingof
theanimalcanaffect thetitre.Ananimalingoodphysicalconditionwillhavefatsofa
highertitrethanonewhichisemaciated.
Solidification pointsofanimalfats,ortitres,areasfollows:
Pig 36-40C (96.8-104F)
Cattle 42-45C (107.6-113F)
Sheep 44-48C (111.2-118.4F)
61 Ch.3] Rendering
Thepresenceofboneoilcanaffect thetitreofafat.Thewayinwhichtallowis
processeddoesnotchangethetitre.
TheAmericanFatsandOilsAssociation(AFOA)ruleforvarianceofspecifica-
tionisasfollows:
Titre:Thesellershallallowthebuyer0.2%ofcontractpriceforeach0.1%
titredeficiency, fractions inproportion. Thebuyermayreject thetender
whentitredeficiencyexceeds0.5C(0.9F).
Free fatty acid (FFA)
ItisusualtoexpressFFAaspercentagefree oleicacidoftotalsampleweight.The
amountofFFAinatallowisanindicationofthedegreeofspoilagewhichhastaken
place.TokeepFFAtoaminimum,attentionmustbepaidtothefollowing:
(1) Cleanmaterial.
(2) Cleanequipment.
(3) Keepingrawmaterial asdryand coolaspossible.Either store at below20C
(68F) or conversely increase heat to 65C (149F), at which temperature
bacteriaandenzymesareinactivated. Iftemperaturecontrolisnotpossible,it
.maybenecessarytoreducethepHto3.5-4.0bysprayingwithanacid.
(4) Keepingrawmaterialwholeforaslongaspossible.Prebreakingtooearlyallows
foradditionalexposedsurfaces,withassociatedgrowthofbacteriaandenzymic
action.
(5) Speedyhandling.
(6) Controlledpressuresandtemperaturesinrenderingandstorage.
(7) Anyothermeasuresfound necessarydependinguponcircumstances.
AFOAspecifications requiretheFFAtobenotmorethan2%.Penaltiesunder
AFOArulesareasfollows:(a)WhereacontractspecifiesanFFAmaximumofless
than10%,thesellershallallowthebuyer2%ofcontractpriceforeach1%ofexcess
FFA,fractionsinproportion.However,thebuyermayrejectthetenderiftheFFA
exceeds the contractual limit by more than 2.0% FFA. (b) Where the contract
specifiesanFFAmaximumof10%ormore,thesellershallallowthebuyer 1%of
contractpriceforeach1%excessFFA,fractionsinproportion;however,thebuyer
mayreject thetenderiftheFFAexceedsthecontractuallimitbymorethan 5.0%
FFA.
Fat Analysis Committee (FAC) Colourf
Fatscanvaryincolour.Theycanbealmostwhitetoyellow.Theycanalsobegreen,
brown,orred.Colourcanbeaffected bybreed,feed,age,conditionandlocationof
livestock.
Greencolourintallowcomesfromcontactwithgutcontents,i.e.thechlorophyll
indigestedplant. Indryrendering, overheatingwillgivetallowareddish appear-
ance,andthepresenceofbloodwillgivetallowabrownishdiscoloration.
Assumingthetallowisatrueandrepresentativesampleoftheconsignment,and
t Lovibondcolourmayalsobeused.TheLovibondcoloursystemusesasetofglassstandardstomatch
thecolourtotheproduct.Thefatsaregradedlowerascolourintensityincreases.
62 Rendering [Ch.3
therehasbeennoadulteration,acolourreadingmaybeobtainedbyplacingamelted
andfiltered samplebetweencoloureddiscsandgainingareadingbycomparison.Ifa
tallowhasareadingbetween 11and HAS,theofficial colourreadingwouldbe11A.
Measurestosafeguard colour are:
(1) Materialtobeprocessedshouldbefresh, clean,andfree ofcontamination, and
(2) Blood and orgutcontentsshouldbekept outofcookers,andcontrol tempera-
turesand pressures.
Penaltiesunder AFOA rulesareasfollows:
FAC colour: The seller shall allowthe buyer 2% of contract price should
theFACcolour beoneshadedarkerthan theFACcolourspecified inthe
contract.However,iftheFACcolourisdarkerbytwoshadesormore,the
buyermayreject the tender.
Moisture, impurities (insoluble) and unsaponifiable matter (MIU)
Moisture
Purefat isvirtuallyfree ofmoisture.However, moistureisanecessary agentinthe
cleaningofoffal, andrawmaterialinthecleaningprocessabsorbswaterifallowedto
stand for lengthyperiods.
Water in tallow is undesirable because it acts as a medium for the growth of
bacteria andtheactionoffat-splitting enzymes.Ifbacteria areinjected intodry fat,
mostwillperishonaccount oflackof moisture.
Moistureisexpressed aspartspercentum (partsperhundredbyweight).Levels
around 0.2% are desired.
Pointstowatch:
(1) Allowoffals todrainifpossible.
(2) Keep raw material as cool as possible, particularly where water is present.
Implement temperature control asnecessary.
(3) Avoidtheineffective useofwaterinthesettlingprocess.
(4) Drainoff anywaterfrom settlingandstoragevessels.Watermaybe introduced
duringproduction orfrom condensation.
Impurities (insoluble)
Raw fat may contain 90-95% of fatty material. The balance istissue. This tissue,
togetherwithotherforeign materialssuchasproteinfines,finelygroundbone,hair
andmanure,constitutesthemainimpurityoftallow.Otherimpuritiesmaybeinthe
formofcolloidalfinesfromthegutcontents,whichmaynotberemovedbysettlingor
centrifuging. Theseinsolubleimpuritiesarevisibleandtheprocessorhastheability
to remove them bymore sophisticated processesof filtration, but itisthose which
havebecome solubleinthefat whichmayprove troublesome.
Impurities (oil soluble)
Thesesolubleimpuritiesincludetraceelementssuchascopper,tin(from brass)and
zinc. Also included may be polyethylene, which melts in the cooking process and
dissolvesinthetallow. Dissolved polyethylene normally settlesand burnsonto the
63 Ch.3] Rendering
coils, particularly if steam is the heating agent, and forms an insulating barrier.
Polyethyleneininediblegradesoftallowhasbecomesoprevalentthatstandardshad
tobeset.Themaximumis50partspermillion.Ifpolyethyleneispresentintallowto
beusedforsoapmanufacture, thepolyethyleneshowsupasblackspecksinthesoap
inthesettlingandfiltration processes.Thedissolvedpolyethylene doesnotsettleor
filterout.
Necessary measurestominimizeoil-soluble contamination:
(1) Clean material.
(2) Proper settlingand filtration.
(3) Noinjuriousmetalstobeusedinpipesandvalvessuchasbrass,copperandzinc.
(4) Supervision of raw material handling to prevent entry of materials such as
polyethylene andother contaminants.
(5) The useoffilteraidsmaybe desirable.
Unsaponifiable matter
Saponification refers tohydrolysisofanesterusinganalkali,i.e. ester linkages are
brokenyieldingsoapandglycerol(C
3
O
3
H
8
).Soapisthesalts(usuallysodiumsalts)
ofthelongerchain fatty acidssuchasoleicacid, Ci
7
H
33
COONa.
Unsaponifiable matteristhefattymaterialinatallowwhichcannotbeconverted
intoasoapbytheuseofanalkali(i.e.nofattyacidsarereleasedbyalkalitreatment).
Small quantities occur naturally in a fat. Cholesterol is one naturally occurring
unsaponifiable fat. It is unsaponifiable material of a mineral source, such as
lubricating oils and greases from pumps and machinery, which create the greatest
problems and are regarded as a direct contaminant by the soap manufacturer.
Substancesforming unsaponifiable matter canimpartobjectionable odours,aswell
asdowngrading atallow.
Safeguards:
(1) Ensuretherearenoleakingglands,packingsetc.onequipment,toallowgreases
andoilstocontact thefatty material.
(2) Advisemaintenancepersonnelofthedangersofoilsandgreasesenteringtallow
storage containers.
TheAFOA rulingisasfollows:
Thesellershallallowthebuyer 1%ofcontractpricefor each 1%ofexcess
MIU, fractions in proportion; however, the buyer may reject the tender
should theMIU exceed 2%whenthe contractual limitis1% and4%. No
premiumwillbeduetothesellerforanalyticalresultsbelowthecontractual
limits.
Bleachability
ThebleachtestisacolourtestusinganactivatedclayandaLovibondtintometer.Itis
normaltousetheredreadingsonlybecausethereisadirectrelationshipbetweenred
andyellowreadings.Extremesoftemperaturewillfixcolourintallowandthebleach
testisagoodindicationofthetemperaturesandhandlingconditiontowhichatallow
hasbeen subjected.
64 Rendering [Ch.3
Thecleanertherawmaterialandthelowerthetemperaturesandpressuresused,
thelighterwillbethebleach.
Soapmanufacturers bleachalltallowspriortoanyrecolouring.Theimportance
ofbleachreadingssignifiestheextentofbleachingrequired andcostsincurred.
Forgoodbleaches,ensurethe following:
(1) Clean,fresh material,free of contamination.
(2) Controlled lowtemperatures andpressures.
As per specification, buyers would be looking for a tallow with a bleach not
exceeding 0.5R.
PenaltiesundertheAFOAfor notmeetingspecifications areasfollows:
The seller shall allow the buyer 2% of contract price for each excessive
0.5R, fractions inproportion. However,ifcolourexceedsthe contractual
limitbymoretha0.5R, thebuyermayreject the tender.
Under AFOA rules, special penalty conditions apply to top-white tallow, beef-
packertallowandedibletallow.
Buyersacceptthesespecificationsasaguidetothequalityoftheproducttheyare
buying. The specifications all relate to the stability of the tallow. The stability
denotesthelengthoftimethetallowmaybestoredwithoutmarked deterioration.
Other tests may be conducted by buyers to ascertain properties of purchased
tallowandinclude:
(1) Saponification numberoriodinevalue,
(2) peroxidevalue,
(c) smokepoint.
Toidentifythetypesoffatsandoilsusedintallowproductions,thesaponification
number of iodine value is measured. The saponification number indicates the
average length of fatty acid chains. The iodine number indicates the degree of
unsaturation.Theiodinevalueislowforanimalfatsandhighforvegetableoils.The
highertheiodinevalue,i.e.themorecarbondoublebonds,thelowerbecomesthe
meltingpoint.Inthismanner,thepresenceofpigfatswouldbedetectedinatallow
allegedlyderivedfrom beefsources.
Theperoxidetestisusedtodeterminetherancidityofatallow. Iftheperoxide
valueislow,thisnormallysuggeststhat thetallowhasnotbecomerancid, andwill
havegoodstability.Freshfatshaveaperoxidevalueof1-2,whereasrancidfatshave
aperoxidevalueof 15-20.Rancidityiscausedbyoxidation andhydrolysis.
Onewaytoreduceoxidationoftallowwhenpumpingtostorageistominimizeair
incorporation andfoamingbyallowingthetallowtoflowdownthewallsofthetank
andnottodropfrom aheight.
SmokepointhasadirectrelationshipwithFFAandisthetemperaturetowhich
thefat maybeheatedbefore itbeginstosmoke.
Approximatesmokepointsareasfollows:
AtallowwithanFFAof0.2% 225C(437F)
AtallowwithanFFAof 1.0% 145C(293F)
AtallowwithanFFAof5.0% 120C(248F)
65
Ch.3] Rendering
Table3.1liststhestandardsfortallowandgrease,recognizedbytheindustryand
marketersoftheseproductsintheUnited States.
Table3.1Tradingstandardsfor tallowand grease
Minimum Maxi-
mum FAC Lovibond
Titre* FFA* MIU
C
Colour* Colour*
(C) (F) (%) (%) (Score) (Score)
Tallow
Edible 1.0 0.73 1
Fancy 41.5(106.7) 4.0 1.0 7 10
Bleachable fancy 41.5(106.7) 4.0 1.0 100
Prime 40.5(104.9) 6.0 1.0 11B 125
Special 40.5(104.9) 10.0 1.0 11C 180
No. 1 40.5(104.9) 15.0 2.0 33 400
No.2 40.0(104) 35.0 2.0 No colour
Grease
Lard 0.5 0.18 1
Rendered pork fat 1.0 0.80 10
Choice White 37.0(98.6) 4.0 1.0 11B 100
A. White 37.0(98.6) 6.0 1.0 15 125
B. White 36.0(96.8) 10.0 1.0 11C 180
Yellow 36.0(96.8) 15.0 2.0 37 400
House 37.5(99.5) 20.0 2.0 39
Brown 37.5(99.5) 50.0 2.0 Nocolour
"Meltingtemperature above40C(104F)=tallow;below40C(104F)=grease.
6
Freefattyacidpercentage.
c
Moisture,impurities,and unsaponifiables.
d
FatAnalysisCommitteestandardsarematched(white).
^Standardsmatchedagainstproduct.
Source:Romans et al.(1985).
Table 3.2 illustrates the differential invalue for the various grades of tallow in
Australia.
Thedifferential valueswillobviouslychangewithmarket conditionshowever,
this gives an idea of the importance of properly caring for raw material and
processingtallowcorrectly.Table3.2comparedwithTable3.1alsoindicatesslightly
different standardsthroughout the world.
Meatandbonemeal
Priortotheturnofthiscenturythesolidresidueremainingafter animalfathadbeen
rendered from animal by-products was called tankage. This material is high in
66 Rendering [Ch.3
Table3.2Differential valuesfor thevariousgradesoftallow
Grade
FFA FAC Bleach Differential Uses
(%) ability value each
(R)
grade, edible
worth $X.OO
Edible 0.5 3.5 0.2 $X.OO Cooking margarines,
cooking fats, medical
preparations
Uncertified edible 1.0 11A 0.2-0.4 $X-$10.00 High quality toilet
beef soaps, perfumery
Prime 1-2 11A 0.5 $X- $15t o$2 0 Toilet soaps
Inedible 1-2 11B-17 1 $X- $20t o$3 0 Laundry soaps, soap
powders, detergents,
industrial soaps
Feed tallow 10-20 Darker Over 2 $X-$100t o $120 Abrasive soaps,
than 23 stock production, ex-
plosives, tempering
of steel, leather
preparation
Feed tallow Over 20 Darker Over 2 $X-$150 to $160 Additional uses on
than 23 account of oiliness,
viscosity and lubri-
cating properties
Gut range 3,4, and 5 17,19, 1-1.5 $X- $20t o$30 Industrial soaps
21,23
Source:Jones(1984).
nitrogen (from proteinaceous material), phosphorus and calcium (from bone) and
wassoldfor useasfertilizer (Edwards,1981).
As the science of nutrition developed, tankage was found to be an excellent
animalfeed,highinprotein,calcium,phosphorusandfat(notallfatcanberemoved
inrenderingoperations).Useoftankageforanimalpetfoodsimprovedthevalueof
thetankage and created anewoutlet for rendered animaltissue.
The dry,defatted, high-protein materialwhichresultsfrom renderingmayvary
depending on the raw materials used and on the processing technique employed.
Therefore, material is designated by origin and method of processing as follows
(Romans etal., 1985;Wilder, 1960):
Tankage,meat-mealtankage,digestertankage,wet-renderedtankageorfeeding
tankageisthefinelyground,driedresiduefrom meat-animalsoft-tissue by-products
and dead animal-rendered products from direct steam injection (wet-rendering)
systems. This material must not contain hair, hoof, horn, manure, and stomach
contents except insuchtracesasmightoccurunavoidably ingoodfactory practice.
Thismaterialmaybehighinprotein(55-60%)butmayhavereducedavailabilityand
lowcontentofcertainaminoacids.Whentheseproductscontainmorethan4.4%of
67 Ch.3] Rendering
phosphorus (P), they must be designated 'digester tankage with bone', 'meat and
bonemealdigestertankage','meatandbonemealtankage,'or'feedingtankagewith
bone'. Iftheproduct bears aname descriptive ofitskind, composition, or origin it
must correspond thereto. It must be designated and sold according to its protein
content. Most of the residuefrom packingplantsismade intofeeds. Product from
rendering dead animalsismore likely tobe used asfertilizer orfor other non-feed
purposes.
Meatmealormeatscrap(s)aresimilartotankage,butrenderingiscompletedin
steam-jacketed tanks (dry rendering). Protein quality is improved, and no dried
blood isadded to meat meal, as isoften true for tankage. Again if phosphorus is
greater than 4.4% theproduct must bedesignated either 'meat and bone meal', or
'meatandbonescrap'.Theproductmustbearanamedescriptiveoforigin,kindand
composition.
Feathermealiscomposed offeathers, wet-rendered andgroundtoform ahigh-
protein (80%) meal. Although very digestible, the protein lacks certain essential
aminoacids(seeChapter 12).
Poultryby-product mealissimilartomeatscrapincomposition appearance and
value,butfrom apoultry origin.
Blood meal is dried, ground blood, high in protein especially the amino acid
lysine.Itisunpalatable asafeed ingredient andhaslowdigestibility (Romans et al.,
1985). Some blood processing procedures such asflash-drying(atomizing into hot
vacuum chamber) produce abetter qualityfeed source.
Bloodflourisdried blood, reduced toafinepowder.
Fishmealissimilartomeatscrapsandwillvaryincompositiondependingonthe
typeoffishprocessed. Fishmealishigh (60%)ingood-quality protein.
Steamed bone meal or bone meal is ground, wet-rendered (steamed under
pressure) ordried bones,suitablefor animal feeding.
Special steamed bone meal isthe dried, ground product, obtained by cooking
driedbones,after theremovalofgreaseandmeatfibre,withsteamunderpressurein
theprocessofobtaining gelatinorglue.Itissuitablefor animal feeding.
Bonemealsarelargely mineralwithupto 15%protein. Composition mayvary
duetodifferences inprocessingtechnique andrawmaterials.
Incommon practice,muchofthemeat mealissoldasmeat andbonemealwith
typicalcomposition asshowninTable3.3.
Saleable meat meal includes quality requirements other than those relating to
composition asfollows (Suter, 1984):
(1) Odour.Thereshouldbenoodoursofputrefaction. Thepredominantodourshall
bethat ofcooked meat and tallow.
(2) Temperature.Storagetemperaturesshouldnotbemorethanabout 10C(18F)
above ambient.
(3) Microbiological requirements. No detectable pathogenic organisms shall be
present.
(4) Infestation. Must be free from infestation by insects and rodents and their
residues.
(5) Protein quality. Digestibility and availability of animo acids is a critical para-
meter.Notmorethan 13%ofthecrudeproteinshouldbeundigestedbypepsin
(0.2%) after 16hat45C(113F).
68
Rendering
[Ch.3
Table3.3Typicalcomposition ofmeat andbone meal
Crude protein
Moisture
Pepsin digestible protein
Available lysine
Salt (NaCl)
Calcium
Phosphorus
Sieving
2mmmesh
Untreated hair/feathers
Fat
Source:Suter(1984).
USESOFRENDERED MATERIAL
Inedibletallow
50% meat meal 45% meat meal
50% min 45% min
4-10% 4-10%
Min87%crude Min87%crude
protein protein
Min3.6% crude Min3.6% crude
protein protein
(71% avail) (71% avail)
1%max 1% max
8-11% 8-11%
4-5.5% 4.5-6.5%
5% max 5% max
2% max 2% max
8-11% 8-11%
Amajor useofinedibletallowandgrease(highertitre)ofanimaloriginisasahigh-
energy additive to livestock and poultry feed (Table 3.4). These fats are usually
Table 3.4 Inedible tallow and grease: supply and disposition, United States
Supply
StocksJan 1
Production
Imports
TOTAL
Exports
Disposition
Factory use
Soap
Feed
NA,notavailable.
Source:Romans etal.(1985).
(millionlb)
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982
355 344 347 390 413 451
6106 5815 5836 5916 6124 6026
4 3 NA NA NA NA
6465 6162 6183 6306 6537 6477
2885 2698 2795 3254 3134 3035
3180 3220 3117 2979 2985 2898
737 695 663 666 520 545
1330 1390 1239 1246 1323 1418
69 Ch.3] Rendering
stabilizedwithanapprovedantioxidanttopreventrancidity.Animalfatsaddenergy
tolivestock,poultryandpetfoods,andtheyalsoreducethedust,improvecolourand
texture, enhance palatability, increase pelleting efficiency and reduce machinery
wearinanimalfeedproduction(Romans et al, 1985).
Industrialchemicalsandsyntheticoilsoriginatingfromtallow,particularlyfatty
acids, are increasingly used. The list of products made from fatty acids includes
abrasives,shavingcream,asphalttile,candles,caulkingcompounds,cementaddi-
tives, cleaners, cosmetics, deodorants, paints, polishes, perfumes, detergents,
plastics,printinginks,syntheticrubberandwater-repellentcompounds.'A'White
greasemaybeusedformakingahigh-gradelubricant.'B'whitegreaseisusedtogive
viscosity to mineral oils. Other oils including cutting, heavy lubricating, special
leatherandilluminatoryoil,aremadefrom lessergradesofgrease(Romans et al.,
1985).Relatively recently, it hasbeen discovered that tallow components canbe
madeintohigh-gradesyntheticautomobileoilsandaddedtomineraloilstoimprove
viscosity and other characteristics. It would seem that chemical usesfor inedible
tallow and itscomponents willprovide an increasing market share for the tallow
produced. Research has developed these new markets and there ispotential for
other,asyetundevelopedmarkets,suchassprayingtallowonplantleavestoreduce
irrigationwaterrequirements.
Considerable amounts of tallow arestillusedfor soapmaking. Thetwomain
classesofsoapareboiledsoapandcoldorsemiboiledsoap.Mostsoapisboiledsoap,
whichappearsonthemarketashardsoap(sodabase).Softsoap(potashbase)isa
semiboiled soap (green soap) widely used inthe medical area. Soft soapismore
expensivethanhard,partlybecausetheglycerineremainsinthesoap.Glycerineis
separated during hard-soap manufacture and is an important and valuable
by-product.
Glycerine, purified by distillation, iswidely used in the medical field and for
manufactureofhighexplosives(nitroglycerine).Sufficient glycerinecanbeobtained
from45.4kg(100lb)ofanimalfattomakeabout10.9kg(24lbs)ofnitroglycerine.
Boiledsoapismarketedasscentedtoiletsoapsandsoappowders.Floatingsoap
containsminute airbubblesand a 15-20%highermoisturecontent than thenon-
floating soap. Cleanser isamixture of soap,alkaline saltsand mineral abrasives.
Other soaps areformulated for specific purposes byaddition of active (trisodium
phosphate,soda)andinactive(tile,starch,clay)fillers,colouringand perfumes.
UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)scientistshavedevelopedand
evaluated atallow-based laundrysoapthatcouldreplaceconventionaldetergents.
Thetallow-based soaphasalime-soapdispersingagent (LSDA)whichpermitsits
useineither hot or coolwater. France andJapan havestarted production ofthis
laundrysoapbutitisnotyetwidelyaccepted.
Edibletallow
Theedibleportionoftotaltallowandlardproductionhassteadilyincreased.Table
3.5showsproductionandutilizationintheUSA.In1986theedibleportionoftotal
U.S.tallowproductionreached23% (Anon.,1986)
Edibletallowandlardareusedinoleomargarine (margarine),shorteningsand
cookingfats.Shorteningandcookingfatsrepresentagreatermarketsharethandoes
margarine.Manyconsiderthattallowgivesabetterflavourtofried foodsthando
70 Rendering [Ch.3
Table3.5Production andutilizationofediblelardandtallow(millionkg(million
Lard Tallow
Year Production Export
Domestic
use
Production Export
Domestic
use
kg(lb) kg(lb) kg(lb) kg(lb) kg(lb) kg(lb)
1977 438 (966) 60(132) 390 (861) 360 (795) 8 (18) 348 (768)
1978 486(1072) 44 (97) 438 (966) 418 (921) 23 (51) 391 (862)
1979 544(1200) 43 (94) 511(1126) 445 (982) 32 (70) 415 (915)
1980 526(1159) 65(144) 464(1023) 554(1222) 62(137) 451 (995)
1981 479(1057) 52(114) 433 (955) 499(1101) 43 (94) 452 (996)
1982 436 (962) 43 (95) 386 (851) 547(1206) 43 (95) 503(1110)
1983 431 (950) 25 (55) 417 (920) 589(1300) 45(100) 555(1225)
Source:Romans et al.(1985).
vegetableoils.However,claimsthattallowcausesheartdiseasehascausedadecline
in consumption. Additional new research indicate that consumption of large
amountsofpolyunsaturated fats mayreducethebody'scapabilitytofight off some
forms ofcancer (Shamberger, 1979).
Meatmeal
Meatmealsareusedbylivestockfeedersasasourceofhigh-qualityprotein, energy,
Bvitaminsand minerals.Table 3.6demonstrates the nutritionalvalueof meat and
bone meal as compared to other common animal feeds and feed supplements.
Animalrationsarebasedoncerealgrains,butthesearenotabletocompletely satisfy
the animal's nutritional requirement for certain essential amino acids (EAA).
Addition ofmeatmeal (10%)helpstosatisfy theanimal'srequirementsfor EAAs,
lysine,methionine,threonineandtryptophan.Byinclusionofotherproteinconcen-
trates,e.g.bloodmeal,fishmealandoil-seedmeals,andadditionofsyntheticlysine
and methionine, the entire EAA requirements of the animal are satisfied (Suter,
1984).
Thebonecontentofmeatmealprovidescalciumandphosphorus,thushelpingto
supplynecessarymineralstotheanimal'sdiet(Table3.7).Bonephosphorusismore
readily availabletothe animalthan somealternative sourcesof phosphorus.
Tallowhastwicetheenergydensityofproteinandstarch.Buttheresidualfat left
inmeat mealmakesarelativelysmallcontribution totheenergyofthe ration.
Meat meal contains vitamins necessary to good animal health. In practice,
synthetic vitamins are so inexpensive and readily available that animals' require-
ments are no longer dependent on feeds and feed supplements (Suter, 1984).
However, meat meal supplies important B vitamins, particularly thiamin, as a
supplement torations.
Petfood isanotherimportantmarketforrendered animalprotein. From 1980to
1984the pet-food industry inthe USA grew about 8% per year (Burnham, 1985).
71 Ch.3] Rendering
Table 3.6Amino acid profile (g/lOOg protein) for animal feed andfeed
supplements
Blood Meat and Milk Corn Wheat Whey Soybean
/\minudciu
meal bone mealdried skim grain grain dried meal
Alanine
__ __
Arginine 2.8 2.02 0.40 0.04 0.09 0.06 1.47
AsparticAcid
Cystine 1.12 0.30 0.17 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.31
GlutamicAcid
Glycine 2.72 3.34 0.07 0.04 0.11 0.04 0.96
Histidine 3.36 0.46 0.30 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.50
Hydroxyproline
Isoleucine 0.80 0.86 0.77 0.04 0.07 0.12 1.15
Leucine 8.23 1.57 1.11 0.10 0.11 0.19 1.56
Lysine 5.51 1.77 0.94 0.02 0.06 0.15 1.33
Methionine 0.71 0.35 0.27 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.27
Phenylalanine 4.87 0.91 0.50 0.04 0.08 0.06 1.01
Proline
Serine
Threonine 2.96 0.91 0.47 0.04 0.05 0.11 0.78
Tryptophan 0.88 0.10 0.13 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.27
Tyrosine 1.44 0.40 0.44 0.06 0.04 0.64
Valine 5.19 1.21 0.74 0.04 0.07 0.10 1.10
CrudeProtein (%) 79.9 50.6 33.5 8.8 12.7 13.8 45.8
Source:Church(1984).
Table3.7Calcium and phosphorus content of meat
andbonescrap (49-50% protein)
Minerals Range Average
Ash 30-32 31
Calcium 8.0-12.0 8.1
Phosphorus 4.0-5.5 4.1
Source:Morrison(1987).
Generally, pet-food manufacturers areusing less tallow, butmore meat meal.
Renderedanimalproductsareusedinbothwetanddrypetfoods. Petfoods require
high-qualityingredients,whichmeansTenderersmayhavetosegregaterawmaterial.
72 Rendering [Ch.3
Tallows, meat/bone meal and meat meal must have good colour and odours.
Renderers mayhavetoaltertheirnormaloperationsfor manufacturing inorderto
meetspecific requirementsofapet-food manufacturer.
Bone
Duetoitscalciumcontent,somebonemealisfedtopoultryforbonegrowthandto
provide necessary calcium for egg shells. It is also used to add phosphorus and
calcium to livestock and pet foods. Balanced mineral composition isnecessary for
goodfeed utilization.Someanimals,i.e.thosepregnantorlactating,requirehigher
levelsofmineralsinthediet.
Themineralcontentofbonemakesituseful asplantfertilizer. However,modern
farming techniquesfavour fertilizer with highphosphorus and nitrogen concentra-
tions,whichbonemealdoesnothave.Therefore, themarketfor groundboneasa
fertilizer isarelativelysmall.
Animal glue, useful for wood, leather, paper, etc., is made from bones by
extracting the collagen byheatinginwater. Thewater isevaporated toyieldglue.
Although animal glue usage decreased considerably due to synthetic adhesives,
thereisstillalimitedmarket (Teachman, 1981).SeeChapter 5for moredetailson
glue.
RENDERING SYSTEMS
Thereareprobablyasmanyrenderingsystems,differing slightlyfrom one another,
astherearerenderingplants.However, allthesedifferent systemscangenerally fit
into one of four categories: (1) autoclave (wet rendering), (2) dry batch, (3) dry
continuousor(4)continuouslow-temperaturesystems.
The basic autoclave or batch wet-rendering system is shown in Fig. 3.2. The
autoclaveorcookerisfilledwithpre-groundrawmaterial.Itisthenclosedandsteam
isinjectedintotherawmaterialatabout140C(284F),361KPa(58.4psi)pressure.
After treatment lasting 3-4 hours the pressure is slowly reduced to atmospheric
(101KPa(14.7psi)).Slowpressurereductionavoidsemulsification.Thematerialin
thecookeristhenremovedandfree-flowing fatdrainedoff. Themoistcracklingsor
solidportion ispressedtoremoveadditionalliquid andthen dried.Themethodof
pressing maybe batchwise, aswith ahydraulicpress,or continuous,with ascrew
press. Extracted liquid contains fat, water, andfines.The fat isseparated out by
allowingthewater andfinestosettlebygravityorinacentrifuge. Extracted liquid
maybeheatedorchemicallytreatedtoenhanceseparationofthe fat.
Drybatchsystems(Fig. 3.3)employscookerswhicharesteamjacketedandoften
haveahollowed,steam-filled agitator. Materialisloadedandunloadedinbatches.
Condensing steam in the jacket and agitator provides dry heat. No steam or hot
waterisaddedtotherawmaterial.Materialisgroundtolessthan2.5cm(1in)and
batch-fed intothecooker,whichisthenclosed.Waterisremoved,butthefatisnot
severelydegradedbyscorching.Thesteam-filled agitatorimprovesheattransfer to
therawmaterialsuchthatlowertemperaturescanbeusedtoliberatethefat,while
completelydryingtherawmaterialin1.5-2hours(Burnham,1978).Free-flowingfat
isallowedtodrainfromtheprocessedrawmaterial.Remainingsolidsarepressedto
removeresidual fat.
73 Ch.3] Rendering
Fat,waterandfines
to purification
Fig.3.2Wet-renderingsystemwithautoclaves.Greavesarethepressed,cookedmaterial.
FromFilstrup(1976).
Thecontinuousdryrenderingsystem(Fig.3.4)issimilartoabatchdryrendering
system,inthatmoistureisdrivenoffbydryheat;however,thereisadifference inthe
flowof material into and out of the cooker. The flow is continuous and the raw
materialistreatedatatmosphericpressure.Thecookerisusuallyhorizontal,steam-
jacketed, and equipped with a hollowed, steam-heated agitator (see section on
continuous rendering equipment). Ground, raw material enters at one end while
processed material exits at the other continuously. The duration of the cooking
period depends on the retention time in the cooker. Thisisdetermined by cooker
volume,heat-transfer capability,andcharacteristicsoftherawmaterial.Thecooker
dischargesintoapercolator (atankwithastrainer ordrainer screwatthebottom).
The material then is removed to a press, often a screw press which can handle
material continuously, or possibly apusher centrifuge or basket centrifuge. Solids
remainingafter pressing areground intomeat meal.
Continuouslow-temperaturesystems,alsocalledmechanicaldewateringsystems
(Fig.3.5) havesimilaritytotheoldwetbatch (autoclave)systeminthatthebulkof
moistureisnotremovedbyevaporation orthermaltreatment. Mostofthemoisture
in modern low-temperature systems is removed by mechanical methods made
possiblebythedifference indensitybetween fat, water andsolids.
Raw material isminced, then passed to a low-temperature dry or wet (steam-
injection) cooker, called by various manufacturers a coagulator, preheater, or
meltingsection.Thematerialisheated to60-90C(14O-192F)inarelatively short
time, 10-30 minutes. Cells break, liberating the liquid tallow. Liquid tallow is
74 Rendering
[Ch.3
Groundraw
material
i i
Condensedsteam
fromrawmaterial
Cooling
Frompushertogrinder
area
Fatandfinesto
purification
Grinding
plant
Meal
Fig. 3.3Theconventionalbatchdry-renderingmethod.FromFilstrup(1976).
pressedoutinacontinuouspress(screwpress)alongwithwater,whichwillbenearly
equalinvolumetothatintherawmaterialandhigheriflivesteam-injection isusedto
heattherawmaterial.Solidsaresenttoacooker/drier.Theliquidmixturealongwith
some solids (fines) is then sent to the centrifuge. Water, fat and solids maybe
removedinasingleoperationinaspecialcentrifugecalledatricanter,ortheymaybe
removedinamultistage operation.
Iftheliquidmixtureissenttotheevaporatoritwillfirstbescreened (vibratingor
self-cleaning screens work well for this) to remove solids that may plug the
75 Ch.3] Rendering
Groundraw
material
Condensed steam
Percolatorand
Fatandfinesto
pre-press purification
Meatto
grinding
Fig. 3.4Thecontinuousdry-renderingmethod.FromFilstrup(1976).
evaporator. Screened liquid passestotheevaporator where someofthewateris
boiled away from thetallow under lowpressure andtherefore a temperature
considerably lower than 100C (212F).Thesteam sideoftheevaporator oftenis
supplied with waste vapours from thecooker/drier. This results in considerable
energysavingsascomparedwithreleasingvapourstotheenvironment,orcondens-
ingthemanddumpingintothesewer.
Whentheliquidmixturefrom thepressesissentdirectlytoacentrifuge, mostof
thewaterwillberemovedmechanically,buttheremainingtallow/watermixturewill
require 'polishing'toremovetheremaining water, fines, etc.Anevaporator using
wasteheatorlivesteam (steamdirectlyfrom boiler)forthesteamsidemaybeused
toremove remaining water.Asecond, 'polishing' centrifuge orfilter pressmaybe
usedforfinal clarification ofthe tallow.
Thecooker/drierusedtodrythesolidsissimilartotheunitusedincontinuousdry
rendering. Material, which contains about 40%ofthe original moistureintheraw
material, passes into thecooker, where remaining moisture isdrivenoffbyheat.
Livesteam suppliestheenergytoheat themoisture andconvertittoavapour.In
virtuallyallmodern continuous low-temperature systemstheheatinthisvapouris
recovered. Thevapour maybeused toprovide heat fortheevaporators, or to
preheat rawmaterial comingintothesystem,orperhapsforboth purposes.
Therelativelylowtemperaturesusedinmodern,mechanicaldewatering,render-
ing systems provide anopportunity toproduce ahigh-quality tallow and reduce
energy consumption ascompared with heat dryingoftallow. Manufacturers claim
themechanicaldewateringsystemcanremoveahigherpercentageoftallowfrom the
rawproduct,leavingonly7-10%inthesolidsportion(meatandbonemeal),whichis
severalpercentlowerthan that often reportedindrysystems.
76
Rendering [Ch.3
Raw material
\ Vapour
- --Tocondensing system
Vacuum
1
I
pump
Cooling water
t*H
in
Vapouri
Cooling water
out
I
Condensate
Liquids
Solids
1. Rawmaterialbin
2. Magnet
3. Prebreaker
4. Preheater
5. Twinscrewpress
6. Evaporatorfeedtank
7. Wasteheatevaporatorsystem
8. Cooker/drier
9. Screening
10
10. Pressing
_^ To grinding
system
Fig.3.5Continuouslow-temperaturerenderingsystem.(PatentedbyStordBartzasawaste-
heatdewateringrenderingsystem.)CourtesyofStordBartzCompany,1986.
Continuousrenderingequipment
In acontinuous system, material isadded and removed in anearly steady stream.
Size-reduction equipment, cookers, presses, evaporators, and centrifuges are
notable amongthe equipment that must operate on acontinuous basis. Controlof
material through the system isusually done by providing surge bins and variable-
speed drivesbetween oneunitoperation andthe next.
Size reduction equipment isinherently continuous, for raw material isfed and
particles removed in aconstant stream. In general, sizereduction is accomplished
withrotatingknives,devicescalled 'hogors'orwithrotatinghammer devicescalled
'hammer mills' or simply 'grinders'. The rotating knives on a hogor have cutting
edges parallel with the surface of the rotor, are 7-10cm (2.7-3.9in) wide and
protude onlyafewcentimetresfrom therotortheyaremountedon.Therotorona
largehogorwillbelessthanametreinlengthyetrequirea150kw(200hp)motoror
77 Ch.3] Rendering
larger to operate. Such a unit would be sufficient to maintain a throughput of
pregroundmaterialthroughamedium-sizedrenderingplant.Throughput capacity
dependsonmanyfactors,includingpercentageofboneandsizeofmaterialcoming
in.
Another type of hogor, which might be called a prebreaker, contains anvils
(raisedrectangularsolidsteelteeth)inplaceofknives.Theseanvilsrotatebetween
parallelbarsatthebottomofthehogorsothatlargematerialisbrokenupasitmoves
throughthebars.Prebrokenmaterialwilllikelypassthroughanothersizereduction
beforeenteringacontinuouspreheaterorcooker/drier.
Ahammer mill(Fig.3.6) grinder usesforces ofimpact andpinchingactionto
FEED
Breaker plate
Revolving disc
Hammers
Retention screen
PRODUCT
Fig.3.6Ahammermill.FromBrennan et al.(1969).
reducethesizeofmaterialandforceitthroughtheretainingscreen.Ahigh-speed
rotorcarriesacollarbearinganumberofhammersarounditsperiphery.Whenthe
rotor turns, the hammer heads swing through a circular path inside a casing
containingatoughened breaker plate.Feedpassesintotheactionzonewherethe
hammersimpactagainstthematerialanddriveitintothebreakerplateandthrough
theretentionscreen.Thehammersmaybereplacedbycuttersorbybars.
Thecontinuouspreheater orcooker/drier isanintegralpartofanycontinuous
rendering system either wet (mechanical dewatering) or dry. A unit used for
continuouscooking/dryingasshowninFig.3.7mayalsobeusedasapreheaterfora
mechanicaldewateringsystem.
The cooker/drier isconstructed as a cylinder through which the ground, raw
materialisconveyedbymeansofarotororagitatorwhichalsoformsatypeofscrew
conveyor.Bothcylinderandagitatoraresteam-heated.
78 Rendering
[Ch.3
'//////y////////
Fig.3.7Continuouscooker/drier. CourtesyofStordBartzCompany,1986.
The steam jacket of the cylinder may be divided into sections, each section
providedwithdevicesfor individualregulationofthesteamsupplyandfor securing
proper condensate discharge.
The agitator orrotor consistsof ashaft pipetowhichhollowflightsare welded.
Both shaft pipe and flights are steam-heated and provided with asystem for
distribution ofsteamanddrainageof condensate.
Averagecooktemperature andretentiontimearecontrolledbytheloadingrate
and temperature, pressure and quantity ofsteam used. Loading rate isoften
controlledbyaphotoelectricdevicecoupledtoavariable-speedfeed screw.Treated
materialmayberemovedbymeansofacontrolwheel.Thisisapaddle-wheeltypeof
devicewithbucketsspacedaroundthecircumference ofthewheeltopickuptreated
material and drop itinto the drain screw (Moffat, 1984). Much of the fat and
moisturewillfreely drainoff inthedrainscrewasthematerialisbeingconveyedto
thepresses.
Continuous pressing is accomplished withascrew press, which may contain
eitheroneortworotatingelements.Fig.3.8isadiagramofatwin-screwpresswhich
showshowvolumeisreducedasmaterialtravelsthroughthepress,inthiscasefrom
rightto left.
Wetmaterialtobepressedisfedintoaninletchuteatthe V
1
endofthepress.The
materialfillsthe free space between the screw flights and the strainer plates. By
rotation of the press screws, the material is, due to the decreasing cross-section,
submittedtoasteadilyincreasingpressure,whichcausesanefficient squeezingofthe
wet material. Press liquid escapes through perforated strainer plates around the
screws, and iscollected inatray equipped with discharge pipe. The pressed,
dewateredanddefatted materialisdischargedaxiallyattheendofthepressandfalls
downonto asuitableconveyingsystem.
Thethroughput andvolume ratioofscrewpressesaredetermined according to
thecharacteristicsofthematerialtobepressed.Formoistandsoftmaterials,thereis
generallyaquickinitialcompressionfollowed byamoreslowlyincreasingcompres-
sionrateduringthesubsequent pressing.
79
Ch.3] Rendering
v
2
rr
Productflow
Fig.3.8Diagramoftwin-screwpresswithcompressionratiovolume1 (V^/volume2(V
2
).
CourtesyofStordBartzCompany,1986.
Screw presses with a single screw work in a similar manner to double-screw
presses,withareductionofvolumeasmaterialmovesdownthescrew.Screwpresses
mayalsobeequippedwithachokeatthesolidsoutletendwhichhasthefunctionof
holdingsolidsbacktobuilduppressure.Thisresultsincompactionofthesolidsand
thusdewatering/defatting. Chokesmaybehydraulicallyoperatedandautomatically
positionedaccordingtomainmotorload.
Evaporatorsareusedincontinuouslow-temperaturerenderingsystemtoremove
waterfromliquidmixtureseconomically.Evaporatorshaveanadvantageofoperat-
ing at relatively low temperatures, which prevents scorching. Water removal by
evaporation isanenergy-intensive processandlow-pressureevaporators aremore
efficient atthisthanopenkettlesorothersystemsoperatingatatmosphericpressure.
At0.5timesatmosphericpressure,waterboilsat81.5C(179F).Evaporatorscanbe
madetooperate at muchlowerpressuresthan0.5atmospheres,therefore 'waste'
vapoursfromanatmosphericcooker/drieroperatingatjustabove100Ccanbeused
astheheatsourcefortheevaporators.
Fig.3.9illustratesasingleeffect evaporator andatypicalmethodofoperation.
Condensationoflivesteamorcooker/driervapourinthesteamjacketprovidesthe
heat source to drive the evaporator. Vapour produced from the liquid being
evaporated iscondensed bycoolwater sprayed intothecondenser chamber. The
waterleavingthecondenserflowsthroughabarometriclegintoanopentank.The
waterlevelinthebarometriclegishigherthanthatintheopentanksothatitpullsa
vacuum within the evaporator approximately equal to 74mm mercury (7.6psi)
vacuumperm(3.28ft)ofwaterinthebarometricleg.Apumpmaybeusedinplace
ofthebarometriclegtomaintainvacuum.Thefunction ofthevacuumpumpisto
removenon-condensablegasessuchasairfrom theevaporator.
Multiple-effect (stage)evaporators(Fig.3.10)maybeused,whichintheorywill
nearlydoubletheefficiency ofevaporationwitheachdoublingofeffects, meaning
twice as much liquid is evaporated per quantity of live steam or waste vapour
consumedinthesteamjacket.Inamultiple-effect evaporatorsystem,vapourfrom
80
Rendering [Ch.3
Coolwaterspray
Non-
condensable**-
gases
Condenser
Steam
Barometricleg
Liquidbeing
concentrated
Steamcondensate
Fig. 3.9Simplesingle-effect evaporator.FromBattyandFolkman(1983).
an effect iscondensed inthesteam jacket ofasucceeding effect. Thisispossible
because thesucceeding effect willbeoperated atalower pressure andthus lower
temperature.
Modern evaporators require more heat-transfer surface than is provided by
simply jacketing theboiling chamber. They often consist ofvertical tube bundles
withtheheatingmediumontheoutsideofthetubesandtheproduct boilingonthe
inside. Product is either moved up through the tubes (termed rising film) or
downwardthroughthetubes,whentheevaporatoriscalledafalling-film evaporator.
The product isfed into these evaporators inawayandat a proper flow-rate to
facilitateformation ofathinfilmcoveringtheinsideofthetubes.Thisresultsinvery
highheat-transfer coefficients andatremendous amountofwatercanbeboiledoff
withinarelativelysmallareaofequipment.
A mixture ofwater, tallow andfinescanbemechanically separated into pure
components bycentrifugation. Centrifugation maybedefined asaunit operation
involvingtheseparationofmaterialsbytheapplicationofcentrifugal force.Socalled
decanters(Fig.3.11)anddisc-typehigh-speedcentrifuges (Fig.3.12)areusedinthe
rendering industry.
The traditional role of decanters in meat packing/rendering is: (1) primary
81
Ch.3] Rendering
Effect
Effect
Effect
1
2
3
Steam
! * r
Li
Flowcontrolvalves
Product Pump
preheater
Inlet Outlet
Fig.3.10Multiple-effect evaporator. FromBattyandFolkman(1983).
FEED
EFFLUENT SOLIDS
Fig.3.11Decantercentrifuge withinternalscrewthatseparatesbulkysolidsfrom liquids.
FromAlfa-Laval (1978).
clarificationoftallow(2)dewateringofcoagulatedbloodsolidsand(3)dewateringof
solids from effluent. These applications are all concerned with clarification, i.e.
removalofsolidsfromliquid.Aslurrywhichmightcontain30-40%solidscanbefed
intoadecanter.Separationoccursbetweenthesolidheavierphase,whichgoestothe
outsideoftherotatingdrumat3000-4000rpm,andtheliquidphase,whichiscloseto
theaxisofrotationofthemachine.Solidsaretransportedalongtotheconicalsection
82
Rendering [Ch.3
FEED
LIGHT PHASE
HEAVY PHASE
SOLIDS
DISCHARGE
Fig. 3.12 Disc-type high-speed centrifuge separates insoluble fines from incoming feed
material throughahighg-force action. FromAlfa-Laval (1978).
withtheaidofascrewanddischarged.Thescrewrotatesinthesamedirectionasthe
drumbut ataslightly slowerspeed which hasthe sameeffect asacounter-rotating
screw.Liquidsaredischargedattheoppositeendofthecentrifugefromportslocated
close tothe axisof rotation.
High-speed disccentrifuges arewellsuitedtofinalclarification oftallow(polish-
ing) and purification where one solid phase isseparated from two individual liquid
phases. Separation takesplaceinthediscstackofthecentrifuge. Solidsaccumulate
in the widest part of the bowl and are discharged intermittently by opening a
discharge slit. There are differing methods for discharge of solids, which basically
differ inthelengthoftimethedischargeportisopen.Clarified andpurified liquidis
discharged axially atthetopof thecentrifuge (Fenton, 1984).
An efficient type of continuous drier for blood and other high-moisture sub-
stances isthe Ring Dryer(trademark of the DuppsCorporation, Columbus, Ohio)
illustrated inFig. 3.13.Thedrieroperates asfollows:
(1) Heated airenters the furnace (A) and isdrawn through the ducting (B) tothe
disintegrator (C).
(2) The product tobedriedentersthroughthefeed hopper(D) intothedisintegra-
tor(C) andbothflowthroughducting (E,FandG).
(3) As heated airpassesthrough thedisintegrator (C),itpicksupthe product.
(4) Theairandentrainedproductenterthemanifold (H)wherethedriedproductis
separated fromthe moist product byapatented process.
(5) Moistproductisrecirculatedthroughthesystem,re-enteringduct(B)andagain
flowingthrough the disintegrator (C) andtheductsystem.
83
Ch.3] Rendering
air -
materials -
Fig.3.13RingDrierarrowsshowflowofairandmaterialsthroughthesystem.Courtesyof
theDuppsCorporation,1985.
(6) Driedproductisdrawnintocyclonecollector(K)whereitisseparatedfromthe
air.
(7) Airleavesthecyclonecollector(K)andexitsthroughblower(L).
(8) Driedproductleavesthecyclonecollector(A)throughduct(M).Theremaining
airfrom theblowerflowsthroughduct(N),venturi(O),andthenthroughthe
packedtowerscrubber (Q)totheatmosphere.
Amajor advantageoftheRingDrierisrecyclingof60%oftheheatedairback
throughthedrier,whichhelpstomakedryingofahigh-moisturesubstancesuchas
bloodeconomicallyfeasible.
Bloodisdifficult todryinacooker/drierbecauseittendstosticktotheheated
surfacesofthedrier.Itisalsoacharacteristicofbloodthat,uponreachingacertain
moisturecontent,ithasaglue-likeconsistencythatputsatremendousstrainonthe
84 Rendering [Ch.3
agitator in a cooker. Much of the liquid can be removed from blood by batch or
continuouscoagulation(facilitated byheatingto90C(194F)).Thecoagulummight
thenbedriedinacookerorringdrier.
Modern methods of blood processing include chemical methods and hyperfilt-
ration(Hansen,1983).Becauseofexpense,thesemethodsareoftenmostapplicable
for blood or bloodcomponentsthat aretobeusedinedibleproducts.
For moreinformation, seeChapter9.
COMPARISONOFRENDERINGMETHODS
As has been stated earlier in this chapter, generally rendering methods can be
categorized into batch or continuous, dry or wet. The modern continuous wet-
rendering system isreferred to as low-temperature or mechanical rendering. This
comparison of rendering methods from Fernando (1984) will be useful in under-
standing the various advantages and disadvantages of each method. However, itis
not meant to infer that there isone 'best' method for allapplications, for thebest
method orsystemwilloften depend uponthe application.
High-temperaturerenderingsystems
High-temperature rendering isrenderingcarried out above 100C(212F).
Digestor wet rendering
This method of rendering is being phased out, but a few plants still use it. Raw
materialisloadedintoaverticaldigestor,whichissimplyanenlargedversionofthe
domestic pressure-cooker. Water isadded if the raw material isdry, and steamis
directly injected into the material through perforated plates at the bottom of the
digestor.
Advantages
(1) Thissystemcanproduce agood-quality tallow.
Disadvantages
(1) Thissystemhaslongcooktimes.
(2) Itisvery labour-intensive.
(3) Upto25%ofmealislostinthe gravy.
(4) Toproducegood-grade tallow,visceramustbecutand washed.
Dry batch rendering
Advantages
(1) Thereisverylittlelossofmaterialfrom the cooker.
(2) Itcancook,pressurize andsterilizeinthesamevessel.
(3) Becausethisisabatchoperation,separatecookerscanbesetasidefor different
materials,e.g. edibletallow,margarine tallow,inedibletallowetc.
(4) Ventsteamfrom thecookerscanbeusedtoprovidehot water.
85 Ch.3] Rendering
Disadvantages
(1) Drybatchrenderingproducesadarkertallowcomparedwithtallowfromwet
renderingorlow-temperaturerendering(LTR).
(2) High-temperaturecookingandpressingproducesfines,whichpassontotallow
andarelosttoeffluent from thetallow-polishing centrifuges.
(3) Dry-renderedmealhasafatcontentof10-16%comparedwithmealfromLTR
systemswherethefatlevelis3-8%.
(4) Toproducegood-qualitytallow,rawmaterialmustbecutandwashed,which
resultsinlossoffat andprotein andadditionofwatertotherawmaterial.A
moisturecontentof63%intherawmaterialcorrespondsto35%wateradded,
which is excessive. Water is often added by indiscriminate hosing and gut
washers,andtofacilitateconveying.
(5) Thisprocesshasdifficultyrenderinggelatinousmaterialsuchasslunks(unborn
calves).
(6) It isdifficult to keep aplant clean and tidy. Theprocessisnot contained in
enclosedvesselsandtherefore cookedproductscouldberecontaminated.
(7) Itisdifficult tocontroltheend-pointofcooks.
(8) There isahigh consumption of steam if vent steam isnot recovered ashot
water.
(9) Dry-renderingcookersarenotefficient driers.
(10) Theprocessislabour-intensive.
Continuous dry rendering
In this process dry rendering is carried out continuously in one cooker, which
typicallyreplacestwotofivebatchcookers.
Advantages
(1) Beingcontinuous,theprocessrequireslessfloorareaandlesslabourthandry
batchrendering.
(2) Thereisverylittlelossofmaterialfrom thecooker.
(3) Ventsteamfrom thecookerscanberecoveredtoprovidehotwater.
Disadvantages
(1) Thissystemcannotpressurize;ittherefore cannotsterilizebypressurecooking
andcannothydrolysehairandwool.
(2) Thecolouroftallowisslightlypoorerthanthatfrom drybatchcookersdueto
highcookingtemperatures.
(3) Thissystem has allthe disadvantages of batch rendering except that it isnot
labour-intensive.(Seedisadvantages(l)-(9)forbatchrendering.)
Semicontinuous process incorporating both wet and dry rendering
Inthisprocesscrushedrawmaterialischargedintoaconventionaldry-batchcooker
andcookedforashorttime(45-60minutes).Thecookingcycleincludesapressure
cycletoensuresterilization.Materialleavingthecookerissterilizedandrendered.
Thetallow,processwater,sludgeandwetmealareseparatedbydecanter centrifuge
86 Rendering [Ch.3
anddisccentrifuges.Mealisfinallydriedincontinuousdriersandtheprocesswateris
evaporated inmulti-effect evaporators.Theconcentrate,40%totalsolids,ismixed
withthewetmealanddried inthe drier.
Advantages
(1) Thissystemproducestallowandmealofhigh quality.
(2) Fatinthemealisabout 8%.
(3) Approximately 40%lesssteamisusedcompared withdry rendering.
(4) Theprocesscanbe automated.
Disadvantages
(1) Thesystemhasahighcapital cost.
(2) Highrepairsandmaintenancecosts.
Low-temperaturerendering(LTR)
In the traditional high-temperature dry-rendering process, raw material isfirst
heated and cooked. Once the temperature in the cooker reaches 100C (212F),
water begins to boil and evaporate rapidly. Finally the temperature rises to
110-130C(230-266F) atwhichpointthemealisdeep-fried inhot fat.
Because the cooker contents are subjected to temperatures above 100C for
relativelylongperiods,rawmaterialmustbewashedtoremovepaunchcontentsand
other 'dirt'. Otherwise the colour of dirtinthe rawmaterial becomes 'fixed' inthe
tallow and the tallow will be downgraded. Pressing, which is used to separate
cracklingsfromtallow,producesamealhighinresidualfat.Tofacilitate processing,
operators usuallyoverdrythe meal.Thus,mealfrom thisprocessishighinfat and
lowinmoisture.
In LTR, phase separation is carried out at low temperatures (70-100C
(158-212F)).Atthesetemperaturestherawmaterialneednotbewashed, because
the colour of paunch contents and other dirt isnotfixedin the tallow. After low-
temperature phaseseparation,thetallowandwetsolidsareprocessedseparatelyto
obtainmaximumyieldsandhighproductquality.Ideallythelossesinthestickwater
arelowandthemealislowinfat andlowinmoisture.
LTRsystemsrequirearound0.5kg(0.5lb)ofsteamperkg(lb)ofrawmaterial,
comparedwithdryrendering,whichrequiresaround 1.0kg(1.0lb)ofsteam/kg(lb)
ofrawmaterial.Table3.8comparesyielddataforonetypeofLTR(MIRANZ) and
dry rendering.
Theyield andproductionfiguresinTable3.8arebasedonnotwashingthe soft
rawmaterialsfortheLTR.Indryrendering,wherewashingisnecessary,fatandfat-
free solidslosseshavebeenattributed tolossesduetowashingonly,whichassumes
nolossofproductsfromthedry-renderingprocessitself.However,inonemonitored
plant, 3%of thetallowproduction and2% of the mealproduction were lost from
tallow centrifuges.
Nomatter what rendering systemisoperated, profitability can beimproved by
ensuringmaximum yieldsandobtainingthebestpossibleproduct quality. Regular
and planned maintenance of equipment would minimize repairs and maintenance
87 Ch.3] Rendering
Table3.8Comparison ofyieldsLTR andtraditional dry rendering
0
Yields LTR Dry rendering
Fat (%) 99.5 95.0
Fat-free solids (%) 94.0 96.0
Fatinmeal (%) 8.0 12.0
Moistureinmeal (%) 8.0 3.0
Tallow, ton
6
4346.0
3909.0
Meal,ton* 5371.0 5421.0
"Based on rendering arawmaterial composed of 60%water, 20%fat and20%fat-free solidsand on
rendering10tonnes/h(11tons/h)rawmaterial,12h/day,200operatingdays/annum.
*ToconverttoU.S.tonsmultiplytonby1.1.
Source:Fernando(1984).
costs. Rendering added water iswasteful, and renders should try not to add any
water to raw material. Substantial energy costs can be saved by heat recovery or
switchingtoLTR systems.
REFERENCES
Alfa-Laval (1978) Process innovations for the meat by-products industry. Stock-
holm,Sweden, Alfa-Laval.
Anon. (1986)Edibletallowusedown;exportsdip. Render 15(III)7.
Austin,D. (1949) Better Rendering. Cincinnati,Proctor and Gamble.
Batty,J. C.andFolkman, S.L. (1983) Food engineering fundamentals. New York,
John Wiley.
Brennan, J. G., Butters, J. R., Cowell, N. D. and Lilly, A. E. V. (1969) Food
Engineering Operations.London,Elsevier.
Burnham,F.(1978) Rendering, the Invisible Industry. Fallbrook,California, Aero.
Burnham,F. (1985)Petfood market continuestogrow. Render 14(1)12.
Church,D.C.(1984) Livestock Feeds and Feeding,2ndedn,Corvalis,Oregon,D&
B Booker.
Dainty, R. B. (1981) Centenary. Chicago, Darling-Delaware.
Edwards, B. R. (1981) Protein. In Centenary, pp. 192-193, Chicago,
Darling-Delaware.
Encyclopedia Americana (1985)s.v. Soap,byW.J. Beach.
Fenton, C.J. (1984)Edible rendering. In Proceedings of Meat Byproducts Quality
Control Workshop, Richmond, NSW, Australia 13-17 May, 1984, pp. 59-71,
Cannon Hill,Australia, CSIRO Meat Research Laboratory.
Fernando,T.(1984)Comparisonofrenderingmethods.In Proceedings of Meat By-
products Quality Control Workship, Richmond, NSW, Australia 13-17 May,
1984, pp.72-82,Cannon Hill,Australia, CSIROMeat Research Laboratory.
Filstrup, P. (1976) Handbook for the meat by-products industry. Titan Separator
A/s,Denmark, Alfa-Laval Slaughterhouse By-products Department.
88 Rendering [Ch.3
Hansen, C. L. (1983)Methodsfor animalwasterecovery andenergy conservation.
Food Tech.37(2)77.
Jones,R. (1984)Tallowquality.In Proceedings of Meat Byproducts Quality Control
Workshop, Richmond, NSW, Australia 13-17 May 1984, pp. 13-26, Cannon
Hill,Australia, CSIROMeat Research Laboratory.
Moffat, K. (1984) Continuous rendering. In Proceedings of Meat Byproducts
Quality Control Workshop, Richmond, NSW, Australia 13-17 May, 1984. pp.
54-59,Cannon Hill,Australia, CSIROMeatResearch Laboratory.
Morrison, K. (1987) Personal communication. Hyrum, Utah 84319, E. A. Miller
Packing Company.
Romans, J. R., Jones, K. W., Costello, W. J., Carlson, C. W. and Ziegler, P.T.
(1985) The meat we eat,12thedn,Danville,Illinois,Interstate.
Shamberger, R. J. (1979)Isperoxidation important inthecancerprocess?In Auto
oxidation in food and biological systems,pp.639-649,M.G.SimicandM.Ravel
(eds)NewYork, PlenumPress.
Suter, D. (1984) Meat meal. In Proceedings of Meat Byproducts Quality Control
Workshop, Richmond, NSW, Australia 13-17 May, 1984, pp.1-7, CannonHill,
Australia, CSIROMeat Research Laboratory.
Teachman, E. H. (1981) Glue. In Centenary, pp. 172-175, Chicago,
Darling-Delaware.
Wilder,O.H.M.(1960)Byproductfeeds.In The science of meat and meat products,
pp.402-412,AmericanMeat InstituteFoundation (ed.),SanFrancisco,W.H.
Freeman.
4
Hideandskinby-products
INTRODUCTION
Throughouthumanhistorypeople haveutilizedanimalskins,andnomadicpeople
still depend upon them for shelter, clothing, weapons and as food containers.
Tanning developed early in man's history, when hides were treated with juices
extracted from tree bark, but a great deal of art remains in this procedure and
scientistsarestillstrugglingtounderstandthiscomplexprocess.Recentproduction
ofsyntheticmaterialstoreplaceleatherhasreducedourdependenceonthisunique
naturalmaterial, butmanyqualityitemsstilldemandthewearing ability, superior
moisture-vapourtransferandinsulatingpropertiesofhigh-qualityleather.
Thehide is avery signficiant portion, 4-11%,of theweight of the live animal
(Table4.1) andconsequently isoneofthemostvaluableby-productsproducedby
thatanimal.
Hides, skins andpelts are converted into avariety of consumer goods. A few
examplesareshowninTable4.2.Inadditiontotheleatherportion,otherpartsofthe
original skin (for example, hair, wool, fat and trimmings) are also salvaged and
utilizedinavarietyofways.
TRADEINHIDESANDLEATHER
The quantity of animals slaughtered in the U.S. from which skins or hides are
available is shown in Table 4.3. Since most of the cattle hides are salvaged, it is
obvious that avery significant percentage of U.S. hides enter the export market
(Table4.4).Inthecaseofsheeppelts,however,someareimportedtobeconverted
intoleatherintheU.S.Manypigskins(fivepigskinsroughlyequivalenttoonebovine
skin)arenotsalvagedforleatheruse;therefore,thismarkethasalargepotentialfor
growth.
The American shoe industry hasbeen swamped byimportation of shoes from
marketsinwhichthe cost of labourissignificantly less thaninthe U.S. Table 4.5
showshowsignificantthishasbecome,with71.5%ofU.S.footwear(2.5squarefeet
(0.23 square metres) of leather per pair of shoes) arriving from outside of the
90 Hideandskinby-products [Ch.4
Table4.1Hide aspercentage ofliveweight
Typeof animal
Rangeofhideyield
(percentage ofliveweight)
Cattle
Average
5.1-8.5 (average 7.0)
Average usinghide stripper 4.0-6.0 (average2%
decrease)
Hereford 8.5
Angus 7.5
Shorthorn 6.5
Charolais,bull, 15monthsold 8.5
Charolais,bull,20monthsold 8.3
Charolais,bull,30monthsold 6.7
Good steer 6.6-7.6
Poor steer 6.4-7.8
Good heifer 5.1-7.9
Branded cow 6.6-7.6
Canner, cutter 5.7-6.8
Bull 6.7-7.5
Bologna bull 7.0-8.1
Sheep
Sheepand lamb 11.0-11.7
Swine
Pig,verticaldrum skinner 3.0-8.0
Boar 10-12
Bengtsson and Holmqvist (1984), Judge et al. (1978), Lawrie (1981), Minnoch and Minnoch (1979),
Romans and Zeigler (1974).
country.ThisnegativeU.S.balanceoftrademayalsobeseeninotherleatheritems
as well as shoes. Table 4.6 illustrates leather movement and Table 4.7 shows its
originsand destinations.
CLASSIFICATION
Hides areclassified accordingtoweight,towhether or notthe hideisbranded and
the location of the brand, sex, levelof animal fatness, defects, and the skillof the
personremovingthehide.Someoftheclassificationsforcattlehidesmaybefoundin
Table4.8.Hidesaregraded accordingtothe following:
No. 1A hide that isfree from holes, cuts, deep scores or gouges, visible grain
defects and broken grain (over 25 mm (1 in) long) and which has
substantially thecorrect pattern and issufficiently cured. An exceptionis
thattherearshanksmaycontainoneholebelowthehockwhichislessthan
25mm(1in)long.Ifaholeorscoreisontheweltofabranditwillstillbea
No. 1 hideifotherwise satisfactory.
91 Ch. 4] Hideandskinby-products
Table4.2Examplesofsomeusesofhides,skinsor pelts
Portionofhide,skinorpelt Exampleoffinished product
Cattle hide by-products
Curedandtanned hides Sole and upper leather shoes, rawhide, bags,
athleticequipment,belting,unpholstery, etc.
Coriumlayer Pickingbands,textileshuttleholdersandpassers,
reconstituted collagen sausage casings, cosmetic
collagen products
Tailhair Paintbrushes,upholstery padding
Bodyhair Felting,plasterretardant, etc.
Insideofearhair Imitationcamel-hair brushes
Hidetrimmings Tankage,fertilizer, glue,inediblegelatin
Hidefat Tallow
Calfskin Light weight leather, fabric trimmings, drum
heads,gloves,etc.
Hog skin by-products
Pigskin Gloves, belts, razor strops, shoe uppers, inner-
soles, upholstery, shoe counters, sausage, pork
rinds,ediblegelatin,glue,etc.
Hair Upholsterypadding,felting, plaster retardant
Bristles Brushes
Sheep pelt, by-products
Wool Blankets, gloves, clothing, carpets, upholstery
fabric, lanolin,etc.
Slats (skin after wool or fleece is Shoe and slipper uppers and lining, hat sweat
removed) bands, fancy shoes, gloves, garmets, sporting
goods,diplomas,etc.
Pelts(woolorfleeceleft on) Heavycoatmaterial,moutons,shearlings
Trimmings Glue,tankage
Horse hide by-products
Curedandtanned hides Shoe sole and uppers, gloves, sporting goods,
luggage,belts
Domesticated land and water buffalo hide by-products
Curedandtanned hides Shoe sole and uppers, fancy leather goods, lug-
gage,handbags,buffing wheels
Deer hide by-products
Curedandtanned hides Shoe uppers, clothing, gloves, moccasins, muk-
luks
Kangaroo hide by-products
Curedandtannedhides Shoeuppers
Exotic and fancy leathers
Aquaticgroup Frog,seal,shark,walrus,turtle
Landgroup Camel,elephant, ostrich, pangolin
Reptilegroup Alligator,crocodile,lizard,snake
Clemen(1927),Ockerman(1983),Tanners'CouncilofAmerica(1983).
No. 2Ahidethatisoff-pattern, orcontainsahole,cut,deepscore,orgougeless
than 152mm (6in),orvisiblegrain defects orwartslessthan one square
foot (929square centrimetres) (located above alinethrough the break in
thehaironthefore andhind flanks).
Table4.3United Statesanimalpopulation, slaughter andleatherproductionfor
1986
Cattle Sheep Pigs
U.S. animal population
(million head) 105 10 51
U.S. animals slaughtered
(millionhead) 37 5 77
U.S. leather production
(million hidesorskins) 13 5 4
U.S.Department ofAgriculture(1987).
Table4.4U.S.hideexportsfor 1986
Whole hides
Cattlehides 26481328
Calfskins 2219682
Kipskins 533987
Croupons 481830
Wetbluesides,notsplit 1 556626
Wetbluesides,split 667422
U.S.DepartmentofCommerce(1987a),UnitedStateHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1987).
Table4.5Production, import andexportofU.S.footwear for 1986
1986 Millionpairs Percentage
U.S. Production offootwear 233.5
U.S. Importsoffootwear
0
940.8
U.S. Exportsoffootwear 13.0
PercentageofU.S.utilized
footwear that isimported 81.0
"U.S.importsoffootwear (non-rubber)for 1986werefrom:Taiwan46%,Korea19%,Brazil12%,Italy
7%andSpain4%.
U.S.DepartmentofCommerce(1987a).
93 Ch.4] Hideandskinby-products
Table4.6U.S.leatherimportsandexportsfor 1986
Imports Exports
Value Percentage Value ]Percentage
($1000) ($1000)
Leather, fancy 70 841 17.4
Bovine:glove and
garmentleather not
fancy 63140 15.5
Upholstery leather 40751 10.0
Bovine:other, not fancy 37780 9.3
Bovine:upper leather 29096 7.2
Goatandkid leather:
not fancy 25493 6.3
Calfandkip, upper
leather 21306 5.2
Reptilianleather, not
fancy 19519 4.8
Allother categories 98559 24.3
Bovine:rough, russet
andcrust,wetblue,
notsplit 58380 18.6
Upholstery leather 42596 13.6
Otherbovine upper
leather, e.g. calf
andkip 36221 11.6
Gloveand garment
leather 32831 10.5
Bovine:rough, russet and
crust,wetblue,
split,e.g. grains
31395 10.0
Otherbovine leather 20358 6.5
Other leather
19968 6.4
Sheepandlamb garment
leather 15470 4.9
Allother categories
56189 17.9
Totals 406485 100.0 313408 100.0
LeatherIndustriesofAmerica(1987).
No. 3A hide that contains hairslips, five or more holes, cuts, deep scores or
gouges, any holes or cuts 152 mm (6 in) or longer, insufficient cure, a
pepper-box, warts or anydefect covering 0.093m
2
(1ft
2
) or more of the
hide.
Table4.7U.S.foreign tradeinleather for 1986
Percentage Percentage
imports exports
(of $406485000) (of $313408000)
Argentina 32.2
U.K. 10.6
Italy 9.6
Canada 6.6
India 5.5
West Germany 4.4
France 3.6
Brazil 2.7
Others 24.8
Korea, Republic 17.1
Canada 14.6
Italy 10.3
China,People'sRepublic 9.9
Hong Kong 6.3
Taiwan 5.3
Japan 5.1
Philippines,Republic 4.0
Dominican Republic 3.6
Others 23.8
Total 100.0 100.0
LeatherIndustriesofAmerica(1987).
Sheeppeltsaregradedaccordingtowoollength.Theseclassificationsarelocated
in Table 4.9. 'Skin' isthe term used for small hides, and in cattle these are those
weighing less than 13.62 kg (30 lb) after curing. A 'Colorado' or 'Texas hide'
indicatesthatthehideisbrandedonthebuttoronthesideanda'native'referstoan
unbranded hide. 'Big-packer hides' refers to hides that were removed from the
carcassbyskilledlabourand'country'or'small-packerhides'indicatesthatthehides
wereremoved byless-skilled labour. A 'renderer' or 'murrain hide'meansthat the
hidewasremoved from ananimalthat diedfrom somecauseother than slaughter.
HIDE COMPOSITION
Thethicknessoftheskinvarieswithspecies,age,sexandregionofthebody(thicker
onthebackandontheexternalsurfacesofthelimbs;thinnerontheventralandon
the flexor surfaces). The skin iscomposed (Table 4.10) of three major layers: the
surface pigmented epidermis,theunderlyingconnectivetissuecoriumandthedeep
95
Ch.4] Hideandskinby-products
Table4.8Packerhide selection
Selection
Slunk
Lightcalfskin
Heavycalfskin
Kipskin
Overweightkipskin
Heavynativesteer
Lightnativesteer
X-lightnativesteer
Heavybutt-branded steer
Butt-brandedsteer
HeavyColoradoorside-
brandedsteer
Coloradoorside-brandedsteer
Light-brandedsteer
HeavyTexassteerorbranded
steer
Texassteerorbranded steer
Heavynativecowand heifer
(plump)
Lighnativecowand heifer
(plump)
Heavynativecowand heifer
(thinorspready)
Lightnativecowand heifer
(thinorspready)
Brandedcowand heifer
Lightbrandedcowand heifer
(plump)
Heavynativebull
Heavybrandedbull
Description
Unborncalf
Steerhidefreeofbrands
Steerhidefree ofbrands
Steerhidefree ofbrands
Steerhidebrandedoneormore
timesbehindthebreakin flank
timesbehindthebreakin flank
timesforward ofbreakin flank
timesforward ofbreakin flank
times
times
times
Hide from female bovine free
ofbrands
ofbrands
ofbrands
ofbrands
Hide from female bovine
brandedoneormoretimes
Hide from female bovine
brandedoneormoretimes
Hidefrom bullfree ofbrands
Hidefrom bullbranded oneor
moretimes
Rangeofnetweightinpounds
Conventional Trimmedand
fleshed
Lessthan9
9-15
15-25
25-30
58up 47up
48-58 39-47
30-48 23-39
58up 47up
30up 23up
58up 47up
30up 23up
30-58 23-47
58up 47up
30up 23up
53up 43up
30-53 23-43
53up 43up
30-53 23-43
53up 43up
30-53 23-43
58up
58up
"Multiplyby0.454toconverttokg.
LeatherIndustriesofAmericaandU.S.Hide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1985),PriceandSchweigert
(1971),TannersCouncilofAmerica(1972).
subcutis.The thin epidermis covers the surface and extends downward as tubular
invaginations and forms part of the surface of the hair follicles. The underlying
coriumisassociatedwiththehairfollicles.Theupperportionofthecoriumcontains
sebaceousglands,the erectile follicular smooth musclesand elastic,reticulum and
collagenous fibres. The deeper portion of the corium is interwoven bundles of
collagen. In bovine animals the hair root extends about one-third the depth of the
corium,butinswinethehairfolliclepenetratesthecoriumandextendsdownintothe
subcutis (see Fig. 4.1). The subcutis consists of a loose membrane network of
Table4.9Gradesofshearlingsorsheeppelts
Grade Woollength
0
Number4 Baretogin
Number 3
Hi n
Number2
Hi n
Number 1
i-1in
Fallclip 1-2 in
Woolpelts
Hin
"Multiplyby2.54toconverttocm.
National Hide Association (1979), Price and Schweigert
(1971).
Table4.10Skinlayersandtwomethodsofsplittinghides
Side Skin Leather
Fivelayers Four layers
Hair-side Epidermis,pigmented, thin Buffing
Grainlayer,papillary Machinebuff Thopgrain
Corium,dermis,derma,cutis Deep buff
vera, connectivetissue,
greatestpart ofhide Split Split
Flesh-side Subcutis,attachment, filled Slab Slab
with fat
MoultonandLewis(1940),PriceandSchweigert,(1971),Tanners'CouncilofAmerica(1983).
collagenandelastinfibers.Thesubcutisportioncontainsfattydeposits(especiallyin
swine)anddeterminesthetautnessorslacknessofthe skin.
The chemical composition of the skin (Table 4.11) varies with the age of the
animal, itssex, the fat levelof the animaland the treatment the hidehas received
after beingremovedfrom thecarcass.Ingeneral,thehideislowinfat andminerals
andishighinprotein (collagen).Thisprotein increasesdramatically andisa major
componentwhenthehideisconvertedintoleather.Hairiscomposedalmostentirely
oftheproteinkeratin,whichnormallyaccountsfor6-10% ofthetotalhideprotein.
HIDECURING
The quality of leather to a large degree depends on the techniques used for hide
removal (flaying) (seeFig.4.2) andtheprocessingthattakesplaceinthe slaughter
97
\ \ Fofltcularcavity
Epidermis
^ ^ b ~ ~ Hair shaft
Corium
OHgland \ j | S w 8 ^
Inner sheath
Erectilemuscle^ ^ Xf i l
ilk
^ H j ^V Subcutaneousfat
j*?*, v oweat gic
e Papilla
Fig.4.1Verticalsectionofnormalhogskin.PriceandSchweigert(1971).
facility. Theoperationsperformed hereare:hideremoval,preservation, fleshing,
trimming, selection and grading, storage and shipping, although fleshing and
trimming sometimes precede preservation. All of these steps need to be done
properlytoproduceaqualityfinalleatherproduct.
Hideremovalfromcattle,sheepandgoatsisaccomplishedtodayintheU.S.by
twodifferent basictechniques:thetime-honoured knife-skinning technique,using
either the conventional skinning knives or the newer air-driven reciprocating
skinningknives,orthemoremoderntechniqueforhideremovalthehide-pulling
technique.Anothertechniqueusedinsomecountriesistopumpcompressedairinto
thecarcasstocausehideseparation. Theknife removaltechniquerequireshighly
skilled personnel since it isvery easy to accidentally cut or score a hide, which
drasticallylowersitsvalue.Ittakesthreetofiveknifemenapproximately120seconds
toremoveacattlehidemanually(NationalHideAssociation,1979).Today,inmost
modern plants, the hides are pulled, because hides can be removed using this
techniquewithless-skilledlabourandlesshidedamage,lowermanpowerrequire-
mentsperanimaldressed,lesslikelihoodofcarcasscontaminationandanincreasein
carcassyieldfor cattleofapproximately2%whencomparedtothe knife-skinning
98
Hideandskin by-products [Ch.4
Table4.11Chemicalcomposition of hides
Ageof animal
Percentageof
Moisture Protein Fat Ash
(collagen, (phosphorus,
keratin, potassium,
elastin, sodium
reticulin) arsenic,
magnesium,
calcium)
Average slaughter cattle 62-70 1.0
Mature cattlehide,without
hair 65 30.0
Veryfat animal 10-12
Wet cattle hide 83.0 15.7 0.2 0.1
Air-dried cattle hide 9.1 89.9 0.2 0.8
Newborncalf 67.9 30.8 1.0 1.0
Three-month-old calf 66.0 31.0 1.6 1.4
Two-year-old steer 61.2 35.0 3.2 1.1
Four-year-old steer 55.6 38.2 6.0 1.1
Oldcow 60.2 36.0 3.1 1.1
Sheepskin 30-50
Goatskin 60.0 3-10
Pigskin 37.0 14 30-50
Cured cattle hide 44-48 41 14-16
(including
tanning
metals)
Aten et al. (1955),Biedermann et al. (1962),Henrickson et al. (1984),Moulton and Lewis (1940).
technique.This4.54kg(10lb)ofreducedweightofthehideisbecausethestripper
pulls the hide from the fell rather than from the carcass itself and this reduces
shrinkageofthehideincuring.Toaccomplishhide-pulling,thehideisskinned from
around thelegs,butt and head, usuallywith air-operated reciprocating knives (see
Fig.4.2) and then clamps are attached to the hide. Usually the hide isfirstpulled
sidewaysfrom thechestarea.Another setofclampsisattached andthehideisthen
pulled down (may be pulled upwith some equipment, but this normally increases
carcasscontamination) off thecarcass.Careful controlbytheskinnerisrequired to
prevent cracking of the epidermal layer in areas where the stress is the greatest.
Hidescanbepulledfrom cattleattherateof80(twoknifemen)-225 perhourwith
onepieceofequipment andtwo knifemen.
Hogs(pigs)arenormallyscaldedin57-71C(135-160F)hotwateruntilthehair
slips(mostfrequently used,4.5minutesin59-63C(139-145F)water).Thisheating
99 Ch.4]
Fig.4.2Hideremovalwithanair-operatedreciprocatingknifetopreparethecarcassforhide
pulling.FromUnitedStatesHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1983).
causestheproteininthehairfollicletodenatureandthisisturnloosensthehair(see
Fig.4.3).Normallyscaldingresultsin50%ofthepigskinsbeingunsuitablefor upper
shoe leather. Along with scraping, it produces pigskins that are 10% thinner and
whichhave10-23%lesstensilestrength.Overscaldingcausesthehairto'set'making
itdifficult toremove.Thisiscausedbycontractionoftheskinaroundthebaseofthe
hair,whichmakesitdifficult toseparatefromtheskin.Severeoverscaldingwillcook
the skin, making it useless for leather, and will often cause the carcass to be
condemned unusable as human food. The 'hard-hair season' (September to
November in the U.S.) isthe timeof yearwhen hoghair ismuch more difficult to
remove because of the cyclic change in the hog's coat due to the arrival of cold
weather. Anumberofchemicalsareapprovedforuseinthescaldingwatertoaidin
hair and scurf removal and a few of these allowed by USDA for this purpose
(Ockerman, 1983) are: caustic soda (sodium hydroxide, NaOH), lime (in water it
becamescalciumhydroxide,Ca(OH)
2
) sodiumcarbonate (sodaash,washingsoda),
sodium hexametaphosphate ((NaPO
3
)
6
), sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate
(C
12
H
25
C
6
H
4
SO
3
Na), sodium n-alkyl-benzene sulphonate (NaC
6
H
5
SO
3
; alkyl
group replaces sodium and is predominantly C
i 2
and C
13
), trisodium phosphate
(Na
3
PO
4
), dioctyl sodium sulphosuccinate (C
2
oH
37
Na
7
S), sodium sulphate
(Na
2
SO
4
), sodium lauryl sulphate (Ci
2
N
25
NaO
4
S), sodium tripolyphosphate
(Na
5
P
3
Oi
0
), methyl polysilicone (((CH
3
)
2
SiO)
x
), sodium metasilicate (Na
2
SiO
3
)
and sucrose (Ci
2
H
22
On). After scalding, the hog carcass is placed in a dehairing
machine ('polisher') for 15-30 seconds; this machine consists of rotating shafts to
which metal tip scrapers are attached. The carcass ispositioned on U-shaped bars
andtheactionofthescrapersrotatesthecarcassandtheirscrapingaction,alongwith
100
Hideandskinby-products [Ch.4
s+*
Fig.4.3Changesinhogskinduringhairremoval, (a)Verticalsectionofnormalhogskin,
x21.SeeFig.4.1foridentification ofstructures,(b)Magnifiedlongitudinalportionofnormal
hairshaft(A)andadjacenttissue;innerhairsheath(B);outerhairsheath(C);andcorium(D),
x330. (c)Vertical section of properly scalded hogskin. Compare with (a) for separationof
tissuesaroundhairandchangesinappearanceofepidermis, x24.(d)Magnified longitudinal
portion of scalded hogskin.Noteseparation ofouter hairsheath (C)ascomparedwiththat
shownin(b), x330. (e)Hogskin dehaired andnormallysinged, x20.Comparewith (f)- (0
Hogskindehairedandexcessivelysinged.Notemarkedlydamagedgrainlayer, x20.(g)Grain
damageproducedbynormalshaving,x22.Comparewith(h).(h)Graindamageproducedby
excessiveshaving, x22.FromPriceandSchweigert(1971).
ahot-water(60C,140F)sprayremovesthehair.Hair,inplaceswhereitisdifficult
toremoveishand-scrapedwithbellscrapersand/orshaved,andtheremaininghairis
oftensingedwithagasflame-torch,takingcarenottoholdtheflameinoneareatoo
long,soastoavoidburningtheskin.InsomeareasofEuropethehogisplacedfora
fewsecondsintoahigh-temperaturefurnace,whichremovestheremaininghairand
sterilizesthesurface,butthistreatmentalsodenaturestheproteinintheskin.
AtonetimeintheU.S.,hogcarcassesweredepilatedafter passingthroughthe
dehairingmachinebydippingthecarcassinahot121-149C(250-300F)mixtureof
rosinandcottonseed oilfor 6-8seconds.Thiscoatingwasallowedtoplasticizeby
cooling.Whenthismaterialwaspeeledfromthecarcassittookwithittheremaining
hair.Thistreatmenttemperature alsodenaturestheskinandrendersituselessfor
leatherproduction.
Pigskinsthathavebeendehaired,ifthetemperaturetowhichtheywereexposed
duringscaldingor other slaughter stepswasnot excessive (usuallylessthan58C
(137F)),canberemovedfromthecarcassoraportionofthecarcass(e.g.belly)and
usedforproductionofleather(e.g.HushPuppyleather).Insomecountries,askin
thatistobepulledandutilizedforleatherisprotectedbyacoveringduringscalding
tokeepitsuitableforgrain-leathermanufacturing.TheWolverineskinnerseparates
theskinfromthecarcassoraportionofthecarcassbyusinggripsthatattachtothe
skin (e.g. the loin with the belly attached) with aclamp on arotating drum-like
device.Theskinnerpullsthisportionofthecarcassthroughaknifethatseparatesthe
pigskinfromthefatandleantissue.Thepigskinsthengothroughafleshingmachine
betweenarubberrollerandarollerwithcuppedknives,whichremovesallbutabout
3%ofthefatfrom theskin.Thepigskinsarethenrefrigerated andshippedtothe
tanner.
ATownsendskinnerhasaburreddrumthatpullsthepigskinunderastationary
knifeandseparatestheskinandsomefatfromtheothertissue.Thisskinnerisoften
usedtoremovetheskinfromthedehairedhamorloinorbellyandtheskinandsome
adheringfat isused for pork rind or crackling or gelatin production. The gelatin
industry uses approximately 50% of currently available U.S. pork skins. Some
undenaturedporkskinsareusedinthehumanburn/grafting medicalareaafter the
hairhasbeenremovedbyalaser.Insomecountriesthereisalargeconsumptionof
pigskinasfood, andinotherspigskinisusedasafillerinsausagesandpies.
Hogs can be skinned with a knife rather than scalding and dehairing, but
considerable skill is required due to the softness of the fat. A pulling technique
similartotheoneusedforcattleisoftenusedforhogs,exceptthepigskinsareusually
pulledup;however,thereisinterestinadown-pullertoimprovesanitation. Other
mechanical skinners have a 'peeling' type action which removes the skin trans-
versely, sometimes with a pulling action and sometimes with a mechanism that
pushes the skin and carcass apart. The mechanical pulling of hides is gaining
popularity due to energy and labour savings when compared to scalding. This
techniqueproduces0.6-0.7m
2
skin(6-7ft
2
)thatisveryusefulforleatherproduction
sinceithasreceivednoheattreatment.Thistechniquehasnotreceivedwiderusage
becauseitresultsina6-8%lossincarcassweightduetoskinremoval,andbecauseit
isslower(150-300perhour)thanscalding,whichcanhandle750-850perhour.
Goatskins are more valuable than sheep skins because they are larger and
produceabetter-lastingleather.
Sheepskinsrequirealongertime(uptoseveralhours)tocoolafterslaughterthan
do other hides because of the large quantity of wool and grease in the wool they
contain.Theyshouldbespreadoutorhungtocool(tolosebodyheat)beforesalting.
Whenplacingthesaltedskinsinapack,theyarenotpiledmorethantenskinsdeep
and aretransferred tonewstackseverydayortwo.
Hidesintherenderingareaaresometimesremovedbypunchingaholeintheskin
and usingcompressed air(1.05kg/me
2
or 15psi)toblowtheskinoff thecarcass.
After hideremoval from anyanimal,thehideshould bequicklycured to arrest
bacterial and enzymatic decomposition or spoilage. This is particularly true with
pigskins,inwhichtraditional salt-curingdoesnotworkaswell.Pigskins deteriorate
faster than cattlehides.Forthem, solvent dehydration maybeusedorthe uncured
hidemaygodirectlytothetanningoperation (usuallychrome).Dryingmaybeused
topreservethehideor, morecommonly,saltmaybeusedasthecuring ingredient.
There are four basic techniques used. These methods are air-drying, salt-pack
curing,mixercuringand racewaycuring.
In areas with low relative humidity, skins and hides may be air-dried. The
methodsofair-dryingareoften classified (Aten et ai, 1955)asfollows:
1. Drying on the ground, with the hide pegged down or weighted with stones to
prevent wrinkling. Due to airflowingonlyon one side of the hide,this method
produces a high percentage of deteriorated hides and is usually not
recommended.
2. Drying by suspension on an angled frame properly orientated to the sun
(frame-drying).
3. Dryingbysuspensionofthehide,withtheflesh-sideupoverthincordsorwires.
The inside hair should be prevented from touching the inside hair on the other
sideofthefolded skintoencouragemaximumairflow(line-drying).Dryingover
apolecausesputrefaction wherethepolecontactsthehideand retardsdrying.
4. Tent or parasol(umbrella)-drying. Hides are supported over the ground in the
shape of atent or aparasol bywires,posts and cords connected to pegsin the
ground.
Theoldestsalt-curingmethod,andonethatisstillusedonasmallpercentageof
hidestoday,isthesalt-packcuringmethod(seeTable4.12andFig.4.4)ina10-13C
(50-55F) hide cellar. The ideal relative humidity is85-90% and there should be
goodventilation but nodraughts. Salt-pack curingissimplyaflesh-sideupstackof
hides (usually three tofour feet high)with approximately 454g(1lb)ofsalt (grain
sizeof2-3mm(0.08-0.12in)isthemostdesirable) per454g(1lb)ofhide,spread
evenlyovertheflesh-sideofeachhideinthestack.Thehidesarestackedsothatthe
edges of the stack where the hide must befolded (minimum salt depth of 2.54cm
(1in)inthisareaandextrasaltplacedontheupwardhair-side),arehigherthanthe
centre. This is done to retain the maximum amount of brine, to reduce hide
shrinkage, andtocreate abetter cure.Thissaltlevelcontrolsbacterial growth and
drawsmoistureoutofthehides,whichdrainsontothefloor.Preservativesare often
usedwithsalt-packcuringand1%sodiumfluoride(NaF,thisisapoisonandthedust
should not be inhaled) or 1% naphthalene (Ci
0
H
8
) plus 1% boric acid (H
3
BO
3
)
Table 4.12 Pack-salting, requiring a minimum time of 30 days and yielding
75-85% ofgreenhideweight
Weight Operation Composition
0
(lb) or or
hides activity change
Green
100 Receivehidesfrom slaughter 62-70% water,
30-35% hides
100 Trimears,snoutandtail 3%loss;3lbtrimtorendering
97 Salt hides into pack 1.22-1.52m 0.5-3lbofrocksalt (40%No.
(4-4.5fttall),littlepitchforshort 1 rock salt, 60%No. 2 rock
hair, 15.2 cm (6 in) spread for salt)per1lbofhide
longhair
97 Cureinpackfor30days;50-60F 15-17% net loss in weight;
or 10-16C 25-35lblossinwater, 6-13lb
uptakeofsalt, 13-17lblossof
salttosewer*
Cured
82.5 Take hides from pack, inspect Reclaim60%originalsaltused
andbundle andmixwith newsalt ordis-
cardanduseallnewsalt
82.5 Movehidestostorageorloadfor
shipment
82.5 Deduct tare allowance, 3%salt,
1.5% manure
79 Netshippingweighttotannery 12-16% salt, 35-45% water,
40-50% hide substance
"Multiplypoundsby0.454toconverttokilograms.
ft
Most modernprocessorsin1987recycleexcessbrineanddonotdischargeit.Alsotheuseofevaporation
pondsdecreasesdischargetosewers.
Biedermann et al.(1962),MinnochandMinnoch(1979),RomansandZiegler(1974).
basedontheweight ofsalt hasbeen used successfully. Other salt additives might
includezincoxide (ZnO) orsodium metabisulphite (Na
2
SO
2
O
5
) invariouscombi-
nations.Ahidepackwillhold approximately 24.2kg(53.4pounds)ofgreen hides
andsaltper0.029m
3
(1ft
3
).Thehidesinthestackareusually allowedtocurefor
20-30days(cattle)butwouldkeepforonetotwoyears;however,ifthehideremains
inthepacktoolong, salt stainswillresult. Saltisusuallynotre-used, sinceitmay
become contaminated with salt-resistant bacteria, butifitisre-used it should be
sterilized by heating (also removes protein by flocculation) or mixing with a
disinfectantanddried.Theuseof2%sodiumsilicofluoride(Na
2
SiF
6
)hasbeenfound
usefulforthispurpose (Aten et al, 1955).
Themixercuringmethod (hideprocessor)isusedtoday,particularlyinsmaller
104
Hideandskin by-products [Ch.4
Fig. 4.4Salt-pack method of curing hides. From United States Hide, Skin and Leather
Association(1983).
plantswherefloorspaceislimited(seeFig.4.5).Themixerlooksandoperatesmuch
likethefamiliar cementmixerandmaybeloadedbyconveyors,dumphoppers,lift
trucks or by hand. Often an initial chilling and washing cycle 13-16C (55-60F)
withcleanwaterfor 10-30minutesisused.Amixercanhandlebetween250and400
cattlehides(1000-2000pigskins) atonetimeandisfilledwithasaturated saltbrine
solution,orfresh saltmaybeaddedintheproportionof20-24%oftheweightofthe
hides.Often achlorinatedlimeorsimilarbacterialormoulddeterrentisalsoadded.
Thehidesarerotatedinthemixerforsixtotwelvehours(33irpm).Thisrotationis
continuousintheinitialpartofthecycle,butisreducedtofiveminutesperhourin
thelaterpartofthiscuringprocedure.Whenthehidesareremovedfrom themixer
theyarewetandexcesswatermustberemovedfrom them.Thisisaccomplishedby
passingafoldedhide(flesh-sideout)throughawringingmachinetosqueezeoutthe
excessliquid,orbyhangingthehidesandallowingthemto drip-drain.
Raceway curing isthe most common method of curing hides today (see Table
4.13 and 4.14). A very large percentage of all American hides are cured by this
technique. The raceway-shaped tank ('raceway vat') is agitated by two overhead
paddlewheels(eachthreefeetindiameterwithsixbladeswhichdip25-41cm(10-16
in) into the brine and rotate at 12-16rpm) which circulate the brine and keep the
hidesmoving(seeFig.4.6).Atypical50000-gallon(1892501)racewaytank could
holdfrom 800to 1200(fleshed) cattlehidesandisfilledwith asaturated saltbrine.
Anotherpopular sizeracewayisa15000-gallon(567751)tankthatwillhandle550
cattlehidesatonetime.Thebrinesolutionissampledfrequently andmaintainedat
98%salinitybyadditionofsaltasnecessary,orbyrunningthebrinethrougharotary
screentoremovehairandfat andthentoalixiviatorwhichalsofiltersthebrineand
105
Fig.4.5Mixercuringofhides.FromUnitedStatesHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1983).
keepsthebrinenearthesaturationpoint.Itrequiresapproximately 1.8kg(4lb)of
saturatedbrineforeach454g(1lb)ofgreenhide.Bactericidesareaddedtothebrine
tocontrolthegrowthofproteolyticbacteria,which,ifallowedtogrow,candamage
thegrainsurfaceofahide.ThematerialsinTable4.15havebeenfound useful for
thispurpose(Aten et ai, 1955).
Othersfindthat0.3%(ofhideweight)sodiumfluoride(NaF)issuccessful.There
arealsoseveralready-mixedpatentedformulationssoldunderseveralbrandnames
ascuringagents.
Hidesarenormallycuredintheracewayforapproximately 16hours.Whenthe
hidesareremovedfromthecuringracewaytheyarewetand,asinthemixer-curing
technique,arepassedthroughawringingmachinetosqueezeoutliquid,orarehung
onhooksandallowedtodrip-drain.
Pit-curingorvat-curingisamodification ofracewaycuringandthesalt-packing
techniquesinwhichthehidesaresalteddown(151-227g(f-^ lb)ofNo.1rocksalt
per454g(1lb)ofhide)ina1.2-1.5m(4-5ft)pitandthepitfloodedwithasaturated
brine(seeTable4.16).Inthistechniquethebrineisnotagitatedandthecuringtime
is24-33 hours. This technique is not as popular as the raceway curing method
becauseitissloweranddoesnotproduceasuniform acure.
Since pigskins are not preserved as effectively by salt as cattlehides, other
techniques havebeen evaluated. One procedure that hasproven satisfactory isa
20% float containing 1% sodium bisulphite (NaHSO
3
) and 1% acetic acid
(CH3COOH)basedontheweightoftheskins.Thisprocedurehasbeeneffectivein
holdingpigskinsfor13daysatambienttemperature.
Therearealsonon-saltmethodsofcattle-hidecuringthathavebeensuggested.
Theseincludethe sodium sulphite/acetic acid procedure previously described for
106
Hideandskinby-products [Ch.4
Table4.13Agitated brine-curing of unfleshed hides, requiring aminimum of3
daysandyielding78-82%ofgreenhideweight
Weight Operation Composition
0
(lb) or or
Green
30-35% hides
100 Trimears,snout andtail 3% loss;3lbtrimtorendering
97 Wash hides 2% loss; 2 lb blood and
manure
95 Movehidesto raceway 4 lb of brine per 1lb of hide,
maintain brine at 94-97 sal-
ometer
95 Cureinmovingbrinefor24hours 15-17% net loss in weight;
20-25lblossinwater, 8-12lb
saltto sewer
6
Cured
Wet Remove from brineand drain on Lossofexcessbrine
horses,48hours
79 Remove from horses, inspect, 1lbuptake ofsalt
add 1lbfinesalt, bundle
79 Movehidestostorageorload for 10-15% salt, 40-45% water,
shipment 35-45% hide substance
fe
Most modernprocessorsin1987recycleexcessbrineanddonotdischargeit.Alsotheuseofevaporative
Biedermann etal. (1962),MinnochandMinnoch(1979).
pigskins,whichcanalsobeutilizedoncattlehides.Alsosuggestedhasbeensolvent
processing(acetoneatpH4.5-5.0,ether-alcohol,orether-alcoholandether-ester),
whichrequiresmoresophisticatedprocedures,butthehideswouldbestableaslong
as they did not come in contact with water. Another suggested technique is the
biocide-curing system which has been utilized in South Africa due to severe
restrictions on salt. Gamma radiation as a method of curing hides has been
successfully attempted, butcurrentlythisisnotbeingused commercially.
Fleshingisanothermajorstepnecessaryinproducingaqualityhide.The fleshing
machine removes approximately 9.1-11.3 kg (20-25 lb) of material per hide
(averages8.2kg(18lb)offatandfleshper45.4kg(100lb)ofhideandtherestishair
andmanure).Usuallythetradeagreesupona16%lossduetofleshing.The fleshing
machinecanflesh90-125hidesperhour.Originally,thiswasaverytime-consuming
and labour-intensive task accomplished with ahand-held knife, but todayfleshing
107 Ch.4]
Table4.14Agitatedbrine-curingoffleshedhides,requiringaminimumof2days
andyielding62-68%ofgreenhideweight
Weight
Operation
Composition
0
(lb) or or
Green
30-35% hides
100 Trimears,snout andtail 3% loss;3lbtrimto rendering
97 Wash hides 2% loss; 2 lb blood and
manure
95 Flesh anddemanure with 12-18% loss,12-15lbfleshing
machine torendering, 1-3 lbmanure
80 Trim pattern 3-4% loss, 3 lb trimming to
rendering
77 Movehidesto raceway 4 lb of brine per lb of hide,
maintain brine at 94-97 sal-
ometer
77 Cureinmovingbrinefor24hours 15-17% net loss in weight,
20-25lblossinwater, 7-10 lb
uptake ofsalt, 10-15lblossof
salttosewer*
7
Cured
Wet Removefrom brineandpass Lossofexcessbrine
through wringer
65 Inspect,add 1lbfinesalt,bundle 1lbuptakeofsalt
65 Movehidestostorageorloadfor 12-15% salt, 40-50% water,
shipment 35-45%hide substance
fe
Biedermann et al.(1962),MinnochandMinnoch(1979).
machinesareutilized(seeFig.4.7).Thefleshingmachinehastwospinningcylinders;
thetopone contains asharp helical blade (see Fig.4.8) which shavesfleshand fat
fromthehideasitispassedbetweenthecylinders.Thehideisrequiredtomaketwo
passesthroughthismachinewithone-half ofthehidebeingfleshedatatime.Atthe
same time as the upper cylinder is fleshing the hide, the lower cylinder, which
containsdullblades,removesmanure andotherforeign materialfrom thehairside
of the hide. The distance between the two cylinders must be adjusted (usually
automatically)toprevent damagetothehide,andtoaccommodatevaryinglengths
ofhairandvaryingquantitiesofmanure.Thefleshingoperationmaybedonepriorto
curing(usuallypreferable unlessthereisatimedelay)orafter thecuring operation
108
[Ch.4
Fig.4.6Racewaycuringusingapaddlewheeltocirculatethebrineandhides.From United
StatesHide,SkinandLeather Association (1983).
Table4.15Somebactericidesusedintanning
Bactericide Partsper 100partsofsalt
Sodium fluoride (NaF) 2
Sodiumsilicofluoride (Na
2
SiF
6
) 2
Zincchloride (ZnCl
2
) 0.5
Mixtureof
Sodaash (Na
2
CO
3
) 2
Naphthalene (CIQHS) 1
(whichproduces morecontamination ofthebrine and ofthefleshsideofthe hide,
thusproducing adarker hide).However, theorder seemstomakenodifference in
the final leather product. If done before curing, when the hide iswarm and very
flexible,thefleshandfatmaybefirmedandbacterialactionretardedbyrunningthe
hidethrough coldwater. Afirmerhideismucheasiertoflesh.
Fleshingresidueandhidetrimmingsarealsoutilizedbytheby-productsindustry.
High-pressuredry-renderingofthisproductisusuallynotfeasible because fleshings
tendtoglueupinthecookerandtheirhighwatercontentisexpensivetoremoveby
evaporation. Wet-rendering systemsaresatisfactory andtheLycoilSystem (Natio-
109
Fig.4.7Fleshingofhideusingacylinderbladetoremovefleshandfatfromthehide.From
United StatesHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1983).
Fig.4.8Helicalbladeusedonfleshingmachinetoremoveunwanted material.FromNew
EnglandTannersClub(1983).
nal Hide Association, 1979),which isoften used, isan automated centrifugal wet-
rendering system.The rawmaterial isground,water andfat areremoved from the
tissuecentrifugally, andthefatisthenseparatedfromthewatercentrifugally (canbe
donebysimpleheatsettling).Thedefatted andpartiallydewatered (50%moisture)
tissueisthen placed inadryer for further moisture removaltoproduce a dry-cake
tankage-type feed supplement, whichcontains40-60%protein dependingoninput
material. Yields vary depending on composition of raw material, but will average
11.3kg(25lb)ofoiland4.5kg(10lb)ofdryfeed substanceper45.4kg(100lb)of
hideor1.8kg(4lb)ofoiland1.13kg(2.5lb)ofcakeperpulledhide(20%higheron
heavily fed cattle and 40% lower on animals in poor condition). The fatty acid
composition of the oil issomewhat different from other animal fats and isusedin
soapsand asanindustrial chemical.
Trimming is another critical step in producing quality leather. This can be
accomplished before or after fleshing and, therefore, before or after curing. The
purposeoftrimmingahideistoremovepartsofthehidethatwouldhavenovalueas
leather andtomakethehideconform towhatisknownasthestandard hidetrimif
thehideisunfleshed, ortoconformtothemodernhidetrim(seeFig.4.9)ifthehide
isfleshed. Thepartsremovedfrom thehidebycuttingwithaknifeincludeears,ear
butts,snouts,lips,scrotalsac,udders,tail,headskin,fatandmuscletissuefrom the
sideofthehead and raggedventraledges.
Sortingofhidesafter theyhavebeencuredinorder tofillthetannery'sorderis
usually accomplished on the basis of sex, weight and whether the hide has been
branded.Basiccategoriesofhidesinclude:steerhides,bothnative(unbranded)and
branded;heiferhides,bothnativeandbranded;cowhides,bothnativeandbranded;
andbullhides,bothnativeandbranded. Brandingreducesthevalueofahidesince
thebranded areacannot beused inthefinishedleather product. Bullsproduce the
thickesthides,aresometimessoldunfleshed andareusedfortheproductionofsole
leather. Steer and heifer hidestend tobe thicker than cowhides,but thinner than
bullhidesandareoften usedforshoesandboots.Cowhidesareusuallythethinnest.
Maturebovinehidesareusedtoproducegarments,pursesandgloves.Hidesarealso
graded for quality and fall into categories No. 1, No. 2 or No. 3 (previously
described). The difference in grade is based on number and type of defects. For
example, No. 1hide isof the highest quality, correctly trimmed and free ofholes,
cuts,deepscores,gougesandotherdefects. ANo.2orNo.3hidecontainsvarious
degreesofthepreviously-mentioned defects, aswellasotherswhichmight include
wartsorgrubdamage.
Other damages and defects to the hide listed by Aten et al. (1955) and the
Marketing EconomicsDivisionofUSDA (1964)include:
Scratchescausedbythorns,barbedwire,nailsandhornsandresultingrain
damage
Brandingresultsingraindamagebutcryo-brandingisnotasdamagingashot-
iron branding
Stick(thorn-)-grass (Heskaneet cenchrus biflorus) burr punctures skin and
resultsingrain damage
Mangecausedbymanytypesofmites (Demodex spp.)whichcauseshairless
111
ShadedPortionsRepresent Extraneous
MaterialWhichMustBeTrimmedOff
Nostril holes
Snout and lip - Snout and lip
Oewclaw
holes
Dewclaw
holes
Hind shank
Hindshank
Trim tocomply with Trimtocomply with
Amendment #1 Amendment #1
Dewclaw
holes
Dewclaw
holes
Fig.4.9Modern trimpattern for cattlehide.From United StatesHide,Skinand Leather
Association(1985).
patchesontheskin,thickeningoftheskin,andtheformation offolds,and
produceinternalvoids,graindamageandholes
Scabiesmitescauselesionsandtheskinthickensandformsfolds
Ticksblood-suckingparasites (Boophylussp., Hyalommasp.)causeholesin
leather and white spots on theflesh-sidethat will not dye; secondary
infectionsalsocauseleatherdamage
Licebitingor suckingparasitesthat causescratching,whichresultsingrain
damage
Cockledefectparasite (Melophagus ovinus) causesdamageto leather
Leechesaquaticsucking annelids
Warbleflylarvae (grubs; Hypoderma bovis, H. Crossi, H. lineatum)make
pin-holesinleather
Vertical-fibre defect (pulpy butt)inherent abnormal vertical orientationof
coriumfibreswhichleadstoweak leather
Ringwormfungus causeshairtofalloutandplaquesareformedwhichcause
grain damage
Cow-poxinfectious disease,usuallyrestrictedtoskinoftheudderandtender
areas,whichcausesdarkspotson leather
Hyperkeratosis or X-disease caused by ingestion of chlorinated naphtha-
lenes, which causes thickening of skin and loss of hair leading to grain
damage
Rinderpestinfective viruscausesdeathinsusceptible cattle
Trypanosomiasisparasiteoftsetsefliescausesthisdiseasethatoftenkillsthe
animal
Streptotrichosis disease, which causes horny crust on infected skin which
resultsingrain damage
Sweatingsicknesstick-borndisease,whichoften causestheanimaltorubthe
skinleadingtograin damage
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis spores from this disease cause death of the
animalsandofhide handlers
Flaying,dryingorsalt-curingdamage (processing damage)
Foulingwithblood anddungwhichcausesgrain damage
Bruiseblood extravasation inthe hide over the bruised area causing grain
damage
Inadequate bleeding blood remains in the hide and encourages bacterial
growth
Rubbed ordragged grain
Flaycuts,gougemarksandscores
Bad pattern
Pullerorclampdamage('butcher' or'grainstretch')graindamagecausedby
impropermechanicalremovalof hide
Improper trim
Chatter damageparallel gouges caused byimproperly maintainedfleshing
machine
Delayincleaning,dryingorcuringincreased putrefaction
Hairslipbacterial actionwhichcausesgraindamagetototallossofskin
Overstretching and distortion most often occurs in dried hides as they
contract
Foldingfolding ofverydryhidesmaycausethemtocrack
Incompletecuresalthasnotpenetrated thehide
Rottinginsufficient orpoordistributionofsaltorstorageinawarmplacewith
113
highhumiditythatwillcausethesalttorunoff asabrine
Saltstaindirtyorinsufficient saltorbacteria
Non-scourabledyesdyesabsorbedbyskinandthatcannotberemoved
Storageandtransportdamage
Rubbingduringtransport
Gettingwet intransit causeslossof salt insalt-cured hides and increased
moisturefordry-curedhidesbothofwhichwillresultinbacterialgrowth
Varmintdamagegnawingrodentsandvarmintmanure
Insectdamage
Beetlelarvae('woollybear')
Dermestes maculatus
Dermestes lardarius
Whiteants
Gradedhidesarenextsprinkledwithapproximately454g(1lb)of'safetysalt'to
insureagainstdeteriorationinstorageandshipment.Hidesareindividually folded,
flesh-side out, and tied to form abundle (see Fig. 4.10). The bundled hides are
Fig.3.10Bundlinghides.FromUnitedStatesHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1983).
usuallytiedwithdifferent-coloured ropes,ortagsmaybeattached,toidentify the
typeandgradeofhide.
Thebundlesarethenstackedonpalletstoamaximumheightof107cm(3ft)to
squeezeout excessmoisture bytheweightofthestack.Theyarethenstored ina
warehousetoawaitshipment(seeFig.4.11).Beforeshipment,thehidesareweighed
andthepriceperkilogram (orpound) isdetermined onthisweight.
In some countries unsalted hides are chrome-tanned in the slaughter plant to
produce what isknown as a 'wet blue' moist product. Thishide can be stored for
months prior tocontinuation of the leather processing. It savesthe costof salting,
andthefleshingmaterialremovedfrom the'green'(fresh) hidecanberenderedinto
a higher quality product than if the hide had been salted. Other possibilities for
eliminating salt curing would be the treatment of hides with sodium sulphite
(Na
2
SO
3
) and aceticacid (CH
3
COOH) andholdingthehideinaclosedsystemfor
short-term preservation priortotanning.
Hidesmaybeshippedbytruck, railorcontainersonships,butregardlessofthe
transportation usedthevehicleshouldbeinspectedfor cleanlinessandfor evidence
oflarderbeetles.Thesebeetlescandamagehidesintransitandtherefore, especially
inthesummer,thevehiclesareusuallysprayedwithaninsecticidebeforeloadingthe
hides.Insecticidesareoften usedtohelpprotectagainstinsectdamage.Someofthe
insecticidesoften used include:
0.2% whitearsenic(As
2
O
3
,poisonous)withsodaorwashingsoda (Na
2
CO
3
),
5% sodium silicofluoride (Na
2
SiF
6
) solutionwithsurface-active agent,
40% sodiumsilicofluoride powder,
0.5% 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane (Lindane;C
6
H
6
C1
6
),
powdered 1,4-dichlorobenzene (C
6
H
4
C1
2
),
powdered pyrethrum.
Hidesareoften stacked 1.2-1.5m(4-5ft) highinthetransportation vehicles.
Hides and skins are often evaluated for quality of cure by determining the
moisture (volatile material) and salt (or ash) content of the hide. Moisture is
determined by drying at 80C(176F) in avacuum oven for 16hours, or at 100C
(212F) in a circulating-air oven for 16hours. Ash is determined by heating ina
furnace at600C(1112F)untilaconstantweightisobtained.Thepercentageratioof
ashtomoisture isalsocalculated and thisisdivided by35.9(salt:moisture ratioin
saturated brineat20C(68F))toestimatethepercentageofsaturation inthebrine
solution of the hide. Less than 40% moisture indicates excessive dryness causing
protein denaturation, whichwillresult inpoor quality leather. Hide moisture over
48% indicates excessive wetness and inadequate cure. Even a brine saturation of
85% maynotmaintain thiswethideduringstorage.
TANNING
Good reviews of chrome-tanning for the production of leather utilized in making
shoesaregiveninthepublication Leather Facts(NewEnglandTannersClub,1983)
and a general review of leather production is given in the publication Leather
(Hague, 1949). Much of the following information is a summary of this material.
Whenthecuredhidesarriveatthetannerytheyaretakentoandstoredinthecooled
and well-ventilated tanner's hide house. Here thebundles are open, and the hides
retrimmed ifnecessary and split alongthebackbone from head totailtomaketwo
115
Fig.4.11Bundledhidesstoredonpalletsawaitingshipmenttotannery.FromUnitedStates
Hide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1983).
sides(sideofleather).Sincetanningisabatchoperation,hidesaregradedandsorted
into'packs'of2268-4536kg(5000-10 000lb)ofuniformsize,weightandtypeofhide
sothatthetanningoperation canbeadjusted accordingtothehidesinvolved.
Thenextstepis'soaking',whichrestorestothehidesmoisturethatwasremoved
tocontrolbacterial growthduringthecuringoperation. Moisture isneeded sothat
the succeeding tanning operations can be conducted satisfactorily. The soakingof
hidesisaccomplishedinhalf-roundcylindricalvatsinwhichthehidesareplacedwith
water, wetting agents (detergents) and disinfectants; the hides are stirred in this
solutionbyadip-paddlewheelsimilar tothe onesused intheraceway curingvats.
Thestirringactionflexesandsoftensthehide.Thesoakingusuallytakesfrom8to20
hoursforthehidestoreabsorbtheneededwater(thickerhidesrequirelonger).The
laststepofsoakingiswashingthehidesbyintroducingfreshwaterintooneendofthe
vatandallowingittoexittheotherend.Thiswashingremovesdirt,manure,saltand
bloodfrom thehides.
After washing,thehidesareremovedfrom thepaddlevat,stackedtodrain and,
ifthe hideshave not been previously fleshed or ifthey require additional fleshing,
thatisaccomplished atthispointwiththefleshingequipmentpreviously described.
Ifthehideisgoingtobetannedwithouthairorwool,thenextstepintanningis
the'unhairing' procedure. Thiswasoriginally accomplished byaprocessknown as
'sweating', in which the hides were placed in a warm, damp room and bacterial
enzymesintheskinloosenedthehair.Usingthisprocesstherewasalwaysadanger
ofgraindamageandthisprocedureisnolongerwidelyusedcommerciallyexceptby
thewoolindustry.Acetate (esterofCH
3
COOH) maybesprayedongreenskinsat
pH4before incubation at32C(90F)for 20hours,whichwillalsoloosenthewool.
116
[Ch.4
Using current techniques, the keratinous epidermis and some soluble proteinsare
removed without damaging desirable collagen. The unhairing process isprimarily
chemical innature, but there ismechanical unhairing equipment that issometimes
used after the hair has been chemically loosened. The most common chemical
depilatoryagentsareasaturatedsolutionofcalciumhydroxide(Ca(OH)
2
;hydrated
limewhich loosensthe baseof the hair follicles) and sodium sulphide (NaS,which
will dissolve the hair) or sodium sulphydrate (NaHS). Other mixtures used to
remove hair might include milk of lime (CaO; made by mixing 1.8 kg (4 lb)of
hydrated lime in 15.11 (4gallons) of water) fortified with sodium sulphide (NaS),
sodium sulphydrate (NaHS), arsenic sulphide (As
2
S
2
) or dimethylamine
((CH
3
)
2
NH). And still others use 30% water, 6-12% (of hide weight) sodium
sulphide,2-3%sodiumsulphydrateand4%hydratedlime.Dimethylaminesulphate
isalsooften usedasanadjunct tounhairingprocessesandallowsforthereductionof
limeandsulphideconcentrations.Theseunhairingagentsaremixedwithwaterand,
alongwiththehides,areplacedinthepreviouslydescribedpaddlevatsormixers(see
Fig.4.12) similar tothe typesused for somecuring.The depilatory concentration,
Fig.4.12Mixersusedfor soakingandunhairingofhidesaresimilartothemixersusedin
curing.FromNewEnglandTannersClub(1983).
thetemperature and the amount of agitation determine the extent and rateofhair
removal. Ifthehairistobesaved,aweaksolutionand alowtemperature areused
andonlythehairrootsareloosened.Intwotofourdaysthehairiscollected,washed
inwater,rewashed inwater (100parts)withaceticacid(1part) anddried.Itissold
forabinderinplasterandcanbeusedasinsulatingmaterialandisusedtomakehair
felts, carpets, blankets and other other types of textiles. If more concentrated
solutions,ahigherpH(greaterthan11.5)andhighertemperaturesareused,thehair
may be totally dissolved in a few hours. Pigskins require larger concentrations
(4-5%)ofsulphidethancattlehidesforhairremoval.Ifallofthehairisnotremoved
by the chemical reaction, the remaining hair may be removed in an unhairing
machine.Thiswasformerly accomplishedbyplacingthehideoveraconvexwooden
'beam'andmanuallyscraping('scudding') thehairandremainingmaterialfrom the
hairfollicles, but today almost allhair removal isaccomplished with a mechanical
unhairingmachine.Thismachineoperatesverymuchlikeafleshingmachineexcept
thebladesareblunt andproduce moreofarubbingthan acuttingaction. Sincethe
lime-sulphidesolutionhasahighpH,thehidestendtoswell('alkaline swelling')to
approximately twice their normal thickness during the unhairing operation, which
allowsmorerapidpenetration ofother tanningmaterials.
Unhairing and dewoolling can also be accomplished by enzymes. Again, the
speed of hair-loosening increases with the concentration of the enzymes and the
temperature.Thistechniquehastheadvantagethatthehaircomesoutbythe roots
andyieldsmorehairandacleanergrainpelt.Peltscrapscontainingwoolcanalsobe
salvagedbyenzymepreparations,oraciddigestionorbacterialdigestion techniques
under aerobic conditions that will dissolve the skin completely, leaving the wool
undamaged so that it can be salvaged. There is also a slipemaster machine which
shrinks the fresh or green skin and plucks the wool with squeeze rollers. One
advantage of this technique is that the skin scrap pieces now can be rendered. It
should be noted that rendering of skin with wool results in meat meal with
indigestiblewoolfibres.Woolcanbehydrolysed at 148C(298F),3.52kg/cm
2
(50
psi)for 30minutestoproduce adigestiblenutritionalpowder.Woolremoved from
skin(907gto3.6kg/head (2-8lb/head)) contributes approximately one-seventh of
thewoolproduced intheU.S.
Someleatheristannedwiththehairorwoolremainingonthehide.An example
wouldbeshearlingleatherwhichisproducedfromsheepskinswithuniformly clipped
short lengths of wool remaining. This type of product can be tanned byeither the
chromeorvegetableprocess,butcertainprecautionsmustbeconsidered. First, the
wool must be cleaned and degreased by warm soap solutions. Weaker tanning
solutions for longer lengths of time are used to keep from discolouring the wool.
Dyeingofthewoolismuchmorecomplicatedsincewoolwillnotreadilyabsorbmost
dyes.Often anagentisusedthatwillcombinewiththewoolandthen,subsequently,
willcombinewiththedye(called'mordanting').Alsofat-liquoringisusuallydoneby
handtokeepthewoolfrom becomingdirtywiththeoil.Inthefinalstepthewoolis
clipped to the desired length and 'corded' (separation of the fibres to make them
fluff).
Somehidessuchaskidskins,sheepskinsandpigskinscontain alargequantityof
naturalfat (seeTable4.11) anditisoften desirabletoreducethisto approximately
3%onadry-weightbasis.Skingreaseisfound inthebasallayeroftheepidermis,in
thesebaceousglandsofthepapillarylayerofthehideaswellasthefatcellslocated
betweenthehidefibres.Ifthesefatlevelsarenotreduced,variationinpenetrationof
tanningingredientswilloccurandauniform leatherwillnotbeproduced. 'Degreas-
ing' is sometimes done by warming the hides in water and pressing them on a
hydraulicpress,followed bywashingandrinsing.Insomecasestheskinsarewashed
118
[Ch.4
withsurface activeoremulsifying agents(i.e.quaternary ammoniumsaltsofhigher
fatty alcohols) to aid in fat removal prior to continuation of the tanning process.
After thisstagethehidesorskinsarecalledpelts.
Thenextprocessinthetanningoperationis'bating',whichremovesthealkaline
(pH approximately 12.5) unhairing chemicals and other non-leather substancesin
the pelt structure. The first bating step is 'deliming' which takes place in large
wooden drums (seeFig.4.13),whicharerotated onhollowaxles.Thesedrumsare
Fig. 4.13 Drums thatmaybe usedfor bating, pickling, tanning, retanning, colouringand
fatliquoring operations. FromNew EnglandTannersClub(1983).
usedinseveraltanningoperations andturn atthe approximate rateof 16rpm.The
drumalsocontainsaremovabledoor.Thedelimingconsistsfirstofawashingstepin
which water is pumped into the drum through the hollow axle and is allowed to
escapethrough aperforated doorthat hasbeeninstalled inplaceofthesoliddoor.
Saltssuchasammoniumsulphate[(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
]orammoniumchloride(NH
4
C1)and
sometimestrisodiumphosphate(Na
3
PO
4
)orsulphuricacid(H
2
SO
4
)arethenadded
to convert the remaining lime into soluble compounds which can be removed by
washing.Ifthetannerhasstringentammonianitrogencontrolsonwastewaterthen
magnesium sulphate (MgSO
4
) may be used as an alternative buffer. Ammonium
chloride penetrates faster than the corresponding sulphate and results in a softer
leather. Ammonium sulphate is used for most shoe-upper leather since it will
produceafirmerleatherwithmoretemper.ThesedelimingoperationslowerthepH
of 10-13 for limed pelts to approximately 8-9, the alkaline swelling of the
hide isreduced and the pH isin the appropriate range for the enzymatic bates to
function.
Batesareenzymessimilartotheonesfound inthedigestivesystemandareused
to digest the remaining components of the pelt that are undesirable for leather
manufacturing, suchashairrootsandpigmentsinthegrain (outer)sideofthe pelt.
Thebatesdigestanddissolvethenon-collagenousproteinconsistuent ofthe animal
skin and are inactive on collagen, the essential constitutent of leather. Bates for
'puering'(dog-manuringprocedure)wereoriginallywarminfusions ofmanure that
wereallowedtoferment,butthismixturewasfrequently contaminatedwithbacteria
which damaged the hides. Later, it waslearned that acombination of ammonium
saltsand enzymesproduced bybacteria in dungwasauseful bating material. The
nextdevelopmentinbatingmaterialwastheuseofammoniumchloride(NH
4
C1)and
anenzymeextractedfrom animalpancreasoranotherextractedfromwood.Trypsin
hasbeenisolatedandfound tobeaproteolyticenzymewhichdigeststhe denatured
proteininanalkalinesolution.Today,batesareenzymesofbacteria,fungiandplant
(often brans) and animal organs. Bating makes the hide softer, less harsh and
cleaner. The bate also removes the glue-like material between the collagen fibres
that,ifallowedtoremain,wouldresultinhardand'tinny-like'leather.Therearetwo
theoriesofhowbatingworks;thefirstisbased ontheremoval ofelastin and other
degradedproteins,andthesecondisbasedonchangesinthecollagenousorleather-
making fibres. The speed of the bating operation again depends on enzyme
concentration,temperature (27-38C(80-100F)),pH(8-9)andmaylastfrom afew
hoursto16hours,dependingontheaforementioned factorsandthetypeofhide. A
strong bating action isused in making soft glove leather and a light bating action
would be used in making less flexible sole leather. In overnight bating, bacterial
growthmaybecomeaproblemsoantiseptics,suchassodiumfluoride(NaF),sodium
pentachlorophenol (NasaltofC
6
HC1
5
O)orbetanaphthol (Ci
0
H
8
O)are sometimes
added at this stage. Many bates are a mixture of deliming materials and various
enzymes sothat deliming and bating can be conducted somewhat simultaneously.
After thebatingoperationiscompleted,thepeltsareagainrewashedtoremovethe
undesirable,digested, non-leather-making material.
Thenext stepis'pickling',whichplacesthepeltsinan acid (pHoflessthan3).
The hides need to have a low pH in order to accept the tanning materials (e.g.
chrome)whicharenotsolubleinanalkalineenvironment.Sulphuricacid(H
2
SO
4
)is
themostcommonacidemployedbutmanyacidscouldbeusedforthispurpose.The
first step of the pickling procedure is to add salt. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is
commonlyusedbutothersaltswillalsofunction satisfactorily.Thispreventsswelling
('acidswelling')ofthepeltsbytyingupexcessmoisture.After thesaltisadded,acid
isintroducedintotherotatingdrums(seeFig.4.13)andittakesonlyafewhoursfor
the pickling material to penetrate the pelt. Since the pickling operation is also a
preservingstep,thepeltscouldbestoredatthisstepforaconsiderablelengthoftime
withoutdeteriorating. Insomecountries,predominantly withsheepskins,allof the
operationstothispointareaccomplishedattheslaughterplantandtheskinsarethen
shipped to the tannery to be converted into leather. The pickling process may be
skipped if the pelts are to be tanned immediately after bating and not stored or
transported.
Thenextstepintanningconvertsthecollagenfibresoftheskinintoastablenon-
putrescibleleather. Thisleather hasmanydesirablepropertiessuchasdimensional
stability,abrasion resistance,chemicalresistance,heatresistance,theabilityto flex
and theabilitytowithstand repeated cyclesofwettingand drying.
Chrome tanningisthemost popular method oftanningtoday becauseitcanbe
accomplished quicklyandbecauseitproducesaleatherwithdesirablephysicaland
chemicalproperties (long-wearing andheat-resistant).Disposalofchromeissome-
whatofaproblem sinceitisconsidered atoxicwaste.Ifthehideshavebeenstored
after picklingtheyare againplaced inabrineandaddedtotherotatingdrums(see
Fig.4.13).ThepHisadjusted to2.8andtheappropriateamountoftanningmaterial
isalsoadded tothe revolvingdrum.The chemicalstate ofthetanningchemicalsis
also important in order to obtain a uniform tanned product. For example, the
chromiumsalt(e.g.sodiumbichromate,Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
)isreactedwithareducingsugar
(maltose,Ci
2
H
2
2Ou) andsulphuricacid(H
2
SO
4
)whichreducesthechromiumsalt
tobasicchromicsulphate (Cr(OH)SO
4
,calledchrome).Itisthenaddedtothehide
in the mixing drum (quantity isoften from 1.5 to 3%). A 0.02-0.1% preservative
suchasasodiumsaltofachlorinatedphenolissometimesalsoadded.ThepHofthe
drumcontentsisincreased ('basification') to3.4-3.6 byaddingsodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO
3
, baking soda) or other alkalis (each willresult in itsown characteristic
influence on grain pattern) which increase the alkalinity and the affinity of the
collagen for the chrome. The theory of chrome tanning is that cross-linkage is
accomplishedbybondingofthevariouschromeionswithfreecarboxylgroupsinthe
collagen side-chains. The liming aids by exposing additional carboxyl groupsby
chemicalhydrolysisofamineside-chains.
Too little basification will not fix the chrome or will not sufficiently raise the
shrink temperature and over-basification willresult in acoarse grain. The tanning
operation requires4-6hours (longerfor thicker hides).Therate oftanningcanbe
followedbythewetshrinkagetemperatureofthehideaswellasotherchemicaltests.
For example, an untanned hide will shrink noticeably at 60C (140F) but a fully
chrome-tannedhidewillnotshrinkat100C(212F)inabathofboilingwater. After
tanning, the blue-green hides are transferred to large boxes with holes that will
permitexcessliquidtodrainfrom theskins.Hidesatthispointaresaidtobe'inthe
blue'.
Vegetable tanning (discussed under re-tanning) isaslowerprocesswhichtakes
severalmonthsandproducesafirmerleatherwithmorewaterresistance.Vegetable
tanning isusually accomplished in a series of vats (first the rocker-section vatsto
agitatetheliquorandsecondthelay-awayvatswithnoagitation)containinganever
stronger solutionoftanning liquor.
Zirconium (an element found in beach sand) can be processed into ZrO
2
and,
along with silica and under acidic (pH less than 2) conditions, can tan skin quite
rapidly.
A small percentage of skins are tanned by the alum (aluminum potassium
sulphate, A1K(SO
4
)
2
) process, sometimes called 'tawing' process to obtain pure
white or sole-grey leather, for example, baseball leather and furs. The oilmethod
usingfishoil (cod, whale, seal or shark), isoften used to produce soft leather for
moccasinorchamoisleather. Theformaldehyde procedure (formalin solutionused
to tan a white and washable leather); the glutaraldehyde method (for producing
light-tanwashableshearlingbedpads);thecalgon(5%sodium hexamethaphosphate
at a pH of 2.8) tanning procedure; the quinone technique; the tungsten tanning
procedure; the aluminum method; the iron technique and the silicaprocedure are
othertanningmethods.Alumtanninghasalsobeensuggestedasasubstituteforsalt
curing of green hides because it offers a great deal of control over the re-tanning
operation bythe tannery.
The next procedure in producing leather is 'wringing' or 'setting', sometimes
called 'sammy',whosepurpose istoremoveexcessmoisture,smooth thegrain and
removewrinklesfrom thehide.Themachinethataccomplishesthisissimilartothe
previously described wringing machine, and the operation consists of passing the
hide between two large rollers. In addition to removing moisture this operation
slightly compresses the hide, but it soon returns to its normal thickness. Over
wringing,however,willmaketheleathertoothinandwillreducethemoisturetothe
extentthatexcessivedryingmayoccur.
After wringing, the next two operations are 'splitting' and 'shaving' and the
purposeoftheseoperationsistoadjust theleatherthickness(oneiron=0.53mm (^
in)oroneounce=0.40mm(^ in))tothatdesiredforitsultimateuse.Hidethickness
canvary from animal to animal due to such things asage, and can alsovary from
different areasof the skin on the same animal. The major portion of the thickness
adjustment isaccomplished bysplitting.Thesplittingiscarried outon a horizontal
band-sawwhichcontainsasharpflexible knife instead ofsawteeth. Thehideisfed
throughthemachinewiththegrain (outer)portion upandthisistheportion thatis
sized.Adjustable feedrollsaboveandbelowtheknifecontroltheultimatethickness
ofthegrainsideofthehideto0.25mm( ^ in).Theunderside(fleshlayer)iscalleda
'split' (doesnotcontain anygrain)anditisoften thickenough tobeusedfor suede
types of leathers. These splits are sometimes further processed by specialized
tanners. The split can also be used as a raw material for manufacturing collagen
sausagecasings.
The grain portions of the hides are then shaved, which requires passing these
through a type of fleshing machine with helix shaped cutting blades. In splitting,
someareasofthehidemaynothavebeenthickenoughtocomeintocontactwiththe
splittingblade andtheshavingoperation isusedtocleansesuchareasof anyfleshy
material and alsotofurther adjust theoveralluniformity ofthicknessofthehide.
Often thehidesarenow're-tanned', usingthecombined desirablepropertiesof
more than one tanning agent. The more popular re-tanning agents are vegetable
extractsandsyntans.Thevegetableextractsaresomeoftheoriginallyused tanning
agentsandareextractedfromtreesandshrubswithwaterandheat.Thecommercial
tanbarkistheshreddedspentbark.Thistanbarkisusedinanimalshowringsorasa
fertilizer. Tannin (tannic acid, C
76
H
52
O4
6
) isthe active tanning agent in vegetable
extractsanditisfound inover300speciesofplantlife,butlessthan20are normally
used.Someofthemorecommon vegetablesourceswouldinclude:
Chestnut (olive-brown leather)
Chinese nutgall
Cutch (deep-red leather)
Divi-divi
Eucalyptus
Table4.16Pit -curingoffleshedhides,requiringaminimumof3daysandyielding
62-68%ofgreenhideweight
Weight
(lb)
hides
Operation
or
activity
Composition
0
or
change
Green
30-35% hides
100
97
Trimears,snoutandtail
Washhides
3%loss;3lbtrimtorendering
2% loss; 2 lb blood and
manure
95
80
77
Fleshanddemanurewith
machine
Trimpattern
Salthidesdownintopit(122-152
cm (4-5 feet) deep), flood with
saturated brine
12-18%loss, 12-15lb fleshing
torendering, 1-3lbmanure
3-4% loss, 3 lb trimming to
rendering
0.5lbofsalt (No.1rock salt)
per1lbofhide
77 Cureinpit(stillbrine) for48-55
hours,drainpitfor24-33hours
15-17% net loss in weight;
20-25lblossinwater,7-11 lb
salttosewer
6
Cured
65
65
Removeforpit,inspect,bundle
Movehidestostorageorloadfor
shipment
Reclaimexcesssalt
12-16% salt, 35-45% water,
40-50% hide substance
fe
Biedermann etal. (1962),MinnochandMinnoch(1979).
Gambier (yellow leather)
Hemlock
Mangrove
Mimosa
Myrobalan
Oak
Palmetto root
Quebracho (redleather)
Spruce
Sumac
Turkish nutgall
Valonia (buff-coloured leather)
Wattle
Vegetable tannins arepolyphenoliccompoundsoftwotypes.The hydrolysable
tannins (i.e. chestnut and myrobalan) are derivatives of pyrogallols, and the
condensed tannins (i.e.hemlock andwattle) arederivativesofcatechol. Vegetable
tanningprobablyresultsfromhydrogenbondingbetweenthetanninphenolicgroups
andthepeptidebondsoftheproteinchains.Insomecasesasmuchas50%byweight
oftanninisincorporated intothehide.
The vegetable re-tanning results in solidity, body, and more uniformity in
chrome-tannedleather.Thisisveryimportantinpigskinstomodifythedifference in
temperofvariouspartsofthe skin.
Syntans are man-made chemicals generally produced by condensing aromatic
sulphonicacidsorphenolswithformaldehyde;syntanscanalsobeoftheacrylicresin
type.Syntansare used toproduce softer-type leather and alsotoproducewhite or
pastelshadessincethesyntanwillhaveableachingeffect ontheblue-greenchrome-
tanned leather.
Forre-tanningthehidesareplacedagainintherotarydrums(seeFig.4.13).Here
they are washed and neutralized with mild alkali to adjust the pH to the most
appropriate level for the re-tanning material selected (i.e. pH 5 for vegetable
tanning).Then the re-tanning agent isadded and re-tanning usuallytakes approxi-
mately 1-2 hours.
The next step is often 'dyeing' of the leather to produce the desired colour.
Properdyeingisstillsomewhatofanart-form sincepigskincolouruptakeis different
from that of cattle hide, and most leather material has non-uniform pigmentation
and grain structure although a fairly uniform colour is often desirable; however,
someslightnon-uniformity isoften wanted sincethisisverydifficult toduplicatein
syntheticmaterial.Therearehundredsofdifferent dyestuffs andauxiliaryproducts,
andusuallyleatherisdyedwithblendstoachievethedesiredcolour.Thepenetration
depth and exhaust rateofthedyeblendsareimportant sincetheblendsmust work
togethertoproducethedesiredresults.AgainthetannermakesuseofpHcontrolto
effect theaffinity ofthedyestuff for the fibres.
Categoriesofdyesused:
acid-dyespenetrate readily,bright colours,
anilinetypescombinewithskinfibres,
basicdyessurface dyeing,brilliant shades,
directdyessurface dyeing,deepshades,
metallized dyesleveldyeing,subdued colours.
Theaimofcolouringisnotonlytoproducetherightstrength (contraction) and
shade(hueordullness)ofcolourbuttoproduceacolourthatwillresistfading, that
willnotbleed, andthat canbedry-cleaned or washed.
Aftercolouring,thehidesarewashedtoeliminateresidualdyestuff,toadjust the
pHandthetemperature (usuallyto52C(125F))andthenextstepis 'fatliquoring',
whichisusedtoadjustthefirmnessorsoftnessoftheleatherbylubricatingthefibres.
Fatliquoring may also increase the tensile strength of the leather. The basic
ingredients ('sponging' compounds) of fatliquoring are vegetable, fish, mineralor
animaloils,suchasNeat's-foot oil,glycerinandrelatedfattysubstances,soaps,egg
yolk,andsometimeswaxesorclayandchemicalreagentsthatwillreactwiththeoils
toimprovetheirwatersolubilityoremulsifierswhichwilldispersethenon-polaroils
in a stable emulsion. Other materials that might also be added would include:
powderedlignin,naphthalenesyntan,Epsomsalts,cornsugar,saltsoforganicacids,
bicarbonatesandborax.Somefatliqouring materialsarehighlysulphatedoilblends
tomakethem morewater-miscible. Anionicfatliquors areprepared from mixtures
ofeithersulphatedorsulphonatedoilwithrawoils.Cationicfatliquorsareblendsof
alkylatedlong-chainaminesmixedwithrawoils.Thefatliquoring operationusually
requiresapproximatelyonehouratelevatedtemperaturesintherotatingdrum(see
Fig.4.13).Byselectingthetypeandamountoffatliquor, variousdegreesof softness
canbeachievedfromthesametypeoftannedleather.Pigskinsusuallyrequiremore
fatliquor thancattleskins.
Thenextprocessinproducingleatheriscalled 'settingout' anditspurposeisto
smoothandstretchtheleatherandtocompressandsqueezeouttheexcessmoisture
andgrease.Thisisaccomplishedonafleshing-likemachinewithabladedesignedto
exert pressure and to smooth the grain. This compresses the leather (which will
remaincompressedduringdrying)andresultsinaproductwithapproximately60%
moisture.
The next step is 'drying', whose purpose is to remove all but equilibrium
moisture.Therearethreedifferent dryingmethodsandtheonechosenwillhavean
influence onthecharacteristicsofthefinalleather.
Thesimplestdryingmethodis'hanging',inwhichtheleatherishunglikewashing
andisthenoften passedthroughalargedryingovenwhichismaintainedbelow54C
(130C)toreduceshrinkage.
Another drying method is called 'toggling'. In this technique the skins are
stretchedandattachedtoametalperforatedframebyfasteninghookscalledtoggles.
Anadditionalskinisthenfastened totheothersideoftheframe. Theseframes are
thenplaced inadryingoven.
The popular dryingtechnique iscalled 'pasting' inwhich the hides are actually
pastedtolargestainlesssteel,porcelainizedsteelorglassplates.Theplatesare first
washedanddried,sprayedwithapastesolution(starch-likematerialthatwillcause
adhesion ofthewetleather butwillreleasethe dried leather),the grainsideofthe
leatherpressed againsttheplate,andtheleatherpressedandsmoothedwithadull-
bladedinstrumentcalleda'slicker',thentheplateisplacedinadryingoven60-66C
(140-150F),40%relativehumidityfor 4-6hours.
Another drying technique isthe use of 'vacuum dryers' which dry the leather
undervacuumwhileitisonahotstainlesssteelplate.
After dryingtheskinsshouldcontain 10-12% moisture.
Thenextoperationinleatherproductioniscalled'conditioning'or'wettingback'
anditinvolvestheintroductionofcontrolledamountsofmoisture.After theleather
hasbeendrieditishardandfairlyunworkableandtheultimateuserusuallyrequires
varyingdegreesofsoftness (called'temper').Themoistureisappliedbyshower-like
nozzlesandthenthehidesarestackedandcoveredwithamoisture-proof materialto
allowtheleatherto'mull'approximately16hoursduringwhichtimecapillaryaction
uniformly distributesthe moisture. Themoisturelevelisusuallyraised toapproxi-
mately25%.
Thenextstepinsoftening andmakingtheleathermorepliableiscalled 'staking'
andit,incombinationwiththepreviouslydescribedfatliquoring, primarily governs
thefinaltemper of the product. The staking machine containsjaws that open and
closeandmovebackandforth,whiletheleatherismanuallymovedbytheoperator,
forapproximatelyoneminuteperhide.Thecombinationofpullingandrollingbythe
stakingmachineappliesagreatdealofmechanicalstressandflexestheleatherfibres.
After staking, the excess moisture is now 'aired-off' by one of the previously
describeddryingmethods.
Thenextprocessinleatherproductionis'buffing', whichinvolvessmoothingthe
grainsurface bylightmechanical sandingtoimprovethe appearance ofthe leather
andtodiminishanyblemishesthatmightbepresent(sometimestheflesh-sideisalso
buffed). Thebuffers useasandingdrumorbelt(Carborundum abrasivepaper)with
controlsto regulate the degree of abrasive cutting. If the leather isnot buffed itis
called 'full grain'. A lightlybuffed leather iscalled 'corrected grain', intermediate
buffing produces 'snuffed leather' and deep buffing gives'buffed leather'. Leather
dustcreatedbythebuffing isremovedbybrushes,jetsofairorvacuuming,anddust
removersaresometimesincorporated intothebuffing equipment.
Thenextoperationis'finishing'whichistheapplicationoffilm-formingmaterials
thatprovideabrasionandstainresistance,enhancethecolour(finishngmaterialmay
befrom transparent to opaque) andmakethe leather easytocarefor. The typeof
finishis determined by the type of skin (pigskin is more difficult to finish and
frequently requires30%morefinish)andtheultimateuseofthe leather.
Coatingmaterialsinclude:
Acrylatepolymers (basicstructureisacrylicacid,C
3
H
4
O
2
)
Albumin blood (seealbumin egg)
Albumin egg(eggwhite:53%C,7% H, 16%N,2%S)
Butadienepolymers(basicstructureisbutadiene,C
4
H
6
)
Casein(cow'smilkprotein,54%C,7% H, 16%N,22%0 , 1 %P, 1%S)
Isinglass(fish glue,seeChapter 5)
Linseed oil(glyceridesoflinolenic,linoleic,oleic,steric,
palmiticandmyristicacids)
Nitrocellulose (C
12
Hi
6
N
4
Oi
8
)
Polyurethane (basicstructure urethane, NH
2
COOC
2
H
5
)
Acrylic-urethane copolymer
Shellac(resinousexcretion ofan insect)
Vinylpolymers(basicstructurevinylacetate,C
4
H
6
O
2
)
Wax(vegetablefat expressedfrom a fruit)
Theequipmentforapplyingfinishingmaterialdependsupontheproductused.A
popular machine isthe 'seasoning machine', which pumps thefinishinto a trough
whereitispickedupbyaflutedroll,transferred toarotarybrush,whichplacesiton
theleather,andthenworkedintotheleatherwithmechanicalswabs.Aheavycoatof
finish maybeappliedwitha'flowcoater'whichpumpsthefinishintoareservoir or
'head'.Itthenflowsthroughanarrowslitinthebottomoftheheadoritoverflowsthe
head inathin unbroken sheet ontotheleather,whichistransported on aconveyor
under the head. Another pieceofequipment usedtoapply alightcoatof finishing
materialisa'rotaryspray'whichspraysthefinishovertheconveyerizedleather.This
equipment can produce multi-tones and unique patterns. Some equipment passes
the wet coating under a beam of electrons or ultraviolet light to encourage
polymerization.
After thefinishisapplieditmustbedried.Acommonprocedureistousealong
tunnel which may be heated with steam-heated air or infra-red units. Maximum
resultsareobtainedwhenseveralcoatsoffinishareappliedwithintermittentdrying
between applications.
The next processing step is 'platining', which smooths the grain surface or
produces a varied grain texture. After platining, another coat of finish may be
applied andplatiningrepeated;thiscyclemayberepeated severaltimesovera4-5
day period. The platining operation is conducted on presses that exert 25283kg
pressure per m
2
(300tons/in
2
) at 107C(225F)steam-heated temperature andthe
leather isplatined for afewseconds.
Theleathermayalsobeembossedatthispointbyengravedplateswhichproduce
apatternontheleatherwhenpressureisapplied;theleatherwillpermanentlyretain
thisembossed pattern.
Sinceleatherissoldbythearea,thenextstepistomeasurethisontheirregularly
shapedhide.Thisisaccomplishedbyaplanimeterwhosefingerssensetheleatheras
itpassesthrough themachineandsumsthetotal areaofthepieceof leather.
Thefinalstepis'grading',whichdeterminesthequalityofthefinishedleather.It
isgraded for temper, uniformity of thickness and colour, and defects. The graded
sidesaregroupedintobatchesoffourorfivehides,rolledintoabundle,coveredwith
paper; thispackageissometimesplaced inawooden box. Thetime required from
hidecuringtofinishedleatherproduction averagesfour weeks.
After the processing of most hides from large animals, it is customary to
subdividethe hide (seeFig.4.14)intosmallersectionsfor easierhandling;alsothe
variousareasofthehideareoften bettersuitedformanufacturing different typesof
leather articles.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LEATHER
Leatherhasmanyuniqueandvaluablephysicalpropertiesandmostofthesecanbe
attributed to the internal structure of the leather. A photomicrograph of this
structure can be seen in Fig. 4.15.The top portion of thisfigureisthe grain layer
(hair- or grain-side), the bottom portion istheflesh-sideand the centre sectionis
termedthecorium.Noticethetwisting,interlockingstructure,whichhasmanyofthe
propertiesofacoiledcableor rope.
Leather has a very high tensile strength (the greatest longitudinal stress a
substancecanbearwithout tearing)for aflexiblesheet material,asshowninTable
4.17. Leather traditionally has tensile strength values from 140 to 281 kg/cm
2
(2000-4000psi)whichmakesitoneofthestrongestflexiblesheetmaterialsknown.
Leather alsohasaveryhightearstrength (seeTable4.17),whichmakesitvery
tearresistant. Thisisbecausethefibresarefairly random inorientation anddonot
127
HEAD A CROP A+B+Dor
SHOULDER B+C A+C+E
BEND Dor E BACK B+DorC+E
BELLY For G CROUPON D+E
SIDE A+B+D+For DOSSET B+C+D+E+A or -A
A+C+E+G CULATTA D+E+F+G
F andG includes shadedareaexcept for culatta
Fig.4.14Subdivisionsofahide.FromUnitedStatesHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation(1985).
haveafixedpathfortheteartofollow.Thismeansthatleatherusuallyisnothemmed
and stitching isnot required around apunched hole. Pigskins,however, are much
weakerintearresistanceandconsequentlycannotbeusedinsomeproductsinwhich
theyaresubject totear-typestresses.Theelongation (maximumextenttowhichthe
material can be stretched without breaking) of leather (see Table 4.17) can be
controlled from 15to 73% by selecting the appropriate tanning and fatliquoring
processes. Under normal conditions, however, leather is usually subjected to
elongation stressesof from 15to 25%.Leather alsohasexcellentflexibilityovera
wide temperature and moisture range, making the product uniquely suitable for
manufacturing things to be used in harsh environments. Leather also provides an
addedsafetyfeature duetoitspunctureresistance(abilitytoresistpenetration bya
sharp object). This also contributes to its long-wearing properties. Leather can
absorb and transmit moisture, has the ability to breath (pork skin isvery good at
this),theabilitytocoolinhotweatherandinsulateincoldweather,andiswindproof,
allofwhichmakeitidealmaterialforgarmentsandshoes.Leatheralsohasmoulding
128 Hideandskinby-products
[Ch.4
Fig. 4.15 Photomicrograph of leather cross-section which is 1.8 mm (^ in) in actual
thickness.FromnewEnglandTannersClub(1983).
Table4.17Physicalpropertiesofshoeupper leather
Property Value
Tensilestength (MPa) 15.3-37.5
Elongation atbreak (%) 29.5-73.0
Stichtearstrength (N/ 1280-2275
Thickness (mm) 1.5-2.4
Burstingstrength (kN/
1.1-24.5
Apparent density (g/cm
3
)
0.6-0.9
Realdensity (g/cm
3
)
1.4-1.6
Heat resistance
Shrinksdependingonmoisture;anhyd-
rousdecomposition at 160-165C.
aToconvertMPatopsi,multiplyby145.
*ToconvertN/cmtolbf/ft, divideby14.6.
United StatesMilitarySpecification (undated),Wilson (1927),Conabere andHill(1948),Roddy etal.
(1948, 1949), Kanagy (1965), Kremen and Lollar (1951), Kizk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology(1981).
ability and retains its other desirable properties even after being permanently
deformed intonewshapes,whichisoneofthemostsignificant propertiesinmaking
shoes.Thiscombinationofpropertiesofleathermakeitauniquematerialformany
uses.
TANNING EFFLUENT
Sincecuringandtanningremoveproteinandfatfromhidesandtheseprocessesuse
large quantities of salt and tanning and processing chemicals, the effluent from
tanning operations can be a pollutant; consequently effluent treatment can be a
majorexpense.Thequantityofloadingsfoundinwastewaterforpigskinandcattle-
hideprocessingcanbefound inTable4.18.
Table4.18Comparisonofwastewaterloadingsandyield
Average loading
(lb/10001brawstock)"
Parameter Pigskin Cattle hide
(Twenty50lbhides)
Hidescontain580lbsolids
Chemicals added 350 lb
solids
Totalsolids930lb
Flow(gallons/1000lbrawstock)* 1740198 1488350
Totalsolids(lb) 63848 43895
Dissolvedsolids(lb) 50538 386104
Landfill solids (lb) 50
Air-volatilesolids (lb) 35
Ammonia (lb) 9 1.1 72.5
Oilandgrease (lb) 5019 116
Chloride (lb) 1089 13128
TotalKjeldahl nitrogen 243 166
Chemical OxygenDemand 32739 10225
Grainleather,solids(lb)
175
Bluedrop,solids(lb)
195
Grainleather )ft
2
)
c
800
Offal (lb) 75
"1lb=0.454kg
b
\ gallon=3.785
c
l ft
2
=0.093m
2
Taylor etai (1982),Diefendorf et al.(1983),Lollar(1977).
Some tanners are recycling chromium through precipitation/re-solution pro-
cedures, through incineration and extraction, through spent chrome addition to
pickleliquorsorthroughextractionofwastewatersludges.Othermetalsintannery
wastesuchaslead (fromfinishingpigment),zincandcopperarealsoaproblem.
TANNERY WASTE
Solidwaste(from trimming,cutting,fleshingandshavinghairandbuffing material)
or tannery offal isused asfertilizer, feed, for glue/gelatin, hair, grease and leather
board. The tannery solid waste contains two proteins; keratins from hair and
collagenous hide fibres. These proteins are normally hydrolysed to produce swine
and poultry feed. The percentage of tannery.offals that may be utilized in animal
dietsisnormallylimitedduetotheunbalancedaminoacidcompositionandhighash
content.Fibredleatherorleatherboard,insulationandacousticbuildingtilesmaybe
madefrom leather shavingsandtrimmings. 'Shoddy'leather ismadebyconverting
waste leather toapulpand pressingitintosheets,eitherwith orwithout abinding
material.
Incinerationisanothertechniqueusedtodisposeoftanneryoffal. Chromeinthe
blue-leather statehasaheatingvalueof 1966kcal(7800Btu)per453g(1lb)ofdry
matter. Incineration ash can be further processed for chrome recovery. Pyrolysis
(400C(752F)withadeficiency ofoxygen)ofleatherwastealongwithcatalystswill
yield agranular materialthat maybeusedlikeactivated carbon.
REFERENCES
Aten,A.,Innis,R.F.andKnew,E.(1955) Flaying and curing of hides and skins as a
rural industry. Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations.
Conabere, G. O. and Hill, R. A. (1948) in Progress in leather science. London,
British Leather Manufacturers' Research Association, pp.1920-1945.
Bengtsson, O. and Holmqvist, O. (1984) By-products from slaughtering. Fleisch-
wirtschaft 64(3)334-336.
Bidermann, K., Neck. H., Neher, M.B. and Wilhelmy, Jr. V. (1962) A technical-
economic evaluation of four hide curing methods. Argicultural Economic
Report No. 16., Washington, Marketing Economics Division, Economic
Research Service,USDA.
Clemen, R. A. (1927) By-products in the packing industry. Chicago. Universityof
ChicagoPress.
Diefendorf,E.J.,Taylor, M.M.,Bailey,D.G.andFeairheller,S.H.(1983) Pigskin
processing with short floats. JALCA 78: 156-166.
Hague,H. M. (1949) Leather.Tanners'CouncilofAmerica,Washington D.C.
Henrickson, R. L., Turgut, H. and Rao, B. R. (1984) Hide protein as a food
additive.JALCA 79:132-145.
Judge, M. D., Salm, C. P. and Okos, R. M. (1978) Hog skinning versus scalding.
American Meat InstituteFoundation, Arlington,Va., Meat Industry Research
Conference, pp. 155-164.
Kanagy, J. R. (1965) referenced in The chemistry and technology of leather. Vol.
IV, edited by O'Flaherty, F. Roddy, W. T. and Lollar, R. M., New York,
Reinhold PublishingCorporation, pp.369-416.
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (1981) Kirk-Othmer encyclo-
pedia of chemical technology. Third Edition, Vol. 14,New York, John Wiley,
pp.200-230.
Kremen, S.S.and Lollar, R. M. (1951)/. Am. Leather Assoc. 46,34.
Lawrie, R. (1981) Developments in meat science2. London, Applied Science
Publishers.
Ch.4] Hideandskinby-products 131
Leather Industries of America (1987) U.S. Leather Industry Statistics.Washington
D.C.,Leather Industriesof America.
LeatherIndustriesofAmericaandU.S.Hide,SkinandLeatherAssociation (1985)
Trade practices for proper cattlehide delivery. Washington D.C., Leather
IndustriesofAmerica andU.S.HideSkinandLeather Association.
Lollar,R. M. (1977) A technical assessment of our leather industry: challenges and
opportunities in the late 70's. JALCA 27254-269.
Marketing Economics Division, USDA (1964) A guide to lower cost and greater
efficiency in curing cattle hides. Agricultural Economic Report No. 54, Wash-
ington, D.C. Marketing Economics Division, Economics Research Service,
USDA.
Minnoch, J. J. and Minnoch, S. R. (1979) Hides and skins, 3rd edn. Prepared by
Education Committee (E. A. Whitney, Chairman) SiouxCity,Iowa, National
Hide Association.
Moulton, C. R. and Lewis, W. L. (1940) Meat through the microscope, revised
edition. Chicago,InstituteofMeatPacking,TheUniversityofChicago.
NationalHideAssociation, (1979) Hides and skins. SiouxCity,Iowa,Nationalhide
Association.
NewEnglandTannersClub(1983) Leather facts.2ndedn.Peabody,Massachusetts,
NewEngland Tanners Club.
Ockerman, H. W. (1983) Chemistry of meat tissue. Columbus, Department of
AnimalScience,OhioState University.
Price,J.F.andSchweigert,B.S.(1971) The science of meat and meat products. San
Francisco,W. H. Freeman.
Roddy,W.T.,Echerlin, R. andJansing,J. (1948) Quartermaster generals research
reports on leather technology.April 15.WashingtonD.C.
Roddy, W. T., Jacobs, J. and Jansing, J. (1949) The water resistance and other
physicaland chemicalcharacteristics ofanarmyupper leather. / . Am. Leather
Assoc. 44308.
Romans, J. R. and Ziegler, P. T. (1974) The meat we eat. Danville, Illinois,
Interstate.
Tanners'CouncilofAmerica, (1972) Trade practices for proper cattlehide delivery.
Washington D. C, TannersCouncilof America.
Tanners'CouncilofAmerica (1983) Dictionary of leather terminology. Washington
D. C, Tanners Councilof America.
Taylor,M.M.,Diefendorf, E.J., Hannigan,M.V.,Bailey,D.G. and Feairheller,
S.H. (1982) The leather manufacturer100(1)20.
U.S.Department ofAgriculture(1987) Leather Industries of America. Washington,
D. C, USDA.
U.S. Department of Commerce (1987a) Footwear Retailers of America. Wash-
ington,D. C , United StatesDepartment of Commerce.
U.S. Department of Commerce (1987b) U.S. industrial outlook for 1984. Wash-
ington,D. C , United StatesDepartment of Commerce.
United States Hide, Skin and Leather Association, (1983) Modern cattlehide
procedures a slide set. Washington, United States Hide Skin and Leather
Association.
UnitedStatesHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation,(1985) Trade practices for proper
packer cattlehide delivery. Washington, United States Hide, Skin and Leather
Association.
UnitedStatesHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation (1987) Letter to the membership.
Washington,United StatesHide,SkinandLeatherAssociation,Feb.,pp. 1-8.
United StatesMilitarySpecification (undated) MIL-L-3122.
Wilson, J. A. (1927) International critical tables of numerical data, physics,
chemistry and technology. NewYork, McGraw-Hill, pp.250-254.
5
Glueandgelatine
INTRODUCTION
Glue and gelatine are both water-soluble, hydrophilic, derived colloidal proteins
(albuminoids)producedbycontrolledhydrolysisofwater-insolublecollagen(white
fibrous connective tissue). Glueandgelatine arephysicallyandchemicallysimilar.
Themajordifferenceisthatgelatineismadefromfresh,federally(inU.S.)inspected
rawmaterialsinasanitarymannerwhichallowstheproducttoremaininanedible
condition(seeTable5.1).
Collagen (anhydride of gelatine) is composed of tropocollagen monomers
arranged in overlappingfibrilsthat are configurated inthree non-identical coiled
peptide chains. The number and type of chemical covalent cross-bonds between
thesechainsarealteredastheanimalages(fewernumberinyoungeranimals).This
influences themolecularpropertiesoftheresultantgelatineorglue.
The conversion of tropocollagen to gelatine or glue involves the breakingof
hydrogen bonds which stabilize the triple-coil helix and transforming it into the
'randomcoil'configurationofgelatinorglue.Thehydrolysedproductdependsupon
the cross linkswhich remain between thepeptide chainsandreactive amino-and
carboxyl-terminal groups that have been formed. Since the three chains arenot
identical, three basic types of new chains result after cleavage: the alpha-chain
consisting of one peptide chain, the beta-chain made of two peptide chains still
connected and the gamma-chain consisting of three connected peptide chains;
therefore asingle gelatine sample has several molecular weights. The molecular-
weight distribution of gelatine determines its characteristics, such as colloidal
dispersioninwater,viscosity,adhesivenessandgelstrength.Largerrelativeconcen-
trationsoflowmolecular-weightmoleculeswilllowerviscosityandcausetheproduct
tohavealowergelstrength.Thisconditionisusuallycausedbyhightemperatures
and/orhighlyacidicoralkalineconditions,butcanalsobecausedbythetypeofraw
materialsandthelimingtime.
Gelatineisaderivedproteinofthealbuminoidclassincontrasttonaturalgums
whichhavesomeofthesamephysicalproperties,butarepolysaccharidesinnature
andhaveacompletelydifferent chemicalcomposition.Forexample,agar-agaralso
133
Ch.5] Glueandgelatine
Table5.1Terminology intheglueandgelatine area
Term
Types Definition
Use
Glue Hide, Crude form Adhesive in plywood, furni-
bone, of gelatine ture, veneer, paper board,
blood match heads to give an air-
albumin
tight cap over phosphorus,
(water paper sizing, sizing walls
resistant) before painting, sizing barrels
or casks that are to contain
liquid,inmanufactureofwool,
silkandotherfabrics,sandand
emery paper, composition
cork, imitation hard rubber,
printing rolls, mother-of-
pearl, gummed tape, paper
boxesandbookbinding.
Gelatin Pure protein
(spelling from
contains collagen
noe)
Gelatine Hide, Purer and
Used in food (ice cream,
bone cleaner
mayonnaise dressing, emul-
form sion flavours), to clarify wine,
beer,andvinegar,pharmaceu-
ticals(capsulesandcoating for
pills), photography, some-
timesanadhesive, electroplat-
ing,bacteria culture medium.
Ossein Demineralized A very desirable raw material
bone,spongy for theextraction of gelatine
undissolved
matrixof
collagen
Isinglass Gelatine Good sourceof gelatine
obtained from
fishbladder
formsagelbutisasulphuricacidesterofarangeofpolysaccharidesobtained from
seaweed. Other seaweed extracts would include Japanese gelatin or Japanese
isinglass(vegetableagar),ChineseMoss,andIrishMoss.Pectinalsohasgel-forming
properties but is obtained from fruit. Another product sometimes confused with
gelatineisgelatineexplosive (blastinggelatine)whichisamixtureof nitroglycerine
anddiatomaceousearth. Itisnotrelated toanimalgelatine.
134 Glueandgelatine [Ch.5
Collagen and gelatine or glue, from a nutritional standpoint, are composedof
longchainsofaminoacidsconnectedbypeptidebonds;theaminoacidscontainboth
acid and basic functional groups. The amino acid composition (see Table 5.2)of
collagen and consequently gelatine and glueisalmostcompletelylackingintrypto-
phan and islowinmethionine, cystine and tyrosine. It istherefore not acomplete
protein from a nutritional standpoint because it will not supply the total daily
requirementof'essential'aminoacids(aminoacidsthatcannotbesynthesizedbythe
body in sufficient quantities and must be regularly ingested asfood). However,if
used ina'normal' diet with other proteins,gelatinewillinsome casesincreasethe
biological value of the added protein. Under these combined-protein conditions,
gelatine makes avery acceptable protein sourceprovided itisnot used astheonly
sourceofprotein. Whenasugarsubstituteisusedwithgelatine,thetastyand filling
gelatinedessertsmakeagooddietfoodbecausetheyrequiremorecaloriestodigest
than they contain (specific dynamic action principle). Gelatine is often used asa
therapeutic agent in such areas as infant feeding, and for patients with digestive
problems, peptic ulcers, muscular disorders and to encourage nail growth. Unlike
other proteins collagen has a fairly high content of the amino acids proline and
hydroxyproline. The quantity of these amino acidsisoften used asanindexofthe
quantityofcollagen inaprotein mixture.
RAW MATERIALS
Sincecollagenis30%oftheanimalbody'stotalorganicmatter,or60%oftheanimal
body's protein, it is obvious that many tissues could be extracted for glue and
gelatine.AlistingofpossiblerawmaterialscanbelocatedinTable5.3andtheyield
that can be expected may be found in Table 5.4. The tissues with fairly large
quantitiesofcollagenthatarecommerciallyavailableasaby-product,however,are
usually hides or skins (including pig skins) and bones. The other sources, even
though feasible, are usually utilized only in small quantities. Contrary to popular
opinion,hoofs, horns,hair,feathers andegg-shellwastedonotyieldgelatine.
MANUFACTURING OFGLUEAND GELATINE
Theobjectofglueandgelatinemanufacturing istocontrolthehydrolysisofcollagen
(from various sources) and toconvert the resulting product into asoluble material
withdesirablephysicalandchemicalproperties,suchasgelstrength, adhesiveness,
colour, tack and clarity. Essentially the process consists of three major steps: (1)
removal of non-collagenous compounds from the new material with as little alte-
rationtothecollagenaspossible,(2)controlledhydrolysisofcollagentogelatineand
(3)therecoveryanddryingofthefinishedproduct (seeFig.5.1).Allofthesesteps
and the starting raw material will influence the quality and yield of thefinished
product. Controlled hydrolysis is needed to convert collagen (molecular weight
range from 345000to 360000) to gelatine (molecular weight range from 10000to
65000andinafewcasesupto250000),butcontinuedhydrolysiswillresultinlossof
yield and loss of desirable properties. Also the nature and condition of the raw
material can greatly influence the final extracted product. This can vary not only
C
h
.
5
]
Table5.2Aminoacidcompositionofcollagenand gelatine
Aminoacid Numberofresidues/ Percentage
100residues byweight
Hide Ossein Pigskin TypeB TypeB TypeA Mixed
skin bone porskin gelatin
Alanine 10.1-11.0 11.0 11.1 9.3-11.0 11.3 8.6-10.7 11.0
Arginine 4.5-4.6 4.9 4.8 8.5-8.8 9.0 8.3-9.1 8.8
Asparticacid 4.9-4.4 5.0 4.7 6.6-6.9 6.7 6.2-6.7 6.7
Cystine Trace Trace 0.1 Trace
Glutamicacid 7.1-7.2 7.6 7.2 11.1-11.4 11.6 11.3-11.7 11.4
Glycine 33.5-33.8 31.4 32.6 26.9-27.5 27.2 26.4-30.5 27.5

Histidine 0.43-0.45 0.58 0.60 0.7-0.8 0.7 0.8-1.0 0.78 S3
Hydroxylsine 0.63-0.66 0.64 0.59 0.9-1.2 0.8 1.0 a
Hydroxyproline 9.3-10.0 10.1 9.5 14.0-14.5 13.3 13.5 14.1
TO
Isoleucine 1.7-1.8 1.5 1.4
Leucine 3.2-3.4 3.4 3.1-3.3
s*
Leucineand
isoleucine 4.0-4.1 4.1 2.3 5.1
Lysine 2.6-2.9 2.6 2.6 4.5-4.6 4.4 4.1-5.2 4.5
Methionine 0.5-0.6 0.5 0.5 0.8-0.9 0.6 0.8-0.9 0.9
Phenylalanine 1.3-1.4 1.6 1.4 2.2-2 5 2.5 2.1-2.6 2.2
Proline 11.9-12.2 11.9 13.0 14.8-16.4 15.5 16.2-18.0 16.4
Serine 3.0-3.8 3.8 3.6 3.2-4 2 3.7 2.9-4.1 4.2
Threonine 1.8 2.0 1.7 2.2 2.4 2.2 2.2
Tyrosine 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.2-1.0 0.2 0.4-0.9 0.3
Valine 2.0-2.1 2.1 2.2 2.6-3.4 2.8 2.5-2.8 2.6
Aminogroups 4.4 4.2 4.1
Divakaran(1984),Eastoe(1955),Veis(1964),GelatinManufacturers InstituteofAmerica(undated).
136
Glueand gelatine
[Ch.5
Table5.3Rawmaterialusedtomanufacture glueand gelatine
Material
Trimmings
Raw
Salted
Pickled
Limed
Limed, dried
Limed and unhaired
Limesulphide
Coney
Head
Lips
Ear tubes
Tail
Scrotalsacs
Pizzels
Cowbag
Ear pieces
Fleshing
Splits
Dried and
rejected hides
andskins
Tanned waste
Vegetable-tanned
Chrome-tanned,
moist
Chrome-tanned,
dried
Combination tanned
Comments
Frayed edgesfrom sheep, goatsand cattle hides available
inwet,semi-dried ordried state
Hair isno problem unless sulphide ispresent, whichwill
impartcolour;dew-clawsshouldberemovedbecausethey
willalsoimpart colour
Saltisremovedbysoakingandwashingbefore processing
Salt-cured byasalt-saturated liquid
Stocklimedbut not dried
Stockthat islimedandthen allowedtodry
Stocklimedandhairhasbeen removed
Green to greenish black which will impart colour to the
extract
Shredded, dehaired rabbit skin from felt hat manufac-
turers;itisdriedand averygoodgluestock
Good rawmaterial,hornsshouldbe removed
Poor quality
Poor quality
Poor quality
Shouldbecutlengthwisebefore processing
Poor quality
Poor quality
Lowyield,mineralscontribute ashandturbiditytoglue.
Scraping from flesh-side of skins and hides; available in
wet, semi-dry and dried states, variable in collagen con-
tent, low yield, produces low quality glue; should be
chopped before processing.
Deeper fleshings made when trimming hide to uniform
thickness
Unlessputrefied canbehandled liketrimmings.
Usuallyusedfor leather board;resultsinlow-qualityglue
Good yield;glueproduced isnot of good quality. Lowin
viscosityandgelstrength
Lowyieldduetodifficulty insoakingback
Difficult tohandle
Continued next page
137 Ch.5]
Glueandgelatine
Table5.3 continued
Pigskins Highcontent offat; acidextraction usuallyusedbut alka-
lineextractionwillwork;canproducegoodqualitygelatin
Poultryskin Lowgelandlowviscosity product
Bones 6-40mm are the most used sizes. Can produce good-
quality gelatin.
Green (fresh) Freshfrom killing floor
Packers Havebeencookedtoremovetissueandfat, andaredried
Dry Without odour andlowinfat, 25%organicmatter
Ossein Demineralized bone,canproduce good-quality gelatine
Sinews Fibrous coating over bone; separated during crushing,
usually contains 5-10% crushed bone,canproduce good-
quality,high-yieldgelatine;alsotendonsfrombackofshin
bone,maybefresh, salted or dried.
Poultry Low-gelandlow-viscosity product.
Heads
Knuckles
Shinbones
Feet
Cartilage
Horncore (piths) Cartilagenousgrowthfrom skullthatfillsthebasalportion
of the horn. Can produce good-quality glue byeither the
acidoralkalineprocess.
Fishbladder River and sea catfish, Jew-fish, eels; gelatin obtained is
called isinglass
Driedfishbladder Resultsingoodqualityisinglass
Animalcasing Low-quality,lowgelandlow-viscosity products
between different products but between the same products from different sources
andalsothesameproductsfrom thesamesourcemayvaryfrom daytoday.
There are essentially three processes used to obtain glue and gelatine from
collagen stock with variations and combinations of these procedures. The pro-
cedures are often described asalkaline-procedure, acid-procedure, and high-pres-
suresteam extraction.
ALKALINEPROCEDURE(TYPEBGELATINE)
Themostwidelyusedcommercialsystemfortheprocessingofcollagenintoglueand
gelatine is the alkaline system. Any collagen material (hides, skins, ossein from
bones, sinews) can be procesed by this technique. The raw collagen stock isfirst
washedeitherbya'cone'mill,whichisacone-shaped chaser revolvinginatank or
138
Glueandgelatine
[Ch.5
Table5.4Yieldofgluefrom variousraw materials
Rawstock Glue Grease Tankage Water
Freshpork skins 20-25 15 10 50-60
Green salted hidestock 18 3 10 30-40
Dryhidestock 35 1 5-10 10
50-70 Green limed hide 14 2-4 8
Green limedhidesplit 14 0 5 50-70
Green limedsheepskin 7-9 1-7 5-10 60
Coneystock (dry rabbit
skin) 50-55 20-25 10
Green limed,fleshings 8-12 5-12 5-10 50-70
Dryfleshings 20-25 5-25 10-20 15
Drysplits 60
Wet splits 15-25 0 0 40-50
Drysinews 30-40 0-4 10-30 10-15
Salted sinews 22-24 2-3 7-8 35-50
Drybones 18-20 1 60-70 10
Wet bone 10-16 5-20 25-45 40-60
Ossein 65-80 0 5 8-12
Dry,horn piths 23-25 0 65-66 8-12
Moulton and Lewis(1953),Tourtellotte (1974),Bogue (1922),Clemen (1927).
vat, or a tumbler of barrel mill (particularly useful for bones) in which a rotating
cylindricaldrumliftsthestockanddropsitthroughwaterorapaper-millpulpwasher
whichconsistsofahalf-roundtankandarotatingpaddlewheelsuspendedabove,but
dipping into, the liquid (similar to the type used in the tanning industry). This
washingcausesthestockintanksorpitstobehydratedwithcoldwater.Thewateris
thenreplacedbyasaturatedsolutionofcalciumhydroxidemadebytheintroduction
oflime (calcium oxide,CaO) intothewater. Excesslimeisalsoadded to maintain
thesaturated concentrationofcalciumhydroxideduringthelonglimingperiod.An
alternativeprocedureisthatthelimewaterischangedoccasionallyduringtheliming
period. Thequantityoflimeusedisapproximately 10%oftheweightofthestock.
Any water-soluble bases could be used but lime isnormally preferred because its
solubility asasaturated solution willregulate the desired alkalinity and becauseit
doesnotswellcollagenasmuchasotheralkalinehydroxideswouldatthesamepH.
This alkalinity causes the non-collagen material such as keratin, globulins,muco-
polysaccharides,elastin,mucins,albuminsandsometimesmucustobechangedtoa
moresolubleproductandsomeofthefatstobeconvertedintopolarproductssothat
theycanberemovedbysubsequentwashing.Thealkalinesoakalsocauseschemical
alterations(hydrolyticreactions)inthecollagenwithoutappreciable solubilization,
so that subsequent thermal solubilization isonly required to break weak physical
forces that maintain the fibrillar collagen structure. Ammonia (NH
3
) is evolved
139 Ch.5]
Glueandgelatine
Collagentissue
Isoelectric pointpH7.0- 7.8 (Trimmingsandfleshingfrom
1000cattlehidesor5000
sheepandgoatskins= 1 ton
ofgluestock).
30%oftotalorganicmatterofbody
60%oftotalanimalbody protein
Washing Crushbones - bonemeal
Liming(alkali) Acid Acid
Causesswellingofcollagenand reduces
Acid(pH1 - 3)causesswelling
allowspenetrationofwaterto - a
ofcollagenfibresand
extractglue.Prolongedliming liming
dissolvesmineral matter;
candestroyanddissolvecollagen. time cannotuseonlimedstock;
Isoelectronic pointofpH4.5- 5.5 usedforbones,pigskins,
sinews,earpieces,ossein.
Isoelectric pointofpM
8.0-9.5
-Dicalcium
phosphate
Washing-*
Ossein
Tofreeproductoflimeoracid
(ifboneswereused)
andtoremoveextraneousmaterial.
V
Neutralizing
pH6-7. 5;
Collagenswells;
Saltsarewashedaway
Extraction
Controlled hydrolysis
55- 65C-Bestquality
65- 70C- maximumyield
ExtractionpH6- 7.5(pHabove9
orbelow5will resultinundesirable
hydrolysis)
5- 6%solution obtained
Clarification(chemicalfloculant)
Filtration *-
--*Deionization(ionexchange)
Ultrafiltration
(concentrationanddesalination)
J
Evaporation *
(vacuum,20- 30%drymatter)
I
Filtration
Chilling
I
Drying( 8 - 12%moisture)
I
Grading
1
Blending
r
I
i
,
Gelatine Glue
Fig.5.1Flow-chartforglueandgelatineextraction.
duringthelimingprocedure bythehyrolysisofamidegroupsinthecollagen. After
the liming of the raw collagen material, the collagen fibres are swollen and the
internal cohesion of each fibre is reduced. This isprobably caused by rupture of
certain peptide bonds and the introduction of newionicgroupsintothe molecule.
This isessentially a depolymerizing reaction inwhich afew specific peptide-chain
regionsarecleaved,resultinginhydrolysisinintermolecular cross-linkunits,which
convertsahighlypolymerizedcollagenintoaproductinwhichonlylowerintramole-
cularcross-link unitsexist,whicharereadilysolubilizedinwaterwhenthecollagen
helixismelted byheat. There isalsoevidence to suggest that the alkali-procedure
gelatinesareslightlybranchedchainmoleculeswithanaveragemolecularweightof
30000(range 10000-65000).
The length of limingdepends upon rawmaterial and temperature and the final
product that isbeingproduced, but often requiresfrom 7daysto3months,ossein
requiring a longer liming period. Sinews require 30-45 days of liming; pig skins
require 15-20daysanddonotrequiredefatting priortoalkaline treatment.
Vegetable-tanned hides are detanned for several days in a mild alkali such as
borax(Na
2
B
4
O
7
)orsodiumcarbonate (Na
2
CO
3
) andthenextractedbythealkaline
process. Chrome-tanned wastes are alternately soaked in dilute alkali and acid
severaltimesorinsodium(ormagnesium)carbonatesandhydroxidesseveraltimes
untilthechromiumisleachedout.Thentheskinislimed,delimedandextractedby
the alkali extraction process. It is possible to decrease the liming period by
'sharpening' the alkalinity of the liquor with 0.5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or
0.5% sodiumcarbonate (Na
2
CO
3
).Sometimescalciumchloride(CaCl
2
)with0.1%
methylamine(CH
3
NH
2
)isalsoaddedtothelimesolution.Duringthislimingperiod,
theisoelectricpointofthecollagendecreasesinpHfrom approximately6.0(day0)
to4.8(at44days)withthehighest-gradegelatineproducthavinganisoelectricpHof
5.0.ThisdecreaseinisoelectricpHwithtimeisprobablyduetosplittingoffofamide
nitrogen,theformation offree carboxylgroupsandthereleaseoffree basicgroups.
Alsorelated tothelimingperiod isanincreaseintherateofextraction ofgelatine,
whichincreasesfrom 6% atday0to37%(extraction per hour, 80C(176F))at43
daysoflimesoak. Inaddition, gelstrength (6.66%gelatine) alsoincreasesfrom86
Bloom (load in grams needed to produce a depression in gel under standard
conditions)atday0to182Bloomat43days,andtheviscosityalsoincreaseswithlime
soak time. However, overlimingsoakingfor longer periodsof timecouldbe
harmful. Sometimesthecollagentissuedegradesandtotallybreaksdowntoastage
wheregelatinecannotberecovered. Overlimingcanhappenwhenprocessingtissue
ofyoung animalsorwhenthe ambient temperatures areabove 30C(86F).There
arenospecificteststhatpreciselyindicatecompletenessofthelimingperiod.Thisis
stilllargelyguidedbyexperience.Afterlimingiscomplete,thepHisloweredandthe
limeiswashed(washmilk)fromthestockbycoldrunningwater(limeismoresoluble
incoldwater)whichusuallyrequires1-2days.Thecollagenisstillswollenandbasic
after washing and isneutralized bywashingwith dilute hydrochloric acid (HC1)or
sulphurous acid (sulphur dioxide in water which also bleaches and preserves the
stock)untilthecollagenmaterialisdeplumped orlimpandflaccid.Theacidisthen
washed out of the product and the final wash iswith diluted aluminium sulphate
(A1
2
(SO
4
)
3
) or zinc sulphate (ZnSO
4
), which hardens the collagen and slightly
improvesthecolour.Ifglueistobemade,largerquantitiesofzincsulphateareused
141 Ch.5] Glueandgelatine
tocontrolbacterialgrowth.ThecollagenstockshouldnowhaveapHbetween5and
8(normallypHof6-7) andisreadyfor extraction.
Thedelimed collagenstockisthen loaded intoextraction kettlesand extraction
takesplaceinaseries(normallysixto 12)ofliquid'cooks'('first run', 'second run',
etc.)atsuccessivelyhighertemperatures.Extractionisnormallystartedat54-60C,
(13O-140F)for 3-5 hours and continuesuptoboiling.Thehighest-quality product
(highergelstrengthandgreaterclarity)isobtained atthelowerextraction tempera-
ture,butyieldisincreasedathighertemperatures.Itiscustomarytoobtainfrom 1to
5% gelatine or glue in each extraction. The residue or 'tankage' left following
extractionispressed,driedandsoldaslivestockfeedorfertilizer. Eachextractionis
usuallykept anddried separately.
Theliquid extract ispressure filtered through steam-sterilized paper (cellulose)
pulpmatstoincreaseclarityandtoremovesmallparticles.Sometimes centrifugation
isusedbutittendstoproduceheavyfoaming. Gelatineorgluesolutionsare difficult
tofilterduetocloggingofthefilterpores.Diatomaceousearthisoftenaddedandthis
isalsoremovedbyfiltration(orcentrifugation) inanattempttoremovesomeofthe
smaller particles after they have combined with the diatomaceous earth. In some
researchcases(currentlynotusedinindustry) asmallpercentage (5%)of activated
carbon is also added at 55-60C (131-140F) for 4-6 hours and then removed by
filtering(or centrifugation) in an attempt to decolourize the solution by pigments
being combined with the carbon and subsequently removed. Another method of
clarification isto use aluminium sulphate (A1
2
(SO
4
)3)or aheat-coagulable protein
such aseggalbumin (currently not used in industry) and then heat the solution to
coagulate the protein. The flocculent precipitant ties up the turbidity-producing
proteinswhichthen canberemoved byfiltrationor centrifugation.
Deionizationofthegelatineisoften necessaryifanashcontentoflessthan0.5%
isrequired.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbypassingthesolutionthroughastrongcation-
exchange resin, intermittently mixed with a strong anion-exchange resin, which is
selected to have a rather large particle size of 20-50 mesh. Ultrafiltration with a
membranehavingacutoffvalueof25000inmolecularweightisalsosometimesused
asademineralization process.
Evaporation of excess water is very critical since excess temperature in the
presence of moisture (leading to thermal hydrolysis of peptides) will lower the
qualityandgelstrength, andexcesstimewillallowbacterialgrowthwhichwillalso
lowergelstrength. Thefirstextraction ofthecollagen materialmaybeof sufficient
concentration and gel strength to gel when cooled, but later higher-temperature
extractionsusuallyneedtobevacuumevaporatedinpansbeforetheywillgel.Thisis
often accomplishedbyusingatriple-effect evaporatororbyheatingthesolutionina
plateheat-exchanger to80-90C(176-194F)andthenconcentratingitinavacuum
evaporator.Vacuumevaporatorsusuallyconvertgelatineto20-25% concentration,
gluetoconcentrationsof11-17%forhide-glueliquor,33-42%forbone-glueliquors
andashighas50%for low-testorqualityglues.
The concentration gelatine or gluesolution isnext placed on abelt and chilled
andthesolidjelly(maximum 12mm(Iin)thick)isstrippedfromthebeltandplaced
uponnets(wirescreens)whichareheldbyframes. Theframes holdingthegelsare
then placed in drying tunnels. Air entering these tunnels iswashed, filtered, and
driedpriortobeingintroduced(enterscounter-currently:intheoppositedirectionto
glue travel so that the driest air contacts the driest glue) and the temperature is
gradually raised (to prevent skinning or case-hardening). If the air isdry, evapo-
rationfrom thejellyissufficient tocoolthejellyandkeepthetemperaturebelowthe
jelly's melting point. In 8-12 hours a 10% (8-12% range) moisture, brittle,
transparent, thin sheet is produced. Other methods of cooling include a slowly
rotating, brine-cooled drum or atumbled heat-exchanger where the gel is formed
andforced through anoodlingordicinghead. Theproduct isthen soldinsheetsor
broken andmilledto35-40meshandinsomecasesispowdered.
Drumdryingwithequipment similarthatusedtoproducedrymilkpowderisan
alternativemethodofremovingmoisture.Clarified liquorisplacedinathinsheeton
alarge(6.1m (20ft)indiameter)steam-heateddrumandinlessthan1minutea film
ofdrygelatineorglueisremoved byknives.
'Pearl'or'bead'driedglueismadebydroppingliquidgluefrom atowerintocold
whitespirit(ahigh-boilingparaffin) ornaphtha.Thepellets(smallbeads)formedare
moreeasilydriedandareofgreaterdurabilitythansheetglue.Spraydryinghasalso
been investigated and consists of forcing small droplets to fall into a high spray-
dryingchamber (againsimilartoequipment usedinproducing drymilkpowder).
After drying,thegelatineorgluemaybesoldinsheetsorcoarselybroken, often
toa35-40meshinahammermilltogiveflakegelatine,orpulverizedandpowdered
toform granulatedgelatine.Thegelatinemayalsobeextruded asnoodlesorinthin
ribbonsontoamovingbelt and dried.
Usuallythedesiredviscosityandgelstrengthofthedriedproductisobtainedby
blendingproductsofthesamemeshsizefrom different extractions.
Preservativessuchaszincsulphate(ZnSO
4
;irritatingtomucousmembranes)or
sulphurdioxide(SO
2
,irritating)areusedintheglueindustry.Preservative effective-
ness depends upon gelatine concentration (gelsare more difficult topreserve than
dilutesolutions)andotheradditives.ThepreservativesshowninTable5.5havebeen
reported in the literature (Divakaran, 1984; Gelatin Manufacturers Institute of
America, undated).
Other substances such asglycerol (C
3
H
8
O
3
) or sugar (C
6
H
12
O
6
) ortar oilhave
been added toimproveglueflexibility.Calciumchloride (CaCl
2
),sodium naphtha-
lenesulphonate (NaCi
0
H
7
O
4
S),acidsandchloralhydrate(CC1
3
CHO.H
2
O)maybe
usedtoproduce aliquidglue.
ACID PRECURSOR (TYPEA GELATINE)
Acidprocessingofcollagenstockisusuallyappliedtopigskinsandboneeventhough
it is possible to prepare gelatine from any collagen stock by this method. This
techniqueisparticularlydesirableiftherawmaterialcontainsanyboneorcartilage.
AcidprocessingisparticularlyimportantintheU.S.whenpreparingediblegelatine
from frozen (mostpopular)orsaltedpigskins(upto1.3kg(2.8lb)ofskin/hog).Pig
skins are first washed to remove salt from salted skins and to remove extraneous
matter and/or blood from frozen skins that have been defrosted. Since pigskin
frequently contains 8-15% fat, pre-extraction of this lipid material is desirable
before the acidextraction procedure. Thisisnormally done byheatingtheskinsin
hot(55-60C(131-140F))water,twotothreetimes,stirringthemfor4-6hoursand
skimming the melted fat from the top. The skins are then washed in 40-55C
143
Ch.5]
Glueandgelatine
Table5.5Preservatives
Preservative Formula Percentage Notes
required
Acid Conditions (pH3-4)
Alcohol QHeO 8.0
Chlorobutanol C
4
H
7
C1
3
O 0.5
Minimum lethal dose (MLD) in
dogs,238mg/kg
p-Chloro-m-cresol C7H
7
C1O 0.25 Very toxic
Ethylparaben (ethyl C9H10O3 0.15
p-hydroxybenzoate)
Sodium penta- Na saltof
chlorophenate C
6
HC1
5
O 0.1-0.15 Very toxic
Methylparaben (methyl CgHgOs 0.1-0.15 Allergen for some people
p-hydroxybenzoate)
Benzoicacid 0.1 Mild irritant
Oxyquinoline C9H
7
NO 0.1
p-Chloro-m-xylenol C
8
H
9
C1O 0.1
Propylparaben (propyl CioH
12
03 0.1
p-hydroxybenzoate)
Salicylicacid 0.1 Forbidden insome countries
Thymol
C10H14O
0.1 Medium lethal dose (LD
50
), lethal
for50%ofsubjects,formice,1.8g/
kg
Butylparaben (Butyl CnH
14
O3 0.05
p-hydroxybenzoate)
Cetylpyridininium C^RwClNO 0.003-0.005 LD
50
for rats,200mg/kg
chloride
Basic conditions (pH 7-8.5)
Alcohol
Chlorobutanol C
4
H
7
C1
3
O 0.5 MLD indogs,238mg/kg
Phenol C
6
H
5
OH 0.5 Toxic
Cresol HOC
6
H
4
CH
3
0.4 8gcausescirculatory collapse
p-Chloro-m-cresol C7H
7
C1O 0.25 See above and cresol
Ethylparaben (ethyl C9H
10
O
3
0.15
p-hydroxybenzoate)
P-Naphthol C
10
H
8
O 0.2 LD inrabbits,3.8g/kg
Chlorothymol C
6
H
13
C1O 0.1
p-Chloro-m-xylenol C
8
H
9
C1O 0.1
Thymol CioH
14
0 0.1 Side-effects withelevated dosage
Cetylpyridinium
chloride QjiH^ClNO 0.005 LD
50
inrats,200mg/kg
(104-131F) water. Solvent extraction of fats from pigskins is also possible and
usually food-grade hexane [CH
3
(CH
2
)4CH
3
] or ethylene dichloride (C
2
H
4
C1
2
) is
used,followed byawashingtoremovethesolventresidues.However,thesearenot
frequently usedcommerciallybecausetheemulsionsformed arehardtoworkwith.
Well-fleshed (ifexcessfatispresentontheskinitwillcloudthefinished product)
pigskinsarethawediffrozen, washedincoldwaterandsoakedinupto5%(1Nfor
sinews) inorganic acid such as hydrochloric (HC1), sulphurous (sulphur dioxide
(SO
4
)inwater),phosphoric(H
3
PO
4
)orsulphuric(H
2
SO
4
)whichresultsinapHof
approximately 4. Sulphuric acid or sulphurous acid are often used at 1-1.5 Nbut
longersoakingtimesareusuallyrequired.ThispHcausesthecollagentoswellanda
great deal of solubilization totake place.The acid soak usuallylastsfrom 10to72
hours(24-48hoursforsinews,48-72hoursforswimbladders)andisoften replaced
withfresh acidat24to36hours.Continualacidsoakingmayincreaseyieldbutmay
also lower gel strength and viscosity. The acid isthen drained and the collagenis
washedtoraisethepHoftheskintoapproximately4-5.Sometimesthecollagenis
given a5-8% sodium hydroxide rinsetoraisethepH to6-6.5. Continued washing
removesthesaltsthatwereformed. Ifsulphuricorsulphurousacidsareused,thesalt
islesssolubleandmorecaremustbetakeninwashing.Mostofthe non-collagenous
proteinshaveanisoelectricpointofpH4-5 andconsequently areleastsolubleand
rapidlycoagulated duringextraction. AtthispHthenativecollagenisstillswollen.
Acid preparation yieldsagelatine with an isoelectric point of 8.9 (range 8.5-9.4).
Acid processing seemsto cause onlyphysical reorganization of the collagen struc-
tureswith minimal hydrolytic changes,which result in asmallincrease in primary
amino groups and free carboxyl groups. Average molecular weights for acid-
precursorproductsareintherange70000-90000,exceptforsturgeonswim-bladder
gelatinewhichhasareported moleculerweightof250000.
After acid treatment the collagen stock is extracted using the previously des-
cribedalkaline-precursortreatment,exceptthatpigskinscanbeextractedatalower
starting temperature than cowhides.Filtration isalsoeasierwiththepigskin acid-
extracted products. Drying is accomplished in a similar manner as used for the
alkaline-procedure products.
Thegelatineproduced from pigskinshasahighergelstrength andbetter clarity
andcolourthanalkaline-treatedcattle-hideproducts.Sinewsresultinagoodquality
productandmultipleextractionsareusuallyused.Settlingandclarificationofsinews
extractsareusuallyaccomplishedat50-60C(122-140F)andafairlyclearextractis
obtained.Ifsulphuricacidorsulphurousacidisused,moreturbidityisencountered
andfiltration orflocculationmaybenecessary. Sinew-extract dryingmaybebythe
drummethodorhigher-gradefinalproductsmaybedriedbythechillingandtunnel-
drying method.
Isinglassisextractedin55-60C(131-140F)waterfor4-6hours.Oldstockmay
require a second extract. The extract isfiltered, concentrated by continuous-flow
centrifugation and vacuum evaporation. It is then drum-dried or chilled (5-10C
(41-50F)) andoven-ortunnel-dried (6O-70C(140-158F)) toan8-10% moisture
level.
Insummary,itwouldseemthatacid-precursor gelatinehasmaintained manyof
the covalent cross-linkages of collagen, and some have even suggested that acid-
precursor gelatine should be called melted soluble collagen. Acid pretreatment
yieldsagelatinewith anisoelectricpointof8.9and acidprocessingseemstocause
only physical reorganization of the collagen structure with minimal hydrolytic
changes,whichresultinasmallincreaseinprimaryaminogroupsandfewcarboxyl
groups.
Theacid-conditionedmaterialisnowsubjectedtoaseriesof'cooks'.Theinitial
extractionisatapproximately60C(140F)(rangeof55-65C(131-149F))andthe
temperatureisraisedby5-10C(9-18F)oneachsuccessiveextraction.Eighttoten
extractions are commercially made and the product is quickly dried to prevent
degradationandmicrobiologicalcontamination.Eachdriedextractionisgradedfor
gelstrengthandviscosityandtheproductisblendedfordesiredproperties.
Itshouldberecognizedthatalkalkineandtheacid-precursor-produced gelatine
aretwodifferent classesofgelatineandthattheyaredifferent productsandcannot
beusedinterchangeablybytheuser.
OSSEINPRODUCTIONFROMBONES
Bones are often pretreated (see Fig.5.2) by washing in water and in dilute
sulphurousacid,and aresometimesdegreasedwithbenzene.Theyare frequently
lightlycookedwith80-95C(176-203F)waterorheatedtothissametemperatureby
steamtoremoveadheringmeat,gristleandfat(meltsandseparates).Undercooking
gives greasy bones and overcooking results in brittle chalky bones; both are
consideredundesirable.Nextdaytheyarewashed(rotarywasherorhigh-pressure
spray)andthe'washings'aresavedandrenderedintotallowandfertilizermaterial.
Thecleanbonesarethen slowlydried (toorapid dryingcausesbonestosplit)on
steamcoilsor bysteam-coil-heated air. The adequately dried bones (insufficient
dryingcausesbonestodecompose)arestableatthisstateandwillkeepindefinitely
andcanbemarketedas'packerbones'.
Normallythenextstepismilling(astonecrushercanbeused)andscreeningof
thebones(1-6cm
3
(0.4-2.4in
3
)).Thelargerfragments(seeTable5.6)areseparated
intohardbone,softbone,andsinewfractions.Thesoftboneandsinewallowmore
rapidpenetration of acid and are more susceptible tophysicalbreakdown during
limingthan hard bones. For these reasons,the twotypes are handled separately
duringfurtherprocessing.Nextthebonesareextractedwithanon-polarsolvent(i.e.
ethylene dichloride (C
2
H
4
C1
2
, fairly non-flammable), hexane (CH
3
(CH
2
)4CH
3
, a
foodgradeisusedforediblegelatine),orgasoline)toremoveanyremainingfatifthe
bones contain over 0.5% fat. The bones are then dried in ovens (5O-60C,
(122-140F)) to remove the solvent. The bones then may be pressure-steam
extractedasdescribedinanothersection,butthisusuallyproducesalower-quality
gelatine.
Osseinisnormallyproduced from bonesbyacidremoval of mineralsprior to
steamextraction. Thisinvolvestreating thebones (counter-current demineraliza-
tion)withhydrochloricacid(HC1)toremovethemineralmatter:
Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
+ 4HC1 > Ca(HPO
4
)
2
+ 2CaCl
2
Calcium Hydrochloric Soluble Calcium
phosphate acid monocalcium chloride
phosphate
Thecounter-current demineralization isusedtoobtain maximumefficiency of
theacidandrequiressixtoeightacid-resistantvatsofasize1.5-2timesthevolumeof
146
Glueandgelatine
[Ch.5
BONE
Lightlycooked - Water
to removegrease
Settlingtank Bone
Tank Grease
water
Crush
Sinews
6- 40 mmsize SmallPieces
bonechip,
bonegrist,
bonemeal
Wash Demineralized
HC1solution
RemoveInsects
Acidextraction
Ossein
Preferredover I Phosphoric
Alkaline Extraction Acidinsolution
Extraction hotwater
I
Precipitatedwith lime
Tankageor
Glueor
fertilizer
gelatine solution
Filter
I
Concentrate
I
Dry
Glueorgelatine
Fig.5.2Glueandgelatineextractionfrom bone.
the bones. Crushed (1-3cm
2
(0.4-1.2in
2
)) bones are placed in the vats and a 1N
(commercial acid diluted 10:1)chilled (4-10C (39-50F)) hydrochloric acid(HC1)
solutionispumpedintothefirsttankandaliquidcirculatingpumpisusedtokeepthe
acid and bone mixture stirred. Theextractingmixture should bemaintained atnot
morethan25C(77F)andextractionshouldcontinuefor24hours.Theusedacidis
pumpedtothesecondvatandfreshchilledacidisaddedtothefirsttank.Thiscycleof
sendingusedacidtoanothervatiscontinueduntiltheacidhaspassedthroughallthe
Table5.6Yieldofcrushed bone
Categories Percentage
Crushedbone(18,12,and8mmsize) 55-60
Bonegrist(6mm) 10
Bonemeal (fines) 10
Sinews 10
Tallow 3-5
Divakaran (1984).
vatsand the first vat has been extracted with sixto eight cyclesof fresh acid. The
osseininthefirstvatisnowwashedinwateruntilthewastewaterhasapHof6-6.5.
Theossein isremoved from the first vat, which isrecharged with fresh bones, and
nowthesecondvatreceivesthefresh acidwhichcontinuesthecycleandpasseslast
through the first vat. The process isnow cyclicin nature. Ossein produced by this
techniqueshouldhavelessthan2% ashonamoisture-free basis.Ifitishigher than
thisit suggests incomplete demineralization. The strength of used acid should be
checkedperiodically byprecipitating (byaddition ofapproximately 30gofcalcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)
2
)/l of spent acid to raise the pH to 5.5 or 6) the dicalcium
phosphate(Ca
2
P2O
7
)andweighingittodetermineiftheacidissaturatedandwillnot
dissolveanymoremineralsfrom thebone.Ingeneralpracticeitusuallyrequiresan
equalweightofacidtodemineralize anequalweightofbone.
An alternative to the counter-current procedure isto have the acid constantly
pass through the various vats at 25C (77F) (requires cooling) until the acid is
saturated. Other processorsuse a4-5%concentration ofhydrochloric acidat 15C
(59F)andtreatsinewsforonetotwodaysandhardbonesfromfourtosixdays.The
final ashcontent oftheosseinisfrom 1-2% inbothcases.
Washed ossein contains 60-85% moisture and, if not converted into gelatine
quickly (highest yields), has to be dried very carefully to prevent uncontrolled
hydrolysis to gelatine. It is usually placed on drain trays, and gravity drainage is
accomplished first. It isthen placed in aperforated drum of abatch or continuous
hydroextractor (centrifuge type) in which centrifugal force reduces the moisture
levelto 15-20%.Theosseinisthenrapidlydriedinhotconvection air-dryingovens
(50-60C(122-140F)) to 8-10% moisture level and then rapidly air-cooled. It can
thenbestoredinmoisture-proof bagsalmostindefinitely, butcontinuoushydrolysis
during storage would suggest processing into gelatine within 6months. The dried
osseinisanexcellentrawcollagenmaterialforalkaline(3-6weeksofliming)oracid
(morepopular)treatmentbeforegelatineorglueextraction.Dryosseinissoakedfor
12-14hourspriortoliming.Therehydratedosseinisplacedinlimingpitsandlimeis
addedattherateof10%ofthedryweightoftheossein.Limingrequires30-60days
(longerforolderosseinstock,andlongerincolderclimate),thelimeliquorshouldbe
agitated with a slurry pump and fresh lime liquor added once or twice during the
limingperiod.Theosseinisthenprocessedthroughdeliming,washingand gelatine
extraction;thedryingofgelatineissimilartothepreviouslydescribedprocesses for
gelatineandglue.
Ifosseinisacid-extractedfortheproductionofgelatine,thewetosseinfromthe
final acid vat is washed until the pH is 6.5-7 and the ossein is extracted without
drying, or, if already dried, may be soaked in acid and then processed as just
described. Again the extraction and drying of gelatine has been previously des-
cribed.Ifthealkalineprocessisused,thelimemaybewashedandtheosseintreated
withanacidtoproduceanacid-extracted-likeproductsimilartopork-skingelatine.
The spent acid from bone demineralization contains tricalcium phosphate
(Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
, hydroxyapatite) in solution. Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)
2
) is added
(approximately 30 g/1) to this solution until the pH is raised to 4.2-5.5. After
continuousstirringfor4-6hourstheliquidisallowedtosettlefor36-48hoursandthe
clear supernatant waste effluent ispumped out and the solid dicalcium phosphate
(Ca
2
P
2
O
7
) is pressed and then heated (60-65C (140-149F)) in an air oven (or
tunnel) and dried to a5% moisture level.The white,free-flowing dried dicalcium
phosphateisusedinthefertilizerindustryasaphosphatesupplement,inanimalfeed
asamineralsupplement, orasafillerinthepaint andpigment industries.
Bonesarecrushed intosizesasshowninTable5.7.
Table5.7Useofdifferent crushed bonesizes
Bonesize(mm) Bonesize(in) Bone use
18 f Glue, gelatine
12 \ Glue, gelatine
8 I Glue, gelatine
6 Bonegrist Poultry feed
Fines Bonemeal Feed, fertilizer
The crushed bones have previously had the fat removed (collected from a
washing process) byhot water and, if necessary, they are rewashed to prepare for
extraction of gelatine and glue with steam at 1-3kg/cm
2
(15-45psi) and again
extractedwithhotwater.Thissystemhastheadvantageofbeingrapidandrequires
no pretreatment, but produces a glue with variable viscosity and gel strength.
Hydrolysis isaccomplished bythermal shock athightemperatures for ashort time
followed by a quick cold-water chill. The collagen is not denatured by the heat
because it issurrounded by asheath of hydroxyapatite crystals (lattice of mineral
tricalcium phosphate). This process is repeated several times to obtain several
extracts.The gelatine islater extracted at lowertemperatures (initially at 60-70C
(140-158F))topreventdegradation.Thisextractionisrepeated athighertempera-
turesuntillessthan1-2% glueisobtained.Repeatedextractcyclesproducereduced
gel strength and viscosity. Under ideal conditions 25% by weight of glue can be
extracted. Further processingissimilartothat previously described. The insoluble
mineralsalt(primarilycalciumphosphate)issoftandchalkyandissoldassteamedor
drybonemeal(orflour)andisusedintheanimalfeed(notusedforfeedingifthereis
apossibilityofanthrax)andfertilizer industry(steamedboneflour,18%moisture).
Greenbonesmaybeboiled(pooryield)withonlyawashingandachangeortwo
ofweakacid.Ifthissystemisused,theboilingtimeisincreasedtoapproximately24
hours, higher extraction temperatures are used and 5or 6 'cooks' are used. This
systemisnotaspopular asthepressure system.
EXTRACTIONOFOTHERMATERIALFORGLUE
Inaddition to isinglass (previously described),thefishindustry alsoproduces glue
fromfishby-productsandtherawmaterialandpropertiesmaybefoundinTable5.8.
Table5.8Gluemadefromfishproducts
Rawmaterial Properties
Fish-skinglue Good quality
Fishwaste(trimingandbones) glue Lowquality
Fish-headglue Normally turbid, often combined with
zincoxidefor wood glue
Divakaran(1984).
Bloodalbuminglueisawaterproof gluethat maybeextracted from fresh blood or
dried albumen.
USESOFGELATINEORGLUE
Levels of gelatine incorporated into food are usually fairly small. Gelatine is
normallyused to modify the physicalproperties of food; for example, an ordinary
gelatinedessertis1.5-2.5% gelatine.Gelatinefordesserts(typeAorBorablend,
with a Bloom rating of 175-275 (see the explanation of Bloom rating in the next
section, 'Physical properties')) isavailable in packaged form flavoured with sugar
(Ci2H
2
2O
n
) or low-calorie sweetners; contains an acid such as citric (C
6
H
8
O
7
),
tartaric (C
4
H
6
O
6
), adipic (C
6
H
10
O
4
) or fumaric (C
4
H
4
O
4
); contains a fruit or
aromatic flavouring, and in some cases a buffer such as citrates, tartrates or
phosphates;andinsomecasescontainssalt(NaCl).Itisavailableinsomecountriesa
afirm,rubbery jelly tablet (5x7.6cm (2x3in) rectangular), usually available ina
plainunflavoured form,andrecentlyhasbecomeavailableattheretaillevelasfully-
prepared gelatine desserts or salads. The powdered or tablet form only requires
dissolvinginhotwater andchilling.
Inmarshmallows, 1-2% gelatine (250g(Bloom))transforms a20%sugar syrup
(lowersitssurfacetension)intoahighlyviscoussolution,whichcanbewhipped (the
gelatinestabilizes the foam through increased viscosity)with large amounts of air,
castinstarchorcuttoform asolidproduct whichwillmeltinthe mouth.
A low Bloom gelatine is used to make 'drops' and 'particles'. The higher the
gelatineconcentrationtheslowertheconfection dissolvesandthelongertheflavour
is maintained. Gum drops in Europe are also made with gelatine. Lozengesand
waferscontainsomegelatine(50-100g(Bloom))toholdthemintoshapewhilethey
areextruded,cutanddried.A1 %medium-strengthgelatineisusedinhand-dipping
of 'bonbon' coatingsandgelatineisalsousedinconnectionwith chocolate-coating,
usingequipment insteadofhand-dipping.
Inicecreamtheprotectivecolloidalactionof0.3-0.5% (250Bloom)gelatineis
usedtomodifywhippingqualities,body,texture(itreducescoarseness)andkeeping
qualitiesandtheretardationoficeandsugar(lactose,C
12
H
2
2On)crystal formation
during storage. Other dairy itemssuchascottage cheeseandsourcream usesmall
quantitiesofgelatinetopreventwateringandtomaintainasmoothtexture.Gelatine
incorporatedintomilklowersitscurdtensionandmakesitmoredigestible.Infrozen
foodssuchascreampies,saucesandgravies,gelatineisusedtoreducetheformation
oflargeicecrystalsandtoprevent curdlingandseparation.
In the meat area (1-5%gelatine isoften used) many specialty items, suchas
jellied tongue, jellied beef, corned beef, loaves, scrapple, brown sauces, aspics,
consommes,meatpies,andglazeforloavesandhams,employgelatine(itfillsvoids
betweenthecasingandtheloaf,resultinginasmoothappearance).Itisalsousedto
fill thevoidsandabsorbliquidsincannedmeat(0.4-1.5%)andpoultryproducts(i.e.
turkeyandchickenrolls).Thegelatinebindsthewaterandmeatjuicesandresultsin
a stable firm product. Drygelatine maybesprinkled inbone cavities of boneless
hamstobindthemeat together.
Gelatine is used as a food-thickening agent, emulsifying agent and in small
quantities for clarifying (i.e.isinglass) beer, wine, fruit juice andvinegar, andfor
pharmaceutical products. When usedforclarification ofdrinks,ifdoneproperlyit
doesnotmodifytheorganolepticpropertiesoftheproduct.Thegelatinereactswith
tannins, pectins and similar material in the presence of a catalyst (e.g. iron),
flocculationoccursandclarification iscompletedbyfiltrationorcentrifigation. Both
typeAandtypeBgelatine,aswellasisinglass,havebeenusedinthe0.002-0.015%
range.
Gelatine isalso used tomanufacture pharmaceutical capsules (seeTable5.9).
The 'hard' capsules or the two-piece ensembles into which the pharmacist adds
powdersaremadeentirelyofgelatinewithnootheradditivesexcept,insomecases,
colouring. The 'soft' or 'elastic' capsules contain a plasticizer, usually glycerolor
propylene glycol, and are often used to contain cod liver oil and other vitamin
products. Amethod forenclosingdrymaterialhasbeen developed andantibiotics
canbehandled inthismanner. Gelatineisalsoused tocoat pillstohelp eliminate
crumbling,sticking,evaporation ofmoistureandtastewhen swallowing.
Gelatine (10-20%)isusedasamoisturingagentinmakingtablets,sothat they
arepleasant andsmoothtothetongue,andabinderandadisintegrator (itabsorbs
moisturecausingthetablettoswellandbreakup).Glycerinatedgelatineisusedasa
basetomanufacture pastilles,lozengesand'cough drops',whichareusedtoapply
medicamentstothemouthandthroat.Gelatineisalsousedasacarrierorbinderfor
variousdrugs,notonlyforitsbindingabilitybutbecauseisoften protectsthedrug
from atmosphericoxidation.Gelatineisalsoanexcellentstabilizerforallemulsions
usedinthepharmacy area. Gelatineisusedinemulsionssothat asingleshakewill
restoretheemulsiontoitsoriginalcondition.Gelatine (typeA,18%)hasalsobeen
Table5.9Propertiesof gelatine
Property Generalspecifications
TypeA TypeB
cationic anionic
acid technique limingtechnique
Iso-electricpoint(IEP) 7.0-9.5 4.7-5.5
pH 3.8-6.0 5.0-7.5
gelstrength/(gm) (Bloom) 75-300 75-275
Viscosity(mp)
fl
20-75 20-75 (in general lower than
theacid product)
Ash(%) 0.3-2.0 0.05-2.0
U.S.P. Pharmagels
Pork skins Bones,hides
Raw material
Isoelectricrange 7.8-8.2 4.7-4.9
pH(25C,1.5%solution) 4.(M.3 5.5-7.3
Gelstrength(g)(Bloom) 250 225
Viscosity(mp)
a
38-45 40-70
Ash(%) Lessthan0.4 1.0-1.5
Particlesize 36mesh 36mesh
Totalbacterialcount Lessthan5000/g, Lessthan5000/g,
Nocoliformin0.1g NocoliforminO.lg
Metal U.S.P. requirements U.S.P. requirements
Soft capsules
pH 5.0-5.5 5.5-7.3
Gelstrength(g)(Bloom) 170-180 150-175
Viscosity(mp)
a
30-35 35^0
Ash(%) Max0.5 Max2.0
Totalbacterialcount Max1000/g Max1000/g
Coliform Nocoliformin0.01g Nocoliformin0.01g
Salmonella Negative Negative
Hard capsules
PH 4.5-5.5 5.3-7.3
Gelstrength(g)(Bloom) 250-280 220-250
Viscosity(m)
fl
45-50 45-60
Totalbacterialcount max1000/g Max1000/g
Coliform Nocoliformin0.01g Nocoliformin0.01g
Salmonella Negative
Negative
a
Consultreference GelatinManufacturers InstituteofAmerica, 1964,fordetailsoftest.
Tourtellotte(1974),Divakaran (1984),GelatinManufacturers InstituteofAmerica,(undated1982).
employedindelayingtheabsorptionofanumberofdrugs(e.g.heparin,adrenocorti-
cotrophichormone (ACTH), epinephrine).
Manufacture of enteric coated capsules and tablets has been attempted by
treating the capsule with formaldehyde (HCHO) or coating the capsule with
phenylsalicylate (C
13
Hi
0
O
3
) or butyl stearate (C22H44O2) or carnauba wax, or
stearicacid(C
18
H
36
O
2
),orcelluloseacetatephthalate. Suppositoriesoften alsouse
glycerine gelatine as a base for controlled release of ingredients. A 7% isotonic
solutionisoften usedforcardiovascularpatients.Agelatinemarshmallowcontain-
ing barium sulphate (BaSO
4
) is sometimes used for fluoroscopic examination
because it slows the passage of barium sulphate through the digestive system.
Gelatineisalsousedasamediumforexternalapplicationofdrugs,(i.e.zincoxide
(ZnO), antiseptics, sulphonamides, andpenicillin) totreatvariousskindisorders.
Gelatine paste (glycerinated gelatine andzincoxide) maybe used asanadhesive
substitutetoholdbandagesordressingsinareashypersensitivetotape.
Absorbablegelatinespongesorgelatinefoampowderarealsousedinsurgeryas
a means of arresting oozing haemorrhages. As the wound heals, tissue enzymes
dissolvethegelatine.Gelatineisalsousedfordustingsurgicalglovessincetracesleft
inthebodywillbedissolved.
Gelatinehasbeendevelopedasaplasmaexpanderforthetreatmentofhaemorr-
hages, trauma and burns. Products are described as 5 or 6% solutions, witha
molecular weight of 20000 or 36000, in normal saline. These expanders restore
bloodvolumeandbloodpressureandwilllastinmostpatientsfor24hours.
Gelatine is used in the cosmetic area and in wave-set lotions. Some of its
propertiesusedincosmeticsareitsadhesiveandemulsifyingpowers.
Gelatine is also important inphotography and is used to make baryta-coated
paper. Films are coated with gelatine, which contains the light-sensitive silver
reagent.Thegelatinecontrolsthesizeofthesilverhalidegrainandprotectsitfrom
the reducing action of the developer so that the reduction is proportional tothe
exposuretolight.
Itisalsousedinmakingsmokelessgunpowder.
Gelatineisusedininsecticidespraysforitsstickingpowerandinfeedformula-
tionsthatcontainalargepercentageofleaves.Gelatinealsofindsusesinmicroen-
capsulation (e.g. a duplicate copy with 'no carbon paper'), as a foamer in ore
floatationforseparationofmineralsandasafoamerinfireextinguishers.
Glueisusedtojoinwoodtomakeplywood,butsomeofthelargestusestodayare
inthemanufacture ofgummedtape,boxesandtubes.Glueortechnicalgelatineis
alsousedforapplyingcolourstowallpaper,asasizetostrengthenpaperandtofillin
porestoimproveprintingquality(gluewithalumgivespaperaharderfinish),asa
coatingfornon-silverphotocopyingpaper,togiveapermanentwavetocrepepaper,
as a size for fabric to strengthen rayon and acetate yarns and reduce breakage
(washed out after use), asasize for heavy fabricsto give stiffness, towaterproof
fabrics, asasizeforwindow shades, asasize forbarrelsandcaskstopreventthe
liquidfrompenetratingthewood,asasizeforwallstofillporesbeforepainting,to
bind and protect the chemicals in the manufacture of matches, in the makingof
plastics (i.e. polyvinyl chloride (CH2=CHCl)
rt
), as a binder for abrasive wheels,
mixedwithcalciumcarbonate (CaCO
3
)andsawdusttomakeornatemouldings,to
make composition cork used in gaskets and bottle caps, in the manufacture of
sandpaper, in electrometallurgic processes to give a smooth surface, as a zinc
brightener,tomakeprinters'rollers,tomakewiperrollersformulticolourprinting
andoffsetlithography,inrubbertoaddoilresistance,andinthemakingofIndiaink.
Gelatine acts as an adhesive for stamps and labels, in making packaging ribbon
(bindsthreadsthatrunonly inone direction), laminatingglass andproductionof
decalcomanias. Gelatine is also used to makefilmsandfiltersfor spotlights and
cameras.
In the laboratory, gelatine is used as a microbiological culture media and to
determinethestrength of enzymes.
PHYSICALPROPERTIES
Gelatineisnearlytastelessandodourlessandisavitreousbrittlesolidwitharelative
densityof1.3-1.4kg/1.Whenimmersedincoldwatergelatinehydratesintodiscrete
swollen particles, and when warmed these melt to a dispersion. Gelatine is also
soluble in polyhydric alcohols (e.g. glycerol (C
3
H
8
O
3
) or propylene glycol
(C
3
H
8
O
2
)) but is not soluble in organic solvents (e.g. benzene (C
6
H
6
), ether
(C4H10O), acetone (C
3
H
6
O), on carbon tetrachloride (CC1
4
)). Gelatine is com-
posedof50.5% carbon, 6.8% hydrogen, 17%nitrogen and25.2% oxygen.
DependingonthepHofawatersolutionofgelatine,itcanactaseitheranacidor
base, making it amphoteric. It can also undergo reactions such as acylation,
esterification, deaminization, cross-linking and polymerization.
Not all gelatines are the same and they are subdivided into an acid-treated
precursor(typeA)whichhasanisoelectricpointbetweenpH7and9.5andanalkali-
treated precursor (type B)which has anisoelectricpoint between 4.7and 5.5 (See
Table5.9);therefore not allgelatinesfunction inasimilarmanner. Itispossible to
modifythemanufacturing procedure andproducegelatinewithanisoelectric point
betweentypeA and typeB. Gelatine samplesalsodiffer inmolecular sizeand this
influences theirphysicalproperties.
Gelatinecolourinadilutesolutionshouldbecolourlesstolightamberor faintly
yellow; lower grades will have an orange-brown colour. Clarity is checked by
lookingatprintthroughabeakerofsolutionorobservingasolutioninastronglight.
High-qualitygelatineshouldbeclearandsparklingandhaveonlyatracesedimentof
foreignmaterial;lowerqualitieswillbeopalescenttocloudy.Thecolourofgelatine
depends on the raw material extracted (pork-skin gelatine islighter than bone or
hide)andwhetheritisthefirst, second orlaterextractions.Ingeneral,colour does
not influence other properties of usefulness. Turbidity is usually associated with
poorlyprocessed orlow-gradegelatines.Turbidityiscausedbyinsolubleor foreign
material that is in the form of an emulsion or a dispersion or an isoelectric haze
(maximumat2%). Ifcolourisimportant totheproduct, then bleachingoftheraw
materialortheuseofde-colouringagents(e.g.activatedcharcoal)maybenecessary.
The viscosity of gelatine is evaluated by the time required for a standard
concentration (usually 6.67% or, in some procedures, a 1% solution; viscosity
increaseswithconcentrationofgelatine)ofsolutiontoflowfrom astandardviscosity
pipette(often 100ml),toflowthrougha' U'tubeviscometer,ortoexitbyastandard
orifice from a cup, or by use of the resistance offered by a dynamometer spindle
immersedinafluid.Viscositymeasuresareinfluenced bytemperature (60C(140F)
often used)andthiswouldbestandardized (seeTable5.9).Molecularweightseems
to be more important in viscosity measurements than it is in gel-strength
measurements.
Gel strength is a measure of the hardness, stiffness, strength, firmness, and
compressibility of a gel at a particular temperature. It is also influenced by
concentration and molecular weight.Thegelformation isbelieved tobecausedby
hydrogen bonding, with the molecules of gelatine arranged in micelles, forming a
semi-solidgelandbindingwater.GelstrengthistestedonaBloomgelometerwhich
measurestheresistancetodepressionofthejellysurfacebyaplungerunderstandard
conditions.TheconditionsfortheBloomgelometerconsistofa6%solutionchilled
to 10lC (50F) for 17hours in a container of standard dimensions. A 12.7mm
(in)diametercircularplungerisloadedwithshotuntilitdepressesthejellysurface
4mm(0.16in).TheweightingramsoftheshotistheBloomtestorBloomratingor
jellystrength. Commercialgelatinesrangefrom 50to300g(Bloom).Sincegelatine
is an amphoteric compound, it can have either a positive or a negative charge
depending upon itspH and itsisoelectric point. Type A gelatine iscationicbelow
pH7and typeBiscationicbelowpH4.7. Gelatine isahydrophiliccolloid. Ithasa
protectivecolloidactionandwillstabilizemanyhydrophobiccolloids(hasaverylow
Zsigmondy gold number).
Themeasureofrefractive indexprovidesinformation onconcentration,whichis
usuallycorrelated withgelstrength andviscosity.
Standard microbial techniques are used to evaluate the bacterial, mould and
yeastqualityofgelatine.Mostfoodgelatinescontainlessthan3000bacteriapergram
andthesearenotpathogenic.TheU.S.P.maximumsare1000/gand Salmonellaand
Escherichia colimustbeabsent.IfthegelatinehasapHvaluebelow4thenbacteria
growth will be suppressed, but moulds and yeast will continue to grow; if the pH
valueisabove5then proteolyticbacteria canbe expected.
Chemical tests for gelatine include moisture analysis. Moisture is normally
between9and 13% (range7-15%)andwillvary,notonlywiththeextentofdrying,
but alsowiththehumidityofstorage andthemoisturepermeability ofthepackage
container. Ashcontentfor gelatinehasamaximum(U.S.P.) levelof2%; however,
high-qualitygelatine shouldhavenomorethan0.5%ash. Ashlevelvarieswiththe
type of raw materials extracted (pork skinscontain small amounts of chloride and
sulphates, ossein contains calcium phosphate, hide contains calcium sulphate) and
the method of processing. If a very low ash level is needed, the gelatine may be
passedthroughanion-exchangeprocedurefordemineralizingorde-ashing.Sulphite
issometimesaddedtogelatinetobeusedforcapsulemanufacturing (0.15%SO
2
)or
for some photographic uses. The U.S.P. maximum level for other gelatines is
0.004%.Theminerallevelofgelatineforarsenicisamaximum(U.S.P.)of0.8ppm,
but high-quality gelatine has none. The U.S.P limit for heavy metals is 50ppm.
Copperhasamaximumof30ppmandhighqualitygelatinehaslessthan5ppm.Zinc
has a maximum level of 100ppm, but high-quality gelatine has less than 15ppm.
Lead hasamaximumlevelof2.57ppmandhigh-quality gelatinehasnone.
WASTEFROMGELATINEANDGLUEPRODUCTION
Asludgepastecontainingmud,hair,vegetablematterandproteinremainsafterglue
and gelatine extraction and filtration or sedimentation, and this residue containsa
baselayerandaupperfatlayer.Theinsolubleportionispressedtoexpelgreaseand
glueorgelatineliquor,andthepressedproductisdriedandusedastankage.Where
alkalineprocessingisused,theeffluents containmostlylimealongwithhideprotein,
155 Ch.5] Glueand gelatine
dirt,andhair.Thepropertiesofeffluent andsolidwastecanbefound inTables5.10
and5.11.
Table5.10Effluents from glueand gelatine
Extraction Raw Waste BOD Suspended
method material
(1) (kg)
solids (kg)
Per tonne of bone
Acid Bone to 10000 Lessthan2% 2%
ossein
Per kilogram of glue or gelatine
Alkaline Trimming 200 1 2
fleshing
Alkaline Ossein 150 0.5 0.5
Alkaline Sinus 150-200 0.5-1 0.5-2
Acid 75-120 0.5-1 0.5-2
Divakaran (1984).
Table5.11Solid waste remaining after extraction filtration or sedimentation in
glue production
Kilogram Percentage Use
per tonne
ofglue Moisture Nitrogen Ash
Clarified
Paste
Sludge 30-60 8-12 Fertilizer
Extracted
Kittle
Residue 100-150 80-85 Fertilizer
composted
with
vegetable
matter
Dryextracted
Kittle
Residue 15-24 10 12-14 5-10 Fertilizer
Divakaran (1984).
Inthe acid manufacturing of ossein from crushed bones, the effluent isusually
alkaline due to the use of lime (CaO) in the recovery of dicalcium phosphate
(Ca
2
P
2
O
7
). This residue isavaluable source of calcium and phosphorus in animal
156
Glueand gelatine
[Ch.5
feeds. The high degree of temporary hardness caused bydissolved calciumsaltsis
usuallythemosttoxicproperty.Theotherpropertiesoftheeffluent canbefoundin
Table 5.10. The chlorine in this product is at the 5-8% level when dicalcium
phosphate (Ca
2
P2O
7
) is neutralized, but when mixed with the 'ossein-wash' this
dilutesthechloride,although notbelowthe3.5-4% level.Thisisoften collectedin
solarevaporation ponds.
Fatsobtained from bones arevariable inquality (seeTable 5.12) withthebest
Table5.12Fatrecovered from glueandgelatine production
Raw material Properties
Fleshingsandtrimmings Fleshinggreaseortallow,often impure
Limedstock Cookedwithacidtosettlelimesoaps
Freshbones Best quality from steam- or solvent-extracted green
bones,soft tallow,lightcoloured,lowacid,lowmelting
point
Sinews Often impure
Junk bones Inferior quality, low yield, dark colour high free fatty
acids
Pig feet Soft whitegrease
Calves'andcattle feet Neat'sfoot, acid,goodcolour and taste
CommitteeonTextbooksoftheAmericanMeatInstitute(1958),Divakaran(1984).
Table5.13Fatsobtained from bonesduringgelatine production
Source Typeof fat
Fresh bones Light coloured,
lowacid,
soft
Pigsfeet White,
soft
Calves'andcattle feet Pale,
goldenyellow,
Neat'sfoot oil
Fleshings
Fleshinggreaseor tallow
Junk bones Lowyield,
dark,
highfatty acids
Limed stock Limesoap
qualitybeingobtainedfromsolventorsteamextracted greenbonesandpoorer
qualityfrom drybones.Thefactsmaybeclassified asshowninTable5.13.
Fatsskimmedfrom settlingtankscontainlargequantitiesofextraneous matter.
Thisliquidmaterialisoften heatedtoatemperatureof85-90C(185-194F)for 4-6
hoursandsettlingmayaidinclarifyingthefat.Thefatmaythenbewashedwith70C
(158F)waterorwith3% saltwater(100C(212F)andthenrewashedwithwater)or
with0.03-0.1citricacid(C
6
H
8
O
7
) orwith 10%trisodium phosphate (Na
3
PO
4
) and
allowedtosettle.
REFERENCES
Bogue, R. H. (1922) Chemistry and technology of gelatine and glue. New York,
McGraw-Hill.
Cleman, R. A. (1927) By-products of the packing industry, Chicago, University of
ChicagoPress.
Committee on Textbooks of the American Meat Institute, (1958) By-prodcut of
meat packing industry. Institute of Meat Packing, University of Chicago,
Chicago.
Divakaran, S. (1984) Handbook of glue and gelatine. Madras, India, Indian
Leather.
Eastoe, J. E. (1955) The amino acid composition of mammalian collagen and
gelatine. Biochem. J. 61589.
Gelatine Manufacturers Institute of America (undated) Gelatine. Gelatine Manu-
facturers InstituteofAmerica,New York.
GelatineManufacturers InstituteofAmerica(1964) Standard methods for sampling
and testing of gelatins.NewYork.
Gelatine Manufacturers Institute of America (1982) Gelatine. Gelatine Manufac-
turersInstituteofAmerica,New York.
Moulton, C. R. and Lewis,W. L. (1953) Meat through the microscope. Instituteof
MeatPacking,UniversityofChicago,Chicago.
Tourtellotte, D. (1974) Gelatin. In Encyclopedia of Food Technology. AVI,
Westport, Connecticut.
Veis, A. (1964) The macromolecular chemistry of gelatine. Academic Press, New
York.
6
Edibletissuefrom bone
INTRODUCTION
Forcenturiesboneshavebeenusedtomakesoupandgelatine.Theseprocessesare
describedinChapters2and5respectively. Inrecentyearslabourhasbecomemore
expensive, and asthefish,poultry andmeat industries have attempted tosalvage
more of the adhering meat left on bones, new separation techniques have been
employed. When investigating thisproblem it isobvious that industries usingthe
different speciesweremotivatedbydifferent forces. Inthefishprocessingindustry
relativelylargeamountsofmeatwaslostwiththebonesonconventionalprocessing.
A market for speciality items (e.g.fishsticks, spreads,pastes, sausage, cakesand
stuffing) fromdebonedfishwasalsodeveloping.Inadditiontothis,somespeciesof
fish werenotpopularforhumanfoodbecauseoftheirboneynature(40milliontons
(36.3 metric tonnes)), all of which pointed to the need for anefficient methodof
separatingmeatfrombone.
Inthepoultryindustry,whenconsumersshiftedfrompurchasingpredominantly
wholebirdstopoultryparts,thebackandneckpartswerehardtomerchandise.Also
meat from spent layers (hens that are no longer economically productive foregg
production) was usually not worth the cost of the labour required to remove it.
Speciality items also opened up amarket (e.g. poultry frankfurters, turkeyrolls,
casseroledishesandtraditionalsausages)forgroundpoultrymeat.Currentlythereis
morethan182millionkg(400millionlbs)ofmechanicallydebonedpoultryproduced
intheU.S. eachyear.
Inthe1970s,boxedbeefbegantoreplacecarcassbeefandthisconcentratedlarge
quantitiesofbonesinafewplants.Thesewereavailableformechanicaldeboning.
The redmeat industrywasalsolosingconsiderable quantitiesof meatpercarcass
(6-10kgor(13.2-22lb/beef carcass),1-2kg(2.2-4.4lb/porkcarcass)) andtheloss
was not uniform even within ananimal, with irregular-shaped bones intheneck,
back and loin areas containing more difficult-to-remove muscle tissue than the
smoothlegbones.
Severalmethodshavebeendevelopedtoseparatemeatfrombone.Theyinclude:
mechanicalseparationordeboningmachines,pressingmeatfrombone,techniques
159 Ch.6] Edibletissuefrombone
developedtousejetsofwaterorsmalliceparticlestowipethemeatfrom thebone
(thislatterprocedurehasnotseencommercialuse),extractionwithwaterordilute
acidsoralkali,ortreatment withproteolytic enzymes.
Mechanicallydebonedorseparated meatisnowapprovedforuseinmost major
meat-producing countries andisbeing used (mixed or used alone) inground and
comminuted meatproducts.Verylittlemechanicallyseparated redmeat, however,
iscurrentlyusedintheUnited States.
MECHANICALSEPARATIONORDEBONINGMACHINES
Themechanicaldeboningorseparation technique producestissuethat attimeshas
beencalledmechanicallyseparatedbeef,porkorlamb,mechanicallydeboned beef,
pork, lamb, turkey, chicken andfish, mechanically removed meat, andpreviously
wascalled mechanically processed (species) product. Twoexcellent reviewsofthe
mechanically separated product canbefound inAdvancesinFood Research titled
Mechanically deboned red meatbyField(1981)and Mechanical deboning of poultry
andfishbyFroning(1981).Someofthefollowinginformation isasummaryofthese
reports.
The technique for muscle separation wasdeveloped for thefisheryindustry in
Japaninthe1940s,followed byitsuseinthepoultryindustry10-15yearslater.Since
bothfishandpoultryhavesomesimilarities,thesametypeofmachinescanbeusedin
bothindustries.Mechanically separated meatwasapprovedforuseintheredmeat
industry in 1978.It is estimated that the U.S.could recover a billion poundsof
materialperyearbythistechnique. In1982labellingregulations were revisedand
theproduct couldthenbelabelledmechanically separated beef,porkorlamb.
The early bone separators frequently used for poultry and fish squeezed the
underground meat andbone mixture between arubber belt andaperforated steel
drum with the softer tissue passing through the drum perforations into the drum
whiletheharderboneswereretainedontheoutsideofthedrum.Pressureonthebelt
canbeadjusted forthematerialbeingseparatedandpressurerollerstosqueezethe
beltanddrumtogethercanensureanevendistributionofthetissueonthebelt.Ifred
meatistobedeboned bythistypeofequipmentthebonemustfirstbeground.
Anothertypeofmechanicaldebonerfirstgrindsthebonesthroughabonecutter
andintroducesthegroundmixtureintoascrew-drivenboninghead.Thematerialis
pressed(withincreasingpressure)towardsthepurifierofaperforated steelcylinder
andthesoft muscletissuepassesthroughtheholes(e.g.0.46mm(0.018in))andthe
boneparticlesexitattheendofthehead.
Another machine cuts thebones into 15-25cm(5.9-9.8in) size, loads thecut
bonesinto aconstant-volume chamber containing superimposed rings (1.3x1mm
(0.05x0.04in))inthecylinderwallandconcentricringsattheendofthecylinder.A
high-pressure hydraulic-powered ram piston forces the incompressible muscle
through the cylinder openings. This is a batch system which differs from the
continuoussystempreviously described.
Other procedures have passed bones through a flaming tunnel (to reduce
bacterial numbers), broken bones into 5-cm (2-in) pieces and pressed this tissue
twice.Thesecond pressinghashigher amountsofbone powder andthisis further
160 Edibletissuefrombone [Ch.6
processed with liquid and a decanter which separates the bone powder from the
deboned meat.
Machines have been built usingjets of water or small icecrystalstowipemeat
residuefrom bone,but thesearenotcurrently incommercialuse.
The structure of mechanically deboned red meat or poultry isafinely ground,
paste-like product in which the myofibrils are heavily fragmented. Breaks are
observedintheZorMbandsunderamicroscopeandtheshearingprocessaffectsthe
length of fibrils and results in spherical- to oval-shaped particles. Mechanically
deboned fish has a somewhat coarser texture (preferred) resulting from usinga
deboner with larger holes causing lessultrastructure alteration. Debonedfishthat
hasbeenwashedanddewateredhasasomewhatfirmertextureduetothistreatment.
Texturization hasbeen attempted byhigh temperature (100C (212F)) heatingof
strands of tissue, which increases the resistance to shear and gives the product a
firmer texture. Centrifugation has also been used as a tool to modify functional
attributes of mechanically separated meat. Most meat emulsion additives have
similareffects onmechanicallydeboned meatastheyhaveonhand-deboned meat.
Theyieldforsimilarrawmaterialinmostofthesemachinescanbecontrolledby
selectingthesizeoftheholeopeningsandregulatingthepressuregenerated during
theseparation operation.
YIELDOFDEBONED MEAT
A deboner canprocessupto907kg(2000lb)ofdeboned product per hour. When
meatismechanicallyseparatedordebonedthemajority oftheadheringmeat,some
ofthebonemarrow(Table6.1)andsmallquantitiesofpowderedbone(98%ofbone
particlesinredmeatmustbesmallerthan0.5mm(0.02in),normalrangeinredmeat
is0.08-0.11mm (0.003-0.004in))passthrough the smallopenings inthe deboner.
Mostoftheboneandconnectivetissue(only2-4%collagenremainsinmechanically
separatedmeat)doesnotpassthroughtheseopenings.Thesizeofthetheholesinthe
debonerandthepressureexertedonthetissueaffect theyieldobtained.Thetypeof
bone (irregular bones are more difficult to clean and consequently more adhering
tissuenormallyremains)andtheamountofprevioustrimmingalsoinfluenceyield.It
isassumed that25-40%ofclean-boneweightisbonemarrow (Table6.1).Thiscan
beharvestedbymechanicaldeboners.Attachedlean(whichcannotbeeconomically
removedbyhandboning)andbonemarrowfrombonesisthematerialsalvagedfrom
mechanical deboners. Table 6.1suggeststhat 11%of pork carcasses, 15%ofbeef
carcassesand 16%oflambcarcassesisboneandthesevalueswouldbehigherwhen
adheringtissueisincluded.Theyieldofvariousbonescanbefound inTable6.2.In
additiontotheattached lean,theamountofmarrow(thelargestorganinthebody,
roughlyequalinweighttotheliver)inthebonealsocontributestotheyield,andthe
marrowlevels,whichaverage2-3%oftotalbodyweightor4-6%ofcarcassweight,
can befound inTable 6.1.Usingthese twofactors an average of30% recoverable
leanandmarrowbasedoncommercialboneweightisoftenusedasexpectedyieldfor
beef,porkandlambbones.Inone-half ofthistotal(total20%ofcarcassweight)or
10% of carcass weight is bones that are economically suitable for mechanical
separation. It is estimated that an average of 6.5kg (14.31b) of mechanically
separated tissuecould beobtained from abeef carcassand 1.5kg(3.3lb)couldbe
Table6.1Composition ofbone (averagesin parentheses)
Pork (%) Beef(%) Lamb(%) Mutton (%)
Bone(% ofliveweight) 7.5-12 7-12
Bone(% ofcarcassweight) 9-30 (11) 12-30(15) 13-19(16) 24-41
Vertebralcolumn, ribs
sternum (choice animal) 10
(% ofcarcassweight)
Oxcoxae,scapula
(% ofcarcassweight) 2.7
Round bones
(% ofcarcassweight) 6.5
Redandyellowmarrow
(% ofboneweight) 25^0
Marrow
(% ofwholebodyweight) 2-3
Marrow
(% ofcarcassweight) 4-6
Marrowvolume 25-40 25^0
Fatinmarrow 96
Osseininbone 33-36
Calciumininorganic matter 37 33-37
Phosphorusininorganic matter 15
Yieldof mechanically
deboned product 35 25
Leanof commercially
removed bones
(% ofbone weight) 14-47
Moisturein bone 43 32-50
Proteininbone 20.6 20.6-29.0
Fatinbone 12.4 15.2-22.0
Ashinbone 21.4 13.0-29.0
Ledward etal. (1983),Mann (1962),Field (1981).
obtained from a pork carcass. The vertebral column, ribs and sternum would be
economically suitable for mechanical separation because of large quantities of
difficult-to-remove tissue or red bone marrow, which is high in protein. Using
availableworldfiguresthistranslatesinto2.3millionmetrictonne(2.5milliontons)
ofmechanicallydebonedredmeatthatcouldbeaddedtotheworld'sfoodsupply.It
is estimated that the US alone could produce from 300000000-500000000kg
(660000000-11000000001b) per year of red meat. Skin on poultry parts often is
discarded, but ifusedto alargeextent italsopassesthrough thedeboner openings
andincreasestheyield.Mechanicalseparationconvertsscarce,good-qualityprotein
thatwouldotherwisebelostintoanediblecategory (sincebonesthatareprocessed
throughthisequipment yieldfrom 21to88%asshowninTable6.2).Thisconverts
Table6.2Yieldofhand-deboned andmechanically deboned tissue
Bone source
Percentage yield
Hand-deboned Mechanical deboned
Butcher hogs
Ham 25.1 27.1-27.5
Picnic 14.3 21.7
Boston Butt 18.7 22.6
Neck 48.0
Rib 39.5
Sows
Loin 46.7 51.0
Veal
Shoulder 16.7 36.2
Frames 37.0 60.8
Back 42.0 63.0
Cowbeef
Rib plate 26.2 32.9
Rump 18.1 26.3
Short loin 25.6 34.0
Choicebeef
Neck 41.3 32.8-48.4
Plate 26.9 28.9
Poultry
Broiler neckwithskin 77.5
Broilerbackwithskin 88.2
Turkey back 80.0
Parts 55-70
Fish
Trimmings 37-60
Filleting techniques 25-30
Field etal (1976),ProteconMeatRecoverySystem(undated),MiyauchiandSteinber(1970).
thetissue adheringtobones,thatwouldotherwise gotoinedible rendering, intoa
substantial portion ofedibletissue,andtheresidueisstillsuitablefor rendering.
The bone residue from mechanically deboning has also been evaluated as a
protein (15-20%)andmineral(7-15%)sourceforanimalandhumandiets.Protein
isolates have been obtained bysodium maleate (NaC
4
H
3
O
4
) and sodium chloride
(NaCl)extraction ofthisresidue.
CHEMICALCOMPOSITION
Mechanically deboned or separated meat contains more bone marrow, powdered
bone and lessconnective tissuewhen compared to hand-deboned meat; therefore,
mechanicallydeboned meat'schemicalcomposition isdifferent (seeTables6.3and
6.4)fromitshand-separated counterpart.Withsomespeciesthetissueisexposedto
waterpriortodeboning, and insomecasesmoreskinisincluded,which also alters
the composition. The composition of mechanically deboned meat also varies
considerably due tothe ageof the animal,bone:meat ratio,cuttingmethods, skin
content, deboner setting (with some machines high yield increases bone and fat
contentintheseparatedtissueandcauseshighertemperatures)andpossibleprotein
denaturation. It is estimated that clean bones may contain as much as 24-40%
marrow. Much of thisisharvested bymechanically separating or deboning. Thisis
themajor reasonthatyieldsfrom mechanicalseparationexceedhand-bonedyields.
The fat content of red bone marrow varies between bones, and increases with
animalage(cervicalandlumbarmarrowrespectivelyrepresentforveal6.6and8.4%
fat,steer16.2and46.4%,cow36.5and47.8%)andisdifferent betweenspecies.This
causesthefat content inmechanically deboned meat tobesubstantially higher and
theproteincontent tobeslightlylowerinmechanicallyseparated ordeboned meat
whencomparedwithhand-deboned meat.Boneswiththemostadheringmeatyield
mechanically separated meat with the most protein, and bones with the least
adheringmeatyieldmechanicallyseparatedmeatwiththeleastproteinandthemost
fat.Mechanicallydebonedtissuenormallyhashigherquantitiesofsarcoplasmicand
non-protein nitrogen, approximately the same amount of myofibrillar protein and
lowerstromaprotein than similarhand-separated tissue.
Deboning machines also produce a tissue that istwo to three times (a greater
increaseinyounganimalsduetolesscalcification) higherinhaemoglobin(the major
pigment in marrow), with no change in myoglobin content, contains two to three
timesmore iron (due to increased haemoglobin) and appears 25-30% darker red
than the comparable hand-deboned product. Bone islow in iron (0.01%) but red
bonemarrow contains9-23mgof iron per 100gor0.09-0.23% (alargeportion of
thisiron isinthe haem form which isabsorbed bythe human body at avery rapid
rate),which results in 4-6.5mgiron/100g, or 0.04-0.065% of mechanically separ-
atedmeat.Thequantityofredbonemarrowchangeswiththeanatomicallocationof
the bone. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in bone marrow (24mg/100g or 0.24% in
marrowand2.5mg/100gor0.025%inmechanicallydeboned meat)alsoaidsinthe
absorption of iron inthe diet. The iron available to thehuman isoften inadequate
duringinfancy,duringperiodsofrapidgrowth,inthefemaleduringthereproductive
periodandinpregnancy.Therecommendedintakeisfrom 10to18mgor0.000352to
0.000635oziron/day.
Mechanically separated or deboned meat also has ahigher ash content (Table
6.5)thanitshand-boned counterpart. Thelevelvarieswithageoftheanimal (older
animals have more calcification and the bones contain more ash; the bones are
harderandaremoreeasilyfragmented inthedeboningmachine,whichincreasesthe
ashlevelinthedeboned tissue).Alsoaffecting ashcontent isspeciesand deboning
temperature.Cold-bonedmeatishigherinmineralsthanpre-rigor(hot)bonedmeat
andcooked spent layer frames are higher inprotein and lower infat; cooking also
gelatinizes collagen which increases the protein. The ash level also increases with
yield,whichisusuallycausedbylargerholesinthemachineand/orifmorepressureis
exterted on the tissue. If the yields are increased by increasing the pressure the
calciumcontentalsoincreases.Typeofequipment (pressmachinesusuallyhaveless
Table6.3Composition ofhand-separated andmechanicaldeboned meat
ON
Bonesource Percentageoffreshweight
Drymatter Etherextract Crudeprotein Ash Calcium
Hand Mechanical Hand Mechanical Hand Mechanical Hand Mechanical Hand Mechanical
ButcherHogs
Ham 50.39 54-55 27.99 39-42 15.67 10-11 0.54 4.07 0.029 1.39
Picnic 42.25 55.59 22.29 42.37 19.17 9.06 0.68 3.68 0.043 1.22
BostonButt 38.24 43.15 12.78 26.04 19.21 13.50 0.86 2.71 0.079 0.73
Neck 40-46 25-30 12-15
Sow
Loin 45.73 46.15 23.49 29.53 16.72 14.01 0.72 1.77 0.037 0.41
Veal
Shoulder 24.33 26.27 3.06 7.56 20.23 12.85 0.92 5.36 0.035 1.76 2
Frame 26.68 26.64 5.57 6.79 18.86 17.57 0.92 2.59 0.045 0.71
Back 24.29 24.21 3.69 5.81 18.69 15.98 1.05 2.21 0.042 0.54
Cowbeef
Rib,plate 47.97 50.33 31.65 31.87 14.16 12.98 0.81 4.59 0.013 1.55
i
Rump 33.43 58.06 11.85 41.89 17.56 10.05 0.80 4.35 0.083 1.55
Shortloin 43.42 50.97 22.52 33.38 16.38 11.62 0.98 4.35 0.014 1.50
I Choicebeef
Neck 30.16 35.13 8.99 10-24 19.33 16-17 1.05 3.43 0.056 1.06
Plate 51.89 49-70 27.92 40-50 13.20 9-12 0.50 4.35 0.051 1.49
Poultrybones
Broiler,neck
withskin 34.00 21.80 11.50 0.70 __ 0.03
skinless 28.30 7.90 15.30 ^_
Broiler,back
withskin 34.50 20.20 13.70 0.60 0.04
skinless 37.60 21.20 13.20
Spentlayers 35-40 18-26 13-15
Turkeybacks 27.6 11.70 14.80 1.10 0.06
frames 27-30 12-14 12-16
Fish 18.8 22.50 1.20 3.60 19.50 1.00 1.10
Sole 16-23 2-8 12-14 1.3-21.
Rockfish 23-27 7.5-8 14.5 1.6-2.0
Cod 17-20 2-4 14-15 1.3-1.5 9
StrangeR. (personal communication),Protection Meat Recovery System (undated),Field etal. (1976),Froning (1970),MacNeil etal. (1978),Froning etal.
(1971)Grunden etal.(1972),FroningandJohnson(1973),Webb etal.(1976),Crawford etal.(1972),Goldstrand(1975).
Table 6.4 Average compositions of mechanically deboned meat after normal
trimming
Beef bone (%) Pork bone (%)
Protein 15 13
Fat 25 28
Moisture 58 58
Ash 1-2 1-3
Hardbone residue 0.270.06
100-1000/xm 90.6% ofhard bones
1000-2000 fim 7.6% ofhard bones
2000-3000 /im 1.1% ofhard bones
>3000/*m 0.6% ofhard bones
Haem,mg/kg 500 300
a
Normal meat, 250mg/kg
Bengtsson and Holmqvist (1984);Bijker etal. (1979).
Table6.5Mineralcomposition ofmechanically separated tissue
Mineral Pork Beef
Ash(%) 0.89-1.77 1.12-2.36
Phosphorus (%) 0.157-0.292 0.165-0.241
Calcium (mg%) 85.25-291.18 204.32-621-54
Magnesium (mg%) 13.75-32.37 15.96-27.07
Sodium (mg%) 109.30-240.02 107.84-198.32
Potassium (mg%) 252.37-465.20 267.34-475.30
Iron(mg%) 4.54-9.88 5.11-9.21
Zinc(mg/kg) 12.00-24.11 11.53-24.11
Nickel(mg/kg) 0.11-0.68 0.18-0.75
Cobalt (mg/kg) 0.03-0.33 0.06-0.51
Copper (mg/kg) 0.18-3.25 0.44-3.08
Tin(mg/kg) 0.64-1.92 0.79-3.02
Lead (mg/kg) 0.00-1.20 0.00-1.51
Cadmium (mg/kg) 0.00-0.07 0.00-0.06
Antimony (mg/kg) 0.00-0.73 0.00-1.46
Selenium (mg/kg) 0.00-0.08 0.00-0.16
Arsenic(mg/kg) 0.00-0.45 0.00-0.51
Mercury (mg/kg) 0.00-0.15 0.00-0.20
. (1979).
than0.4% bonepowder, buttheboneparticlesarenormallylarger)andmethodof
operationofthedeboneralsoinfluencethemineralcontentinmechanicallydeboned
tissue.Fatislowerincalciumandashthanleantissue;therefore, thefat:leanratio
alsoinfluences thecalcium and ashlevel.
The phosphorus level isnot drastically different in mechanically deboned and
hand-deboned meat. The dryfat-free bone isapproximately 12%phosphorus,but
theadditionalphosphorusobtainedfrom theboneisdilutedwithfat,whichislowin
phosphorus (lOmg/lOOg or 0.1%) in mechanically separated meat. Magnesiumis
the nextmost abundant mineralindryfat-free bonebut it,likephosphorus,isalso
diluted bylowmagnesium content in fat.
Theashinmechanically separatedtissueisprimarilycalcium.Thecalciumlevel
canbeusedtoindicatethebonelevel,whichagaincanbecontrolledbyyieldandthe
amount of meat left on the bone prior to deboning (diluted byincreased adhering
tissue).
Calciumisnormallylowinthehumandiet,withmostpeopleover35consuming
onlytwo-thirdsoftherecommendeddailyallowance(800mg(0.028oz)calcium/day
foradultsand1200mg(0.042oz)/dayduringgestation).Ifanindividualconsumesan
excessof calcium no detrimental effects are observed. Bone powder also supplies
manyothermineralsessentialfornormalhumannutrition.Theretentionofcalcium
from cookedgroundbonesisestimatedtobeapproximately90%ofthatfoundwith
whole dried milk. The bone source ofcalcium isespecially useful for those people
whohave alactase deficiency and.cannot tolerate milk asacalcium source. Other
bonemineralcomponentssuchaslead,fluorineandstrontium-90alsoincreasewith
bone(ashorcalcium)levels.However,strontium-90hasnotbeendetectedinbones
inthe last 5years and lead levels arevery low. Since some people cannot tolerate
calcium, the USDA limitsthecalcium levelofmechanically separated red meatto
0.75% (not morethan3%bonecontent)orusesamaximumtolerance of0.90%of
calcium on asingle analysisbasis and abone content based on amaximum of1%
calciuminpoultryusedinmeatproducts.Thecalciumlevelsareoftenmultipledbya
factor offour (USDA) toobtain anestimateofthepercentageofboneinmechani-
cally deboned product. In addition to percentage of bone, the particle sizeisalso
important, since large particles will cause the tissue to have a gritty texture.
Therefore, in addition tochemical analysis,bone sizeisalsoregulated (USDA)in
red meat; 98% of the bone particles may have a maximum size, in their greatest
dimension,ofnogreaterthan0.5mm(0.02in),andnoparticlesofbonepowdermay
haveadimensiongreaterthan0.85mm(0.03in).Amachinewith0.46mm(0.018in)
openings will normally yield bones with a mean diameter of 900200/*m
(0.0350.008in),which isnot organoleptically objectionable but does exceed the
current USDAlimits.Mechanical deboningensuresthat largebones(of asizethat
can chip teeth) are not present, but these may be in hand-separated products.
Excessivefluoridereducestooth decaybut maycause mottling of children's teeth,
and therefore mechanically separated meat islimited to20% of ameat or poultry
product and mechanically deboned red meat maynot beused (in U.S.) inbabyor
junior foods. The additional calcium and iron in mechanically separated meat is
readily absorbed by humans. These minerals are traditionally low in most diets;
therefore,thenutritionalvalueofthistissueinminerallevelsexceedsandissuperior
tothelevelsinhand-debonedproducts.Itisrecommendedthatkidneysberemoved
from mature poultry prior to deboning, since they may contribute unwanted
cadmiumtotheproduct.TheDutchregulationsforexportedmechanically deboned
product have a maximum level of 1% bone and 0.25% calcium, with no bone
particleslargerthan 1mm.TheCanadian Government allowslargerbone particles
inmechanicallyseparated meat. Their regulationstatesthat98%mustbelessthan
0.84mm (0.033in) and that 100% must be less than 2.0mm (0.079in). Some
EuropeancountrieshavemoreliberalbonesizestandardsthanCanada.Ifthebones
areprocessed through acuttingrather than agrindingprocedure and then through
thebatch-processing technique,the ashor bonelevelwillbeverysimilartothatof
hand-deboned meat.
Most mechanically separated meat exceeds (see Table 6.6) the minimum
Table6.6Protein efficiency ratio(PER)for rats
Proteinsource PER (ggained/gprotein eaten)
Casein (for redmeat data) 2.97
Beef,semimembranous 2.91
Choicebeef plates 1.90
Cowribbones 1.44
Vealbones 2.67
Lambneckbones 2.90
Porkneckbones,regular 2.60
Porkneckbones,closetrim 2.00
Casein (for poultry data) 2.50
Chickenbackand neck 2.34
Cookedpoultry meat 2.41
Turkeyframe 2.59
Field etal. (1979), Babji etal. (1980).
(USDA) level of 2.5protein efficiency ratio (PER, highprotein quality) and33%
essentialaminoacids.PER valuescanberaised inmechanicallyseparated meatby
stayingbelowthemaximum(USDA)calciumlevel(0.75%)orbyleavingmorelean
meat on the bone prior to deboning. The protein quality isof concern since bones
from thecuttingroomcontain alargequantityofadheringcollagen;theboneitself
contains25%collagen. Thispattern isnotconsidered tobewellbalancedin amino
acid composition. These concerns are reduced, however, when it is realized that
much of the connective tissue, as well as bone, is removed during mechanical
separating or deboning. Also marrow is a good source of lysine, leucine and
histidine,whichareessentialandoften limitingaminoacidsinmanydiets.Notonly
doesthePERindicatethisisnotamajor problem,butifthepercentageoftheeight
essentialaminoacidsfor hand-deboned meat (35^0%) iscomparedwiththose for
mechanically separated meat (24-42%) it can be seen that in most products the
percentages are similar, but more variability is encountered in the mechanically
separatedmeat.Sincesomeconnectivetissueisremovedandsomebonepowderand
marrow are added to mechanically separated meat, the protein quality between
controltissueandmechanicallyseparatedmeatissimilar.Thediscardedbonefrom
mechanicaldeboningisaninferiorproductfromaproteinqualitystandpoint,having
only28%essentialaminoacidsandaPERvalueoflessthan0.5.
The maximum allowable (USDA) fat level for one category of mechanically
separatedmeatis30%andtheminimumproteinlevelis14%.Thereisnoproteinor
fatlimitinasecondcategory,wherethemechanicallyseparatedmeatistobeusedin
a meat product that has inspection limits. Bone marrow lipid contains more
polyunsaturatedfattyacids,morephospholipidsandmorecholesterolthandolipids
fromsubcutaneousorintramuscularfats.Withtheincreaseinfatinmostmechani-
callyseparatedmeat,thisalsotranslatesintoanincreaseinthesecomponents.The
cholesterollevelofmechanicallyseparatedredmeatisfairlysimilartothatofhand-
debonedmeat,butinpoultrythecholesterollevelisapproximatelydoubledbecause
ofthepresenceofthespinalcordinthebone.
TheRNAvalueandthepurinecontentofmechanicallydebonedmeatisinthe
same range as hand-deboned meat, but the DNA values exceed those of hand-
deboned tissue because of theinclusionof bonemarrow. ThepHisalsohigherin
mechanicallyseparatedmeatthaninhand-debonedmeat.
Thewater-bindingcapacity,emulsifying ability,cookingstability,cookingyield
andloafsizeofmechanicallyseparatedmeatisgoodwhenusedinasausageemulsion
product.Asthelevelofskinincreases,thereisaslightdecreaseinemulsionstability
andemulsioncapacitypergramofmeat,probablyduetoincreasedfat.
MICROBIOLOGICALQUALITY
To produce mechanically separated meat with good microbiological quality itis
essential thatthebonespriortodeboningbehandledinthesamemannerasfresh
muscletissue. Thismeanssanitaryhandling,lowtemperaturesandlimitedstorage
mustbemaintained(utilizingpre-rigorbonesfromhotboningispreferable).Mixing
ofexternaltissue(morehighlymicrobiologicallycontaminated)withcleanerinternal
tissue,atemperatureriseof 1to6C(1to10F)duringgrindingand5to8C(10to
15F) insome deboners duringprocessing andfinegrinding makesthisseparated
tissueanidealgrowthmediaformicroorganisms.
It is recommended (USDA) that bones from hand-boned chilled carcassesbe
mechanicallyprocessed(separatedordeboned)within1hour,storedat4C(40F)if
processed within 72 hours, or frozen at -18C (0F) if processed in excess of72
hours. If hot-boned tissues are used, they should be processed within 4 hoursof
slaughter,storedat4C(40F)iftheyaretobeprocessedwithin72hours,orfrozen
to -18C (0F)iftheyaretobeprocessedinexcessof72hours.InDenmarkfresh
chilledbones areusedfordeboning andtheproductisimmediatelychilledto3C
(37F)orlower.Themechanicallyseparatedtissuemustbeusedin24hoursorfrozen
to -18C (0F) or lower. The Australian government states that bones must be
handled and processed in ahygienic manner and kept cold prior to deboningor
frozenifheldlongerthan36hourspriortodeboning.Mechanicallyseparatedtissue
mustbereducedto7C(45F)within2hoursofprocessingandusedwithin24hours
ormustbefrozen. During mechanical separation both the grinding and deboning
processesraisethetemperature;thistemperatureriseismoreseverewithhardbones
thanwithsoftbones.Ifcoldbonesareusedthetemperaturerangeoutofthegrinder
maybebetween- 1 and8C(30and46F)andoutofthedebonerbetween0and38C
(32 and 100F). These temperatures require effective chilling procedures (blast
freezein5-7cmor2-2.7inlayers)ifdebonedmeatistomaintainitsmicrobiological
integrity. Ifthetemperature canbe rapidly reduced andmaintained at4C(39F)
therewillbelittleincreaseinmicrobiologicalnumbersinthemechanicallyseparated
meatduring24hoursofstorage.
OXIDATION
Unsaturated fat (bone marrow fat is more unsaturated than subcutaneous or
intramuscularfat), highprocessing temperature,finegrindingandmixingof bone
marrow,incorporationofairandhaempigments,contactofdebonedtissuewithiron
partsofthedeboner(mostarestainlesssteeltoday),allcontributetoidealconditions
for fat oxidation which can lead to off flavours and colour deterioration (dull
brownish-red) in mechanically separated meat. This seems to be particularly a
problemwithunsaturatedfatfromdebonedpoultryproducts.Theratioofunsatur-
atedfattyacidstohaemproteinisoften highlycorrelatedtooxidationinmechani-
callyseparatedmeat. Washingofmechanically debonedfishandfilteringseemsto
improveproductstability. Oxidationoccursveryrapidlyabove 10C(50F)butcan
stillbeaproblemevenat-30C(-22F). Oxidationismuchlessofaproblemwith
separatedmutton andbeef andintermediate withseparated pork duetoitslarger
quantity of saturated fat in the ruminant fat. Incorporation of antioxidants into
deboned tissue insome cases might prove useful; however, phenolic antioxidants
havenot proven to bevery satisfactory, probably dueto poorsolubility intissue.
Chelating agents and polyphosphates have proved useful in some circumstances.
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) chilling seems to accelerate oxidation, but isoften used to
lowertemperatureandtocontrolmicrobiologicalgrowth.Liquidnitrogendoesnot
appeartostimulateoxidation,whilereducingproducttemperature.
Cellular disruption infishduring mechanical deboning leads to breakdown of
trimethylamineoxide (TMAO,linkedtofishyodour)totrimethylamine (TMA)or
dimethylamine (DMA). The TMA andDMA often increase twoto four timesin
mechanicallyseparatedproducts.
EMULSIONPROPERTIES
Theaddedbright-redcolourofmechanicallyseparatedmeatisconsidereddesirable
inmanyprocessedmeatitemsbut,ofcourse,isanegativefactoriftheprocessoris
strivingforapaletowhitesausage.
Mechanically separated meat has at least as good an emulsifying capacity
(sometimeshigher)andwater-holdingcapacity, andslightlyhigheremulsionstabi-
litythanitshand-debonedcounterpart. Frozenstoragetimeofmechanicallysepar-
ated meat does decrease emulsifying capacity and it appears that the warmer the
frozentemperaturethemoredetrimentalfrozen storagetimebecomes. Thebatter
viscosityincreaseswithincreasesinamountsofmechanicallyseparatedmeatinthe
formulation. Bindvaluesarealsosimilarbetweenhand-separated andmechanically
separated meat. When mechanically deboned meat iscompared to hand-deboned
controls no significant differences were found in sausage emulsion products in
'degree of fatting out', ease of peeling and smokehouse shrinkage. Most of these
favourable mechanically separated meat properties are attributed to adecreasein
connective tissueand anincreaseinpHfor themechanicallyseparated meat.
TheincreaseofpHofmechanically separated meat iscaused bytheadditionof
red bone marrow (pH6.8-7.4) and could be influenced by the basic calcium
phosphateinbonepowder.Whenmechanicallyseparatedmeatisblendedwithother
tissue this increases its water-holding capacity, which in turn influences emulsion
formation, meat processing, storage,cookingand freezing properties. Someofthe
beneficial effects ofincreasedpHonimprovedwater-holdingcapacitycanbe offset
byelevated calcium,magnesium,potassium,ironandcopperlevelsinthemechani-
cally separated meat, which exert a negative influence. Freezing, and particularly
slowfreezing, alsodecreasesthewater-holding capacity. Ifmechanically separated
meatisprocessedunderoptimumconditionsthenthewater-holdingcapacityshould
beapproximately equaltothatofhand-deboned product.
USESOFMECHANICALLY DEBONED MEAT
Mechanicallyseparatedredmeatmaybeaddedtoground-beefpatties,comminuted
fresh,smoked,andcookedsausage-typeproducts,stews,sauces,spreadsandsimilar
products and even to chunked and formed products (pressed and chopped ham).
Withmechanicallydeboned poultryotheritemsareincluded. Thefavourable price
of mechanically deboned poultry andfishincomparison toother meat sourceshas
madeitverypopular inieast-cost' formulated products.Thechemicalcharacteris-
ticsofmarrowimprovepalatability,textureandjuicinessofmeatmixesifincorpor-
atedattheproperlevel(thisdependsontheamountofmarrowandbonepowderin
themechanicallydebonedmeat).Iftheproportionofmechanicallyseparatedtissue
is too large, however, the organoleptic characteristics of the combined products
deteriorate.Normally,asdebonedmeatisincorporated intohand-debonedmeatat
high levels, the flavour and overall acceptability scores willbecome lower, colour
becomes darker (due to haemoglobin inmarrow and then reduction of connective
tissue,which isdevoid of pigments) and the tenderness (often to an unacceptable
mushy state in some products) and juiciness scores (10-20% increase) are higher.
Forthesereasonsthepracticallevelofincorporationofmechanicallyseparatedmeat
intohand-debonedmeatisusuallylimited.Somelevelsthathavebeensuggestedare:
5-20% (10% often mentioned) in beef patties (not permitted (USDA) in ham-
burger, ground beef, or fabricated steaks), and 10-40% (20% isconsidered maxi-
mumintheU.S.(USDA)insausageemulsionsbuthigherlevelsoflow-fat product
canbeaddedwithoutorganolepticproblems).Mechanicallyseparatedmeatthathas
been abused reducespalatabilityofproductsinwhichitisincorporated.
Deboned meat isoften combined with textured soyproteins in meat products,
and the dark colour and mushy texture of mechanically separated meat aresome-
whatcounterbalanced bythelightercolourandcoarseorrubberytextureofthesoy
product whenmixedwith meat.
In Denmark, if mechanically deboned meat isused at levelsof lessthan 2%it
doesnothavetobedeclared onthelabel,butifused over the2%levelitistobe
declared. InAustralia, exported product islabelled 'edible mechanically deboned
meat/beefymutton' andcontainsastatementofthemaximumcalcium,moistureand
minimumprotein content.
IntheU.S.,twocategoriesofmechanically separated redmeatsare approved.
Onehasaminimum of 14% protein (running average of 10analyses) with a13%
minimumprotein allowedonasingleanalysis,andamaximumof30%fat (running
averageof10analyses)witha33%maximumoffatallowedonasingleanalysis.A
second mechanically separated product hasnoprotein orfat requirements, butis
permitted only in products where the quantity of fat is limited. These products
cannot beused inbaby food, ground beef, hamburger, fabricated steaks, certain
curedporkcuts,meatpiesandafewotheritems,butmaybeutilizedatalevelof20%
inbeef patties, pressed andchopped ham,avariety of fresh smoked and cooked
sausages, stews, sauces, spreads andsimilar products. Thelabel must declarethe
calcium content of the finished product if the mechanically separated product
constitutes20mg(0.0007oz)ormoreofcalciumtoaserving.Duetorepeated court
hearingsand'badpress'mechanicallyseparatedredmeathasnotbeenutilizedatits
maximum potential in the U.S. Only 579693kg (12753241b) of mechanically
separated beef, 222487kg (4894051b) of mechanically separated pork and
211564kg(4644411b)ofmechanically separatedvealwereusedintheU.S.in 1982
(Field,1983).
Bone fragments inthis product aresosmall that they areundetectable inthe
mouth when thisproduct iseaten, andmost experts agree that these constituteno
health hazard.
Flavour stability of mechanically deboned meat depends upon species, meat
type, composition, ageprior to deboning, deboner type and setting, quantity of
haem (myoglobin hasa greater catalytic effect on oxidation than haemoglobin),
contactwithmetalpartsofthedeboner andtemperatureofdeboning.
Colour abnormalities (brown, green, grey) have sometimes become apparent
duringstorageofmechanically separated meat. StorageandCO
2
treatment tendto
makethetissue darker, andincreased fat levels andskin levels tend todilutethe
haem pigment. During deboning and mixing of air with tissue, myoglobin is
converted tooxymyoglobin, andsurface oxidation during storage converts thisto
metmyoglobin.
OTHER BONEEXTRACTION PROCEDURES
Othermethodsofseparatingmusclefromboneincludeliquidextractionandsomeof
these techniques are described in the 'meat extract section' of Chapter 2. Other
liquid-separationproceduresincludetumblingofboneswithwaterinarotatingdrum
and the removal of water andfat from the extracted material with a centrifuge;
however, the aqueous extraction methods have not received wide commercial
acceptance.
Another procedure would includeacold alkalineextraction. Inthisprocedure,
thebonesaregroundto1.5-2.0cm(0.06-0.08in)insize,water (H
2
O)andsodium
hydroxide (NaOH) in a 1.5: 1 ratio (resulting in a 10.5pH) are added andthe
mixture istumbled to extract the protein. The resulting liquid mixture contains
approximately 2.6% protein, which isprecipitated by adjusting the pH to 5.3and
centrifuging theproduct.Theyieldofproteinisonlyabout15%,probablyduetothe
technique'sinabilitytoprecipitatethesarcoplasmicproteins.Theyield(upto90%)
canbeincreasedbyheating(80C(176F),pH5-6)theliquid,butthisdenaturesthe
proteinsandreducestheirfunctional propertiesmakingthemgrittyanduncohesive.
The non-heated extract contains approximately 13% protein, has a texture like
minced veal (a firmer texture can be obtained by a freeze (-30C (-22F)-thaw
treatment at pH6.5) and isbland, lacking the typical meat flavour. The PER for
protein from low-temperature alkalineextractsiscomparabletoleanbeef.
Flavouring ingredients have been extracted from bones for many years in the
Orient. In thisprocess,crushed bones arecombined withwater and cooked under
pressure (4kg/cm
2
or57lb/in
2
)for 1.5-2 hours.Theproductiscooledandthefatis
skimmed from the liquid. Thistechnique yields66%liquid extract, which contains
approximately 10%solids(saltissometimesaddedtoraisethesolidlevelto15%).
Thisprocesscanbemodified byaddingsteaminsteadofwaterandcookingat6kg/
cm
2
or85lbin
2
for2hours.Thiswillyielda43% liquidextractwith20%solids.An
alternativeprocessisahot-waterextractionfor20-40hours,whichyields66%liquid
extract with a 5% solid concentration. All of the products can also be vacuum
concentrated to60%solids.
These extracted products have been used as a soup base, in noodle products,
sauces,stewsandcurriesaswellasinprocessedhamsandsausages.Somehavealso
beenusedtomanufacture ahydrolysedanimalprotein(HAP)flavouringingredient.
Another European technique, starting with the residue from mechanically
separated meat orwithregular bones,sendsthemthrough adefatting process,and
then routes the bones through an acid or a centrifuge-cooking process to extract
edibleboneprotein(seeFig.6.1).Thisprocessyieldsfat,andtheacidprocessyields
dicalcium phosphate and edible bone collagen. The cooking process yields edible
bone phosphate and soluble bone protein. This extraction technique has the
advantageofstartingwiththeresidueofmechanicallydebonedtissueandextracting
additionaledibleproteinfromthistissue.Thefirststepisdefatting,whichconsistsof
crushing (to 7-10mm (0.3-0.4in)), washing with hot water and centrifuging the
bone. This hot-water countercurrent washing system removes the fat and the
fat-water systemisseparated byadisccentrifuge. Therecovered fat isgrade 1and
yieldsof 1(M4%ofthefresh boneweightareobtained.Thedefatted bonecontains
lessthan2%fat onadry-weightbasis.
Thedefatted boneistreatedwithdilutehydrochloricacid(HC1)whichdissolves
the mineral portion (mainly hydroxyapatite) and leaves the collagen undissolved.
This isaccomplished with athree-stage countercurrent operation with subsequent
washingof theprotein and adjustment ofthepHto4-5.Theedible bone-collagen
protein isdewatered by centrifuging and the dried material (90% protein) isthen
milled.Thisprocedure,ofcourse,isverysimilartothemakingofosseinfrom bone
(seeChapter5).Thespentacidisthentreatedwithalimeslurryandthisprecipitates
dicalciumphosphate,whichisvacuumfilteredanddried.Thedicalcium phosphate
yield isapproximately 25%ofthe raw-bone weight and isusedinanimalfeed asa
sourceofcalciumand phosphate.
Theediblebonecollagenhaslittletasteorodour,isnotsolubleinwaterbutdoes
swell, has good fat and water absorption in cold water, and, due to the acid
173
Ch. 6]
Edibletissuefrom bone
Rawbone (canuseresiduefrom
I
mechanicaldeboningprocess
orcrushedcleanbones)
Crushing (7- 10mmor0.3-0.4in)
Defatting (Washingandcentrifuging)
Fat(10-24%yield) Defattedbone
(2%fatondrybasis)
Acidprocess Centrifugal
diluteHC1 cookingprocess
( 3- 4 hours)
Neutralizedwith lime
I
Dicalcium
Edible
Edible Soluble
phosphate,
Bone
bone Bone
25%yield
Collagen,
phosphate Protein
Similarto
I
Ossein
Dried
Refined
soup-stock
I
with lower
15%yield,
fatandno
5%ash, Milled
salt,
6%moisture,
I
5%moisture,
5%fat,
90%protein 2%Moisture,
98%protein,
33- 34%Phosphate,
2%ash
2%fat,
Milled
81 - 84%ash
Fig.6.1Liquidseparationofedibleproteinfrom bone(USDA,undated).
treatment, islowinbacterial numbers.Itmaybeused (wherelocallawspermit)in
many comminuted meat products, and has good absorbing properties (for fat and
water).Thisproduct tendstogivemeat amorecrumblyand lesschewytexture.
Thepreviouslydescribeddefatted bonemayalsobecookedinalow-speedbasket
centrifugal cooker and the superheated water leaches the extract from the bone
mass.Threeto4hoursofextraction time areneeded tohydrolyse theprotein. The
hydrolysate is evaporated and spray-dried to give a stable soluble bone-protein
powder.
Theremainingediblebonephosphateconsistsmainlyofthemineralhydroxyapa-
tite with some carbonate-apatite and fluoro-apatite and residues of unextracted
protein andfat. Itisapproved asafood additiveintheUK. Itisusedasasourceof
the correct ratio of calcium and phosphorus in foods and is normally added at a
0.5-2% rate.
Solubleboneprotein(95%protein)issimilartobonegelatinhydrolysate,except
itisobtained bydirectnaturalhydrolysiswithouttheutilizationofanacidoralkali.
Consequently itisverysimilartosoupstock,exceptthatithasalowfatcontent and
noadded salt. Soluble bone protein issoluble inwater but does not bind water or
formagel.Solubleboneproteinisusedinsoups,saucesandgraviesandasaprotein
supplement tomeat products.
174 Edibletissuefrom bone
[Ch.6
Liquid-extracted tissuediffers greatlyfrom mechanically separated ordeboned
productsand hasnotbeen ascommercially popular.
INEDIBLE USESOF BONES
Bones are, of course, also used for inedible purposes. This has been discussed in
moredetail inChapter 3,but abrief summaryisgiveninTable 6.7.
Table6.7Processingofbonesfor inedible uses
Bone and meat meal Bones, adhering meat and tendons processed
underpressurewithother offal
Rawbone meal Bonesareboiledtoremoveadheringmaterialand
part ofossein and arethen milld
Steamed bone meal Bonesareboiledunderpressuretoremoveossein
and milled
Meat meal Bones are boiled under pressure and the freed
ossein used
Calcified boneorboneash Bones are burned for 30 minutes to 1hour and
then powdered
Bone char Bones are ground to 2-5 mm (less than \ inch),
heated to 500-700C (932-1292F) for 4-6 hours.
Boneoilisaby-product ofthisprocess.
Bone china Similartoboneashbutmadeintheabsenceofany
metalcontainer. Pigbonesare unsuitable
REFERENCES
Alfa-Laval, (1979) Process innovations for the meat by-products industry. Stock-
holm,Sweden, Alfa-Laval.
Babji, A. S., Froning, G. W., and Satteslee, L. D. (1980) The protein nutritional
quality of mechanically deboned poultry meat as predicted by C-PER assay. J.
Food Sci. 45441.
Bengtsson, O. and Holmquist, O. (1984) By-products from slaughtering. Fleisch-
wirtschaft 64 1-4.
Bijker, P. G. H., Gerats, G. E., Van Logtestijn, J. G., Koolmees, P. A. and
Fransen,T. (1979)Methodstodeterminethebonecontent andthesizeofbone
particles inmechanically deboned pork. Proc. Eur. Meat Res. Work., 25th.p.
845.
Crawford, D.L.,Law,D.K.andBabbitt,J. K.(1972) Nutritional characteristics of
Ch.6] Edibletissuefrombone 175
marine food fish, carcass waste and machine separated flesh. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 201048.
Djujic, I., Djoudjevic, V., Mihajlovic, B.and Radovic,N. (1979) Mineral compo-
nents of mechanically separated meat. Proceedings of the 25th European Meat
Research Work Conference,p.859.
Field,R. A. (1981) Mechanically deboned red meat. Advances in Food Research27
p.23.NewYork, AcademicPress.
Field,R. A. (1983) An update on mechanically separated meat. Proceedings of the
36th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference, p.38.
Field,R.A.,Kruggel,W.G.andRiley,M.L.(1976) Characteristics of mechanically
deboned meat, hand separated meat and bone residue from bones destined for
rendering. J. Animal Sci.43755.
Field,R. A., Chang,Y. O. and Kruggel,W. G. (1979) Protein quality of mechani-
cally processed (species) product and bone residue. J. Food Sci.44690.
Froning, G. W. (1970) Poultry meat sources and their emulsifying characteristics as
related to processing variables. Poult. Sci.491625.
Froning,G. W. (1981) Mechanical deboning of poultry and fish. Advances In Food
Research,27p. 109.NewYork, AcademicPress.
Froning, G. W., and Johnson, F. (1973) Improving the quality of mechanically
bedoned fowl meat bycentrifugation. / . Food Sci.38278.
Froning,G. W., Arnold, R. G., Mondigo, R. W., Neth, C.E. andHastung,T. E.
(1971)Qualityandstoragestabilityoffrankfurters containing15%mechanically
deboned turkeymeat. / . Food Sci.36974.
Goldstrand, R. E. (1975) Mechanically deboned meats yield and product
characteristics. Proceedings of the 28th Reciprocal Meat Conferencep.116.
Grunden, L. P., MacNeil,J. H. and Dimick, P. S. (1972)Poultry product quality:
chemicalandphysicalcharacteristicsofmechanically deboned poultry meat. / .
Food Sci.37247.
Ledward, D. A., Taylor, A. J. and Lawrie, R. A. (1983) Conversion of bone to
edible products. In Upgrading waste for feeds andfood. London,Butterworths.
MacNeil,J. H., Mast, M. G. and Leach, R. M. (1978)Protein efficiency ratio and
levelsofselected nutrientsinmechanically deboned poultrymeat. / . Food Sci.
43864.
Mann, I. (1962) Animal by-product processing and utilization. FAO Animal
Production and Health Series, No. 9, FAO Agricultural Development Paper
No.75,Rome,Food andAgriculture Organization.
Miyauchi,D.andSteinberg,M.(1970)Machineseparationofediblefleshfromfish.
Fishlnd. Res.6165.
Protecon meat recovery system, (undated)Holland,Protecon.
USDA, (undated) Memorandum of screening and surveillanceVol. Il l , No. 3
Washington D.C., Food Safety And Inspection Service, USDA.
Webb,N.B.,Hardy, E. R. Giddings,G. G. and Howell,A.J. (1976) Influence of
mechanical separation upon proximate composition functional properties and
textural characteristics of frozen Atlantic croaker muscle tissue. J. Food Sci.41
1277.
7
Medicinaland pharmaceutical
usesofby-products
ANIMALGLANDS
AnimalglandshavebeenconsumedasdescribedinChapter2sincerecordedhistory.
Some of them have been used in medicine for their healing powers (actual or
'magical'insomesocieties).Throughoutthebodythereareanumberofinternally
secreting, ductless glands called endocrine glands that secrete hormones, whose
under-orover-productioncancausedrasticchangesinthebody(seeFig.7.1).These
Corpus Kidney Adrenal
Pituitary
Ovary
luteum
Follicle
Fig.7.1Endocrineglandsofthedairycow.Thesameendocrineglandsarepresentinother
femalesofdifferent mammalianspecies.Theyarealsopresentinthemale,exceptthatitisthe
testiclethatisfunctional. (MissouriAgricultural Experimental Station, 1963).
glands,savedinlargerprogressivemeatplantsforpharmaceuticaluses,accountfor
onlyapproximately0.28%oftheanimal'sliveweight.Digestiveenzymeswhichare
alsousefulinthemedicalandpharmaceuticalarea(seeTable7.1)areobtainedfrom
177 Ch.7] Medicinal andpharmaceutical usesof by-products
Gland
Bile,beef
(liquid)
Bile,beef
(75% solids)
Ovary(cow)
Ovary(cow)
(corpus luteum)
Ovary(hog)
Ovary (sheep)
Pancreas,beef
Pancreas,pork
Parathyroid
Pineal (beef)
Pituitary (beef)
Pituitary (beef)
Pituitary (pork)
Pituitary
posterior
Stomach (pork)
(pepsin)
Suprarenal
(adrenal),beef
(epinephrine)
Testicle,beef
Thyroid (beef)
fl
llb=454g.
Table7.1Yieldofgland products
Number of glands Numberof
per pound*
fresh
2-4
70-100
80
90-145
600-1400
2
6-10
450-600
1800
148-185
1700-1800
148
3-4
32-50
2
20
animalsper
pound" fresh
2-4
20-30
35-50cow
40cows
45-145(sow)
300-700 (ewe)
2
5-10
Av.300cattle
1800
148-185cattle
1700-1800
148cattle
3-4
16-25
1
20
Numberof
glandsper
pound"of
finishedproduct
200-600
1600
275-864
3600-8400
13000-24 000
60000-120000
1800-3600
12600
740-1060
10000-18000
for ACTH
400000-1 152000
for ACTH
10000-18000
18-20
114
6
100
MoultonandLewis(1953),Mann(1962),Romans etal (1985),Ockerman (1975),NationalLiveStock
andMeatBoard(1975,1977),Maurer(1951),CommitteeonTextbooksoftheAmericanMeatInstitute
(1958).
theredportionofthestomachliningaroundthepylorus(pepsin),andobtained from
thefourth stomach ofthe calf (rennin) andfrom thepancreas (diastase (amylase),
lipase and trypsin)., These hormones and enzymes, along with vitamins, food
supplements and other biological chemicals are often collected and derived from
animal by-products collected for that purpose (Tables 7.2, 7.3) at the slaughter
industrylevel.
Different animalshavedifferent glandsthatareimportantandthisisdetermined
bythespecies,sexandageoftheanimal.Theweightsoftheseglandsforbeef,sheep
__
__
178 Medicinalandpharmaceuticalusesofby-products [Ch.7
Table7.2Britishcollectionofby-productsfor pharmaceutical use
Material collected Percentageofmeat plantscollecting
Gall 22
Suprarenal Approx.4(cattle only)
Pituitary 12
Thyroid 12(cattle),0(pig),0(sheep)
Mucusfrom intestine 12
Ovaries 0
Spinalcord 12(for pet food)
BritishFoodManufacturing IndustriesResearchAssociation(1978).
Table7.3Responseof11U.S.firmstoquestionnaireonsalvagingofby-products
for pharmaceutical use
Tissue Beef Pork Lamb
Saving (%) Notsaving Saving (%) Notsaving Saving (%) Notsaving
Adrenal 37 62 18 82 0 100
Bile 100 0 18 82 0 100
Blood(liveanimal) 0 100
Colostrum 16 83
Duodenum 0 100
Foetalblood 88 11 0 100
Gallbladder 14 85 0 100
Gallstone 66 33 0 100
Heart 0 100
Heartvalve 36 64
Kidney 0 100
Lungs 42 57 18 82 0 100
Mucosa 9 91
Ovaries 42 57 18 82 0 100
Pancreas 100 0 82 18 20 80
Parathyroid 14 85
Pepsin 27 73
Pineal 14 85 0 100
Pituitary 36 64 0 100
Pluck 0 100
Pregnantutera 0 100
Rennet
a
0 100
Skin 9 91
Spinalcord 0 100
Testicle 14 85 _
Thyroid 14 85 9 91 0 100
Xiphoidcartilage 0 100
"Beefplants.
UniversityofIllinoisandNationalLivestockandMeatBoard(1986).
179 Ch.7] Medicinalandpharmaceuticalusesofby-products
andhogsare summarized inTable 7.4.The glandsare collected onlyfrom healthy
animals,andthelocationoftheglandrequiresexperience sincesomeoftheglands
are often small and are often encased in other tissue. Some glands are more
perishablethan meat cutsand musttherefore behandled quicklyinorderto retain
their'principle' (activity),whichisnecessaryfortheirultimatepharmaceutical use.
Thisrequiresthat glandsbequicklyexcised from theslaughtered animalto reduce
exposure to high temperature (prompt chilling) and water spray. Smallglands are
placed in glass or metal buckets with holes to allow drainage. The buckets also
contain ice, or in some cases dry ice, for chilling (especially for pituitary and
suprarenalglands),buttheglandsarenotallowedtocontacttheicesincesomeofthe
hormoneswouldbeextracted bywater. Largeglandsmaybecollected quickly and
godirectlytothecooleratfrequent intervals.Someglands(e.g.pituitary,ovaryand
corpusluteum)mustbedividedintotheirdistinctiveparts.Thisisusuallyadelicate
and precise hand operation (some machinery has been developed to aid in this
procedure). The best method of preserving most glands to retard autolysis and
destructive bacterial growth is by quick freezing, but some glands can also be
preservedbychemicalmeans (e.g. 1partglandto1partacetone (C
3
H
6
O)or 1part
phenol (C
6
H
6
O) or 2partsformalin (37% CH
2
O)). The next stepusually involves
cleaningandtrimmingofsurroundingfat andconnectivetissueandmakingsureto
savethe portions of the gland that are richest in the desired substance. Within an
hourofremovalfrom thecarcass,theglandsshouldbeplaced,spreadoutfor faster
freezing andnottouchingsothatsingleglandsmaylaterbehashedwithoutthawing,
on aclean, prechilled tray or on waxed paper and put into asharp freezer -18C
(0F) or less; never above -9C (15F). Within 48 hours the hard frozen glands
should be removed from the trays and placed in covered containers to minimize
contactwithairandpreventfreezer burn.Theyremainfrozen untilprocessedbythe
pharmaceuticalmanufacturer. Properlyhandled andfrozen glandsshouldbebright
pinkincolourwiththeexception ofthesuprarenal glandwhichshould havealight
browncolour.Undernocircumstanceshouldtheglandsbepermittedtothaw,since
freezingbreakssomeofthecellwallsand,ifthawingispermitted,destructionofthe
activeprinciple (activity)often occurs.
When the glands arrive at the pharmaceutical plant they are again inspected,
hashedinahardfrozen stateinameatchopper,receivedinasuitablesolvent,suchas
waterforliverextract,oracidulatedalcoholforinsulinproduction,orspreadonnon-
corrosive (Monel Metal, glass or enamel) pans usually for vacuum drying. Some
hormonal concentrations, such as ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone), will
maintain their full strength inthe drystate, but rapidly losetheir potency in water
solutions.Drying,vacuumdrying(mostpopular),spraydryingandfreezedryingare
alsosometimesused.Vacuum dryingallowsdryingatatemperature lowenough to
preventcoagulationofproteinandalsolowenoughnottodestroythe heat-sensitive
pharmaceuticalvalue.Thepansareplacedin'shelfvacuumdriers'atatemperature
thatwillnotdestroytheactiveprincipleoractivity(usually24-32C(85-90F),using
heatedwaterasaheatsource,nothotterthan54C(130F)andatapressurereduced
to usually 0.7 kg/cm
2
(10 lb/in
2
) to dry the glands. With some extremely heat-
sensitive,highlypurified extracts,suchasanterior pituitary hormonesand suprare-
nalcortexextracts,high-vacuumfreeze-drying (lyophilizing)isused.Somemanufac-
turersdryglands,especiallythepituitary, byplacingthem insuccessiveportionsof
180 Medicinal andpharmaceutical usesof by-products
[Ch.7
Table7.4Weight
0
ofglandsortissues
Portion Beef Sheep Hog
Adrenal 15-30g 2-3g ^ 5 g
Blood 19-40lb 3.51b 5-10lb
Bonesand muscles 560-600lb 37-43lb 160-175lb
Brain and cord 20-26oz 6-9oz 10-16oz
Gall 300-400g 25-30g 28g
(9% solids) (9-11% solids)
Calf 10-40g Lamb 15-23g
(8% solids) 10-12% solids)
Heart 3.5-7.1lb 0.4-0.6lb 0.5-1lb
Kidney 0.5-1.5lb 3-4oz 0.17-0.8lb
Liver 9-14.5lb 1-2 lb 2-4.6lb
Lungs 4-8.1lb 0.5-2 lb 1-2 lb
Ovary 5-20g 1.5g 3-10g
Pancreas 0.3-1.6lb 0.8-1.5oz 1.5^.2oz
Parathyroid 0.4-2g 0.2g 0.15g
Pinealbody 0.2-0.3g 0.04-0.12g 0.10g
Pituitary gland
1-4g
0.4-0.8g 0.4-0.8g
Skinandvessels,etc.56-76lb 12-16.6lb Not removed
Spinalcord 100-150g 40g 50g
Spleen 1-3 lb 0.17-0.5lb 0.2-0.7lb
Stomach 16-25lb 1-2 lb l ^ l b
Suprarenal 11-25g 1.5-5 g 3-5g
Testes 0.5-2 lb 2-4oz 3-5oz
Thymus 0.3-1lb 15-25g 9-35g
Thyroid 0.6-1.5oz 2-9g 4-10g
Total 10001b 85-90lb 215-225lb
1lb = 454g, 1oz = 28.35g
Ockerman (1975),Moulton and Lewis(1953),BritishFoodManufacturing IndustriesResearch Associa-
tion (1978),Romans etal. (1985),CSIRO (1977,1978), Maurer (1951).
cold acetone. Thissolvent dehydrates and defats at the same time. It is,however,
difficult toevaporate acetonefrom thefinishedproduct. Ifthedriedglandcontains
toomuchfat, itmaynotbepowderedwithoutdefatting. Thismaybeaccomplished
with the solvents: gasoline (mixture of C
4
to C
12
hydrocarbons), light petroleum
(C
2
H
6
and up),ethylene dichloride (C
4
H
4
C1),benzene (C
6
H
6
),acetone (C
3
H
6
O),
carbontetrachloride(CC1
4
)orether(C
4
H
10
O).Carbontetrachlorideinthepresence
ofwatercorrodesequipment.Ovarianandtestespreparationsareoftennotdefatted
becausetheactiveprinciplesarefatsoluble.After dryinganddefatting,manyofthe
products are milled to a powder form and then tested for safety (safe in normal
dosage and, if to be ingested, sterile and free from undesirable substances) and
potencypriortosale.After defatting, theglandsarefinelygroundinaballmill(jar
181 Ch.7] Medicinalandpharmaceutical usesofby-products
containingpebble-likeobjects)oramillthatcutstheglandsintopiecesandthen the
gland particles are sifted (from 40 to 100 mesh, usually 60-80 mesh) to remove
connectivetissue.Theparticlesmaybeusedastheyare,ortheactiveprinciplemay
then be chemically solvent-extracted (e.g. with acetone (C
3
H
6
O) and alcohol
(C
2
H6O)forinsulin),concentratedandpurified (oftencentrifugation and filtration).
Theglandproductsaretestedforactivitybytheproceduresdescribedinthe United
StatesPharmacopoeia Reference, the National Formulary Reference and Interna-
tional Standards. Thyroid extract istested for iodine level, since thisparallels the
medical properties of the gland, and it is also biologically tested for its ability to
increase basal metabolic rate. Epinephrine istested in dogsfor itsblood pressure
raising properties (hypertensive properties). Suprarenal and anterior pituitary
extractsaretestedinratsthathavehadtheirglandsremovedtoseeiftheextractwill
keepthemaliveand,insomecasestoseeifitwillre-establishnormalgrowth.Since
potencycanvarywitheachbatchofglands,theymustoften beblendedafter testing
toobtain the desired potency. Many glandsor their extracts may be dispensed as
powders,capsules,tablets,injections orinadiluteliquid form.
ADRENAL(SUPRARENAL CAPSULES)
The cocked-hat-shaped adrenal (also called suprarenal) gland (two per animal)
secretes at least 20steroids; is light chocolate in colour and is located above and
touchingthekidney(thebovineadrenalisononesidenearthepelvis).The adrenal
gland is composed of two sections, an outer cortex and an inner medulla which
secretessteroidsthat areessentialfor life maintenance.
Corticosteroids from the adrenal cortex regulate thebody'sutilization of nutri-
entssuchaswater and nitrogen and thebalanceof mineralssuch aspotassium and
sodium.LackofsecretioncausesthedebilitatingAddison'sdisease,whichresultsin
progressive anaemia, low blood pressure, lossof weight, dark skin pigmentation,
diarrhoea, loss of strength and a depletion of sodium. Extracted adrenal cortical
steroids (i.e. adrenocortical steroids) from cattle, hogs and sheep are used for
treating deficiencies of the adrenal glands (including Addison's disease), as anti-
neoplasticandanti-inflammatory agentsandfor treating shock.
Cortisone is one of the corticosteroids. It regulates fat and carbohydrate
metabolism,utilizationofmineralsandwaterbalance.Italsoimprovesmuscletone,
reducespaincausedbyarthritis,andisusedfortreatmentofshockandasthma.The
quantities of steroids in the adrenal cortex are normally too small to compete
economicallywiththe corticosteroids manufactured from plantsources.Manyoral
contraceptivescontaintwosteroidsexhormones:anoestrogenandaprogesterone,
which are currently alsoproduced synthetically from plants. A synthetic cortisone
hasalsobeen manufactured and it maybe administered intramuscularly, orally or
topically.
Theadrenalmedulla(innerportion)oftheadrenal(allspecies)secretesepineph-
rine (adrenaline)andnorepinephrine(arterenolandnoradrenalin),hormoneswhich
constrictbloodvessels,increasebloodpressureandincreaseheartaction. Epineph-
rinefrom cattle,hogs(pigs)and sheepadrenal glandsisused bysurgeonsto arrest
haemorrhaging, shrink blood vessels, prolong the effects of local anaesthetics,
stimulate heart action and overcome shock. Epinephrine isalso used to stimulate
body utilization of food, reduce symptoms of hay fever, alleviate allergies of the
nasal mucous membrane,control bronchial asthma spasms,treatwhoopingcough,
and reduce inner-eyepressureduringglaucomatreatment. Itisalsousedtoreduce
peripheralflowofblood inthebody,slowthepaceofrapidheartbeatsandrestore
heart rhythm incardiacarrest. Norepinephrine isalsousedtoshrinkbloodvessels,
reduceperipheralbloodflowandslowtherateofrapidheartbeats.Bothepinephrine
(laevorotatory form) andnorepinephrine (bitartatesalt)cancurrentlybeproduced
synthetically. They have been produced inpowder, tablet, and aqueous forms for
administration intranasally byinhalation,orallyand parenterally.
ARTERIES
Bovinecarotidarteries(Rosenberg etal. 1966;DeFalco,1970)upto55cminlength
and 9-11mmindiameter maybetreated withanenzyme(toremove parenchyma-
tous immunologically reactive proteins), subsequently tanned (makes collagen
stronger and morenon-reactive) andthensterilizedfor laterimplantation intoman
asafemoropopliteal oriliofemoral substitute.
Fresh bovine carotid arteries are washed and physically stripped of fat and
connectivetissuedowntotheadventitia. Theyarethentreated witha1%aqueous
solution of commercialficinwith atrace of L-cysteine (to assure activation ofthe
enzyme) and buffered with citrate to a pH of approximately 5. Digestion for 2.5
hoursat37Cisterminatedbydeactivatingfor24hourstoabsorbtheproteasewitha
1%solutionofsodiumchloride(NaCl).Thearteriesareplacedoveraglassrodthen
tannedfor18hourswith1.3% dialdehydestarchatabuffered pHof8.8.Thetanned
arteries are then washed in distilled water. The product is then sterilized by
immersion in 1%propylene oxide (C
3
H
6
O) in50%ethanol (C
2
H
6
O) solution and
stored inthissolutionuntil insertion.
BEZOARS
Bezoarsareaccretions(aggregationsorlumps)foundinthestomachorintestinesof
animals.Theyaredividedinto:
Phytobezoars (containvegetablematterandsaltsofcalciumandphosphorus)and
arefoundintheintestinesofhorses,goats,gazelles,llamas,vicunas,
and afew other ruminants. They were formerly reported tobean
antidotefor poisons.
Pilobezoars (contain hair and other keratinous material) and are found inthe
rumen and other parts of the alimentary tract and are of no
commercialvalue.
Bezoarsarealsosometimesclassified (Divakaran, 1973)asinTable7.5.
BILE
(Seealso'Gall bladder')
Bile is a complex mixture of conjugated bile acids, bile pigments, fatty acids,
phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol and other minor components. Approximately
183 Ch.7]
Medicinalandpharmaceutical usesofby-products
Table7.5Classification of bezoars
Type Common name Scientific name Description
Bezoar
Goat Capra aegragus In stomach or intes-
tine
Orientalbezoars Gazelle Gazella dorcas Sometimes contain
elagic (C
14
H
6
O
8
)
and/or lithofellic
(benzoaric) acid
Occidentalbezoars Llama Achenia glama Calcium, phosphate
Vicuna Achenia vicugna
Germanbezoars Chamois Rupicapra tragus Vegetable and ani-
malfibres
70% of the bile solids of ruminants is cholic (C24H40O5) and deoxycholic acid
(C24H40O4)which are used inthe synthesisof corticosteroids. The 'Meti' steroids,
prednisone and prednisolone may be prepared from bile acids. Progesterone
(C21H30O2)and hyodeoxycholic acid (C24H40O4)may alsobe prepared from bile.
Porkgallcontainschenodeoxycholicacid(C24H40O4)rather thancholicanddeoxy-
cholic acids and therefore is worth much less than ruminant gall, which is more
similar to human gall. Dehydrocholic acid, the oxidized product of cholic acid,
stimulatesbileflowandisusedinthetreatmentofindigestion,constipationandbile-
tractdisorders.Itisalsouseful insomefat-digestion disorders.
Bile extract is used to increase the secretory activity of the liver. Cortisone
(C21H28O5),an adrenocortical steroid hormone with anti-inflammatory properties
similartoACTH,canalsobeextractedfrom pigbile(seealsotheAdrenalandGall
bladdersectionsinthischapter).
Chenodeoxycholic acidextractedfrom pigbilehasbeenfound tobeeffective in
dissolvingcholesterol (C
2
7H
46
O)gallstones(probablybecauseitsuppressessynthe-
sisofcholesterol),whichaccountforapproximately80%ofhumangallstones.Inthe
U.S.there are750000newgallstonecaseseach year.
Rawgall(specificgravity1.025 at8.5%solids)isconcentrated (byafactor of12
byweight) to 75% stable solids (inspissated bile). If not concentrated, it must be
chemicallypreserved orfrozen topreventbacterialdegradation. Cholicacidcanbe
convertedtodeoxycholicacidandthiscanbeisolated,orthecholicanddeoxycholic
acidscanbeseparatedbytheirdifferent solubilitiesinweakbasesandthen purified.
Usual processing consists of heating (refluxed for 3 hours) the gall with sodium
hydroxide(NaOH;1.5to2.5N)toremoveaminoacidsfollowed byprecipitationof
cholic and deoxycholic acid. The alkaline solution istreated with mineral acid to
obtainapHof7.5-8.5.Magnesiumchloride(MgCl
2
)isaddedtothehot90C(194F)
mixtureandthemagnesiumsaltofdeoxycholicacidisprecipitated. Acidification of
the filtrate yields crude cholic acid which is purified by recrystallization from
methanol (CH
4
O).
Bile and iron bile salts can be purchased as desiccated or liquid extract prep-
arationsderivedfrom cattleorhogs.
184 Medicinal andpharmaceutical usesof by-products
[Ch.7
BLOOD
Bloodproteinsareapproximately 10%ofthetotalproteincontentofananimaland
more detailsmaybefound on itsusageinChapter 9.Crudeblood albuminisused
mainly in animal feeds and sausage items (Table 7.6). Human usage is likely to
Table7.6Blood composition
Redbloodcellsseparated from wholebloodandspray-dried atlowt
emperature
Composition
Protein (%) 93
Fat (%) 1.2
Moisture (%) 4.5
Ash (%) 2.3
pH 7.7
Solubilityindex 2.0
Standard platecount (g) Lessthan 10000
Salmonella Negative
Amino acids % Aminoacids %
Alanine 8.5 Leucine 13.1
Asparagicacid 11.4 Lysine 8.8
Arginine 4.1 Methionine 0.8
Cystine 0.7 Proline 3.2
Phenylalanine 6.9 Serine 4.2
Glycine 4.6 Threonine 3.4
Glutamicacid 8.4 Tyrosine
Histidine 7.1 Tryptophan 1.2
Isoleucine 0.6 Valine 9.5
Powdered beef plasmaseparated from wholeblood andspraydried
Protein (%) 75
PER 2.14
Water binding 10-12timesitsweight
Emulsifying capacity Good
Emulsion solubility Good
Skin formulation Increases
Texture Increases'snap'or 'bite'
Shrink Reduces
Flavour Retainssarcoplasmicproteinflavour
AmericanProteinCorporation (undated, a,b).
increaseasworldwideproteindeficiencyincreases.Itisusedinindustryasasticking
agent for insecticides. Blood can be separated into several fractions that have
therapeutic properties. Sixty-three per cent of blood is liquid plasma, of which
approximately3.5%isalbumin and4% globulinplusfibrinogen.Bloodiscollected
inacleanreceptacle3%saltmaybeaddedand storedinacoolplace.However,
preserved blood may not be used for human consumption. Blood albumin is
prepared from blood collected using a canula and with the addition of anticoagu-
lants. The blood iscentrifuged to separate the red and white corpuscles from the
plasma. The blood albumin is then defibrinated, clarified and dried. Crystalline
serum albumin or fraction Vbovine serum albumin isproduced from pure serum
albuminandisusedinresearchandclinicalmedicine.Bovineserumalbumin (BSA)
whichispurifiedanddespecified (deactivated)isusedtohelpreplenishbloodor fluid
loss in animals. Purified bovine albumin is used in testing for the Rh factor in
humans, as a stabilizer for vaccines, in antibiotic sensitivity testing and as an
ingredientinmoisturizingcreamsandlotions.
Pork-bloodfibrinextractisusedasasourceofaminoacids,whichare incorpor-
ated into parenteral (infused intravenous) solutions for nourishing some surgical
patients.Hog-bloodplasmin(enzyme)isusedinheart-attackpatientstodigestfibrin
inbloodclots.Thrombin(enzyme)frombeefbloodpromotesbloodcoagulationand
isusedinthetreatmentofwoundsininaccessiblepartsofthebody,suchasthebrain,
bonesandgastrointestinaltract(ulcers).Thrombinisalsousedtoholdskingraftsin
placeand to 'cement' gapswhere tissue hasbeen removed surgically. Fibrinolysin
(enzyme)iscombinedwithdeoxyribonuclease (enzymefrom thepancreas)toaidin
theremovalofdeadtissuefrom certainvaginalinfections. Itisalsoacleaningagent
forclottedbloodorinfected woundsandcanacceleratethehealingofskin damage
byulcersorburns.Foetalpigplasmacontainsnoantibodies;therefore,itisusefulin
themanufacture of vaccines and for culture media. Purified pale, straw-coloured,
foetalcalfserumobtainedbycentrifugingclottedbloodisusedasanutrientfortissue
culture,inmedicalresearchforvaccineproductionandincancerresearch.Approxi-
mately40%oftheworld'ssupplyoffoetal calf serumisproduced inAustralia and
NewZealand. Thefoetal calf blood iscollected viatheumbilical cord, the jugular
veinordirectheartcannulation.Thebloodshouldbechilledbutnotfrozen. After it
iscentrifuged theserum maybefrozen. Largevolumesofblood arealsoutilizedin
cancerresearch sincethequantity ofalbumin isreduced inthepatients'blood, but
gathersabundantlyincancercells.
BONECARTILAGE
Specifically processed xiphoid or xiphisternal cartilage from the breast-bone carti-
lageof young cattle isused byplastic surgeons to replace facial bone. Bone meal
(e.g.,100-meshpowder,60-meshgranularand20-meshproductsarepopular)isalso
anutritional source of calcium (averages 23%) and phosphorus (averages 12%)in
the diet. Bone meal isalso used as afilteringagent in water-purification systems.
Steamed bone meal has had most of the protein and fat removed and contains
approximately 32.5%calcium and 15.1%phosphorus. Marrow, marrowextract or
redbonemarrow,bonepowderandboneash(approximately15.3-16.6%phosphor-
us)productsarealsoavailableashumanandanimaldietarysupplements.Redbone
marrowisusedtotreat patientswhohave alowredblood cellcount. Itcanbe fed
orallyandisstabletoheat andtheactionofthedigestivejuices.
186 Medicinal andpharmaceutical usesofby-products [Ch.7
BRAIN
(Seealso'Nervoussystem'and 'Spinalcord'sections).
Brains (allspecies)are asourceofcholesterol (15%ofthedryweightofthebrain)
which isthe raw material for the synthesis of vitamin D
3
(necessary for bone and
teethmaintenanceandtopreventrickets),whichisarawmaterialforthesynthesisof
steroidpharmaceuticals,andisusedasanemulsifierincosmetics.VitaminD
3
isalso
usedtotreatprematureinfants. Anewtechniqueforthedegradation ofcholesterol
bybacteriahasincreasedtheyieldofmorevaluablesteroids.Woolgreaseandfishoil
canalsobeasourceof cholesterol.
The isolation of the hormone-releasing hormones from the hypothalamus that
are responsible for release of hormones from the pituitary gland has resulted ina
major breakthrough in hormone research. These hormones are also used in the
manufacture of cholesterol. Thromboplastin, which can be isolated from brain
tissue,isused asablood coagulant insurgery. Cephalin (kephalin) prepared from
brain or nervous tissue alsoassistsinclottingofblood. Lecithin (phosphatidylcho-
line),from thesameorgansaswellasfrom theliver,bileandblood,isuseful asan
emulsifier, asanantioxidant andintreatingsnakebites.
DUODENUM
Enterogastrone (hormone) is obtained from the duodenum (beginning of small
intestine)ofthehogandisuseful inregulatingthegastricsecretionsofthestomach
andexperimentally toacceleratetheemptyingtimeofthe stomach.
Secretin(polypeptidehormone)isalsoobtainedfrom theduodenumandisused
tostimulatethepancreasglandtoproducepancreaticjuice.Itisalsousedtotestfor
diseaseofthepancreas.
An intrinsic factor is also isolated from the duodenum and it aids in the
absorption ofvitaminB
12
byperniciousanaemia patients.
EGG-SHELL POWDER
Egg-shellpowder(94%calciumcarbonate)isusedasadietarysupplementand finds
amoderate amountofuseinthepoultryproduction area.
FEATHER
Feather fats contain cholesterol. For cholesterol information see the Brain and
Nervoustissuesectionsofthischapter.
GALL BLADDER
(Seealso'Bile'section).
The gallbladder bile (gall)yieldssuchproducts ascholicacid (from sheepandox,
C24H40O5), desoxycholic acid (from sheep and ox, C24H40O4), chenodeoxycholic
acid(from pig,C24H40O4),dehydrocholicacid(C24H34O5,usedasacholeretic)and
cortisone (C
2
iH
2
8O
5
, anti-inflammatory) allwhich have found usesin the medical
area.Bothcattleandsheepgallsarealmostidentical(10%solidswhichcontain60%
cholicacidand6%desoxycholicacid),aregoodsourcesofsteroidprecursorsandare
usedinthemanufacture ofsteroid drugs.Desoxycholicacidsellsfor about twiceas
muchascholicacid. Chenodeoxycholic acidsuppressesthesynthesisof cholesterol
(C
2
7H
46
O) and isused to dissolve gallstones and thus avoid major surgery. Gall-
stones(usuallycholesterol)usuallyfrom beef arebelievedbysomeculturestohave
mysticalaphrodisiacvalueandareconsequentlyveryexpensivesincetheyarefound
inextremelysmallquantities.Gallstonesaverageonly0.038g/headofbullsandcows
slaughtered. Gallstones mayberound, oval,triangular, polygonalor prism-shaped
andarereddish-yellowtoyellow-black.Theyshouldbehandledverycarefully since
theyareverybrittleandtendtobecomedarkwhenexposedtodirectsunlight.Their
shapecanbedeformed whiletheyaremoist,sotheyaredried(alsotheycanmould)
inawarmplaceonawiregauze.Afterdrying,theyshouldbewrappedintissuepaper
orcottonwoolandthen inpaper.Theyareshipped incardboard orwoodenboxes.
Theyareoften used inthesecultures asornamentsinnecklacesand pendants. Ox-
bile extract from liver bile (dehydrocholic acid) is used to treat indigestion,
constipation and bile-tract disorders. Cortisone extract from bile isused to relieve
painbyreducinginflammation injointsofpeoplewitharthritis.Cortisone cannow
also be produced synthetically and is administered intramuscularly, orally or
topically.
Gallcanberemovedfrom thebladderbycuttingandhand-drainingorbyusinga
gall extraction machine which works on the principle of crushing the bladders
between asetofrollersand squeezingoutthegall.Therearetwoseparate hoppers
anddifferent rollersforbeefandmuttonbladders.Gallyieldisapproximately0.4kg
(0.9lb)for beef animalsheavierthan200kg(441lb)dressedweightand0.3kg(0.7
lb)forbeefanimalslighterthan200kgdressedweight.Thereisverylittledemandfor
hoggallsinceitsdifferent chemicalcomposition haslittlepharmaceutical use.
Liquid bile isfrozen in acontainer, with each day's supply being added to the
previouslayeroffrozen bileuntilthecontainerisfull.Itisthenshippedfrozen tothe
pharmaceutical processor. In somecases 1.8 kg(4lb) (approximately 1%) of solid
causticsoda (NaOH) or 3.6 kg(8lb)of a50%solution isused without freezing or
907g(2lb)oftechnicalgradechloroform (CHC1
3
)isaddedtoeach2081(55gallon)
drum of bile. If chloroform isused, the product should be kept below 4C(40F).
Formalin (37%CH
2
O) isalsosometimesaddedbutitmakestheproductdifficult to
refine.Insomecountries,thegall(14-15%solids)isconcentrated (difficult because
itishighlyhygroscopic) byheatingtoasolidcontent of 75% (85-97% reduction in
volume and weight) prior to shipment. Solid content can be estimated by usinga
specially calibrated refractometer at 66C (150F). For example, 22 Baume is
equivalent to 67.2% solids and 28 Baume equals 81.6% solids in gall. The
concentration ofgallisaccomplished bycookinginanopenvesselatatemperature
of 115-120C (239-248F); 0.56-1.05 kg/cm
2
(8-15 psi) steam in steam jacket) to
evaporate the moisture to a 25% level. Gall is available in the crude, paste, or
powder forms.
HAIR
Woolfatsarealsoasourceofcholesterol.Forcholesterolinformation seeBrainand
Nervoustissuesectionsofthischapter.
HEART
Heartvalvesfromyoungtomarketweightpigsarepreservedandtreated(converted
toa'biologicalplastic')priortosurgicalimplantationintothehumanheartinplaceof
adefective valve(often caused byrheumaticfever orbirth defects). Thepigheart-
valve(xenograft) isoften preferred overamechanicalvalvewhichrequiresconstant
infusion ofanticoagulant (bloodthinning)drugstopreventthebloodfrom forming
clots on the valve (causing sudden malfunction) or free floating thromboemboli
(causingstrokeorparalysis).Ifaproblemdevelopswithahogvalve,malfunctionis
usuallynotfatal because (aswithanaturalvalve)earlywarningsymptomsalertthe
patient in time for reoperation. During the last 13years approximately 200000
Hancock (trademark ofJohnson andJohnson Cardiovascular) bioprostheticheart-
valveshavebeenproducedfromporcineaorticheart-valvetissue(Myers,1986).The
productionprocedureisillustratedinFig.7.2andsummarizedfrom adescriptionby
MyersandSharp(1986).Heartsoftherightsizearelocatedandpackagedonicein
styrofoam containersandshippedviaairfreight totheSouthernCaliforniaprocess-
ingfacilitywithinonedayofslaughter.Theheartsareinspecteduponarrivalandthe
aorticvalveisexcisedfromtheporcineheartincleanroomsunderasepticconditions.
Thevalveisremoved(harvested)usingaseriesoffivecutsplacedinsuchawaythat
excessheartmuscleisremovedwithoutdamagingtheaorticvalve.Whenharvesting
iscompleted, each valveisplaced intoabuffered saline solution and stored under
refrigeration until fresh dissection can be accomplished. The objective of fresh
dissection isto dissect the harvested valves by means of scissors and scalpelstoa
pointwherethevalvecanbeproperlysizedandtheseptalshelfcanbemanipulated
toprovide maximumflowareaduringthefixation process.
Therearethreeseparatestepsinfresh-dissecting avalve.Thefirststepisscissor
cleaningwhichremovesthebulkofmyocardiumandadventitia.Thevalvecanthen
beturned insideoutfor afull examination ofitsinterior architecture. Manyvalves
arerejected atthisstageduetostructuralorcolorationdefects.Thevalveisreturned
toitsnaturalpositionforthesecondstep,whichisbladecleaning.Eachvalvemustbe
trimmed to a thickness of approximately 2mm with careful attention paid tothe
annulusandtheareadirectlybehindtherightcuspmarginofattachment.Thetissue
iskept incold saline solution untilfixation.The elapsed timebetween receiptand
fixationshould be asshort aspossible, soplanning heart receiptswith production
schedulesisverycritical.Onceblade-cleaningiscompleted, bothcoronary arteries
aretiedoff withsutureandthevalveisattached toafixationvalve-holder.
In fixation, the valve is transformed from fresh tissue into what is called a
'biological plastic' by means of immersion in a 0.2% solution of glutaraldehyde,
whichaddsadditionalcollagencrosslinkstoexistingones,therebystrengtheningas
well asfixingshape into the tissue. It also acts as a bacteriostat by inhibiting the
growthofmicroorganisms.Theactualfixationprocessisaccomplishedbytheuseofa
recirculatingfluid-pressuresystem.Thepressurehead isadjusted to82mmHgfor
high-pressurefixedvalvesand 1.5 mmHgfor low-pressurefixedvalves.
Both Hancock Standard andModified Orifice (MO)valvesarefixedunderhigh
pressure, whereas Hancock II and HLP (Hancock low pressure) valves are fixed
using low pressure. Both types of glutaraldehyde fixation provide excellent heart
valves,butlow-pressurefixationhassomeadvantages,suchaspreservingthenatural
189
Ch.7] Medicinal and pharmaceutical usesof by-products
Porcine
heart
*
Harvest
Fresh
dissection
Fixation
Fixed
Dissection
In-process
sterilization
Mounting
bias
Holder
attachment
Sterilization
packaging
Final
quarantine
Shipping
Fig. 7.2Porcine valve production process overview. *Quality control inspection points.
FromMeyers(1986).
spring-likestructure (crimp)ofcollagen,whichproduces moreflexibletissue.This
increasedflexibilitytranslatesintolowertrans-valvulargradients,betteroverall flow
characteristics,andincreased durability.
After fixation, which takes afew days,the valves are transferred to individual
containersof0.2% glutaraldehyde and arethen fixed-dissected.
Three critical tasks are performed at this step. The first is to fully inspect all
surfacesofthevalveforphysicalanomalies.Thisisaccomplishedfirstbytheunaided
eyeandthen,ifnecessary,bytheuseofastereo-microscope.Atthistimeadecision
is made to section valves for MO production purposes if demand dictates. The
second task isto trim, using scissors and asurgical scalpel, the aorta and annulus
190 Medicinalandpharmaceutical usesofby-products [Ch. 7
areasuntilthe annulusisthin enough tobeaccurately sized. Lastly,anyadventitia
that adherestotheoutsideoftheaorticwalliscarefully removed byforceps.
These valves are then mounted into appropriately sized frames (stents),again
inside cleanrooms, under aseptic conditions. A valve of appropriate size isplaced
into the stent or conduit. The largest valve possible isused to ensure an optimum
orifice and proper fit. The valve is checked and selected valves are ready for
cleandown.
A scalpel isused to gently trim the myocardium from the endocardium sothat
onlyaverythin,smoothlayerremains.Thisenablesthetissuetobemoreflexiblefor
stitching,lessantigenicandlessobstructivetobloodflow.Irregularthicknessinthe
annulusisalsotrimmed. The aorticwalltissueisnotshavedorlayered inanyway.
Once the valve is cleaned, it isstereo-microscope checked again, placed into the
stent, and aligned properly. Alignment isimportant to ensure the natural central
flow charcteristicsofthevalve.
Thevalveisnowsecuredtothestentclothorconduitwithinterrupted4-0stitches
intotheannulus.Stitchesinstentedvalvesaretiedwithsquareknotsandpulmonary
conduitstitchesaretiedwithsurgeon'sflatknots.Thesestitchesmaintaintheproper
alignment ofthevalvethroughout themountingprocess.Severalstitchessimilarto
theannulusstitchesaretaken ineachcommissuretosecureittothestentpost.
Tofinishtheinflow ofthevalve,theendocardium istrimmed andfolded under
and themitralleaflet areaiscutflushwiththestent. Acontinuousblanketstitchof
5-0sutureisusedtoattachthistissuetothestent.Thevalveisnowcheckedagainfor
proper assembly andpossibleleaflet damagefrom handling.
Tofinishtheoutflowofthestentedvalve,theaorticwallistrimmedevenwiththe
stentrailsandposts.Astripofthinclothcutonthebiasislaidontheaorticwalland
stitched downtothestent.This'purse-string'typestitchof5-0sutureiscontinuous
and is called the first-step bias. Care must be taken not to stitch into cusps or
commissures.Tocompletethesecondstep,thebiasstripisfoldedbackoverthe first
step and tucked between the tissue and stent. A whip stitch isused to secure the
folded edge of the bias strip to the stent cloth. Each valve isinspected byquality
control atthispoint.
Thenextstepissuturingthecompletedvalvetoaholder,afterwhichthevalveis
placedinglutaraldehydeinasterilizedpackage,passedthroughfinalquarantineand
isthen shipped tothesurgeonfor human implantation.
Pericardial tissue (membrane enclosing and attaching the heart inthe thoracic
cavity) from beef animals is also cleaned, glutaraldehyde-processed, and used to
repairorreplacethepatient'sownpericardialtissueafter heartsurgery.Useofthis
pericardialpatchpreventstheadhesionofthepatient'smyocardiumtothesternum
following surgery.
INTESTINES
Heparin (mucopolysaccharide) isone of the 'essential' Pharmaceuticals extracted
almostexclusivelyfromporkandbeef(high-yield)mucosa(inner)liningofthesmall
intestine and lungs.The mucosa isoften collected duringthe machiningofcasings
andiseitherpreservedinarawstateorprocessedintoadrypowderpriortoshipment
totheheparin manufacturers. Heparinisalsofound intheliver.Heparin (phospha-
tide)isobtained bysalt-solution extract andisprecipitated from thesaline solution
withacetone. It isused tothin theblood (raisetheviscosity),retard blood clotting
(byinhibitingconversionofprothrombintothrombin)andisusedinthetreatmentof
frostbiteandburns.Heparinisalsousedtodissolve,prevent,orretardbloodclotting
duringsurgeryandinorgantransplants.Itisadministeredintravenouslyorsubcuta-
neously(alsoseeDuodenum section inthischapter).
'Cat gut' used for internal surgical sutures is produced from the intestines of
sheep,calves and other meat animals (twisted intoone, twoor three strands, cut,
dried, polished and sterilized). Cat gut is sometimes impregnated with other
chemicals, such as chromium trioxide, formaldehyde, iodine or silver, to alter its
chemicalorphysicalproperties.Violin-stringmanufacturing issimilartothemaking
of'catgut'.Tennisracket stringsare alsooften madefrom thesmallintestine.
LIVER
Vitamin B
12
(cyanocobalamin) haslongbeen associatedwiththeliver,and cooked
liverhasbeenusedasatherapeutictreatmentforperniciousanaemiaforanumberof
years. Since vitamin B
i2
has been synthesized (from cultures of Streptomyces
griseus),the liversource hasbecome lesscriticaland today manypeople are given
injections of synthetic vitamin B
12
. Liver extract, sometimes combined with folic
acid,isstillutilizedandmaybeinjectedintothebloodstreamasatreatmentforsome
typesofanaemia. Liverinjections havealsobeen reported asatreatment for sprue
(alsocalled catarrhal dysenteryalong-term condition manifested by diarrhoea,
weakness,emaciation and anaemia).
Desiccatedliver(availableinunfatted anddefatted formsandgranularandpaste
forms) containing added nutrients isoften used asanutritional supplement. Other
products, such as liver-fraction paste, liver concentrate (available in powder or
granularform) andliverprotein fractions areavailableasdietary supplements.
Heparin canbeextracted from theliveraswellasthelungsandintestines.
Catalase(enzyme)from hogliverisusedinfoodprocessing,coldsterilizationof
milkfor makingcheese and treatment ofwrapperstoretard deterioration of food.
Catalasespecifically catalyzesthedecomposition ofhydrogen peroxide.
Dehydrocholic acid from liver bile is used as a treatment of indigestion,
constipation andbile-tract disordersoccuringduetodiseaseor surgery.
Livermealmadebydryinggroundlivershouldcontainatleast27mgofriboflavin
perpoundofproduct.Liverisalsoavailableasliverpasteconcentrateanddesiccated
liver,from eitherpork orbeef (inpowder, granularorfreeze-dried form).
LUNGS
Heparin (mucopolysaccharide), ananticoagulant that prolongstheclotting timeof
bloodisusedtopreventbloodclotsandcanbeextractedfrom lungs,theliverorthe
intestine mucosa (usually pig and beef). It is being used in 'mini-doses' in the
prevention of post-surgical pulmonary emboli by blocking coagulation of blood in
theintactbloodvessel.Heparinisalsousedtopreventgangreneinfrostbite andasa
burntreatment (seeIntestinessectioninthischapter).
192 Medicinal andpharmaceutical usesofby-products [Ch.7
MINIATURE HOGS
Miniature hogsareoften used aslaboratory test animalsbecause their pulmonary,
cardiac,dentalandprenatalbraindevelopmentcloselyresemblesthatofthehuman.
They areideallysuitedfor thestudyofhuman ageinganddisease resistance.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
(Seealso'Brain' and 'Spinalcord' sections.)
Cholesterol(steroidalcohol)canbeextracted(15%dryweightofnervetissue)from
thespinalcord.Thespinalcordsarestrippedfrom thebackbone,freed from bone
dust and splinters,chilled andthen frozen. Cholesterol isabuildingblockformale
sex hormones and isused asatreatment when natural male characteristics donot
occur. Cholesterol isaprecursor of bile acids and isimportant in the synthesisof
steroid hormones. These hormones are used to treat menopausal syndromesand
preventswellingofbreastswhennursingdoesnottakeplaceafter birth.Cholesterol
isalso aprincipal ingredient inthepreparation ofvitamin Dwhichisproducedby
ultraviolet-ray treatment of cholesterol.
Thewhitematterofbovinespinalcordisextractedforcholesterolwithasolvent
thatwillallowexcesswatertobedistilledwhileextractionistakingplace.Thecrude
cholesterol extract isthen boiledinanalcoholicsodiumhydroxidesolutionandthe
ionicimpuritiesareabsorbedonanion-exchangeresin.Purecholesterolisapproxi-
mately3%ofthespinalcord'stissueweight.Cholesterol,whenmixedwithfat,will
permit absorption of large quantities of water and is used in cold-creams and
ointments.
OVARIES
Ovaries from pork carcasses are extracted for the hormones, progesterone
(C21H30O2)andoestrogenswhichmaybeusedtotreatsomereproductiveproblems,
such as functional uterine bleeding, abnormalities of the menstrual cycle and
threatenedabortion.Progesteroneandoestrogenarealsousedasanoralcontracep-
tive.Progesteroneisusedtopreventabortionandoestrogenisusedinthetreatment
of menopausal syndromes. Oestrogen is also used in the treatment of breast and
prostate cancer.
Pregnant sowovaries (corpora lutea) are alsothesourceof relaxin, ahormone
often used during childbirth. Corpus luteum isavailable as apowder, tabletsand
capsules.Whensavingtheovaries,thefallopiantubeiscutoffevenwiththeovarian
gland.
OYSTERSHELL
Granular or powdered oystershell isa by-product from the fishery industry andis
utilized asacalciumdietarysupplemental source.
PANCREAS
Thepale,medium-sizepancreaslocatednearthestomachandliveratthebeginning
ofthesmallintestineandinporkissometimesknownasporksweetbread (nottobe
confused with veal thymus gland). It has an internal and external section. The
internalsectionsecretesinsulin,whichregulatessugarmetabolism,andtheexternal
secretionspassintothesmallintestinetoaidindigestionofstarch,protein and fat.
Insulin (adouble-chain protein hormone,withtheAchaincontaining21amino
acidsandtheBchaincontaining30aminoacids)isprobablythebest-known animal-
glandby-productextractandisproducedbyspecialized pcellsinthepancreascalled
islets of Langerhans. Pancreas glands are spread out in trays in single layers and
quick-frozen to assure maximum insulin yield, then stored frozen (can be for a
considerable period of time) prior toextraction. Insulin can beextracted from the
pancreas by grinding the hard-frozen glands into acetone (C
3
H
6
O) and alcohol
(C
2
H
6
O),whichpreventsproteolyticdestruction. Someproceduresusean acidified
alcoholicextractionfollowed byconcentration oftheextractattemperaturesbelow
40C(104F)andremovaloffat;thenthecrudeinsulinissaltedout(insulin fraction
floats tothetopofthebrineasa'saltcake')andpurified.Theinsulinisredissolvedin
asmallquantity of alcohol,which istreated with ether (C
4
H
10
O). Thiscauses the
insulintoagainseparateasasolid.Additionalstepswithvarioussolventsareusedin
thefinalpurification untilaclear, colourlesssolution ofinsulinisreadyfor testing.
Insulin is also produced today by the enzymatic cleavage of a larger, relatively
inactive precursor molecule called proinsulin. Insulin ispurified by crystallization
fromasolutioncontainingasmallamountofzincsalt.Insulinisusedinthetreatment
ofdiabetes (when the human pancreas fails toproduce sufficient insulin to control
thelevelofsugarintheblood)ofwhichthereareanestimated 4millioncases,and
420000000dosesofinsulinareadministeredannuallyintheU.S.today.Itrequires
thepancreasfrom 26cattle(primarysource)toproduceinsulinforonediabetic for
oneyear.Theprimaryaminoacidsequenceofinsulinhasbeendetermined anditis
nowpossible,butdifficult andexpensive,tosynthesizeinsulin.Recently,insulinhas
beenproducedbybacteriaintowhichhumangeneticmaterial(DNA)thatcodesfor
insulin production has been introduced. This produces a cheaper, less antigenic,
human-type insulin. Hog insulin is also especially important since its chemical
structure most nearly resembles human insulin (only one amino acid difference,
whereas beef has four or five amino acids different) and approximately 5% of
diabetics are allergictothe beef form of insulin and can tolerate only insulin from
hogs.Sheeppancreasisseldomusedsinceitcontainsonlyathirdofthe concentra-
tionofinsulinfound inthebovinepancreas.Storageofinsulinshouldbebetween0
and 15C(32and65F)and ithasamaximumfrozen shelf lifeofone year.
Glucagon (polypeptide hormone)extracted from thealphacellsofthe pancreas
isusedtoelevatebloodsugarandtotreatinsulinoverdoseorlowbloodsugarcaused
byalcoholism. Itisalsousedinthetreatment ofsomepsychiatricdisorders.
LPH(lipotropichormone,lipase)fromthepancreasisusedasadigestiveaidand
intheabsorption offats andoils.
Otherextractsfrom thepancreasincludechymotrypsin, amilk-curdlingproteo-
lytic enzyme, and trypsin, another proteolytic enzyme used as a digestive aid to
hydrolyse protein in the upper small intestine. Both trypsin and chymotrypsin are
administered orally and by injection and used for their anti-inflammatory effect.
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are used to remove dead tissue and speed healing after
surgeryor injury. Chymotrypsin hasbeen used tofacilitate cataract-extraction eye
surgery.Trypsinisalsousedinlargequantitiesintanneries.
Proteolyticenzymesareusedincataractsurgerytodigestthezonularfibresthat
holdthelensinposition.Anincisionismadeinthecorneoscleraorouterwallofthe
eye, the posterior chamber isthen irrigated with the enzyme solution, digestionis
complete in 2-4 minutes and the enzyme iswashed away. This permits the entire
cataractouslenstobeeasilyextracted from theeye.
Pancreatinisamixtureofpancreaticenzymes(e.g.amylase(starch),lipase(fat),
trypsin(protein))obtainedfromthehog(preferred.because ofthehigheryield)orox
and isusedtotreat intestinal disordersandfaulty digestion. Becauseofitshighfat
digestivecapabilityitisusedtotreatcysticfibrosis(estimated4millioncasesinU.S.)
and to peptonize milk. Pancreatin is also used in special foods (to assist in food
utilization) and flavourings.
Pancrelipase(enzyme)from porkpancreasisusedasadigestiveaidinconditions
of pancreatic insufficiency and todigestgelatin from spent X-rayfilminthesilver-
recovery process.Approximately 60%ofthetotalsupplyofpancreasglandsinthe
U.S. isused for the production of insulin, and approximately 14% isused for the
productionofenzymes.Inremovingthepancreasitisimportanttoobtaintheentire
tailoftheglandsincethiscontainsthegreatestconcentration of insulin.
PARATHYROIDS
Four (the number is sometimes variable) small (wheat-grain size of 1g or less)
parathyroidglandsarelocatednearthebaseofthetonguecloseto,orembeddedin,
thethyroid;theirsecretionsregulatethecalciumcontentofthebloodandthetoneof
thenervoussystem.Thewater-solubleparathyroid hormone (parathormone) from
beef is used to treat human parathyroid deficiency, which results in conclusions,
painful muscular spasmsandparalysis,lossofcalciumfrom bones,abnormaltooth
development andcataracts.Itsadministration inpowderortabletform raisesblood
calcium, lowers blood phosphorus, increases ionized calcium in the blood and
increasestheamountofcalciumandphosphorusexcretedintheurine. Parathyroid
hormone cannowbesynthesized andthehuman requirement canbepartlymetby
thissource.
PINEAL
Thecone-shaped pinealorepiphysiscerebriisareddishglandaboutathirdthesize
(small pea) of the pituitary. It islocated in the brain cavity behind and abovethe
pituitaryandisusuallycollectedfrom beef andcalf.Itssecretionsareextractedand
sold inatablet form. Theyregulatechildgrowth,puberty, maturity,colourofskin
andformation offreckles.Themelatoninhormoneextractedfromthepinealglandis
being evaluated for the treatment of schizophrenia, mental and physical develop-
mentproblemsandmentalretardation.Inveterinarypracticethereissomeevidence
that anextract from thisglandcansignificantly improvelambingrate.
PITUITARY
Thegreyishorpinkishyellow,hazelnut-sizeincattle(|ofthatsizeinhogs)two-part
pituitary(hypophysis)glandislocatedatthebaseofthebrain (easilycollected from
pigsbutmoredifficult fromcattle)andismadeupofananteriorandaposteriorlobe,
withseparatefunctions. Thepituitaryiscollected,quick-frozen, andmaintained at
-30Cuntilprocessed.Thelarge(84%oftotalglandincattle,73% inhogsand87%
insheep)front oranterior lobeproduces:
(1) growth-promoting hormone (GH) (involved ingiantism and dwarfism),
(2) thyroid-stimulating (thyrotropic) hormone (TSH),
(3) prolactinormammary-stimulating (lactogenic) hormone,
(4) gonad-stimulating (gonadotrophic) hormone(function ofovariesandtesticles),
and
(5) adrenal-cortex-stimulating (adrenocorticotrophic) hormone (ACTH).
The smaller (16% of total gland in cattle, 27% in hogs and 13% in sheep)
posteriorlobe(morevaluable)secretescompounds(pituitrinisaposterior pituitary
secretion) that:
(1) controlbloodpressure andpulserate,
(2) regulateinvoluntary musclesandcontractile organs
(3) controlthefunction ofkidney, and
(4) governenergy metabolism.
The whole pituitary gland is also dried, defatted and powdered and used asa
therapeuticagent.Thepituitaryfirstattractedattentionbecauseofitsoverdevelop-
mentinthegiant and itsunderdevelopment inthedwarf.There appearstobe few
body functions that this gland does not influence directly or indirectly. It is
sometimesreferred toasthemasterglandofthebody.
Hormones extracted from pork pituitary glandsareusedtocontrol growth and
metabolismandtoregulatetheactivityofotherendocrineglands.ACTHisthemost
commercially extracted hormone (only f gin 454 gof pituitary glands) from the
pituitary and is used as a treatment for rheumatism, arthritis, eye inflammation,
some skin disorders and multiple myeloma (a form of leukaemia). There are an
estimated 7500000 patients in the U.S. with arthritis or rheumatism. A major
functionofACTHistostimulatetheadrenalorsuprarenalglandstoproducealarge
numberofsteroid hormones. ACTH's most important medical useisto restore or
evaluatethesecretionoftheadrenalglandandtotreatarthritis,lupuserythematosus
(inflammatory dermatitis),psoriasis,rhinitis(lesionofthenose),bronchial asthma
(paraoxysmal dyspnoea), some eye inflammation, some respiratory problems,
anaemia, infectious mononucleosis and leukaemia. Approximately 16000000
humandosesofACTHareproduced(from 60000000hogs)eachyearandthetotal
quantityisproduced from animaltissue.Itisalsousedasatreatment for ketosisin
animals.
ADH(vasopressin,antidiuretichormone)fromtheposteriorloberegulatesbody
waterlossthroughthekidneysandisusedtotreatdiabetesinsipidus(excesswaterin
urine)andtocontrolbloodpressurebyconstrictingthebloodvesselsandstimulating
passageoffoodthroughtheintestinaltract,particularlyafter surgery.Itisalsoused
intramuscularly to test renal function. It is also useful in dispelling 'gas shadows'
whenmakingabdominalX-rays.Apharmaceuticalpreparationofthesameprinciple
maybeprepared synthetically.
Prolactinhormone (lactogen)isusedtostimulatemilksecretionfrommammary
glandsandisbeingevaluated for useasanaidintreatment ofbreast cancer.
Oxytocin hormone from the posterior lobe isused to assist inchildbirth andin
obstetrical complications such as for inducing labour, increasing uterine muscle
contractions,controlofpost-partumhaemorrhage,increasingthereleaseofmilkby
mammary glands, lowering blood pressure and as a wound-closer (often usedby
boxers). It isused inveterinary medicine to stimulate the letdown ofmilkincows
affected withagalactia. Itcanalsobemadesynthetically.
Thyroid-stimulatinghormone(TSH,thyrotropin)isobtainedfrombeefanterior
pituitary glands and is used to stimulate the thyroid glands to produce thyroid
hormonesandasadiagnostictoolforthefunctionofthethyroidgland.Itisespecially
useful inconjunction withradioactiveiodinetolocatethyroidcancerthathasspread
to other parts of the body. The patient drinks radioactive sodium iodide (atomic
cocktail) whichisincorporated intothethyroid and cancer cellsatotherlocations.
TSHistheninjected for3-7daysandthevariouslocationsarescannedtodetermine
radioactivity.
Growth hormone (GH) has a direct effect on protein, carbohydrate andlipid
metabolism and controls the rate of skeletal and visceral growth. It alsohasgreat
potentialfor increasing animal production.
Thepituitaryglandiscollected(caremustbetakenwithporksincetheposterior
lobe isloosely attached and can be lost),trimmed, quick-frozen (-30C (-22F))
andheldatthistemperatureuntilextracted.Pituitaryhasbeenmarketedaspituitary
body powder, tablets, anterior lobe, posterior lobe, liquid (particularly posterior
extract)and asthespecific extracts.
PROTEIN CONCENTRATE
Fishprotein (e.g.bluewhiting,sprat, orcapelin)concentratecanalsobeusedasa
dietary supplement, particularly in areas of the world where people are protein
deficient. Wherefishoffal isabundant itcan beprocessed toyield60-70%protein
fish meal.
SEMINAL VESICLES
The seminal vesicles located on the bladder of male animals are a source of
prostaglandins (hydroxyfatty acids).These areusedroutinely inmanyhospitalsto
induceparturition andinlargerdosestoinduceabortion.Theextracthasalsobeen
usedintreatinggastriculcers,bronchialasthmaandinsynchronizationofoestrusin
animals. Itisalsoused intreating thrombosis andhighblood pressure. Ithasbeen
synthesized chemically.
SERUM
Foetal bovine serum isused extensively bycell culturists. It isused asastandard
proteinsolution,toinactivateproteolyticenzymes,forviruspropagation,asamedia
forcellsintheproduction ofvirusvaccinesandinsomemicrobiological media. Itis
collectedfrom thefoetus attheslaughterhouse byinsertinganeedle intothe heart
(closedsystem method) of theintact (dead)foetus immediately after removalwith
theoffal from the slaughtered pregnant female. This isusually accomplished on a
specialsection of the killfloorreserved just for thispurpose. The blood israpidly
processedandtheserumisquicklyfrozen. Caremustbetakentominimizemicrobial
contaminantsandhaemoglobinreleasethatoccurswhenerythrocytesrupture.Also,
exposuretolight(yellowlightsandbagsareused)andairshouldbeminimized. In
somecasestheserum isdeactivated byheatingfor 30minutesinadouble boiler at
551C(1312F).
The product is also filtered through three 0.1 fxm pore-size filters, which
eliminatesmycoplasmasandreducesviralcontaminants(HyClone, 1985).Typesof
seraproductsavailable include,defined foetal bovine,characterized foetal bovine,
defined calfbovine (supplemented), defined equine (donor),adultbovine,porcine
andbovine amnionicfluid(HyClone, 1985).Other suppliesproducesterile pooled
deactivated sheep serum, sterile deactivated sheep (one animal) serum and sterile
pooleddeactivated bovineserum (Divakaran, 1982).
SKIN
Porkskinisasourceof gelatine (see Chapter 5)and isalsoanedibleproduct (see
Chapter2).Collagenisapproximately 33% oftheanimalbodytotalorganicmatter
content.Theextractedcollagenproductcanaidinstimulatingbloodclottingduring
surgery. Pork skinissimilartohuman skinandcanbeconverted intodressing that
canbeusedforburnorskin-ulcerpatients.Porkskinisremovedfromthecarcass,cut
intostripsorpatches,shavedofhair,splitto0.2-0.5 mm(0.008-0.02in)thickness,
cleansed,sanitized andpackaged (chill-stored orfrozen). Itisoften usedwithin24
hoursafter removal from the carcass. It relievespain, inhibits infections, prevents
loss of body fluids, eases the flexing of joints and stretching of scar tissue. This
dressingpreparesthepatientforpermanentskingrafting bypromotingthedevelop-
mentofgranulation tissue,whichisnecessaryfor skin grafting.
Gelatine produced from hogskin isused for coatingpillsand making capsules
(seeChapter5).
SPINALCORD
Cholesterol can be obtained from the spinal cord (see brain and nervous system
sections) for the synthesis of male sex hormones which are used when natural
development does not occur. These hormones,often collected from beef andcalf,
are also used to treat menopausal syndromes and are used to prevent swellingof
breast andmilkproduction when amother doesnot nurseanewborn. Seealsothe
Nervoussystemsection inthischapter.
SPLEEN
Thespleenisoften collected from beef andpork carcassesfor pharmaceutical use.
Thespleen (largest structure inlymphoid system)extract (splenin fluid) influences
198 Medicinalandpharmaceuticalusesofby-products [Ch. 7
capillarypermeability,recoveryfrominflammation (rednessandswelling)andblood
clottingtime.Spleenextractisalsousedtotreatcertainbloodandlymphdiseases.It
ismarketed aspowder, tabletsandcapsules.
STOMACH
Hogstomach liningisthesourceofseveral proteins andenzymesused asdigestive
aidsand antacids.
Theporkstomachliningproducespepsin(enzyme)whichisavailableinpowder,
granular, tablet orglycerolliquidforms andisusedasadigestiveaidtoassistinthe
breakdown of protein into proteoses and peptones and to treat achylia gastrica
(failure ofstomachtoproduceacidandpepsin).Achyliagastricaisoften associated
with pernicious anaemia and stomach cancer incombination with achlorhydria,or
lackofhydrochloric acid.
The hog's red or 'blushing'part ofthe stomach liningshould bewashed incold
water, spread out in thin layers and thoroughly chilled and then frozen until
extracted or preserved in 1% sulphuric acid (H
2
SO
4
). The stomach ismixedwith
water and hydrochloric acid and digested at a little above body temperature. The
solids are precipitated and the yellow liquid containing pepsin is purified by
fractionalprecipitation.Itisthendriedatlowtemperatureundervacuum.Extracted
pepsin isintheform ofpaleyellowlustrousscales,granulesorspongymasses,ora
white or cream coloured powder. After processing and extraction, 26g(1oz)of
pepsinwilldigesttheboiledwhitesof300dozeneggs.Pepsin,fromthehogstomach,
isused when there isinsufficient secretion bythe patient's stomach to control the
degradation ofproteinsintoproteosesandpeptonesandisalsousedtoclotmilkin
themanufacture ofcheeseandtomodifycertainproteinfoods,andisaddedtosome
chewinggums.Pepsin isalsousedtomanufacture peptones,inthebuildingofnew
protein unitsandinbacteriological medias.
The calf's digestive stomach tissue isoften preserved by freezing or saltingor
simply by washing (in some cases not washed) and drying until rennin can be
extracted.Rennetisanextractcontainingrennin(chymosin,milk-curdlingenzyme)
fromamilk-fedcalf'sfourthstomach(abomasumand5cm(2in)oftheduodenaland
5cm (2in) of the third stomach or omasum).The calf's stomach maybesavedby
inflating with air and dried by hanging in a controlled heated room or more
commonly bysqueezingoutthecontents,splittingopen,spreadingout,saltingand
placingonadryingrackfor48hours.
Rennin isused to help infants to digest milk and to curdle milk in thecheese-
makingprocess28.5g(1oz)ofrenninwillcoagulate7071(186gallons)ofmilkin10
minutes) and inthepreparation ofjunket. Calf rennet,swinepepsin andmicrobial
rennet from pure culture ferment, for example Mucor pusillus, individually orin
combination with calf rennet and/or swine pepsin isused by the cheese maker to
coagulate milk. Normally 56.6-84.9g(2-4oz)of rennin per 453.6kg(1000lbs)of
milk is used and a curd will be formed in 30 minutes under normal conditions.
Clotting time is affected by acidity, calcium level and temperature; therefore,
combinationsofcoagulatingmaterialsareoften useful. Rennetsshouldbestoredat
less than 10C (50F) and at this temperature will lose approximately 1% of its
activityper month.
Thepyloricliningofthe stomach isthesourceofan 'intrinsicfactor' (glycopro-
tein),which isnecessary for the utilization (absorption) of vitamin B
12
or vitamin
preparations to relieve or prevent pernicious anaemia. To isolate this factor all
stomachprocessingmustbedoneatalowtemperature.
The stomach produces gastrin (polypeptide) a hormone that stimulates the
productionofgastricjuices.Thestomach alsoproducessecretinthat stimulatesthe
activityofthepancreastoproducepancreaticjuiceandisusedtotestfordiseasesof
the pancreas. The stomach and upper intestine produce cholecystokinin (CCK)
whichisapolypeptidehormonethatpromotestheemptyingofthegallbladder.The
duodenumproducesenterogastrone(orantheloneE,obtainedfromhog'sstomach),
ahormone which mediates secretion and mobility of the stomach, and a hormone
thatstimulatestheisletofLangerhans.Mucin(mucopolysaccharideorglycoprotein)
from hogstomachswasformerly usedtotreatpepticandduodenalulcersandtoaid
food passage (by lubrication) through the digestive tracts. Mucin is available in
powderorgranularform andisoften consideredasanadjunct tomanydigestiveaid
products.
TESTES
Theenzymehyaluronidase(invasin)extractedfromthetestesisusedasa'spreading
factor'sinceithastheabilitytohydrolysemucopolysaccharidesandthustoincrease
the rate of absorption, dispersion and distribution and consequently the effect of
otherdrugsadministeredwithit.Itisusuallyobtainedfrombull(alsosometimescalf
andsheep)testes.
The hormone androgen is also produced in the testes and controls male
characteristics.
THYMUS
Thethymus (lymphoid organ) islocated inthe neck area ofthechestcavityandin
cattlethe second lobe islocated inthe thoracic cavity.Thymusisdivided into two
parts:thecortexontheoutsideandthemedullawithin.Thethymus(largerinyoung
animals)hascommercialfoodvalue(seeChapter2)andisthesourceofextractable
factorsaidingthebodytoresistinfection. Itisalsorelatedtogrowthand calcification
ofbonesandpreventionofrickets.Itiscollectedfrom allspeciesandismarketedin
powder,tablet andcapsule form.
THYROID
Thethyroid consistsof twomaroon-coloured massesor lobeson either sideof the
tracheaandclosetothelarynx.Inhogs,thetwolobesarefused together. Itsactive
substanceisaniodine-containing hormone called thyroxin which isresponsible for
thespeedofbasalmetabolism and usedtotreat hypothyroidism (3300000people
treated in the U.S. in 1976). The thyroid hormone used as a medication in
hypothyroidismisderived from bothpork andbeef thyroidsandtheactiveingredi-
entscanbeprepared synthetically. Itistakenorallyusuallyintabletformwhenthe
thyroidglandsecretestoolittleiodine-containingthyroidhormone,oraftersurgical
removalofthethyroid gland.
Thyroxin deficiency causes 'cretinism' (in infants) or 'myxoedema' (in adults)
resuting in physical deformity, defective mentality and lossof physical and mental
vigour. Similarsymptomsarefound inpatientswithsurgicallyremoved thyroidsor
whohave undergone extensive radioiodine therapy. Pork and beef thyroidpowder
or tablets have been used to treat thiscondition. A deficiency of iodine cancause
goitre (enlarged thyroid).Over-secretion bythethyroidcausesanincreaseinbasal
metabolism and the individual willbecome nervous and thin. Thyroid secretionis
interrelated withthesecretion ofotherglands.
Sheep thyroid has been used as a treatment for lack of growth and mental
deficiency inchildrencausedbylackofthyroid function.
Desiccated thyroid is used to supplement hypothyroid (thyroid deficiency)
patientsandthiscondition leadstoslowingofboth physicalandmentalprocesses.
Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin), apolypeptide hormone containing 32aminoacids
and alsoproduced bythethyroid, isusedtolowercalcium and phosphate inblood
andtoregulateheartbeat. Itisalsouseful totreatPaget'sdisease(bonediseasewith
anincidenceofapproximately2%ofthepopulationover40).Calcitonincanalsobe
obtainedfrom theultimobronchialglandofsalmon;thisisatleast20timesaspotent
astheporcineextract. Calcitonin isnowalsomade synthetically.
Hog thyroglobulin (glycoprotein) isused asan oral supplement to underactive
thyroid patients.
Eggproductionandhatchabilityisalsoreportedtobeimprovedbyincorporating
thyroid productsintothechicken's feed.
Thyroid tablets are prepared from the hard-frozen gland by grinding, drying,
defatting, milling,sifting, testing and blendingfor desired potency. Thepowderis
then mixed with asuitable bindingmaterial,such asmilksugar, moistened, sifted,
dried andpressed intotablets.
Thyroxinortri-iodothyronine canalsobepreparedsynthetically andisadminis-
tered intablet form. Approximately 41% (59%obtained from animals) ofthyroid
substancewasobtained bythesynthetictechniquein1976.
WOOL
Woolgreasecontains15%cholesterol.Formoreinformation oncholesterolseethe
Brain andNervoustissuesectionsofthischapter.
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National LiveStock andMeat Board Chicago.
Okerman, H. W. (1975)Comparative anatomy ofmeat animals.In Meat Hygiene.
Lea andFebiger, Philadelphia.
Romans, J. R., Jones, K. W., Costello, W. J., Carlson, C. W. and Ziegler P. T.
(1985) The meat we eat.Interstate, Danville,Illinois.
Rosenberg,N., Martinez, A., Sawyer, P.N.,Wesolowski, S.A., Postlethwait, R.
W. and Dillon, M. L. (1966) Tanned collagen arterial prosthesis of bovine
carotidorigininman. Ann. Surg. 164247-256.
University of Illinois and National Live Stock and Meat Board (1986) By-product
usage report.National LiveStock andMeat Board, Chicago.
8
Sausagecontainers
INTRODUCTION
Ground and comminuted meat and sausage items often require food containers.
These containers are usually natural casings, reconstituted collagen casings or
artificial casings, frequently made from cellulose. A comparison of these sausage
containers may be found in Table 8.1. In many cases, these food containers are
obtained from thesameorsimilaranimaltothatfrom whichthemeatwasobtained
and consist of animal casings which are made from various parts of the intestinal
tract. They are often made from small and large intestines, weasand, urinary
bladder, stomach and rectum. Terminology used in the sausage casing area is
outlinedinTable8.2.Animalintestinesarealsousedforthemanufactureofsurgical
suturesandstringsformusicalinstrumentsandtennisrackets.Intestinaltractthatis
not used for these purposes is converted into pet food, meat meal, tallow, or
fertilizer, butcertainlythemostimportant economicuseoftheseproductsisinthe
productionofsausagecasings.Animalcasings,whenremovedfrom thecarcass,are
highlymicrobiologicallycontaminated.Theyarefragileandthereforecleaningmust
becarried out immediately after slaughteroftheanimal.Thelongerthisprocessis
delayed, the lower the quality of the casingthat willbeproduced. Animalcasings
come in a wide variety of different shapes and sizes and the preference for a
particulartypeofcasingvariestremendouslyfromcountrytocountry.Thesamepart
of the intestinal tract may also be used in different waysin different countries.A
descriptionofbeef,hog(pig)andsheepcasingsastheyareusedintheU.S.maybe
found inTable 8.3. Many itemswillinfluence the value of an animal casing.Such
thingsastheageoftheanimal,breed,fodder consumedandotherfactorsrelatedto
the animals themselves or the conditions inwhich they were raised affect casings.
Casingsareoften evaluated accordingtothefollowing factors:
(1) Cleanliness Casingsshouldbecleanandsound,freefrom stains,odour,fat
particles, parasites, nodules, ulcers and other defects and
without pinholes.
(2) Strength Casings should be strong enough to withstand the pressure
Ch.8] Sausagecontainers 203
exertedonthemduringfilling,stuffing andprocessing.Onlythe
submucosa part of the intestine has adequate tensile strength
for thispurpose.
(3) Length The standard length for sheep and hog casings is91.4m (100
yards)perhank.Beef roundsareusuallypurchased inbundles
of 18m(59ft).Thenumberofpiecesperhankorbundle often
varies according to country of origin. The length of other
animalintestinalcontainersalsovarieswiththecountryofuse
andwiththepurposetowhichtheproduct isput.The average
lengthforsurgicalcatgutandtennisracketsandmusicalstrings
is6m(19.7ft).
(4) Calibre The calibre desired variesaccordingtothecountry ofuse and
typeofsausage.Modern machinery usedinthestuffing indus-
try, however, requires afairly uniform animal casing to have
adequate machinability. Sheep casings are usually 14mm
(0.55in) and over. The primary demand is for 20-24mm
(0.79-0.94in) sheep casings. Small-calibre hog casings are
substitutable for large-size sheep casings in some cases. The
principaldemandforhogcasingsisforthe35mm(1.38in)and
over. Beef roundsarenormally35mm(1.38in)andover, and
middles are 55mm (2.16in) and over and are the ones in
highest demand. Forspecialized uses,sheepcasingsof 16mm
(0.63in)anddown areused.
(5) Curing Casings are normally salted and cleaned. Fresh and fine salt
should be used for curing. In a few cases, casings are dried.
However, dried casingsare not inlargedemand because they
losethe necessaryelasticityrequired inthestuffing operation.
Intestines or ribbons of beef serosa for surgical catgut can be
exportedfrozen; however,somecountriesimportsaltedserosa
for thispurpose.
(6) Packaging A number of typesofpackaging arepresently used, including
woodenandplasticcontainers,tins,andplasticbagsprotected
by sacks. The trend, however, seems to be in favour of the
plastic containers because of lower costs and sanitary
requirements.
Theintestinaltract and namesofpartsofasheep,pigandcowmaybefound in
Figs 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3 respectively. Also the casings manufactured from these
intestinaltractsalongwiththeirsizeandcapacitymaybefoundinTables8.4,8.5and
8.6.
REMOVING THE VISCERA
Thefirststepinremovingthevisceraistoopenthebrisket,whichmaybedonewitha
knifeandmalletand/orsawdependingonthehardnessofthebone,whichwillvary
with age and species. Care must be taken not to cut the viscera, causing faecal
204
Sausagecontainers
[Ch.8
Table8.1Comparison ofcasings
Types
Natural Collagen
Cellulose
Mostexpensivecasing Most Less Least
(costperunitweightof
product) expensive expensive expensive
Refrigeration storage Yes Yes No
Degreeof tenderness Most tender Lesstender Peeled
Break duringprocessing Mostlikely Lesslikely Leastlikely
Casingpreparation cost Most expensive None None
Soakingand flushing Yes No Sometime
before use soaking
Easeof penetration Most Less Least
penetration penetration penetration
Costof stuffing Most Less Least
Best machinability Least Less Best
Bestproduct yield Least Less Best
(perfoot ofcasing)
Smokeproduct penetration Best Verygood Good
Finishedproduct uniformity Less Good Good
Costofcasingremoval None None Most
Printability None Limited Best
Old-world appearance Best Less None
Easeofplant storage Least storage Lessstorage Beststorage
Shelf lifewithout overwrap 3-4days 6-8days 7-10days
Ockerman (1983).
material tocontaminate thevisceraorcarcass.Thenextstepistomakeanincision
andbreaktheaitchbone.Thisisusuallyaccomplishedwithaknifeandmallet.Care
should alsobetaken herenottocutthebung.Theaitchboneincisioniscontinued
down the centre of the belly. The removal of the pizzle cords and bladder are
accomplished next. Extreme care must be exercised in this operation to prevent
cuttingtheviscera.Thenextstepiscuttingaroundtheanalopeninganddroppingthe
bungintothecarcass.Someplantsusespreaderhooks(pinningofsides)atthispoint
toopenthecarcass.Thevisceraisthenremoved('snatched')bycuttingitawayfrom
thebodyandplacingtheviscerainviscerapans.
Separating the stomach, lungs,heart andliversfrom the intestine bycuttingis
accomplished next.Cuttingortearingtheintestinesmustalsobeavoidedatthisstep
oftheoperation. Ifholesdooccur,itissometimespossibletowashandtiethecasing
and haveit re-inspected.
After thecasingshavebeenseparated from theattachedorgans,thecasingsare
placedonapullingtable.Thecasingmaybepulledwithorwithoutthelargeintestine
205 Ch.8] Sausagecontainers
Table8.2Animalcasingterminology
Algien processisamethodofmanufacturing sausagethatintegratesthe preparation
ofcasingmadefrom collagen andthefillingofsausage.
Animal casingsare prepared from the submucous coat (tela submucosa) of the
intestines of cattle, sheep, goats,pigs,or horses.The other three coatsof the
intestine (serous coat (tunica serosa), muscular coat (tunica musularis) and
mucouscoat) are removed.
Beef bungisacasingprepared from theblindgutorcaecum.Theileocaecalvalveis
45.7-91.4cm(18-36in)from theblind end.
Black gutSeeChitterling.
Bladderisacasingprepared from theurinarybladderofcattleorpigs.
Bundleisasetofbeef casings,usually 18m(59ft) long.
Bung is part of the intestine which extends from the large intestine to the anal
openingorcrown.
Bung capisacasingprepared from theblindendcutatthenipplehole.
Bung Skinistheouter sectionofthecapoftheblind gut.
Capacasingthat isprepared from the blindend orcaecumofsheepand has been
saltedanddried. Alsomaybeprepared from hogs(seemiddlecap).
Cellulose casingiscasing made from cotton. Cotton linters arefirstdissolved and
subsequentlyregeneratedintocasingsofvarioussizes.Therearenormallythree
types:small,large,and fibrous.
Chitterling or black gutisacasingpreparedfromapartofthelargeintestineofhogs.
Dry Packiscasingthatwasdrained overnightbefore packing.
Dry ready-to-wet casingisacasingprocessed chemically.
Goat casingisacasingprepared from thesmallintestineofgoats.
Hankisasetofsheep,goatorhogcasings91.4m(100yards)long.
Hog bungisacasingprepared from the end part (1.52-1.83m(5-6ft) ofthe large
intestine,includingtherectumandtheanalring(crown)ofthehog.
Holesareopeningsof3mm(0.118in)ormorein diameter.
Large intestine isthe portion of the intestine between the small intestine and the
bung,often usedfor chitterlings.
Mawsseestomach.
Middle capisacasingprepared from thecaecumorblindgutofhogs.
Middlesisacasingprepared from thelargeintestineofcattleandpigs.
Prepared ready-to-use casingisananimalcasingpackedinacontainerwithaspecial
liquid.
Pre-tubed casingisananimalcasingsetinaspool.
Pullingisseparatingbyhandthemesenteryandfatfromsheep,goatorpigintestine.
Reconstituted collagen casing is an edible casing prepared from reconstituted
collagen, which isa protein (connective tissue) by-product obtained from the
flesh-side ofcattlehides.Thecollagenispurifiedandthenextrudedasdrytubes.
Roundsisacasingpreparedmainlyfrom thesmallintestineofcattlebutwhichmay
alsobeprepared from sheep,goatsorhogs.
206 Sausage containers
[Ch.8
Table8.2 continued
Runners are prepared from the small intestine of cattle; one third of a sheep's
intestine.
Running isseparation bycuttingthemesentery andfat from cattleintestine.
Sheep casingisacasingprepared from thesmallintestineofsheep.
Slimeisthe mucousliningofthe intestine.
Slush pack iscasing placed in containers without draining off the brine. Helpsin
preventingbreakageonremovalfrom the container.
Small casingisacasingprepared from thesmallintestineofhogs.
Splitsaredamage (bursting)tocasingscausedbythecleaningmachines.
Stomach or mawsisacasingprepared from thecleaned andsealed hogstomach.
Stump casingisacasingunder6ft (1.83m)inlength.
Weasandisacasingpreparedfrom theoesophagusofcattle.ANo.1isover610mm
(24in)long,aNo.2is457to610mm(18-24in)long,andsausageweasandisless
than 457mm(18in)long.
Windowsaredamagetocasingscausedbyover-crushing.Thewindowsareapproxi-
mately2.54cm(1in)apart and arehalf thethicknessofthecasing.
From International Trade Center (1973), Institute of Meat Packing (1958), Strange (personal
communication).
Table8.3Natural casings
Average
Appearance yieldper
Species Name Location andcomments Sausageuse animal
Beef Round Small Ring-like; Ringbologna; 27.4-41.1m
intestine tougher; Polishsausage; (90-135 ft)
easilyhandled; ringliver long
lessbreakage sausage;
mettwurst
Bung Caecum Curved; Capocolla; 1.2-1,5m
undulating salami; (4-5 ft)
largebologna long
Bladder Bladder Ovalor Minced 17.8-37.6cm
moulded speciality; (7-14in)
mortadella wide
Middles Large Sewed;most Bologna; 6.1-7.6m
intestine expensive;adds salami (20-25 ft)
uniformity long
Weasand Windpipe 45.7-66.0cm
(18-26in)
long
207
Ch.8] Sausagecontainers
3
4 5 7 8
1. Esophagus
2. Rumen
3. Reticulum
4. Omasum
5. Abomasum
6. Duodenum
7. Small intestine (casingsare
madefromthis part only)
8. Largeintestines(notused
for casing)
Fig. 8.1 Diagrammatic representation of theintestinal tractof asheep. FromFAO of UN
(1962).
attached.Theruffle (mesentery)fatmayberemovedbyhandorwithanair-operated
knife.Ifthehandtechniqueisusedtheoperatorwillwearacottongloveandshould
pull60-70casingsperhour.Aneasycasingcanbepulledin25secondsbutawormy
casingmayrequireinexcessof60seconds.Ifanair-operated knife isused, 100-250
casings per hour maybepulled through the knife. Midwest andNorthernU.S.
casingscanbepulledfaster thanSoutherncasings,whicharelesssturdy.Thepuller
willstart atthestomachandpullthecasingawayfrom theruffle fat Thecasingis
placed onaconveyor belt with onehalf ofthe casingoneach sideofthebelt.A
pullingtray(Fig.8.4)isutilizedwithonesidelongenoughtoextendoverthebeltand
theothersideshortenoughtodropthecasingontheoppositenearsideofthebelt.
[Ch.8
3 4
1. Weasand
2. Stomach
3. Duodenum
4. Roundsorsmallcasing
3
5. Middlecap
6. Middleorchitterlings
7. Bung
8. Bladder
Fig. 8.2 Diagrammatic representation of the intestinal tract of a pig. From FAO of UN
(1962).
Ifthecasingbreaks,itcancontinuetobepulledsincethecasingwilloftenbecome
strongerandpullingcanstillbesuccessful. Ifbreakage continues,pullingfromthe
large intestine endcanbetried since thisendisalways stronger. Theproblemof
pulling in this direction is that it is pulling against the grain and allows more
objectionablebloodcapillariesorwhiskerstoremainonthecasing.These,however,
will cook off during thesmoking operation. Each casing pulling station needsa
21-41C(70-105F)waterspraytoaidthecasingtoslideontotherespectivesidesof
thetrough.Often 15-25cm(6-10in)isremovedfromeachendofthecasingtoaidin
itstravelthrough thesubsequent strippingmachines.
CASING EQUIPMENT
Thepullingtable,madeof12-14gaugestainlesssteelwithacentredrain,isusedto
separatetherufflefatfromtheintestines.Thetablesizeisdeterminedbythenumber
209
10
11
1. Weasand
2. Rumen
3. Reticulum
4. Omasum
5. Abomasum
6. Duodenum
7. Rounds
8. Bungcap
9. Bung
10. Middles
11. Rectum
12. Bladder
Fig. 8.3 Diagrammatic representation of the intestinal tract of acow. From FAO of UN
(1962).
ofpullers,whetherornotthelargeintestine(blackgut)isbeingsaved,ifacentrebelt
is used to remove casings andif chitterlings are being saved. Tables are often
2.7-3.6m(9-12ft)inlength andupto1.8m(6ft)inwidth.
Thepullingtray,madeofatleast14gaugestainlesssteel,islongenoughtoextend
fromtheedgeofthepullingtabletothefarsideoftheconveyortrough.Thetrayalso
hasadeflectorshieldontheshortsidetodirectthecasingstotheopposite(near)side
oftheconveyor.Thisallowsonehalfofeachcasingtobedroppedovertheconveyor
beltandthetwo halvestodrop into their individual depressions intheW-shaped
trough.TheconveyorbeltingrunsinachannelatthecentreoftheW-shaped trough
andoften containsbuttonsorpinstoholdthecasingandtomovethemthroughthe
lowerportionofa12-16gaugestainlesssteelW-shapedtrough.Waterspraysforthe
210 Sausagecontainers [Ch.8
Table8.4Sheepcasings
Grade
Approx. Approx. capacity
Averagehanks
diameter (mmf perhank (\b)
b
pertierce
Sheep casing (hanksof 914.4m (100yd) each)
Narrow 16-18 33-36 600
Str. Medium 18-20 38-41 600
Medium Wide 20-22 47-52 550
Str. Wide 22-24 55-60 500
Special Wide 24-26 60-64 500
Extra Wide Over26 64-70 500
Shorts (0.91-1.82m (3-6 ft) lengths)
Str. Medium 18-20 34-36 500
Medium Wide 20-22 40-45 500
Str. Wide 22-24 45-50 500
Special Wide Over24 50-54 500
Sprinklers (pork sausage only)
Wide Over22 53-57 650
Medium 18-22 4(M5 650
" lmm=0.03937in
" llb=453.59g
INSCA(undated),InternationalTradeCenter(1973).
traysshould beat least 21C(70F).The conveyor pullsthecasingover horizontal
barsthat helpremove manure andthen ontothemanure stripper (Fig. 8.5)
Theinitialmachineonthecasinglineiscalledamanurestripperanditspurposeis
tostriporsqeezeouttheliquidandmanureinthecasingusingtwolargerollers(e.g.,
20-25cm (8-10in) in diameter, 183cm (72in) long) similar to a laundry wringer.
These rollersmayor maynot bewrapped withcanvasorburlap (often threetimes
around the rollers) and they may also be rubber fluted. The manure strippers
contains one and sometimes two, 1.9cm (2in) water lines to spray 41-43C
(105-110F)waterontotherollers.Therollersareadjusted tohave2.4-3.2mm (j^to
32in)clearance between them. The casingsexit from the manure strippersandare
conveyed through a 12-14 gauge stainless steel soaking tank (Fig. 8.7) which
normally soaksthecasingfor 30minutesat38-42C(100-108F).
Inamoreprimitiveoperation,thestrippingmaybedonebyhand.Inthiscasethe
intestineisflattenedandthecasingispulledbetweenthefingerswhichforcesoutthe
residue.Insomeareasoftheworldfermentation isstillusedasamethodofcleaning
ofcasings.Forfermentation thecasingsaresoakedovernightin21C(70F)wateror
until the mucous and muscular coating are loosened (see Fig. 8.6). Overfermen-
tation,however,softens thecasing.Thecasingsarethenstripped,often byhand,of
the fermented material. They are then soaked in 38C (100F) water for approxi-
matelyonehourandstrippedagain.Thecasingsarethenheldforanadditionalhour
andstrippedathirdtimeandthenrunthroughacleaningmachine(often adrumwith
211 Ch.8] Sausage containers
Table8.5Hogcasings
Hog casing(bundles of 914.4m (100yd) each, shorts are 0.91-1.82m (3-6ft) in
length)
Grade
Narrow
Medium
EnglishMedium
Wide
SpecialWide
ExtraWide
MediumShorts
WideShorts
Hog bungs, regular
Grade
(lengthininches)
c
Sow(32cut)
Export,Sow-in(32cut)
Export,Sow-out(32cut)
LargePrime(32cut)
MediumPrime(32cut)
BrokenShorts
(20-34long)
Hog, middles
Grade
Capoff
Caps
Hog, stomach
Grade
6
71b
51b
a
1 mm=0.03937in
1lb=453.59g
c
l i n=2. 54cm
INSCA,(undated).
Approx.
a
Diameter (mm)
Below32
32-35
35-38
38-42
42-44
Over44
Below35
Over35
Approx.diameter
(in)
fl
Over 2-.
Over2 ^
9
i
9
i
l^X
l | | - l | |
Over l{f
Approx.capacity Averagebundles
perbundle(lb)*
90-100
105-115
115-125
125-135
130-140
135-150
80-90
95-105
Approx. capacity
perpiece(lb)
5
4
4
pertierce
335
325
310
300
290
260
305
285
Pieces
pertierce
500
500
550
650
750
800
permitted under
Pertierce
Average200setspertierce
Average 1200piecespertierce
Pertierce
300piecespertierce
350piecespertierce
revolving scraper blades). The fermentation technique is not
currentU.S.federal inspection procedures.
Thenextmachineisacrusherand,ifonecrusherisused,thetimeinthe38-42C
(100-108F) soaking tank should befrom 30to45minutes, but iftwocrushers are
used,thistimecanbereduced considerably. Ifcasingsarenotsoaked longenough,
6
212
Sausage containers
Table 8.6 Beef casing
Beef rounds (setof 100ft each)
Grade Average
approx.
diameter
(mmf
Extra wide domestic Over44
Wide domestic 40-44
Medium domestic Below40
Extra wide export Over44
Wide export 4(M4
Specialwide export 37-40
Medium export 35-38
Narrow export 28-35
Beef bungs(minimum length 18in
c
)
Grade Approx.
diameter
(in)
c
Extra wideexport caps Over5
Specialwideexport caps
Regular export caps 4-4
Narrowexport caps
Domesticcaps Over 4k
Beef middles (setof57ft each
d
)
Grade Approx.
diameter
(in)
c
Extra wide Over l\
Specialwide 2-2-
Medium 2-2-
Narrow Below2
Beef middles, ready to use (sewed across one end)
Width Length
(in)'
1
(in)
c
11-2
18-20
2-2* 18-20
18-20
18-20
22-3 18-20
Average
approx. capacity
per set
(\b)
b
85-95
75-85
60-70
85-95
75-85
70-80
65-70
55-65
Approx. capacity
per piece
Over 12
10-12
8-10
6-8
Approx. capacity
perset
(lb)*
90-100
80-90
55-65
45-55
Average
approx. capacity
perpiece (lb)
6
n
21
21
2\
3
[Ch..8
Average
sets
pertierce
125
150
160
125
150
165
160
200
Pieces
pertierce
800
900
1000
1200
850
Average
sets
pertierce
95
110
125
150
Average
pieces
pertierce
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
Continued next page
213 Ch. 8]
Sausage containers
Table8.6 continued
Beef bladder
Approx. Approx. Capacity Average
Grade Kind diameter perpiece pieces
(in)
c
( l b / per tierce
Large
Medium
Salted
Salted
Over7 Inflated
6-7 Inflated
11-14
7-11
1000
1400
Small Salted 5-6 Inflated 5-7 2400
Small Dried 8-10 Deflated 5-7 2000
Beef middles, sewed
Kind Width Length Approx. stuffing Pieces
(in)
c
(in)
c
capacity (\b)
b
per tierce
Singlewall 2J-3 18-20 4-4* 2800
Singlewall 3-3J 18-20 5Mi 2700
Singlewall 3M 18-20 6MS 2500
Singlewall 4-4* 18-20 7-7| 2500
0
lmm=0.03937 inches
6
llb=453.59g
c
1in=2.54cm
<
*lft=30.48cm
INSCA(undated).
theywillbereddish-pinkincolour.Thecasingsarethenconveyedtothefirstcrusher
orstrippercrusher (Figs8.8,8.9and 8.10).
The crusher is designed to break the inner mucosa membrane (Fig. 8.6) and
separateitfromthecasing.Thismachinenormallycontainstwoadjustable rollerson
eccentric bearings. The first feeder (hold-down) roller is rubber fluted and is
designedtofeedtheexitroller.Theserollershavetobeproperlyadjustedwhenthey
are cold. They are run at a water temperature of 41-42C (105-108F). Thiswill
soften and expand the rollers. A variation of 1C(2F) in water temperature will
adversely affect the adjustment and, consequently, the operation of the machine.
The crushing fluted roller is of soft stainless steel and balanced on both ends. It
rotates three times as fast as the feed roller or the drum roller and is the most
importantrollerusedtocleanthecasing.Thenextrollerinthecrusheriscalledthe
drumroller. Itisanon-adjustable, solidrubber rolleragainst whichthefeed roller
andcrusherrollerareadjusted. Ittravelsatthesamerevolutionsperminuteasthe
feedroller.Iftwocrushersareused,theywillbeseparated byashortconveyerand
willtravelatthe samerevolutionsperminuteorthefirstonewillbeslightly faster
thanthesecond.Mucosa (Strange,1986)yieldshouldbe613g(1.35lb)hogcasing.
Coldrollersettingsfor thestrippercrushermightbeasinTable 8.7.
After exitingthecrusher(s),thesecasingswillbeconveyed to another 41-42C
(105-108F),12-14gaugestainlesssteelsoak tank and then tothe mucosa stripper
(Figs.8.11,8.12,and 8.13).
The mucosa stripper is identical to the manure stripper and runs at the same
[Ch.8
Fig. 8.4Casingpullingtray. From:R. D. Strange (personal communication).
speed asthe lastcrusher. The rollerson the mucosa stripper mayalsobewrapped
with burlap, but these become unsanitary veryquickly and must bechanged more
often thanonthemanurestripper.Water-supplysprayandwatertemperatureisthe
sameasused inthemanure stripper41-42C(105-108F).Asthecasingsexitfrom
the mucosa stripper, they areplaced onhooks and are then hand-fed intothefinal
finishing machine (Figs8.14,8.15and 8.16).
Thefinisher'spurposeistoremoveallstringsremainingonthecasingandalsoto
removeanyremainingmucosa.Thefinishingmachinehasseveraltypesandsizesof
rollers,such asarubberfluted,smooth stainlesssteelandsmallerrubberfluted,to
pull casings through the machine. Normally there are four rollers adjusted asin
Table8.8.
The scraping rollers, at the entrance of thefinisher,need 41-42C (105-108F)
water and the pull-through rollers, at the exit side of the machine, need 10-16C
(50-60F)orcolderwater.Thefinishingmachinerequiresanoperator continuously
tostrip30-46cm(12-18in)byhand,tohand-feed themachineandalsotomonitor
itsoperation.
STUFFING ANDPACKING OF CASINGS
After the casings exit the finisher (Fig. 8.17) they are soaked in cold (10-16C
(50-60F) or icewater) water or asalt brine tank (large enough to hold 2-3hours
production ofcasings)toremoveexcessblood.Thecolderthewater,theeasieritis
215
Fig.8.5Casingconveyorbelt,sprayandentrancetomanurestripper. FromR. D. Strange
(personal communication).
A. Serouscoat (Tunica serosa)
B. Muscular coat (Tunica muscularis) Stratum longitudinale
C. Muscular coat (Tunica muscularis) Stratum circulare
D. Submucouscoat (Tela submucosa)
E. Mucouscoat
Fig. 8.6 Diagrammatic cross-section of the intestines. Right-hand diagram emphasizes
different layersformingthecomplete intestinalwall. FromFAOofthe UN (1962).
[Ch.8
Fig. 8.7 Exit end of manure stripper andcasingconveyer. From R. D. Strange (personal
communication).
toremovetheblood.Saltinthewateralsoimprovesthewaythecasingsstripoutof
thetank,butsincethetankusuallyusesrunningwater,saltisoften notusedsinceit
wouldhavetoberechargedratherfrequently. Asoaktimeof45minutesto1houris
required ina10-16C(50-60F),80-90%brine.Gentlestirringisdesirableandthe
tankshouldbeallowedtooverflowthebloodywaterafter30-45minutesofsoaking.
Often anovernight soak at -2. 2 to -1.1C (28-30F)isusedatthispoint.
Ascasingsaccumulate inthetanktheyaregathered intohanks,tiedwithtwine
andtakentothesaltingorpackingroom.Ahankmaycontainfrom20to50piecesof
casings (not necessarily full casings). The casings may be salted immediately or
placed inbuggiesfor transfer, orintostainlesssteeltubesforgravityfeedingtothe
salting area.
Casingsmaybesalted (NaCl,mediumfine)byhandorwithamachine.Ifhand
saltingisused, ahankofcasingsisremoved andthecasingsstripped usingazigzag
motionastheyexitthesoakingtankontothesaltingtable.Extraattentionshouldbe
given to salting the portion where the string islocated. Each bundle istied inthe
centreanditmaygodirectlytothepackingbarrelortoadrainareaforovernightora
centrifugal extractorfor5minutesifdrypackingisused.Aftercuringthebundlesare
shaken to remove some of the medium-fine salt (NaCl), and they are thoroughly
rubbedwithfinesaltuntiltheyabsorb40%salt.Atampermaybeusedindrypacking
ifitisdesirabletogetmorecasingsintothe container.
Ifasaltingmachine(Figure8.18)isused,lesslabourandsaltarerequired.When
217 Ch.8]
Sausagecontainers
Fig.8.8Casingconveyor belt andentrance tofirstcrusher. FromR. D. Strange (personal
communication).
Fig. 8.9Exit end offirstcrusher andcasingconveyor belt. From R. D. Strange (personal
communication).
[Ch.8
Fig. 8.10 Casing conveyor belt and entrance to second crusher. From R. D. Strange
(personal communication).
Table8.7Coldrollersettingsfor thestrippercrusherininches(1in=25.4mm)
Roller Onestripperused Twostrippersused
Firststripper Second stripper
removes75%of removesremaining
mucosa mucosa
Feed roller 0.012-0.014 0.014-0.016 0.014-0.016
Crusher roller 0.008-0.010 0.010-0.012 0.008-O.010
salting by machine, the casing ispulled over acomb at the end of asalt tableand
allowedtobepulledfrom thesoaktankthroughthesaltonthetable.Thebundleis
tied inthecentre andthecasinghandled aswithhandsalting.
Ifcasingsarepackedinaslushpackthebundleswillgodirectlytothecontainer
after salting. When full the container will have 10-15% salt-water brine. These
casings will not tangle as badly as dry pack casings but will be darker in colour
219 Ch.8]
Sausagecontainers
Fig.8.11Exitendofsecondcrusherandconveyorbeltwithspreaders.FromR.D.Strange
(personalcommunication).
Fig. 8.12 Casing conveyor belt and entrance to mucosa stripper. From R. D. Strange
(personalcommunication).
220 Sausagecontainers
[Ch.8
Fig.8.13Spreaderformucosastnpper. FromR. D. Strange (personal communication).
Fig.8.14Exitendofmucosastripper. FromR. D. Strange(personal communication).
221 Ch.8]
Sausagecontainers
Fig.8.15Entrancetofinishingmachine. FromR. D. Strange (personal communication).
Fig.8.16Exitendoffinishingmachine. FromR. D. Strange (personal communication).
222 Sausagecontainers [Ch. 8
Table8.8Component rollersofthefinishingmachine
Adjustable Adjusted to Water tempera-
ture Cold adjusted
Scrapingroll Smooth stainlesssteel 41-42C 0.076-0.203mm
roll (105-108T) (0.003-0.008in)
Smooth stainlessSteelroll Non-adjustable 41-42C
(105-108F)
Twosmallpull Smooth stainless 10-16C 0.076-0.127mm
(50-60F) (0.003-0.005in)
Through rollsoffluted Steelrollandtoeach
rubber other
Fig. 8.17 Finishing machine exit and tray with flipper. From R. D. Strange (personal
communication).
223 Ch.8]
Sausage containers
Fig.8.18Casingsaltingmachine. FromR. D. Strange (personal communication).
(blood).Slushpackingrequiresmorecontainers(fewer casingspercontainer),less
labour and lesssalt, but more care must be used to prevent oversalting which will
makethebottom halfofthecontainer difficult toempty.
PRODUCTION OFLAMB CASING
Althoughsimilar to the production of hogcasings,the harvesting of lamb casings
usesdifferent times,temperaturesandrolleradjustments.ANewZealandoperation
can be described as follows (Independent Casing Co., undated). The casings are
removed from the evisceration tables and each lamb can produce 24m (79ft) of
sausage casing. The first step isto separate the intestine from the other intestinal
tissue.Thisisdonebyplacingthecrownsetofgutandintestineontoarotatingbar.
Thecrownsetsarefed 10atatimetothisrotatingbar,withthecasingend hanging
freesothatitcanbegraspedbytheoperator.Nextitispassedthroughasetofrollers
(approximately 20cm (8in) in diameter) for partial cleaning and for expelling its
contents.Theremainingportionofthegutisutilizedinthemanufactureof fertilizer.
Sincethe24mofintestinefromonelambisdifferent indiameterfromoneendtothe
otherandauniform productisneeded,theintestineiscutintothree approximately
equallinks.ThesearereferredtoasA,BorfirstcutandCorsecondcut.Thesethree
sections of intestine are now referred to as runners. An operator strips off 50cm
(20in)ofoutermembranewhichisattachedtoeachrunner.Thisallowsthecleaning
process to be completed by machine at a later stage. The runners then go to a
cleansingbathforanovernightsoak.Runningfreshwaterisusedinthesoakandthe
casingsaredrapedoverstainlesssteelsupportrods.Thiscoldwatersoakingstopsthe
possibilityoffermentation ofthecasingsandalsoincreasestheeaseofremovingthe
mucus when the runner is introduced to the cleaning machine. The next day the
runnergoesintoatrolleybathforanadditionalsoak.Thepurposeofthetrolleybath
soakistosoften thecasingevenfurther. Thirtyminuteslaterthecasingsaretakento
the cleaning machine which contains rollers (approximately 30cm (12in) in dia-
meter)andtheoutermembraneandallthesoft mucusfrom theinsideoftherunner
arestrippedaway.Atthispointtheproductisfullycleansedandcannowbereferred
to as acasing. The next stage isgrading, and thefirststep isto remove anyshort
piecesthat havebeencausedbybreaksresultingfrom thehandlinguptothispoint.
Casings are then sorted intovariouslengthsaccordingtopackaging specifications.
Someoftheshortercasingsaresaltedandpackedintocastsforexportatthisstage.
Thehighqualitycasings,thetraditional AandBorfirstcutthat are8m(26.2ft)in
lengthwillgotoaselection andtubingdepartment for added-value processing.At
thisstage,8mofnaturalcasingareplacedontoatube(spool),whichisusedforease
ofhandling andtimesavingwhensausagestuffing takesplacesincetheplastictube
andconsequentlythecasingcanbefitteddirectlyontothestuffing horn.Atthesame
time the casings are calibrated using running water, which swellsthe casingtoits
maximum diameter;agaugeisbuiltintothetubingtabletomeasurethisdiameter.
The casing isthen graded according to diameter and quality. There should beno
morethan2or3mm(0.078or0.118in)difference betweenthediameteratoneend
of an 8-m casing and the other end. A casing graded 17mm (0.669in) therefore
wouldbe17mmatthenarrowendandshouldbenomorethan19or20mm(0.748or
0.787in) at the other end. The water fed intothecasingalsoservestocheckitfor
perforationsandthereforeitcanbegradedforqualityaswellassize.Casingsthatare
graded FQ (frankfurter quality)or 1Afor qualityarefree from holes,whereasPQ
(pork quality)or IBcasingsarelighttomedium sprinklers.Thecasingsareplaced
into one of 24grading trays. The casings then go directly to the packaging room,
where they are salted and counted and placed into polynet bags. About half the
tubed and salted casingsarepacked for export atthisstage.Thecasingssaltedand
exported inpolynet bagswillhavetobesoaked again anddesalted atthesausage-
processingplantbeforetheyarereadyforstuffing. Theremainingcasings,orthetop
third of the quality casings, are washed again to desalt them, placed in an edible
preservativeandthenvacuum-packedwithtwohanksperpack.Theyarethenplaced
in casts, pails or cartons for export. These vacuum-packed casings are the most
convenientsincetheyarereadytobestuffed assoonastheyareunpackedanddonot
require anunsaltingstep.
Some portions of the intestinal tract are removed on the slaughter floor and
handled separately from the intestines. Examples of some of these sausage con-
tainersareasfollows:
HOG BUNG
Thehogbungispulledontheslaughterfloorandremovedfromtheencasedfat.Itis
then tied with stringat the end leading tothe large intestine. Next, fat istrimmed
aroundthecrownandthebungisturnedinside-outandchilledinicewater.Thebung
isthengradedaccordingtosize,salted,placedinbundlesandpackedinacontainer.
ForhogbungusageseeTable 8.9.
Table8.9Useofhogbungs
Usedfor Width Length Approx. stuffing
(in)
a
(in)
a
capacity (lb)
6
Viskon-Lined sewed hog bungs
Liversausage 31-31 30-32 7-8
Liversausage 3-3* 30-32 51-61
Liversausage 2^-3 30-32 5^5?
Double wall combined hog bungend and beef casing lined
Liversausage
3MI
Liversausage 3J-31
Liversausage 3-3|
Liversausage 2f-3
Liversausage 21-21
Double wall Hog bung ends
Genoa 3J-3I
Genoa 3M
Single wall
Thuringer 3M
Thuringer 3-3*
Thuringer 21-3
a
lin=2.54cm
Mlb=453.59g
INSCA(undated).
HOGSTOMACH
30-32 81-10
30-32 71-8
30-32 61-7
30-32 51-6
30-32 5-5*
20 5-51
20 51-61
30-32
7M1
30-32 6-7
30-32 5-6
Hog stomachs are removed from the carcasses, trimmed free of fat, cleaned and
washed, turned inside-out, slimmed and packed in salt. The stomachs are then
drainedbutremain insaltuntilthoroughly cured.
BLINDENDORCAECUM
The blind end or caecum is separated from the intestine on the slaughter floor,
washedontheoutside,turned inside-out andrewashed. Itisthen salted and dried.
BLADDER
Thebladderisremovedfromthecarcassontheslaughterfloor.Bladdersarewashed,
turned inside-out, salted, and packed or inflated with air, fat trimmed and then
chilled inwater, salted and graded or reinflated and dried. Ifdried, they are often
softened withsteam, flattened andthen packed.
BEEFBUNG
Thebeefbung(caecumorblindgut)hastheoutsidefatremoved,isturnedandhand-
cleaned.Bunggut-skinsareoftensavedfromthebeefbungs,theseshinymembranes
aretheoutside(peritoneal)coveringandareusedbycraftsmen whomakegoldleaf.
This removal does not affect the bung asasausage container. The bungsarethen
graded.
WEASAND
After the muscle tissue isremoved from the outside of the weasand, it iswashed,
turned insideout and inflated withair,driedinawarmroom and graded.
CHITTERLING
Thehog'smiddleintestineorblackgutis3.7-4.3m(12-14ft) inlengthandweighs
approximately 2.3kg (5lb). The hog's middle intestines are frequently sold asan
ediblechitterlingproduct.After themiddleintestineisremovedfrom thecarcass,it
istrimmedfreeoffat. Aperforated pipeisthenruninsidetheintestineandasteady
sprayofwaterisusedtocleantheintestine.Itisfurther cleanedonacasingdefatting
machine orcan besplit and cleaned byhand. Ifthecasingisnot split, itisturned,
cleanedasecondtimeandthenplacedinicewatertochillandbleach.Sometimesthe
unsplit intestine isheavilysalted (thishelpstoloosenthemucosa),turned mucosa-
sideout, washed inatripewasher and rechilled. Thechitterlings arethen drained,
held overnight at 1-2C (34-36F) and the pink-coloured chitterlings may be
merchandized fresh (the colour is not very stable). The chitterlings may also be
frozen forshipment. Insomecases,chitterlingsaredrycured.Todrycure,theyare
packedinlayersofsaltandoverhauledinthreedays.Theynormallycontain30%salt
byweight after curing. Chitterlings mayalsobeplaced in 100%brine after chilling
andshipped (ifnotshippedin7days,theyshouldbeoverhauled orresalted)inthis
strong pickle. They should not cure longer than 15days. Chitterlings may alsobe
cooked(boiledfor2hours),chilledovernight,packedandshippedin100(saturated
brine)pickle.
OTHER USESFOR INTESTINAL PRODUCTS
Uses, other than for manufacturing sausage casings, of intestinal-type products
include pepsin and heparin extraction (see Chapter 7), edible uses (seeTripe and
Intestines sections in Chapter 2 and Chitterling section in this chapter), strings for
musical instruments (usually from sheep), strings for sports rackets (mainly from
sheep),catgut(surgicalligatures,mainlyfromsheep),andforbeatinggoldleaf (see
Beef bungsection inthischapter) to reduce itsthickness.
Musicalinstrumentstringswouldincludestringsfortheharp,cello,doublebass,
guitar,banjo,mandolin,ukulele,andviolin. Gutcablesarealsousedinsomeclocks
andothermechanical devices.
Thetennisracketstringrequires7.3m(24ft)ofsmallintestinefromasheep. To
manufacturesportsracketstrings,theintestine isfirstsplit,thenchemicallytreated,
spun(1-100ply,28plyofsmoothgutor11ofwholegutisnormal)intoshape, again
chemically treated andthen dried on frames (3-15 days). They arethen turned (10
minutes)onafinishingmachineandpolisheduntilsmooth.Thestringsaretestedfor
tensilestrength, uniformity of diameter andforstretching ability.
Surgicalligaturesaremadefromthestrong,silkysideofnarrowsheepintestines.
Theadvantageofthistypeofthreadisthatitismadefromplainbiologicalgutandit
canbeabsorbedbythebody;therefore, thestitchesdonothavetoberemoved. The
timerequiredforthestitchestobeabsorbedcanbecontrolledbythe manufacturing
technique, andsome of thegutsuturesareusedasremovable sutures. The foreign-
bodyreaction caused on the wounds bythe natural surgical gutsare different from
thatproducedbysilkornylonsuturesandmaybedesiredtopromotefirmerscarand
healinginsomecases. Thebiological suturesareusuallystoredinisopropyl alcohol
(C
3
H
8
O) andsterilized eitherbygamma radiation orbyethylene oxide (C
2
H
4
O).
MUCOSA
Mucosa is the slime or inner membrane of the casing, which, when soaked and
crushed, is removed by squeezing by the mucosa stripper(s) or crusher(s). The
mucosa is used by the pharmaceutical industry to make heparin (see Chapter 7)
whichisused inmedicine asananticoagulant (Strange, 1986). The yield of mucosa
shouldrangefrom612to 1134g(1.35to2.5 lb)ofmucosaperhogslaughtered. The
mucosa, containing as little water as possible, should be placed in a mixing tank.
Mucosaatapproximately0.874g/cm
3
(7.3lb/gallon)islighterthanwater.Theliquid
mucosa should contain 14-16% solids. To preserve the mucosa, it should be
thoroughlymixedwithsodiumbisulphite (NaHSO
3
) atarateof0.25 (cold weather)
to0.33 (hotweather) poundsof bisulphite perpoundof mucosa. Thiscanbe mixed
fornomore than5minuteswith air(5.6kg/cm
2
(80psi)) butprolonged mixingwill
driveoff asagassome of the sodium bisulphite. The reduced level of preservative
maycausetheproducttospoil.Uponstorage,solidmucosawillformandfloatontop
ofthewaterlayer.
YIELDAND STORAGE
Theyieldofbeef,pork,sheepandgoatcasingmaybefoundinTable8.10.Theyield
of porkcasingswill range from 20to26headof hogperbundles. Twenty-five to 50
bundlesareoften packedperbarrel,resultingin600toslightlyover 1000casingsper
barrel. The barrels will have a gross (including the barrel) weight of from 213 to
249kg(470to5501b).
228 Sausagecontainers [Ch.g
After packing,thecasingcontainersshouldideallybestoredand/orshippedina
cool(lessthan 10C(50F))areaorvehiclebutsincetheyaresaltedtheyshouldnot
spoilinheatedstorage.However,ifthetemperatureistoowarmtheywilldiscolour
and develop avery objectionable off odour, neither of which can be removedby
pre-flushing.
Table8.10Yieldofcasingper animal
ANIMAL
Beef Pork Sheep Goats
Round length (ft)
fl
90-135
90 75
Smallcasinglength (ft) 45-52
Middleslength (ft)* 20-25 12-16
Bunglength(in)* 48-54 30-74
Middlecaplength (in)
6
10-12
Weasand length (in)
6
18-26
Bladderwidth(in)
6
7-14 5-9
" 1 ft=0.3048m
b
lin=2.54cm
FAOof UN (1962), InstituteofMeatPacking(1958).
COLLAGENCASING
Collagencasingcanbemanufactured inbothanedible(usuallysmallcasings)anda
non-edible (usually largecasings)variety (Ockerman, 1985).Thesmallcasingsare
chewable because they are thin and in edible form they willsolubilize incooking.
Collagen casings are often considered the 'bridge' between artificial and natural
casingsandaremanufactured tocontainfresh,smoked,driedandprocessedsausage
products. Collagen isextracted from the corium layer of inspected, soaked, salted
and rinsed animalhides(normallybeef) andextruded intotheshapeofacasing.If
the casings are to be kosher, the starting hidesmust alsobe kosher, from kosher-
slaughtered animals, and aseparate set of processing equipment isused solely for
producingKoshercasings(Pakfacts, 1983;Devro,1979).Afterproduction,collagen
casings should be stored between 2and 10C (35and 50F) to prevent bacterial
spoilage.
These casings are 'man-made' products but are constructed from collagen, a
proteinofanimaloriginwhichisnormallyobtainedfrom thecentralcoriumlayerof
beef hides.Twomethodsofmanufacture areused.Theyarereferred toasthe'dry
andwet'methods.Thedrymethodhasahighsolidcontentandthewetmethoduses
agelorlowsolidcontent for extrusion.
Hidesarewashed,defleshed andtreatedwithaweakacidoralkalitoremovethe
hairfrom thefollicle.Thehideisthensplitbymachinetoseparatetheoutergrainor
leather layer from the inner collagenous corium layer. The corium layer is then
neutralized,washedandcoarselyground.Thisgroundcoriumisthen runthrougha
high-speed ultra-fine chopper, resultinginashammy.Theshammy,containing5%
collagen (low solids), is acidified with acetic acid (C
2
H
4
O
2
), causing it to absorb
water,andthepastygelisthenfiltered,homogenized (torandomly-orientthefibres
for uniform stretch and burst strength) and extruded. The extruder aligns the
collagenfibresandfibrilsby running them through an annular die and produces a
continuous, uniform tube with uniform length, diameter, wall thickness and
strength.
The extruded tube is neutralized, washed with water and given a chemical
treatmenttoimprovestrength(sugar)andpliability(glycerine).Thecasingsarethen
dried under special temperature and humidity conditions, and then are cut and
shirredtofitmoststuffing horns.Thecasingsarethenpacked in moisture-checked
boxes.Moisture ismaintained between 13and 18%andtheboxesarethen sealed.
The product can be stored indefinitely as long as the storage conditions remain
favourable.Thecasingsarereadytousewhentheycomefromthebox(norewetting
isnecessaryexceptforlargediametercasings,whichcanbesoakedin27-32Cwater
(80-90F)).Thesecasingshavepredictablehandlingandstuffing characteristicsand
canbeusedinprogrammableweightsystems.
Thesausageinthesecasingsshouldbecookedatarelativehumidityof40-45%.
Ifcookedbelowthisrelativehumidity,thecasingwillsplit,andifcookedabove,the
casingwillhydrolyse andspillthe emulsion.
The small casings are edible and are often used for fresh pork sausage. Large
collagencasingsaretreatedwithaldehydetocross-linkthecollagenandincreasethe
strength.Thistypeofcasingisremoved before consumption.
Collagen casingsareavailable (Coria, 1983;Devro, 1984)intheforms listedin
Table8.11.
Thesecasingsaretypicallysuppliedinnaturalcolour,butarealsoavailableinred
and smoke colour. They are also available with endsfor twist linkers or with pre-
closedends.
Groundsagewilloftendiscolourcollagencasings.Formaldehyde(CH
2
O)isused
inthemanufactureofcollagencasingsandispresentonthesecasingsinboththe free
andcombined state (Table 8.12).
[Ch.8
Table8.11Typesofcollagencasing
Fresh SausageCasing
Diameter 17-30mm(0.669-1.181in)
Length 10.67-21.34m(35-70ft)
Length (shirred) 19-25cm(7.48-9.84in)
Deep-fat frying casings
Diameter 17-29mm(0.669-1.142in)
Length 10.67-15.24m(35-50ft)
Processed meatcasinganddryandsemi-drysausagecasing
Diameter 19-40mm(0.748-1.575in)
Length 7.62-15.24m(25-50ft)
Length (shirred) 23cm(9.06in)
Large-diameter fresh sausagecasing
Diameter 23-34mm(0.906-1.339in)
Length 10.67-15.24m(35-50ft)
Frankfurter casing
Diameter 19-28mm(0.748-1.102in)
Length 11.43-19.81m(37.5-65ft)
Beef stickcasing
Diameter 12-28mm(0.472-1.102in)
Length 11.28-15.24m(37-50ft)
Coria (1983);Devro (1984).
Table8.12Permitted formaldehyde levelsforcollagencasings
USDA Maximum
Free Combined
(total-free)
Edible None 4ppm
Inedible lOppm 200ppm
Inedible ringbologna 50ppm 200ppm
REFERENCES
Coria(1983) Coria edible collagen casing. Teepak, Chicago.
Devro(1979). Ace Devro collagen casing natural.Devro,Somerville,NewJersey.
Devro (1984) Collagen and fibrous casing and equipment for the meat industry.
Devro,Somerville,NewJersey.
FAOofUN (1962) Animal by-products processing and utilization.PreparedbyI.
Mann. FAOofUN, Rome.
Independent CasingCompany (undated) A natural case in case.VCR tape.
INSCA, (undated). Facts about natural casings. International Natural Sausage
CasingAssociation, Chicago.
InstituteofMeat Packing(1958) By-products of meat packing industry. Committee
onTextbooksoftheAmericanMeatInstitute,UniversityofChicago,Chicago.
International Trade Center (1973) Animal casings. International Trade Center,
UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva, Switzerland.
Ockerman,H. W. (1983) Chemistry of meat tissue.Department ofAnimalScience,
OhioStateUniversity,Columbus,Ohio.
Pakfact (1983) 50th Anniversary Issue.Teepak, Chicago,Illinois.
Strange, R. D. (1986) Stridhs 1700. A VHS tape. R. D. Strange, Smithfield,
Virginia.
9
Bloodutilization
INTRODUCTION
Animal blood hasmanypossibilitiesfor useinthefood, feed, laboratory, medical,
industrial andfertilizer areas,andsomeoftheseusesaresummarized inTable9.1.
Table9.1Usesofanimalblood
Food Emulsifier, stabilizer,clarifier, colour additive,nutritionalcompo-
nent.
Feed Lysine supplement, vitamin stabilizer, milk substitute, nutritional
component.
Fertilizer Seedcoating,soilpHstabilizer,mineral components.
Laboratory Tissue-culturemedia,tanninanalysis,activecarbon,haemin,blood
agar, peptones, glycerophosphates, albumins, globulins, sph-
ingomyelins,catalase.
Medicine Agglutination tests, immunoglobulins, fractionation techniques,
blood clottingfactors, sutures,fibrinogen,fibrinolysin,fibrin pro-
ducts,serotonin, kalikrenins,plasminogen,plasmaextenders.
Industry Adhesive,resin extender, finishes for leather and textiles,insecti-
cidesprayadjuants,eggalbuminsubstitute,foamfireextinguisher,
porous concrete, ceramic and plastic manufacturer, plastic and
cosmeticbase formulations.
Divakaran (1980).
Effective removal of blood during slaughter is required by the Moslem and
Jewish ritualslaughterprocedure andisprobablyhistoricallybasedonthefact that
carcasses of improperly bled animals discolour more quickly and have reduced
233 Ch.9] Bloodutilization
keepingqualities.Inspiteofthis,blood isusuallysterileinahealthy animalandis
high(17-18%)inproteinthatisreasonablywellbalancedinaminoacidcomposition.
Blood in food isused as a protein supplement, as atextured meat protein, to
clarify liquid foods (e.g. wine), as astabilizer (e.g. cheese), asan emulsifier (e.g.
butter)andasacolouringagentformeat(particularlypoultry)items.Bloodalbumin
hasbeen used as asubstitute for egg albumin in food, utilized in making sausage
casingandincorporated intobread flour.
Mostof the blood used in livestock feed isintheform of blood meal used asa
protein supplement. Production of blood meal consists of cooking the blood,
expressingtheexcesswater and dryingtoobtain agranularproduct. Bloodmealis
deficient intheaminoacidstryptophan andisoleucine,butisarichsourceoflysine.
Lysinecontent varieswiththemethod ofdryingfrom 10-12%withspraydryingto
6-8%withvatdrying.Ringdrying(flashdrying)increasesconsiderablythebiologi-
calavailability of lysine in the dried meal. Blood meal has also been found to be
useful asastabilizerforfat inbonemealandinlivestockrationsandisanexcellent
sourceofmostofthetraceminerals.
Inthelaboratory,therearemanyusesofbloodproductsandthemost common
oneswould include uses as a nutrient for tissue culture media and as a necessary
ingredientinsomeagarforbacteriologicaluse.Manybloodcomponentsareisolated
andused inchemical analysisor asnutritive supplements. Modified blood compo-
nentsarealsousedinthebiologicalassayofheparinandusedasstandardsolutionsin
thecalibrationofinstrumentsusedinhaematology.Bloodplasmahasalsobeenused
asadiluentfor semenfrom boarsandbulls.
Industrialusesofbloodincludeasanadhesiveandforitsfilm-formingproperties
inthepaper,lithographic,plywood,veneering,fibre,plastics,andglueindustries.It
alsofindsuseininsecticideandfungicideformulations,infoamfireextinguishers,in
moulded ceramicproducts,inleatherfinishers,incorkcrowns,inporous concrete
andasastabilizerfor biologicalmaterial anddrugs.
Bloodisalsouseful asafertilizer and,inadditiontocontributingnitrogen,itaids
in humus formation and improves the soil structure. Blood is also useful in seed
coatingandregulatingsoilpH.Disadvantagesofbloodspreadonthesoilarethatit
willattractratsand vermin.
UTILIZATION OF BLOOD
Useofbloodinbloodsausage,pudding,soup,breadorcrackersisbriefly discussed
inChapter 2. However, the addition of more than asmall percentage of blood to
meatitemsrenderstheend-product darkandoften unpalatable,andtheuseofonly
plasmautilizesonlyaminorpartofthebloodprotein.Inspiteofthis,frozen plasma
ismixedwith emulsion meat products to alimited extent insomecountries. Since
bloodmakesupsuchasignificant portion (6-7%oftheanimals'usableprotein)of
theanimal'smass(2.4-8%oftheanimals'liveweight;driedbloodmakesup0.7%of
liveweight)andsincenewtechniquesarebeingdevelopedtoutilizethishighprotein
(18%)product, some of the newer and innovative approaches willbediscussed in
thischapter.Normallyapproximately50%ofthebloodiscollectedduringbleeding
intheslaughteroperation.Theremainingblood(approximately50%)isretainedin
thecapillary system throughout the body. Table 9.2 showsthe average amount of
234 Bloodutilization [Ch.9
Table9.2Typicalblood yieldsrecovered at slaughter
Species Blood (80% moisture) Blood Driedblood
per 1000lb per weight(10%
liveweight average moisture)
(lb)- Gallons
6
animal
(i)
(partsper
1000
liveweight)
Average if 100%of
blood iscollected 77.0 7.2 17.0
Cattle (approximately
50% collected) 32.6-33.7 3.1-3.2 10-12 7.2-7.5
Calves (approximately
50% collected) 25.8-27.0 2.4-2.5 5.7-6.0
Sheep (approximately
50% collected) 24.8-31.5 2.3-3.0 1.5 5.5-7.0
Swine (approximately
50% collected) 29.2-35.1 2.8-3.4 2.5 6.6-7.8
Chickens (approximately
51% collected)
300sbleed 42.1 3.9 0.2/2kg 9.3
bird
fl
llb =454g.
b
\ gallon=3.791.
Source: Kotula andHelbacka (1966),Wismer-Pederson (1979),Newell andShaffner (1949),Stevenson
(undated).
bloodthatcanbeexpectedinatypicalslaughteroperation.Halfakilogram(1lb)of
nearlypureprotein canusuallybesalvagedperbeef animal.
R. Strange (personal communication) and Wismer-Pederson (1979) described
the latest blood utilization techniques and much of the following information isa
summaryoftheir reports.
Insmallslaughterplantsbloodisoften allowedtoescapedownthedrain,andthis
represents asizeable environmental pollution hazard since the release of bloodin
thismanner willincreasethebiochemicaloxygenconsumption ofthesewageinthe
averageplantapproximatelyten-fold andwillincreaseitssuspendedsolidsapproxi-
matelythree-fold. Blood,ofcourse,couldbesimplydriedandprocessedintoblood
mealor mixed anddried withmeat andbonemeal,butthisdowngradesbloodtoa
non-humanuseandalsolowerstheproteinavailability.Thisapproachdoeshavethe
advantage of increasing the lysinecontent of the meat meal or the bone mealand
consequently improvingthebiologicalutilizationofthesemealsbyanimals.
Bloodtaken from healthyanimalsisessentiallysterileand,ifcollectedfrom the
235
Ch.9] Blood utilization
stickwoundfrombeef animalsthathavebeenapprovedbytheinspectionservice,it
stillremainsintheareaof'foodforhumanconsumption'intheU.S.Collection often
involvesaspecially designed hollow knife orthief knife towhich ahose is attached
that allows the blood to flow into a container (see Fig.2.1). Anticoagulants are
usuallyaddedinthehollowknife. Afteralltheanimalshavepassedinspectionwhose
blood was collected in a common container, the blood is released for human
utilization. Ifanyanimalofthegroupdoesnotpassinspection,thentheblood from
the container is not utilized for human use. The blood that passes inspection is
normallythenpumpedintoacentrifuge (specificgravityofwholeblood 1.042-1.056,
corpuscles1.084-1.098, plasma1.019-1.029)wherethebloodisseparatedintoblood
plasma and erythrocytes (see Fig.9.1). The blood fractions are then chilled and
pumpedintostorage tanks.
Whole blood
100kg,18%solids
I
Anticoagulant,
1kgsodium citrate
Centriguging
I
I I
Plasma (60- 70%), Redcells (30-40%),
66kg8.5%solids, 34kg35%solids,
7- 8%protein,5.3 34- 38% protein, 11.6
kgprotein, 91% kgprotein,61- 63%
water water
Evaporation
concentration
I
Plasma Water
concentrate, evaporated,
26.5kg21% solids 39.5kg
I I
Spray drying
Spray drying
Immediate
consumption,
frozen
Plasma Water Redcell Water
powder,
6kg
5- 7 % Moisture
evaporated,
20.5kg
powder,
12.5kg,
5 - 7 % Moisture
evaporated,
21.5kg
Fig.9.1Separationofbloodintodriedfractions.FromR.D.Strange(personalcommunica-
tion)Filstrup(1976),Wismer-Pederson (1979),Westfalia Separator (undated).
Forbeef blood collection (theonlyblood approved inthe U.S. forseveral years
becauseitwastheonlytypethattheinspectionservicethoughtcouldbecollectedina
sanitarymanner),anapproximate 10x15cm(4x6 in)sectionofthehideinthearea
oftheneckwherestickingwilltakeplaceisremovedtoavoidasmuchcontamination
as possible. In pigs this area is sanitized by applying a gas torch (singeing) and
236 Blood utilization [Ch.9
shaving.Thehollowknife,whichisapproximately 13cm(5.1 in)long(cattle),isthen
inserted intotheartery area intheneckfor sticking.After bleeding,bloodclotsin
310 minutes, depending on environmental temperature, and this is caused by
thrombin (enzyme), which converts soluble fibrinogen in the blood into insoluble
fibrin. Clotting does not occur in circulating blood due to natural anticoagulants
present. Normally an anticoagulant issupplied tothe knife-point through ahollow
pipeintheknife handle.Ifbloodisdrivenintotheknifebytheanimal's heart-beat,
the blood yield isnormally afunction ofthe timethe knife isleft inserted intothe
carotid artery-jugular vein area. A 60-second collection time will usually yield
approximately 10-141(2.6-3.7gallons)ofblood per adult beef animalandafter60
secondstheflowrateisreduced. Extensionofthiscollectiontimeto90secondswill
yield approximately an additional 21(0.5gallon)ofblood. Normal bleedingtimes
used in industry are 6minutes for cattle, 4-5 minutes for sheep, 3-4 minutes for
calves and 6minutes for pigs. Hogs will yield approximately 2.51 (0.7 gallon)of
blood,sheep1.51(0.4gallon)andyoungchickensapproximately 10%oftheirbody
weight.
Ananticoagulantoftrisodiumcitrate(sodiumcitrate,C
6
H
5
Na
3
O7)orcitricacid
(C
6
H
8
O
7
) in the amount of 0.2% with or without water (2 parts water to 1part
sodium citrate or citric acid) is normally used. A solution of 150kg (330.7lb)of
citrateand300-4001(79-106gallons)ofwaterispreparedand0.51 (1.1pints)ofthis
solution isusedper 151(4gallons)ofblood.Amixtureofphosphateshasalsobeen
used as an anticoagulant and this mixture would contain 22% of Na
2
HPO
4
,22%
Na
4
P
2
O
7
,16%Na
2
H
2
P2O
7
and40%NaCl.Thismixtureisnormallyusedattherate
of 10g (0.353oz) of the mixture per litre (2.1 pints) of blood. Also heparin or
oxalateshavesometimesbeen used.
Anticoagulantsfunction inavarietyofmannersandsomeofthemareasfollows.
Heparin isthe natural blood component that helpsprevent coagulation inthelive
animalduringbloodcirculation.Commerciallyitisavailableinthesodium,lithium
orcalciumsaltanditinhibitstheformationofthrombinfromprothrombin.Itisoften
used at the rate of 200mg/1 of blood when the blood isto be used in the food or
pharmacological areas. Sodium (Na
2
C
2
O
4
) or potassium oxalate (K
2
C
2
0
4
) maybe
used atthe rateof 1g(0.035oz)ofa30%solution inwaterperlitre (2.11pints)of
blood or anyconcentration dissolved in0.85% sodium chloride (NaCl) solutionof
1g/1(1000ppm)ofamixtureof3partsammoniumoxalate(A1
2
(C
2
O
4
)
3
)to2partsof
potassium oxalate dissolved in a small quantity of water or diluted in a saline
solution. Oxalatesprecipitatecalciumneededforcoagulation.Theyarepoisonous;
therefore, theycannotbeusedwherethebloodcomponent isgoingintothefoodor
pharmaceutical area. Sodium citrate (Na
3
C
6
H
5
O
7
) is used as the rate of 3g/1
(3000ppm)ofbloodanditconvertsthecalciumintoanon-ionizedform, preventing
coagulation. Regulations for the use of citrate in the food and pharmaceutical
industriesvaryfrom countrytocountry.Ethylenediaminetetra-acetic aciddisodium
salt (EDTA, Na
2
C
10
H
14
N
2
O
8
) is used at the rate of 2g/1 (2000ppm) and actsby
chelating the calcium ion needed for coagulation. It ispermitted in the food and
pharmaceutical industries in most countries. Proteolytic enzymes have also been
used in place of anticoagulants to produce products with high protein quality and
containinglowlevelsofash(QuagliaandMassacci,1982).Theanticlottingeffectof
these enzymes isproduced by the proteolytic activity on fibrin. Rapid chillingof
bloodto1-2C (34-36F)willpreventcoagulationwithoutananticoagulant,but the
bloodwillcoagulatewhenthetemperatureincreases.Vigorousstirringofbloodwill
causethefibrintoadheretothestirringrodandpreventcoagulation,butthisprocess
damagestheredbloodcells.
The blood usuallyflowsfrom the sticking knife into the holding container by
meansofgravity. Application of vacuum suction mayor may not be used because
vacuum will sometimes collapse the animal's blood vessels and block theflowof
blood into the knife. The knife issterilized between each sticking operation. The
numberofcattle from which blood iscollected into onetank isdetermined bythe
likelihoodofcondemnationofacarcass,whichinturnwouldcontaminatethewhole
tankofblood,andbythetimelapsebetweenslaughterandmeat-inspection carcass
approval.Acollectiontankhasalsotwoarrangementsfortheremovalofblood:one
forapproved blood andtheotherfor condemned blood.
Collection of blood from swine (after 30 seconds' blood flow is reduced) is
normallymorecomplicatedthanforbeefanimalsbecauseofthefaster slaughter-line
speed.
Approvedbloodfromeitherspeciesmaybenextpumpedintoaplatecoolerand
thentoinsulated storagetanks.Itmaybeprocessed aswholebloodorthebloodis
pumped to a centrifuge (a solid-wall, disk-type bowl is often used) which conti-
nuously separates light plasma (52-70%) from the heavy erythrocytes (red blood
corpuscles;30-48%).After centrifugation, theseparatedfractions,ifnotpreviously
cooled, are cooled from approximately 35C (95F) to 2C (36F) in order to
minimizebacterialgrowth.Thevariousfractionsarethenpumpedintostoragetanks
forholdingorforfreezing priortoshipment.Thefractions maybefrozen ina flake-
icemachine and distributed inthe frozen state,ortheymaybedried (drying often
resultsinoff odours). Beef plasmawhichcontainsglobulins,albumins andfibrino-
gen (in 3-10 minutes the enzyme thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin which is
responsible for clotting) should be yellow or orange and pig plasma should be
grey-whitetopink. The darker colour oftheplasmaisduetohaemoglobin, either
because of incomplete separation or because of haemolysis of the erythrocytes.
Haemolysis(lysis)cannormallybepreventedbycareful mechanicalhandlingofthe
bloodinpipes,jointsandvalvesandbyminimizingdilutionofbloodwithwaterfrom
the cleaning operation. Additional water in the blood will decrease the osmotic
pressure inthe plasma, which may result inthe bursting of the erythrocytes. Beef
blood seems to be lesssensitive to mechanical disruption than ispigblood. Also,
thereisabiggerdifference between plasmaanderythrocytespecificdensityinbeef
blood than in pig blood, making centrifugal separation easier. Maintaining good
hygiene of the blood-collection system is essential; most collection units have
automaticcleaningdevicesand somecleanwith: (1)5minutesofcold-water rinse;
(2) 15minutes of lye (potassium (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH)) solution
cleaning;(3) 15minutesof acid-solution cleaning;and (4)5minutesof cold-water
rinsing.Ifgood hygieneismaintained, thebacterial qualityof theblood should be
lessthan2000totalplate-countorganismspermlofbloodandremainconstantfora
fewdaysifstoredatatemperatureof2C(36F).After beinghygienicallycollected,
inmostcases,wholebloodcanbestoredfor4daysat2C(36F)beforethebacterial
countstartstoincreasedramatically.Bloodisoften storedbetween0(32F)and2C
(36F)and astorage life of4-6 daysispossible. Ifstrict hygiene standards are not
238 Blood utilization
[Ch.9
followed, blood may have asmany as2.5X10
5
organisms/ml of blood at collection
andrapidlyincreaseduringstorage.Aftercentrifugation oftheblood,20-25%ofthe
bacteria will appear in the plasma and the remaining 75-80% in the erythrocyte
fraction. Therefore, blood plasma should contain a fairly low bacterial count of
approximately 1000/mlof plasma.
When blood fractions are to be held for extended periods of time, thecompo-
nentsarenormallyfrozen or dried.
Thecompositionsofbloodcomponents aregiveninTable9.3.Table9.4givesa
morecomplete composition.
Table9.3Composition ofblood components
Blood Blood Red Dried Dried
plasma blood plasma globin
corpuscle
concen-
trate
Drysolids (%) 18-20 8-9 28-37 96-97.5 96.5
Protein (%) 13-15 6-8 28-38 70-96 91-95.4
Albumin fraction
(% of protein) 50
Globulins (% of
protein) 23-27
Fibrinogen (% of
protein) 17-23
Fat (%) 0.1-1 1 0-1.5 0
Carbohydrate (%)
Salts (%)
fl
2 1.5 1-3 2orless 1-6
Water (%) 80-82 90-91 61-63 2.5-7.0 3.5
" Level depends on quantity and typeof anticoagulant used.
Chemical preservation can alsobeused ifthe blood isintended for non-human
use.Chemicalssuchas1%sodiumbisulphite(NaHSO
3
)andacidslikehydrochloric
(HC1),phosphoric (H
3
PO
4
),formic (CH
2
O
2
) orsulphuric(H
2
SO
4
) ataconcentra-
tion of 0.25Nor ammonia (NH
3
) at a concentration of 0.25-0.50% can be used.
Some people havesuggested preserving blood tobeused inhuman food byadding
lacticacid (C
3
H
6
O
3
) tocoagulate bloodorincreasingitsstabilization byusingsuch
compoundsassodiumcitrate(Na
3
C
6
H
5
O
7
)andantifungal agentssuchassorbicacid
(C
6
H
8
O
2
)orpropionicacid(C
3
H
6
O
2
).Tofreeze bloodplasmaitisnormallyplaced
on a vertical rotating drum that has a temperature of between -10C (14F) and
-40C (-40F) andthenscrapingthefrozen plasmafrom thesurface intheformof
flakes.Ifthefrozenflakesareaddedtochoppedfood, itwillcoolaswellasfunction
as an additive. When blood is dried, great care must be taken in order that
239 Ch.9] Blooc1utilization
Table9.4 Blood composition
Centri- Dried Centri- Dried
fuged blood fuged globin
liquid plasma blood
blood corpuscles
plasma 40%
ofblood 60%ofblood
Chemical
Moisture 90-91% 2.5-7.0% 61-63% 3.5%
Protein 6.5-8.0% 70-96.0% 28-38% 91-95.4%
Salt* 1-2% <2.0% 1-3% 1-6%
Na 8.5% 0.60%
Cl 9.9% 5.10%
K 0.3% 0.03%
Ca 0.1% 0.03%
Mg 0.03% 0.02%
Lipids 0.1-1.0% 0-1.5% 1% 0
pH 7.5-8.5
Bacteriological
Totalcount Max100000/g Max100000/g
Normal <10000/g <50000/g 300/g
Coliform
Spores
Max100/g
Max120/g Max1000/g
Usual <120/g
Sensory
Odour Neutral Neutral
Taste Bland Neutral
Colour
Beef(uncooked) Orange Pale
yellow-
pale
Beef (cooked) Yellow
orange
Pork (uncooked) Yellow Pale
yellow
Pork (cooked) White
Solubility
Shouldbe 90-100%
Normal 75-80%
a
Mostisdue to anticoagulant addition.
Source:R. Strange (personalcommunication),Filstrup (1976),Braathan andNilsen (1982),Dill(1975),
Stevenson (1979), USDA (undated), Bengtsson and Holmquist (1984), Satterlee (1975), Ellco Protein
AB(undated).
denaturationoftheproteiniskepttoamimimumsincethislowersthequalityofthe
driedfraction. Itis usually more economical tofirstconcentrate the blood plasma
prior to the drying process. In most plants concentration is accomplished by
evaporation,butsomeworkhasbeenreportedonmembranefiltrationasamethod
of concentration. Membrane filtration is accomplished by passing plasma under
pressure across plastic filter membranes, which will permit water and salts to be
removed.Therearetwoprimarywaysofevaporationconcentration:the falling-film
evaporator andthecentri-termevaporator. Inthefalling-film evaporator,thereisa
verticalbatteryofsteelplatessurroundedbyasteamjacket.Theplasmaflowsdown
the 12cm(34.4ft) innerperipheryofthepipesasathinfilm,whichisspreadoutby
the steam evaporated from the liquid. The evaporator normally operates undera
vacuum,whichgivestheplasmaaboilingpointofapproximately36F(97F),andthe
plasma is normally concentrated from about 8% to approximately 25-27% dry
matter. In the centri-term evaporator, the liquidfilmon the evaporator surface is
spread out by centrifugation. There are six rotating cones which make up the
evaporation area and these are heated with steam. The cones rotate at aspeedof
approximately600revolutionsperminute,whichdrivestheplasmafrom thecentre
totheedgeoftheconesinapproximately 1second.Thisshortdryingperiodreduces
theamount ofprotein denaturation.
Normally the next step isspray-drying of the concentrated plasma. The basic
principle is that the plasma is atomized into minute particles and is immediately
contacted with aflowof hot air. This technique of spray-drying has the following
advantageswhichreducecontamination: (1)thetemperatureofthebloodplasmais
relatively loweven though the drying air isat amuch higher temperature; (2)the
temperatureoftheplasmadoesnotapproachthetemperatureofthedryingairuntil
a major portion of the water has been removed, thus minimizing protein denatu-
ration;and (3)asevaporation takesplacefrom alargesurface areaandthetimeof
dryingisonlyamatterofafewseconds,thisalsominimizes denaturation.
Generally the concentrated plasma is dispersed into the inlet air stream bya
centrifugal atomizerwitharotatingdrum,whichspinsatapproximately 16000rpm
andhasadiameterof 160mm(6.3in).Thiscausestheliquidplasmatobeatomized
into extremely fine droplets. Heated air is also fed into the top of the chamber
togetherwiththeatomizedplasma.Inletairusuallyhasatemperatureof130-160C
(266-320F)whichfallstoapproximately65-70C(149-158F)attheoutlet.Inletair
temperaturesofupto200C(392F)appearalsotogivesatisfactoryresults.Thevery
large surface area of the atomized plasma when contacted by the hot air stream
causesviolentevaporationtotakeplace.Thisevaporationcausescoolingandkeeps
thetemperatureofthedropletsreducedtoalevelsuchthatexcessivedenaturationis
avoided. Dried particles are 75 fim in sizewhen drying iscompleted and they are
removed from the bottom of the chamber and quickly chilled in order to prevent
deterioration.
Fluidized-bed drying has also been used to dry plasma, with even less lossof
solubilityandothertechnicalproperties.Thistypeofdryingconsistsofsprayingthe
plasmaontoabedofsmallplasticpolycarbonateballsthataresuspendedinastream
ofwarmair.Theplasmacoatstheballwithathinfilmandthisthinlayerofmoisture
quicklyevaporates.Theballsareforced against awirescreen,dislodgingthedried
powderedplasma,whichisthencollected.Thissystemisgenerallymoreeconomical
tooperate than aspray-dryingsystem.
When plasma isdried itnormally hasahighsaltconcentration, whichisusually
duetotheaddedanticoagulant.Thesaltcontentcanbeloweredbyultrafiltrationof
theconcentratedplasmathroughamembranewhichallowssmallmoleculestopass.
Membranes with a cut-off value of approximately 350-500 molecular weight are
usually used. Filtration is normally conducted at a temperature of 50C(122F).
Whenultrafiltration andspray-dryingareusedadriedbloodplasmacanbeproduced
with96.4%protein and2.5%moisture.
The erythrocyte fraction has approximately 35% dry matter and can be dried
withoutconcentration.Generally,separatespraydryersareusedforerythrocyteand
plasma drying due to the difficulty of cleaning of the unit to avoid plasma colour
formation.
GENERALPROPERTIES OFBLOODFRACTIONS INFOOD
It should be noted that blood is composed of cellular and liquid components. If
anticoagulantsareaddedanderythrocytesareremovedbycentrifugation from liquid
blood,thentheremainingliquidiscalledplasmaandcontainsfibrinogen(protein).
Plasmadiffers frombloodserum,whichisobtainedwhenbloodcoagulates,because
theserumdoesnotcontain fibrinogen.
Utilizationof plasma
Bloodplasma,upon heating,forms agel,andifplasmaisboiledfor 15-20minutes
theplasmawillsolidify, similarlytoaneggwhite.Whenplasmaproteins denature,
theproteinsundergopolymerization,probablybyanamine-carboxylicacidconden-
sation, forming agel. Assolidification occurs,the gelwillentrap fat, and water is
released from the protein matrix. Thevolume expands and the strength of the gel
increaseslinearlywithtemperaturesbetween75C(167F)and95C(203F).Thegel
structure develops slowly and it requires approximately 1hour of heating to get a
maximumgelstrengthat90C(194F).Gelstrengthisalsoincreasedwithincreased
salt concentration and with increasing pH. Gel formation is linked with the
denaturation oftheprotein molecule,whichoccursatatemperature between67C
(153F)and73C(163F)andapHbetween5.8and6.8.Asdenaturationoccursand
the peptide chain unfolds, new reactive areas are exposed. Reactions between
hydrophobic areas, the formation of- S- S-bonds and electrostatic interactionsof
chargedgroupsoccuronthesurface.Someresearcherssuggestthat amine-carboxyl
condensation isamajor factor responsible for gelformation, but others think that
electrostaticforces maybethemostimportant factor.
Bloodplasmaproteinssuchasalbumin andglobulinsare alsogood emulsifiers.
Emulsificationoffatinasausageproductbyplasmaanditscapabilitytoretainthefat
during heating of the sausage are extremely useful. Normal variations in salt
concentration and the pH of sausageproducts have little effect on the emulsifying
capacity. When compared to other additives, casein is a better emulsifying agent
thanbloodplasma, butbloodplasmaisbetter thansoyandmeat proteins.
When blood plasma isused inmeat sausageproductsitwilldecrease shrinkage
andincreaseyield(approximately4-5%),andthetextureofthefinishedproductwill
becomemorerigidduetothegellingpropertiesoftheplasma. Ifhigher concentra-
tions are used (usually no more than 2% plasma protein is used) the effect on
sausagesmaybeaslightlyrubberymeatproduct.Inadditiontobeingaddeddirectly
to a meat mixture, blood plasma can also be incorporated into a brine used for
pumpingacuringmixtureintosolidmeatitems.Upto50%ofthewaterinthecuring
mixture can be replaced with a brine containing 4% blood plasma protein (R.
Strange,personal communication).
Useof blood plasma inbakery productshasalsoshownpromise.Bloodplasma
hasgood foaming (equivalent toeggalbumin) and leaveningproperties andspray-
dried plasma hasbeenusedsuccessfully asaneggsubstitute.Thefoamingabilityof
blood plasma can be enhanced if the blood plasma proteins are precipitated by
sodiumhexametaphosphate (NaPO;0
x
atapHof4.4 andresolubilizedatapHof6.5
(R. Strange,personalcommunication). Bloodplasmaattherateof2-6% hasbeen
successfully substituted for bread flour in bread baking and this addition gave a
significantly higherloaf volume.Increased levelsofplasmadarkened thecrustand
madethetexturemoreopenandcoarse,but2%plasmaseemedacceptablefroman
odour and taste standpoint. The addition of plasma also increases the protein
quality.Withaslittleas2%plasmaproteinpowderadded,thebreadwouldcontain
15%moreproteinandapproximately75% morelysinethanwaspresentpriortothe
plasma addition.
Angel-food cakes can also be supplemented with various quantities of blood
plasma and the ratio of 30% plasma and 70% egg white has given an acceptable
flavour(R. Strange,personal communication).
Bloodplasmahasalsobeenspunintoanacceptablemeatanalogue.Thistextured
plasma protein isproduced byadding NaOH totheplasma, adjusting theviscosity
andextrudingthespinningdopeintoacoagulatingbathofacidand/or salt.
Utilizationof haemoglobin
Whenbloodplasmaisseparatedfromtheerythrocytes,themajorportion (60-70%)
oftheprotein content remainsinthehaemoglobin oftheerythrocytefraction. This
haemoglobinfraction givesanundesirabledarkredcolourwhenaddedtomostfoods
inconcentrationsinexcessof1%.Haemoglobinisalsooften consideredaverygood
catalyst for oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids;however, at high concentrations,
haemoglobin appearstohaveaninhibitoryeffect onfatoxidation.Themainuseof
haemoglobin,becauseofitscolour,isconfined toproductsinwhichthedarkcolour
istraditional,suchasblacksausage,blackpudding,bloodbreadsandbloodcookies.
Demandforthistypeofproduct,however,isextremelylimitedandonlyaverysmall
percentage oftheavailable haemoglobin canbeusedbythisroute.
To reduce the dark colour characteristics, it has been known for a numberof
yearsthat haemoglobin can be lightened bybleaching with asolution of hydrogen
peroxide (H
2
O
2
). This procedure startswith haemolysis of the erthrocytes bythe
additionof7volumesofwatertotheerythrocytefraction andbyheatingthissolution
to70C(158F).A3% hydrogenperoxidesolutionisthenadded,whichoxidizesthe
haemoglobin to almost colourless verdomethaemoglobin. After the reaction is
completed,thetemperatureoftheerythrocytefraction isreducedto30C(86F)and
thesurplushydrogen peroxide isremoved withacatalaseenzyme;the de-coloured
protein coagulates into small spheres of approximately 1-2 mm indiameter which
canbecollected byfiltering.Theresultingmaterialisblandintasteandinsolublein
water; therefore, when added to a meat sausage item it behaves as an inert
ingredient,causesthesausagetobecomesofter andchangesthesausagefromapink
toareddish brown oryellowish browncolourifadded inconcentrationsof 10%.If
addedatlevelsof 1-1$% theflavourandtasteofthesausageisonlyslightly affected.
Another alternative tooxidation isan attempt to remove the haem group from
the haemoglobin. Thisisaccomplished byadjusting the pH to2,which causesthe
organic chain to open and release the haem group. If a solution which contains
ketonesoralcoholsinhighconcentrations isadded, the haem groupwillremainin
solutionandtheglobinchainwillprecipitateduetothedenaturationofthemolecule.
Ketones are usually more effective than alcohols for this reaction. If the globin is
precipitated at low temperatures, the globin can be resolubilized in water and is
almostcompletelyfree of haem.
Incontrast tobloodplasma, theglobinfraction doesnotform agelon heating.
However, it swells after heating, has good capacity to bind water, has greater
foamingcapacitythanplasmaandisrelativelystableagainstvariationsinpHandsalt
level. The swelling gives acreamy consistency to the product when a 10% globin
dispersionisheated to80C(176F).Themainfunction ofglobin,ifaddedtomeat
items,isthewater-bindingpropertyrelatedtotheswelling.Globinsalsohavegood
emulsionstabilityatpH5,butalmostnoneatpH7.Globinsalsohavesuperiorfoam-
forming properties.
The removal of the haem group, however, greatly reduces the stability of the
globin protein molecule and consequently the protein is much more sensitive to
denaturingagentsandheat.ThesolubilityoftheglobinisreducedinthepHrangeof
6-9and thisisparticularly important inaweak salt solution, aswould befound in
meat sausage items. A serious problem with acetone(C
3
H
6
O)-isolated globin (the
acetone removes the colour) is an off flavour component adhering to the protein
molecule.Onesuchprocedure for acetone removalofhaem isoutlined inFig.9.2.
Fromanutritional point ofview,the removal orbleachingofthe haem group also
givesalesssatisfactory product. This lowersthe biological values and net protein
utilizationvaluesandthisseemstobemoreseverewiththebleached than with the
haem-removed haemoglobin procedure.
Digestionofhaemoglobinwithproteolyticenzymesisanalternativemethod for
avoidingthedark pigmentation. Onesuchprocedure isoutlined inFigure9.3.The
liberated aminoacidsandlowmolecular-weight peptidesmayhaveseparated from
thehaemgroupandthencanbeincorporatedintomeatitems.Anotherprocedureto
accomplish haemolysis of the erythrocytes is by dilution with water to a protein
concentration of approximately 4% and adjusting the pH to 11with 5N sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) (R. Strange, personal communication). After approximately 2
hoursat20C(68F)theproteinisthensuitableforhydrolysiswhichtakesplaceina
membranereactor.Theenzymereactionisaccomplishedandultrafiltration isusally
conductedwithmembranesthat havecutoff valuesof50000,10000 and7000.
Alkalaseistheenzymenormallyusedforenzymedigestion ofthe haemoglobin
andhydrolysistakesplace at50C(122F)with apH of9.Yieldsof72-73% of the
proteincut-off valueswereusedandtheultrafiltrate contains0.1-0.2% haemin.The
colour of the dry product depend on the acid used to neutralize the albumin
hydrolysate, and the products have afairly high content of ash and are somewhat
bitter.
Another technique for obtaining a light-coloured, bitter, aromatic solution
containing 7% protein via partial enzymic hydrolysis of erythrocytes involves a
haemolysisoferythrocytesbytheadditionof2volumesofwater,adjustingthepHto
3.9-4.0bythe addition of 1Nhydrochloric acid (HC1)and then fermenting for 12
hoursat50C(122F).Theenzymeusedisacidyeastproteinase.After fermentation,
thepHisadjusted to4.9-5andtheproductisseparatedbycentrifugation intoapale
244 Bloodutilization
[Ch.9
WHOLEBLOOD(5C)
Centrifugal
separation
RedCell
Concentrate Plasma
I
Haemolysis
(1:1 dilutionwith water)
Spraydry
Stroma removal Plasma
(1:4chloroform :haemoglobin solution) isolate
Ascorbic acid
addition
(2g/12gofprotein)
Haem removal
(4:1 acetone :haemoglobin solution)
Filtration
Globin Haem- acetone extract
I
Resolubilize Distillation
Spraydry
Acetone Haem- salt mixture
Globin
isolate
Fig.9.2Flowdiagramoftheprocessforpreparingglobinbyremovalofhaem.FromTaybor
e/l.(1975), Dill (1975,1976).
yellowsupernatantwith8%proteinandabrownprecipitatecontaining 12%protein
(R. Strange,personal communication). Theproteininthesupernatant corresponds
to55%oftheproteinintheerythrocytes andisreportedtohaveapleasant taste.
Bitter taste can often be removed from enzyme-hydrolyzed erythrocytes by
treatment with strong acids such ashydrochloric (HC1) andthen treatment with
activatedcarbonorbydeodorizingwithsteam.Thenutritivevalueofthehydrolysed
productswillbeconsiderably reducedasaresultoftryptophan destruction andthe
ashcontent will normallybehigh.
An attempt toreduce thecolour ofhaemoglobin might also involve treatment
with calcium chloride (CaCl
2
), andan ultrasonic treatment in a hydrodynamic
vibratororavalve homogenizer hasalsobeen usedtochangethepropertiesofthe
erythrocyte material.
Attempts to disguise thecolour by reducing itsintensity have been madeby
245 Ch.9]
Bloodutilization
Proteinyield
6.25 x N
100% Cellfraction
-* Water added
Haemolysis
"* Wateraddedand reaction
temperature andpHadjusted
100% Substrate8%
-* Enzymeadded
Hydrolysis
* pHloweringto4.2
Enzyme
inactivation
Centrifugation
+ activatedcarbonadded
Treatment with
70- 80%
activatedcarbon
Filtration
60-70%
Freeze-drying
Fig.9.3Flow-sheet ofaprocessforenzymatichydrolysisofhaemoglobininvolvingtreatment
withactivated carbon toremove haemin. From: R.D.Strange (personal communication).
mixing blood with skim milk andthen precipitating theproteins. This 70-75%
moisture product hasbeen used atthe 15% level insausage products. Another
approachtolighteningthecolouristoemulsify bloodwithfatandthetreatmentof
blood containing fat emulsions with an homogenizer (150-350kg/cm
2
(3133-4978psi))againreducescolourintensity.Thisproducthasbeensatisfactorily
usedatthe10%bloodlevelinsausages.
Blood canbetested with acidified acetone (C
6
H
6
O) whichwill precipitatethe
haemoglobinandproduceawhitepowder.However,thismethodisverytediousand
expensiveandmaynotbesuitableforlarge-scaleproduction.
Inafewcases,thebrightredcolourhasbeenusedasadesirable characteristic
andbloodusedinminuteconcentrationsasacolouradditiveinmeatproducts.This
isparticularlyuseful incountrieswherereddyesarenotpermittedtobeusedasa
pigment. The haemogloblin isoften preserved bythe additionofsugarstogivea
wateractivityvalueintheareaof0.82-0.83. The pigment additive mayhavethe
composition of 45.6% haemoglobin drymatter, 38.7% corn syrup solids,6.8%
dextrose monohydrate,2.5%saltand6.4% propyleneglycol(R. Strange,personal
communication).Thismixturehastobestoredbelow4C(39F)toretard bacterial
growth until it isused. It isnormally used at aconcentration of 5-20g/kg of final
product (0.5-2%).
BLOODSERUMFORLABORATORYUSE
Blood serum (Divakaran, 1982) isfibrin-freeblood plasma that isobtained after
blood coagulation (alsoseeChapter7).Itisusuallyobtained inthesterileform for
laboratoryuse.Itmaybeobtainedbysterilebleedingofanimalsduringslaughteror
from animalsspeciallykeptfor blood production. Ineithercaseitmustbehandled
verycarefully toavoidcontamination. After collection,bloodischilledandclotted;
theclotted blood iscutintocubestoincreasethesurface area andtoacceleratethe
separation of the serum. The serum that collects in thefirst2-3 hours is rejected
because of colour but the subsequent 12-hour collection isclear except for afew
suspended redbloodcells.Itisthencentrifuged (200-250g)for30-40minutes.The
serumisthendeactivatedbyheatingfor30minutesat551C(1312F)andisthen
sterilizedbyfiltering.Thesterilizedserumisthenstoredunderrefrigeration, frozen
orfreeze-dried. Serum isusedinthelaboratory asastandard solutiontoinactivate
proteolytic enzymes, as a medium in virus propagation, in production of virus
vaccinesand inbacteriological media.Forotherserumusesinthemedicalareasee
Chapter 7.
BLOOD ALBUMIN
Blood albumin (calleddriedbloodserumincommerce)ordried bloodplasmamay
be used asasubstitute for dried eggalbumin infood, toprovide aglossto leather
finishes,asalithographiccoatingsolution,asanadhesive,intextiledyeingandasa
stabilizer infeeds.
Bloodiscollectedatslaughterwithouttheadditionoflimeandtheclottedblood
ischilled. Itisplaced inperforated trays(20mesh) andcutwith asharpbladeinto
1-2cm(0.5-1in)cubes.Theserumisallowedtodrainfromthebloodat10C(50F).
Thefirstfraction iscollectedfor2hoursandishighlycoloured,thesecondfractionis
collectedfor 12-14hoursandcontainssuspendedbloodcellsandthethirdfractionis
slightlycoloured. Theserumisallowedtosettlefor8-12hoursandtheclearyellow
serumissiphonedoff. Ifroom-temperature collectionisusedthecollectedserumis
centrifuged at250-300gfor 30-45minutes. A0.5% phenol (C
6
H
6
O,carbolicacid)
solution based on theweight of the serum isadded asapreservative. The yieldof
serum usingthistechniqueisapproximately 10-20%ofthewholeblood.Thedried
bloodplasma isprocesssed byspray-dryingorvacuum-dryinganddrum-dryingtoa
powder. All drying should be conducted at less than 60C (HOT) to prevent
denaturation. Vacuum drying is usually at 25mm of mercury and at 5O-55C
(122-131F) until the volume is reduced to approximately one-fifth and then the
plasma is drum-dried at 60C (HOT). It can also be vacuum-drum dried at 70C
(158F).Bloodalbuminwillyieldapproximately20%oftheweightofbloodplasma
or 1-2% oftheweightofwhole blood.
Bloodalbumincanalsobeproduced from liquidbloodthatcontainsananticoa-
247 Ch.9] Blood utilization
gulant.Thiswillresultina4-5%increaseinyieldbasedontheweightofbloodand,if
preparedcorrectly,willimprove quality. After collectingandaddingthe anticoagu-
lant,thebloodisstored underrefrigeration for 10-12hoursallowingthe suspended
cellstosettle (orthe product iscentrifuged at25O-300g for 30-45 minutes) and the
supernatantliquidplasmaissiphonedoff. Awarmcalciumchloride(CaCl
2
) solution
(20%) is stirred into the plasma to give a 1% concentration. In 3-30 minutes the
plasma will gel and this gel is cut and pressed through a filter cloth to obtain the
serum.Theserumandjelliedplasmaarecentrifuged separately (1000-1500g) for60
minutestoreleasetheserum.Totheserumisadded0.05%phenol (C
6
H
6
O) andthe
productisdried inthe normal manner.
Good quality blood albumin is straw coloured, soluble in warm water and
coagulatesat70C(158F). Itcontains 80%protein, 5%moisture and 15%salts. It
shouldbestored inacool place inair-tight containers.
REDBLOODCELL PASTE
Red blood cell paste or corpuscle paste or plasma-free red blood cells are the raw
materialfor manufacture of haemin oramino acids (Divakaran, 1982).
Collectedbloodwithanticoagulantsiscentrifuged at250gfor45minutesandthe
supernatant plasma issiphoned off. The sedimented blood cells are diluted to four
timestheirvolumewith1%sodiumchloride(NaCl)andrecentrifuged. Thiswashing
process isrepeated several times to remove the plasma. The packed cells are then
vacuum evaporated (25-30C, 77-86F) to two-thirds of their original volume to
produceredblood cell paste.
Another process dilutes (3 to 4 volumes) the blood containing anticoagulants
withasolutionof1%sodiumchloride(NaCl)and5%glucose(C
6
H
12
O
6
).Itiscooled
andthe redblood cells form asediment. The plasma isremoved andthe process is
repeated.Finallythesediment iscentrifuged (250g)for45minutesandthenvacuum
evaporated25-30C (77-86F) totwo-thirdsof itsoriginal volume.
Red blood cell paste can also be obtained from red cells after separation of
plasmaforproduction of blood albumin.
Theredbloodcellspasteisnextsterilizedbyinspissation,whichinvolvesheating
at 58-60C (136-140F) (this kills vegetative cells) for 30 minutes followed by
overnight incubation at 37C (99F; encourages germination of spores whose
vegetativecellsaresubsequentlykilledby58-60Cheating)andthenreheating. This
processisrepeated until the paste isnegative forbacterial growth.
Theproductisvacuum-dried(10%moisture)attemperaturesnotexceeding60C
(140F).Theyield is25-30% byweight of whole blood.
The red blood cell paste is the raw material for isolation of leucine, lysine,
histidine,phenylalanine, haemin and sphingomyelin.
SPRAY-DRIED BLOOD
Spray-dried blood, also called dark blood albumin or blood powder is a water-
soluble dark reddish brown powder containing 5-8% moisture and 10-15% ash
(Divakaran, 1982). Itmaybemadefrombloodcontainingananticoagulant, butthis
lowers the adhesive properties of the final product, defibrinated (removal of
insolubleprotein formed duringclottingofblood)blood makesasuperior product.
Spray-dryingisacomplishedwithaninlettemperatureof200-250C(392-482F)and
anoutlet temperature oflessthan70C(158F).
Soluble blood powder is manufactured by drying (8-10% moisture) at low
temperature. Liquid bloodismixedwith0.05%phenol(C
6
H
6
O),placedinshallow
pans(maximumdepthof1cm(0.4in)andforced-airdriedat55-60C(131-140F)or
vacuum-dried at temperatures up to 70C (158F) after blood has lost 60% of its
moisture.
Theseproductscanbeusedasadhesives,forclarificationofliquids,forstabilizers
inasphalt emulsionsand inceramics.
BLOODMEAL
Blood meal is a dark brown, dry (5-8% moisture) granular product produced by
drying whole blood or the heavy component removed during recovery of blood
plasmaorserum.Theyieldofbloodmealfrom wholebloodisapproximately20%.
Often blood isrun through adecanter to separate the coagulated blood intopre-
dewatered blood meal and blood water which isreleased during coagulation. The
bloodmealisthencookedinadoubleboiler(orjacket)orbydirectsteam injection
withstirringtoavoidclumping.Itcanalsobecookedinavatoveranopenflamewith
constant stirring. Lime (70% calcium oxide, CaO) is sometimes added at the
0.5-1.5% level to increase storage life and to decrease the odour released during
drying.Blood mixedwithlimehasarubberyconsistency andcanbestored at20C
(68F) for 24 hours without spoilage. It contains 15-20% solids and is80-85%
moisture. The dark brown cooked product (crumbly consistency) is pressed to
remove moisture and sun-dried orbaked (withorwithoutforced aircirculation)at
60C(140F) to the desired moisture level.The dry-rendering process can alsobe
used to dry the product. The dried product isthen ground and used asfeed (80%
protein) or fertilizer (12% nitrogen, 0.22% phosphorus and trace elements). Itis
usuallymixedwithsuperphosphatestomakeacompounded fertilizer. Ifcalciumis
used in the production, thiswillalsohelp to control the pH of acidicsoils.Spray-
driedbloodcanalsobeusedasanadhesive,inasphaltemulsions,ininsecticides,in
ceramicsandasasubstituteforeggalbuminwhencolourisnotimportant.Thedried
productisoftenheatedto100C(212F)for30minutes,cooledandstoredinair-tight
containerstoincreasestorage life.
Newertechniquestosavetheenergyrequiredfor evaporation useadewatering
technique prior to drying the blood (Alfa-Laval, undated; Westfalia Separator,
undated). The strained blood ispreheated (55-58C (131-136F) in astorage tank
andpumpedtoacoagulator (withlivesteam)wherecompletecoagulationofblood
proteins occurs. The coagulated blood is then fed to a conocylindrical rotor
containing an axial screw conveyor. This decanter centrifuge removes75%of the
water.Thefinecrumbdewateredbloodproteinthengoestoacookerdryerfor final
drying(seeFig.9.4).
The drying isoften carried out in a rotating drum cooker heated by steam at
5.62kg/cm
2
(80psi)orinadryercontainingparalleldiscsmountedonacentral shaft
andscraper barsplaced betweenthediscs.
Aspreviouslysuggested,hightemperaturesand/orextendedperiodsoftimeused
249 Ch.9] Blood utilization
Whole blood 1000kg
20c
17%drysolids
83%moisture
Direct steam
150kg
Coagulator
11150kg
coagulated blood
Bloodwater
799kg Decanter
1.5%drysolids
Pre-dewatered
351 kg
blood meal
55%mositure
45%drysolids
Condensate
180kg Dryer
Indirect steam,243kg
Condensate
243kg
Waste Tosteam generator
water
979kg
Blood meal Fromsteam
171 kg generator
8%moisture 393kg
Water
150 kg
Fig.9.4Blood-meal productionusingmechanicalpre-dewatering. From:WestfaliaSepara-
tor(undated).
indryinglowerthenutritionalvalueofbloodmeals.Ringdryinghasbeen reported
(Waibel,1974)toreducethisdestructionandacomparisonofringandvatdryingcan
befound inTable9.5.FordescriptionsonringandvatdriersseeChapter3.
Reductioninproteinlossdryinghasbeenreportedbyfluidizedbeddrying(dried
bloodgranulessuspendedinahotairstream).Liquidbloodisatomizedintotheside
of the bed.Amodification ofthis method ofdrying istohomogenize theblood,
concentrateitto25-30%solidsbyultra-filtration andthendryitinaslattedbeddrier
containingpolypropylenebeadsprovidingalargesurfaceareafordrying.Thebeads
arecoatedwithatomizedbloodandarekeptinmotionwithhigh-velocityhotair.As
the blood coat onthesurface flakes offitiscarried away bytheairstream anda
cycloneisusedtoseparateandcollectthedriedblood.Blooddriedbythismethodis
approximately 90%solubleinwater.
Table9.5 Comparison of blood meal dried inaringorvatdryer
Vat Ring
Protein (%) 82.1 89.6
Lysine (%) 7.0 8.5
Available lysine
Chemically (% of total) 80.4 86.5
Biologically (% of total) 49.0 83.0
Source:Waibel (1974).
Bloodmealmadewithaddedlime (CaO)storeswell,butthatprocessedwithout
lime cannot be stored for more than one month. Blood meal isused incalf starter
rations,swineandpoultryfeeds.Itislessdigestiblethanmeatmeal.SeeTable9.6for
compositional information.
FEEDING OFWHOLE BLOOD
Stabilization of whole blood bychemical preservation ispossible and describedby
Akers (1973). Use of 1% urea (CH
4
N
2
O), 0.5% ammonia (NH
3
) or most
effectively 1% metabisulphite (Na
2
S2O
5
) as a preservative has proven useful.
Also blood without an anticoagulant can be stirred to keep it liquid, 1% sodium
metabisulphiteaddedandthenmixedwitha20%solutionofhydrochloricacid(HC1)
to obtain apH of 3.20.3 which will stabilize it. The preserved blood canbe held
without refrigeration and can be fed at the rate of 0.3 kg (0.07lb)/pig/day. This
technique hasnot been usedfor humanfood, butcertainly should be investigated.
Liquidbloodcanalsobeprocessedintoadryproductbyboilingfor5-10minutes
(with orwithout the addition of lime), mixing the blood with dry rice bran, wheat
bran, finely chopped straw or dried stomach contents. The product is-then air-or
oven-dried andused asastock feed supplement.
PICKLEDORACIDIFIED BLOOD
Bloodmaybepreservedbypicklingwith3%commercialsulphuricacid(H
2
SO
4
)and
this prevents the rapid onset of putrefactive changes. The pickled product maybe
usedinterrestrial oraquaticanimaldiets (Divakaran andSawa, 1986).The pickled
blood may also be sun-dried to produce blood meal that has a high lysine value
(Divakaran, 1987).
CO-PROCESSING OFBLOODANDPAUNCH MANURE
Since blood is high in protein, particularly lysine, and paunch manure is rich in
vitamins, contains some minerals and provides fibre, it would appear that the
mixturefrom ruminantsmightmakeawell-balanced animalfeed andalsosolvetwo
disposalproblems.Thedriedproductwillcontain40%trueprotein,5%fatand12%
Table9.6Bloodmeal composition
Moisture 8-12%
Protein 75-83%
Arginine 3.6%
Glutamicacid 4.5%
Histidine 5.0%
Lysine 6.3%
Leucine 14.1%
Isoleucine 0.3-0.9%
Methionine 1.2%
Cystine 1.5%
Phenylalanine 5.9%
Threonine 3.8%
Tryptophan 1.1%
Tyrosine 2.3-2.8%
Valine 8.2%
Glycine 4.2%
Fat 1.2-1.6%
Crude fibre 0.8%
Ash 3.&-5.6%
a
Calcium 0.3-0.4%
Iron 0.4%
Magnesium 0.2%
Phosphorus 0.2%
Sulphur 0.4%
Manganese 5.3%
Copper 9.9mg/kg
Sugar 0.4%
N-free Extract 2.6%
Vitamins
Niacin 31.5mg/kg
Pantothenicacid 1.1mg/kg
Riboflavin 1.5mg/kg
0
Higherifprocessed with lime.
Sources:Divakaran etal. (1978),Divakaran (1982).
moisture(Walker, 1979).Thisco-driedbloodandpaunchmanurehasbeen satisfac-
torily fed to chickens and pigsasapartial replacement for meat meal and/or soya
meal.
BLOODCHAR
Bloodcharorbloodcharcoalisthecarboncomponentsofwholebloodorbloodmeal
produced bytreating20%oftheweightofwholeblood or50%ofweightof blood
mealwithactivatingagents(e.g.zincchloride(ZnCl
2
),potassiumsulphide(K
2
SO
3
),
potassium thiocyanate (KCNS),phosphoricacid(H
3
PO
4
),sulphuricacid(H
2
SO
4
),
hydroxides and carbonates of alkali metals,magnesium chloride (MgCl
2
),calcium
chloride (CaCl
2
), steam (H
2
O), carbon dioxide (CO
2
), potassium carbonate
(K
2
CO
3
) or sodium carbonate (Na
2
CO
3
)) and heating in air-tight containers to
650-750C(1202-1382F)inanovenfor6-8hours.Bloodcharcontains80% carbon
and is used for the absorption of gases, as an industrial decolourant and as an
antidotefor chemicalpoisoning.
Fivemetrictonnes (11023lb)ofwholebloodor 1tonne (2205lb)ofbloodmeal
willyield300-400kg(661-882pounds)ofbloodcharcoalwhichcontains80% carbon
(Divakaran, 1982).Fig.9.5illustratesaflowchartforchar production.
BLOOD FOAM COMPOUNDS
Foamcompoundsareusedinfirefightingandtheyfunction byprotectingthesurface
from heat,retardingtheformation ofvapours,coolingthewaterinwhichthefoamis
carried and limitingthesupplyofoxygentothefire.Theyareparticularlyusefulin
extinguishing fires of flammable liquids, such as hydrocarbons like gasoline, oils,
paints,fats and naphtha (lowboilingfractions ofpetroleum).
Blood foam compounds may be made (Divakaran, 1982) from animal blood,
dried blood and blood meal by soaking the coagulated blood with 20g sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)/l (2% of blood) of blood (10% alkali on dry weight of blood
basis). It is then heated with stirring in a steam-jacketed kettle at 9O-95C
(194-203F)for4-5hours.Thishydrolysesthebloodtotheproteinasesandpeptones
stage.The mixtureisthen neutralized toapHof6.8withhydrochloricacid(HC1).
Thehydrolysed-neutralized bloodisthenconcentratedtoaspecificgravityof1.2by
heating at 6O-70C (140-158F) and then 2.5% (w/v) ferrous sulphate (FeSO
4
) is
addedasastabilizerand0.2-0.5(v/v)cresol(C
7
H
8
O)isaddedasapreservative.The
foam compound can then be stored in the liquid form or spray-dried. Foam (four
times itsvolume) isgenerated by mixing the foam compounds with water and air
under pressure.
NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS
BloodisagoodsourceofmostaminoacidsandthevaluesinTable9.7areoftenused
for wholebeef blood.
Whenthesevaluesarecomparedwithhumanrequirements,bloodisdeficientin
isoleucine and low in methionine and it should be mixed with proteins whichcan
supplement these amino acids. Caseinate would be a good choice since this
combination willhaveahighchemicalscore.
Blood isparticularly richinhaem iron, which isbiologically the most available
form of iron.
PER (protein efficiency ratio)valuesofplasma,basedonacaseinvaluesof2.5,
havebeenreported(Young et al., 1973)as2.8andPERvaluesforglobinas-1. 0.If
globin issupplemented with 1.2%, DL-isoleucine the PER can be increased to2.9
Haemoglobin isusuallyestimated as150mg/g(15%)of blood.
253
Ch.9]
Bloodutilization
Mixing
bloodand
activating
agent
Kneader
Extruder
Pre-drier
100-120C
Calcination
650- 750C
vapours
Water
scrubber
Pre-washer
Acid
scrubber
Activ
ating
aae
snts
Washer
Scrubber
Wet grinding
Washby
centrifuge
Steamor carbon
dioxide
activation
Drier
Packaging
Fig.9.5Bloodcharprocessing. FromDivakaran (1982).
254 Bloodutilization
[Ch.9
Table9.7Aminoacidcontentsofbeef blood
Wholebeef Beef plasma Beef globin
blood (percentageof (percentageof
(percentageof total protein) total protein)
total protein)
Isoleucine 0.4-0.9 1.0-3.4 0.2-0.3
Leucine 12.4-13.6 9.2-10.1 13.2-13.8
Lysine 9.2-9.7 6.5-9.2 9.8-10.5
Methionine 1.3-1.8 0.6-1.3 1.5-1.7
Phenylalanine 7.0-8.0 5.1-5.7 7.6-8.0
Threonine 4.7-5.2 2.6-7.1 3.8^.1
Tryptophan 1.4 0.6-1.9 1.3-2.0
Valine 8.0-9.1 6.8^-7.4 9.4-9.6
Histidine 5.6 3.0-3.5 6.6-7.8
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USDA (undated) Animal blood protein as a food ingredient. Memorandum of
Screening and SurveillanceVolIII,No 1,pp.5-7.
Waibel, P. E. (1974) Processing and nutritional value of blood meals. Meat
Processing13(5),pp.102-103.
Walker, D. J. (1979) By-products processing. Australian Meat Industry Bulletin,
Nov.,pp.58-60.
Westfalia, Separator (undated) Separators, decanters and plants for processing
animal blood.Postfach, Oelde,West Germany.
Wismer-Pederson, J. (1979) Utilization of animal blood in meat products. Food
Technology3376-80.
Young,C. R., Lewis,R. W., Landmann, W. A. and Dill, C. W. (1973) Nutritive
valueofglobinandplasmaproteinfraction frombovineblood. Nutr. Rep. Intl.8
211.
10
Petorexoticanimalfood
Inthe United States, the petpopulation isincreasing atamuchfaster ratethanthe
human population andthe5738billiondollar(1987) petfood industryisattempting
to furnish a ration that is palatable and nutritionally balanced. The U.S. pet
population in 1986 was 51.6 million dogs (38.7% of homes) and 56.3 million cats
(29.4%ofhomes)whichconsumedapproximately9278000poundsoffoodperyear
(PetFood Institute, 1987).Thissamereportstatesthatthereare 146brandsand936
itemsinthe drydog-food category. Red meat plushorse, poultry,fishflesh,organs
andby-products areusedextensively inthe manufacture ofpetfood, includingthat
consumed by fur-bearing animals, especially mink. Such items as liver, intestines,
kidney, udders, spleen, lung, meat meal, horse meat, condemned meat andcereal
products are used in great quantities. Blood meal and meat meal are also used
extensively incommercialfish-farmingoperations.
The more progressive and quality-conscious pet food manufacturers are using
undenaturedrefrigerated orfrozen meatandmeatby-productitemsto manufacture
theirpetfood. As manyas100different itemsmaymakeupthisrawingredientlist.
The frozen items would have an extended shelf life. The refrigerated items, often
arriving in a ground state in an insulated rail tank car or truck, are normally
manufactured intopet food within 3days.
Itisgenerally believed thatcatsprefer adiet basedonfish(whole trashfishand
fish waste) and that dogs like a meat-based diet, but there are many exceptions
(Europeancatpetfoodismeatbased)tothisrule.Inadditiontothemeatbase,many
petfood itemsaddcerealgrains(e.g.soybeanmealandcornmeal)toreducetheraw
material cost andto improve consistency orbody tothe product (seeTable 10.1).
QUANTITYOFPETFOODREQUIRED
The amount of pet food apet will consume depends upon itssize, activity, general
body metabolism andthe environment. During normal maintenance metabolism,a
medium-size dog requires9.4-14.2 g(-ioz) ofdryfood or28.4-42.5 g( 1- 1|oz)of
canned food per 0.45 kg (1lb) of body weight per day. The average cat requires
70.9-99.2g(2.5-3.5 oz)ofdryfoodor84g(3oz)ofsemi-moistfoodor184g(6.5oz)
of canned food perday.
257 Ch. 10]
Petorexoticanimal food
Table10.1Typesofpet food
Pet foods
Dry Semimoist Canned
General
Cost low mod-high high
Payability low mod-high high
Moisturecontent low mod-high high
(12%max) (20-55%) (74-78%)
Protein (min.%) 16 17 11
Fat(min.%) 6 5 5
Fibre(max.%) 5 2 1
Ash(% typical) 7.5 6.5 3
NFEorcarbohydrate
(%typical) 51.5 36.5 3
Canbecompleteandbalanced yes yes yes
PercentageofU.S. Market (1981)
indrymatterequivalent 88 3 9
PercentageofJapaneseMarket (1986)
indrymatterequivalent 85 5 10
Percentage(81%)ofU.S. Market
(1983)fordogsindry
matterequivalent 87 5 8
Percentage(18%)ofU.S. Market
(1983)forcatsindry
matterequivalent 68 10 22
As is basis
0
Dog Cat Dog Cat Dog Cat
Production (1987)in
U.S. (lb) 4552000 1059000 249000 180000 1698000 1276000
Protein (%) 21 31 21 25 12 14
Fat (%) 10 11 9 8 9 8
Carbohydrate (%) 48 38 30 28 1 1
Moisture (%)
DigestiveKcal/lb food
6
8
1650
8
1700
30
1300
30
1300
75
600
75
600
Estimatefood consumption
for50-lbdog, 10-lbcat(lb)
6
1.06 0.18 1.35 0.23 2.92 0.5
Dry-matter basis
Protein (%) 22.8 33.7 30 35.7 48.0 56
Fat(%) 10.9 12.0 12.9 17.1 36.0 20
Carbohydrate (%) 52.1 41.3 42.9 40.0 4 4
Moisture (%)
DigestibleKcal/lb food
6
0
1805
0
1852
0
1851
0
2073
0
2415
0
1907
a
AlsoseeTable 10.5.
6
l l b =454g.
RalstonPurina(1981),PetFood Institute (1983,1987), KyodoShiryoCo. (personal communication).
PROCESSING OFPET FOOD
Theprinciplesforproducingcannedpetfoodsareessentiallythesameasproducing
humancannedfoodexceptthestartingrawmaterialsmaybedifferent (itemsmaybe
usedthatarenotdeclaredfitbytheinspection agencyfrom anaesthetic standpoint
for 'human consumption') but in both cases the ingredients should be fresh and
258 Petorexoticanimalfood [Ch.10
wholesome. The canning plants should be constructed of approved materials and
should bekeptclean atalltimes.
The general canning procedure includes coarse grinding of the flesh or by-
products, pre-cooking in a continuous cooker with live steam, regrinding to a
uniform consistency (or canned inchunk form), and mixingwithother ingredients
such as cereal grains, vitamins and/or minerals to produce a balanced or food-
supplementdiet.Thetotalingredientsarethenmixedinablenderandarefilledinto
canswhilethemixtureiscoldorhot.Thecansarevacuumsealedandtransferredtoa
retortforsterilizing.Theretortmaybeabatchtypeoracontinuoushydrostatictype.
Temperature andtimeofcookingwilldependuponsteampressure,sizeofcan,can
contentsandrateofcanmovement.Thecansarenextrapidlycooledtoapproxima-
tely38C(100F)andcandryingtakesplace.Thecansarenextlabelledandcasedin
corrugated cardboard boxesorshrink-wrapped (plasticwrap)incorrugatedtrays.
Dehydratedpetfood isusuallyproducedbyblendinganimal-typemealproducts
with cereal grains,vitamins and minerals. The dry mixissoftened withsteam and
extruded intopellet shape.Duetoitslowmoisturecontent, itisshelf stable.
Mink can alsobe fed freshfishoffal and in some areas asmuch as70% of the
mink'sdietisfish.Processingfishforminkfoodrequiresfreshfishwastethatislowin
fat (less than 8%) and not of aspeciesthat hashigh levels (allfishhave some)of
thiaminase (anenzymethatdestroysthiamin).Somefish-basedfoods needtohave
vitamin Bi added. Ifwholefishare used, they arefirstwashed, then used fresh or
comminuted, placed inpaper bags,frozen to -40C (40F)and stored at -23 to
-18C(-10toOF).
Fish entrails,fishoffal, whole fish, poultry or mammal soft tissue can alsobe
treated withureafor solubilizingandpreservingthematerialatroom temperature.
Thissolubilized materialcanbereadilymixedwithotheringredientsusedinanimal
feed. The mixturecan alsobeevaporated at60C(140F)toconcentrate itto65%
solids(stillfluidconsistency).Duetothelowtemperatureofprocessing,thematerial
retainsmuchofitsorginalnutritivevalue.Ifadditionaldryingisdesired,theureais
firstfermented byyeast.
SUBDIVISIONOFPETFOODSINTOCATEGORIES
Pet food manufacturers (Horn, 1975)categorize pet food intocanned (subdivided
into ultra-gourmet, gourmet and maintenance), non-canned (dry, semi-moist and
soft-dry), andpetsnackcategories.Thesedivisionsmaybedescribed asfollows:
Cannedpetfood
There are three general categories of canned pet food and they are the ultra-
gourmet, gourmet and maintenance. The ultra-gourmet usually consists almost
entirelyofmeat,tuna,fish,ormanufactured meat,alongwiththenecessaryvitamins
andminerals.Thegourmet categoryinvolvesawiderangeofformsandtheground
styleiscomposed ofground meat and/orfishcombinedwithgums,flours,vitamins
and minerals. Some ground styles have manufactured meats or extruded meats
addedtogivetheproduct achunkymeat appearanceatalowermanufacturing cost
thantheall-meatcategory.Anotherstyleofgourmetcannedpetfoodinvolvesusing
an extruded or formed meat shape mixed with a gravy. These forms can include
259 Ch. 10] Petorexoticanimalfood
meatballs,dicesorslices.Moderntechnologyhasallowedtexturedshapesthathave
a striking resemblance in texture to real meat. Other gourmet varieties add
vegetables, manufactured cheese pieces, or manufactured egg pieces to the meat
component.Thethirdstyleisamaintenanceformula. Theseformulas replacemeat
withgrainssuch asground corn, soybean meal, or barley. Enough meat orfishis
addedtoallowaflavourclaimtobemade.Somecompaniesaddtexturedsoyprotein
chunkstogiveachunkier appearance.
Non-canned pet food
Thisareaofmanufactured petfoodhasrecentlyundergoneseveralevolutions,which
haveyielded a wide variety of shapes and sizes of dry and semi-moist pet foods.
Recentdevelopmentshavealsoyielded acombination ofdryandsemi-moist foods
resultinginasoft-dry category. The traditional drypet food comesinavarietyof
shapes. Extruded dry pellets and shapes are the most popular. Production and
demandforthebiscuit,mealandkibblecategoriesisrapidlydecreasing.Thesemi-
moistcategory has recently seen avariety of imaginative shapes and styles. Semi-
moistextrudersarecapableofproducingburgerstrands,pellets,ormarbled meat-
appearance pieces.The mixingof the dry and semi-moist categories has produced
thenewlymarketed soft-dry category.Thedryandsemi-moist piecesarespecially
formulated so that the difference in moistures stabilizes and equilbrates. This is
necessarysothatthelowermoisturecomponentdoesnotdrawthemoisturefrom the
highermoisture component.
Petsnacks
Thisareaofpetfood issmall(2.9%byweight)butrapidlygrowing,bothinthedog
andcatspecialties.Manydifferent varietieshaveevolvedfromthebasicdogbiscuit.
Premiumdogbiscuits,jerkysnacksandsausage-shaped piecesareonlyafewofthe
manyvarietiesinthisrapidlydevelopingsegmentofthepetfood industry.
TYPESOFPET FOOD
Frequentlypetfoods aredividedintotypesofdry,semimoist (InEurope:interme-
diatemoisture)andcannedandtheircorporationandmarketsharesmaybefoundin
Table 10.1. Thesethreetypesmaybedescribed asfollows:
Dry type
Dry pet food makes up approximately four-fifths of the pet food market and has
becomemuchmorepopularwiththeadventoftechnologywhichmakesitpossibleto
gelatinize and expand this product with extrusion. This produces an exploded
product that islight,popped andverypalatable. Examplesofdrypet food maybe
foundinTables10.2and 10.3.Drytypesofpetfood arelow(10-12%)inmoisture,
contain from 5 to 12.5% fat, 20-35% protein, 35-50% carbohydrates (NFE,
nitrogen-free extract), 2.9-4 digestible kcal/g (1300-1800kcal/lb) and normally
containanimalby-products(e.g.meatmeal,meatandbonemeal,meatby-products,
andpoultry by-products),fats andoils(e.g.animalfats), milkproducts (e.g. dried
skimmedmilkanddriedwhey),wholeordehulledcerealgrains,cerealby-products,
soybean products and mineral and vitamin supplements. The product is usually
Table10.2Examplesoffour formulations for adrydog-food diet
Liver meal
Meat and bone soup
Meat and bone meal,50%
Animal fat
Dried skim milk
Corn, kibbled
Corn, ground
Distiller's dried solubles
Oats, rolled
Wheat, flakes
Soybean meal,49%
Soybean meal,44%
Dehydrated alfalfa meal, 17%
Wheat germ meal
Dried brewer's yeast
Dicalcium phosphate
Salt
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin D
3
Vitamin E
Thiamin mononitrate
Niacin
Riboflavin
Calcium pantothenate
Choline chloride
Vitamin B,
2
FeSO4.H
2
O
MgO
Ca(IO
3
)
2
.6H
2
O
CuSO
4
ZnO
Na
2
SeO
3
.5H
2
O
MnO,
From: Perry (1984),Corbin (1984).
Diet 1 Diet2
1.0
15.0

2.5 6.0
5.0
25.0 30.0

7.0
20.0
25.0 28.0
20.0

2.0
5.0
1.0 2.5
1.0 3.0
0.5 0.5
5 million
1.5 million IU/ton
3g/ton
3g/ton
10g/ton
10mg/ton
Diet 3 Diet4

10.0 10.0
10.0 9.3
47.8 43.7
10.0

26.9 21.7

4.0 4.0
0.9 0.9
IU/ton 70,000IU/kg
770IU/kg
45IU/kg
400mg/kg
11mg/kg
2mg/kg
9mg/kg
500mg/kg
0.022mg/kg
200mg/kg
500mg/kg
4.5mg/kg
30mg/kg
125mg/kg
0.35mg/kg
15mg/kg
heated sufficiently to partially dextrinize (convert into dextrin) the starch. It is
manufactured in the form of meals, pellets, biscuits, kibbles (broken biscuits) or
extruded(expanded)products.Itmaybefedeitherdryormoistenedbytheaddition
ofwater atfeeding time.
Marbled dry pet food
Marbled dry pet food may be produced by blending ingredients, processing and
cookingportionsinanunevenmannerandthenmixingtheunevenprocessedportion
inamannersothatdiscreteboundariesseparatingtheportionsarediscernible(Bone
andShannon, 1975).Othertechniquesrequiremakingtwodoughs,colouringthem
(e.g. red andwhite)and extruding thesetwodoughstogether (Boneand Shannon,
1977).Asoft,drypetfoodcontainingapolysaccharideinwhichwhiteandreddough
are mixed to give a marbling effect has also been developed (Bone, 1977). This
product,whendriedto 15%moisture,stillhasthetextureandappearanceofmeat.
261 Ch. 10]
Table10.3Percentageoftimeaningredientislocatedonaningredient list found
inrandom samplingofpetfood labels
Canned Semimoist Dry
Dog Cat Dog Cat Dog Cat
Number of labels examined 12 11 10 10 10 10
Percentage found
Animalfat 8.3 9.1 50.0 80.0 100.0 100.0
Animalliverandglandular
meal 10.0 20.0
Bacon 16.7
Baconfat 10.0
Barley 8.3
Beef 41.7 36.4 80.0 30.0 20.0
Beefandbone meal 40.0
Beef by-products
Beef digest
25.0
70.0 10.0
30.0
Beefmeal 10.0
Bonemarrow
Bonemeal
8.3
10.0
Brewer'sdriedyeast 90.0 20.0 60.0
Cattish 9.1
Cheese
10.0
Chicken
25.0
36.4 30.0 70.0 20.0
Chickenby-products 10.0
Chickenby-productsmeal 40.0
Chickenliver 9.1
Chickenskin 30.0
Colour
16.7
45.0 70.0 90.0 70.0 70.0
Condensed fish solubles 10.0 20.0
Cornflour 40.0 10.0
Corngermmeal 20.0
Cornglutenmeal 30.0 100.0 50.0 90.0
Cornstarch 10.0
Cornsyrup 100.0
Crackedbarley 8.3
Digestofpoultryby-products
30.0 30.0
Driedcheese powder 10.0
10.0 20.0
Driedcheese solids 30.0
Driedliverdigest 10.0 10.0
Driedmilkpowder 10.0
Driedpotatoproducts
8.3
Driedskimmilk
10.0 50.0
Driedtomato pomace
10.0
Driedwhey
40.0 90.0 20.0 70.0
Driedwholeeggs
18.2 20.0
Driedyeast
10.0 40.0
Egg
10.0
Fish
8.3 27.3 30.0
Fishandfish by-products 20.0
Fishandsalmon flavours 9.1
Fishmeal 50.0
Foodstarch modified 25.0
Giblets 9.1
Groundcorn 100.0
262 Petorexoticanimal food [Ch. 10
Table 10. 3-- continued
Groundglutenmeal 10.0
Groundwheat 40.0 90.0
Groundyellowcorn 90.0 90.0
Guargum 8.3
Herringmeal 10.0
Highfructose cornsyrup 60.0
Hydrolisedvegetable protein 10.0
Liver 16.7 63.6 10.0 20.0 20.0
Liverdigest 45.5
Mackerel 9.1 20.0
Meat andbone meal 8.3 70.0 40.0
Meat by-products 25.0 72.7 10.0 10.0
Meat meal 8.3
Mineral supplement 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Poultry by-products 8.3 27.3 10.0
Poultryby-product meal 9.1 100.0 30.0 60.0
Poultryparts 8.3
Processedgrainby-products 8.3
Rice hulls 20.0
Ricemill by-products 20.0
Salmon 20.0
Salmonmeal 10.0
Sardine 9.1
Shrimpmeal 10.0
Sodium caseinate 10.0
Soybeangrits 8.3 70.0 10.0
Soybeanhull 10.0
Soybean meal 25.0 40.0 90.0 80.0 100.0
Soybean mill feed 10.0
Soybeanoil 16.7
Soy flour 8.3 90.0
Soyprotein concentrate 10.0
Texturedvegetable protein 8.3
Tuna 18.2
Tunameal 10.0 50.0
Turkey 8.3 9.1 20.0
Turkeymeal 10.0
Veal 9.1
Vegetablegum 81.8 10.0
Vegetable oil 16.7 18.2 40.0 10.0
Vitamin supplement 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Water 58.3 36.4 30.0 100.0
Watersufficient forprocessing 33.3 63.6 50.0
Wheatbran 8.3
Wheatfeedflour 30.0
Wheat flour 16.7 27.3 20.0 100.0 20.0
Wheatgermmeal 80.0 20.0 60.0
Wheat mealrun 27.3 10.0
Wheat middling 8.3 20.0
Wheatstarch 10.0
White fish 9.1
Whole eggs 36.4
Whole wheat 10.0
Xanthangum 8.3
Yeastculture 10.0
Source:KyodoShiryoCo(1986,personalcommunication), PetFoodLabels, 1987.
263 Ch. 10] Petorexoticanimal food
Dry bone substitutes
Bone substitutes may be manufactured by making a slurry of animal by-products
(e.g.bones,skins,lungs,livers,hearts,kidneys,headsandfeet),addingabinderand
thendehydratingtheslurry.Itcanbeformed andthendehydratedintoahardbone-
likesubstitute in avariety of shapes or powdered for soft foods (Cagle, 1975). In
some cases, a cross-section of a hollow bone is produced and a filling is added
resemblingbone marrow.
Dry pet food with a meat-like texture
Toproduce a meat like texture and appearance, pet food can be made by mixing
substantial amounts of amylaceous ingredients (e.g.starch or starch-like material)
withconventional dryfood ingredients,withspecificproteinaceous adhesives (e.g.
collagen,albumensandcasein),andwithplasticizingagents(Balaz et al.,1976).The
product isthen extruded.
Dry high-fat pet food
Adryexpandedpetfoodcanbeproducedwithhighlevelsoffat (25-30%)thatdoes
nothave anexternal greasysurface (McCulloch and Nelson, 1977).Thisisaccom-
plishedbyahomogenization stepinthemanufacturing process.
Soft-crumb dry pet food mixture
A soft-crumb dry product isproduced by mixing farinaceous ingredients (high in
starchorgrain)withflavouringredients(e.g.fishormeatscrap),hydrolysedprotein,
fibrous ingredients and plasticizing agents (Miller and Hansen, 1975).Fat and fat-
transport material is then added and thoroughly mixed before the product is
extruded.
Mixture of hard and soft dry foods
Soft dry foods are more palatable, but hard foods have desired teeth-cleaning
properties. A mixture of the twohasbeen developed (Bone and Shannon, 1977b)
andconsistofhardsubstantiallyamylaceousparticlesintermixedwithsoft, meat-like
non-amylaceousparticles.
Semimoistpet food
Semimoist pet food is manufactured to have the appearance of meat or meat
products,ismoderate (25-50%) inmoisture,contains 16-25%protein, 3-10% fat,
25-35% carbohydrates and high-quality dietscontain 2180digestible kcal/kg (1300
kcal/lb).The semimoist foods are protected against spoilage without refrigeration
withsucrose (C12H22O11),propylene glycol (C
8
H
8
O
2
) and sorbates. Other bacter-
iostats for semimoist pet food include potassium sorbate (C
6
H
7
KO
2
), calcium
sorbate(Ci
2
H
14
CaO
4
),sorbicacid(C
6
H
8
O
2
)and3-9%polyhydriccompounds(e.g.
propylene glycol (C
3
H
8
O
2
), 1,3-butanediol (C
4
H
10
O
2
) with 3% acid (acetic,
C2H4O2). A carbon dioxide (CO
2
) packaging atmosphere has been found to be
helpful in controlling microbial growth. Semimoist pet foods normally contain
animalproducts (e.g. meat and meat by-products), fats and oils(e.g. animal fat),
milk products (e.g. cheese rind), soybean products, carboxymethyl cellulose,
mineralandvitaminsupplements.Thisproductisusuallymanufactured intheshape
of patties or as simulated meat chunks. Semimoist pet food must be carefully
packagedtomaintainthequalityandtoprotectitagainstspoilage.Semimoist foods
are higher inpalatability than drydietsand areeasytostoreifpackage integrityis
maintained andeasytoserve.
Marbled semimoist pet food
Semimoist food can also be extruded with two coloured mixes to give afinal
appearance ofmarbled product (Charter, 1973).
Liver flavour semimoist pet food
Liverflavour anbeproducedinpetfood withliverorwithbloodandreducingsugar
andisusuallyaddedatthe1-5% leveltoincreasepetacceptance(LugayandBeale,
1978).
Binders in semimoist pet food
Binder systems for semimoist pet food can come from different and uncommon
sourcessuchassulphur-containingaminoacids,loweralkylmercaptans,loweralkyl
sulphides and disulphides, thioacids, salts and thiamin (Stacker etal., 1976).Gels
canalsobeusedtogivetheproducttextureandagelorcoagulatedbinderstabilized
against bacterial growth by a pH below 5.5 has been used (Burrows etal. 1977).
Typical binders, such ascereal flour, are often preferred but pregelatinized starch
can also be used. Heat coagulated proteins, such asvital wheat gluten have been
used,andafter heatingthisproductwillform asolidproduct (Palmer etal., 1975).
Egg-containing semimoist pet food
Semimoist pet foods containing egg and meat products have been developed
(Burkwall;Reardanz andBoudreau, 1976)thatwithindependent processingallow
thefinalproduct todisplayadistincteggportion appearance.
Pastry-shell filled semimoist pet food
A pet food hasbeendeveloped withaninner,proteinaceousmatrixsurroundedby
anouterpastryshell(Hildebolt, 1975).Thisprovidestheproductwithbacteriologi-
calstability even though the inner portion willsupport and hassufficient moisture
(20-25%)forbacterialgrowth.Anothertechnique(Bernotavicz,1975)formanufac-
turingisasimultaneousextrusion ofacentre-filled, pillow-shaped meat-containing
(53% moisture) product which,becauseofthedryoutercovering,isstableagainst
microbiological growth.
Deep-fat frying ofsemimoist pet food
Fryingofsemimoistpetfoodinoilat121-177C(25O-350F)hasalsoproventogivea
crispexterior andsoft meatyinteriorthatcanbeshelf stable (Clausen, 1977).
Cannedpetfood
Cannedpetfood isprimarilyanimalby-products(e.g.bones,cheekmeat,damaged
carcassparts,intestines,liver, lungsand stomach tissue)from slaughtered animals
265 Ch.10] Petorexoticanimalfood
and from animals that have died but are salvaged before the tissue decomposes.
Normallytheskin,claws,hornsandrumencontentareremovedbeforethistissueis
processed.AnexampleoftheingredientsincannedpetfoodmaybefoundinTables
10.3 and 10.4. Canned pet food is high (74-80%) in moisture, contains 8-20%
Table10.4Typicalpetfood listof ingredients
Canned
Freshfish
Meatandmeat products
Meatandmeat by-products
Poultry andpoultry by-products
Ground corn
Soygritsorflour
Cracked wheat
Cracked barley
Ground bone
Salt
Watersufficient for processing
Mineralmixsufficient tomeetNRC requirements
Vitamin mixsufficient tomeetNRC requirements
Additionalingredientsindry
Corngluten feed
Meatandbone meal
Animal fat
Additionalingredientsinsemimoist
Soybeanflakes,branflakes
Soluble carbohydrates
Antimycoticand emulsifer
Propyleneglycol
Driedskimmed milk
Source:Brady(1965),Alpo (1987),Carnation(1987),Subcommittee onDog Nutrition (1985).
protein,2-15%fat, 1-2digestiblekilocalories/g(400-1000kcal/lb)andcanbeeither
nutritionally complete or incomplete and utilized as a food supplement. The
nutritionallycompletetypemaybeeitheradry-typepetfoodformulatowhichwater
hasbeen added and the product canned, or maybe ahigh-fat product containing
animalproducts(e.g.meat andmeatby-products),fatsandoils,soybeanproducts,
mineral and vitamin supplements. The nutritionally incomplete food supplements
maycontain onlyanimalproducts (e.g.meatand meat by-products) and therefore
theywillbelowincalciumandsometimesaresuboptimalinphosphorus.Thecanned
dietsaresuperiorinpalatability.
Gravy in canned pet food
Canned petfood products,suchasmeat ingravy,that remainpourable throughout
their shelf life have been produced by adding sufficient acid (1-2% phosphoric
(H3PO4) or 0.5-3.5% citric (C
6
H
8
O
7
)) to lower the pH to 4.5 and to inhibit the
gellingpropertiesofcollagen (Reesman, 1974).
Marbled canned pet food
Simulatedmarbled meatcanbeproducedfrom aheterogeneousmixtureofredand
whitemeatsthatareextruded anddividedintochunks(RiggsandSarno,1975)and
then retorted.
Textured offal in canned pet food
Togiveoffal theappearanceofmusculartissueitmaybepassedthroughatexturing
machinethat placesinthesuifaceaseriesofincisions(Kern et al., 1975)tomakeit
visuallyresemble muscletissue.
Colouring agent for mammary tissue used in canned pet food
Theyelloworcreamcolourofthemammaryglandrestrictsitsuseinpetfood. This
tissuecanbecolouredbyinjectingitwithasolutionofcitratedbloodand200ppmof
sodium nitrite (NaNO
2
) (Kotthoff, 1975).
Extruded animal flesh and bone used in canned pet food
The extrusion of animal flesh and bones under high pressure through a seriesof
orificed plates gives a texture where the bones are indistinguishable from the
remainderoftheproduct (King,1974).
Gelling agents
Gelling agents are used to maintain homogeneity during processing and tocontrol
moisturethatisadded.Theyincludelocustbeangum,carboxymethylcellulose,guar
gum,carrageenan andotherstarchesandthickeners.
Frozenpet food
Frozenpetfoodisusedonlytoalimitedextentandisoften madebycombiningmeat
trimmingswithdrypetfood. Itissometimesmadeintopattiesandthen frozen.
Anexampleoffrozen pet-food processing(Anon, 1986)isthesalvagingoftissue
from animalsthathavediednaturally.Thehideisremovedfrom thecarcassandthe
tissueisevaluatedforsoundnessforuseinpetfood.Thecarcassisthenplacedin2C
(36F)chillcooler. Nextthemusclesare removed byknife andthetissueisgraded
andground.Duringgrinding,granulatedcharcoalisaddedasadenaturingmaterial.
Thematerialisnextpackedinwax-linedcartonsandfrozen ina-23C( - 10F)blast
freezer andsoldfrozen todogowners.Thepartiallydebonedcarcassnextgoestoa
mechanicaldebonerwhichreclaimstheremainderofthetissue.Thedebonedtissue
isthen placed in 22.7kg (50lb) trays, liquified denaturant isplaced on top of the
materialandtheproductisblastfrozen. Itisthenknockedoutofthetrays,placedon
askidandstretchwrapped andthenshipped naked (nofurther protection)toapet
food manufacturer, whomayproducewet,semi-dryordrypet food.
PALATABILITY ENHANCERS
Sincemanypetmixturesmayhaveanundesirableodour,flavourortexture,thereis
oftenaneedtoenhancethepalatabilityinordertomakeitacceptabletothepet,and
sometimes the odour needs to be enhanced so that the pet owner will feed this
producttothepet.Theseenhancersaresometimesmixedwiththefood,butinmany
cases they are often coated on the external surface. Such things as yeast (e.g.
Ascomyceteor Asporogene), microorganisms cultured on hydrocarbons, protein
andfattreatedwithlipaseandprotease,fishsolubles,citric(C
6
H
8
0
7
)andphosphoric
(H3PO4)acidsolution (for catfood), meatdigests,aminoacids,sweetenerssuchas
fructose andsugar,andmodified animalorplantfatextractsareoften addedtothe
pet food. Texture changes can also assist palatability and fine comminuting helps
withsomeproducts.Fishscrapcoatingorprecookedpiecesofmeat,poultryofof fish
onthesurface ofalesspalatable innercorearealsosometimes used.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
If given the opportunity, dogs will normally consume food until their caloric
requirementsaremetandthentheywillstopeating.Inmanycaseshowevertheywill
consumeenough calories to become overweight. Catsneed (Subcommittee on cat
Nutrition, 1986) a daily food allowance of 78g (dry), 83g (semimoist) and 227g
(canned)food perkilogramofbodyweightfor a10-week-old kittenand25g(dry),
27g(semimoist)and73g(canned)foodperkilogramofbodyweightfora40-week-
oldcat.Inactive,active,gestationandlactationrequirementsincatsutilize22,25,31
and78gfood/kgbodyweightofdry-typefood,23,27,33and83g/kgbodyweightof
semimoist-type food and 64, 73, 91,227g food/kg body weight for canned food
respectively.Anincreaseinanimalsize,coldweather,exercise,thelasttrimesterof
pregnancy and lactation all increase maintenance needs. Dogs are capable of
utilizinglargequantitiesofcarbohydratesandanupperlimitisoften setat65% (but
upto81% hasbeenusedsatisfactorily) andacceptabilityandsuitabilityisincreased
bycooking(Perry, 1984).Fatsprovideenergyandessentialfatty acids,areacarrier
forfat-soluble vitamins,addpalatability andimprovethetextureofpetfood diets.
Theminimumfat levelisoften considered tobeintheareaof5% and 1% lineoleic
acid,whichisnecessarytomaintain healthofskinandhair. On adry-matterbasis,
theminimumisoften consideredtobe 10%fat and 1.5% linoleicacid.Levelsupto
40% fat have been fed successfully to dogs (Perry, 1984). The protein level for
growingdogsshould be22-25% (itshould beraised ifthefat content ofthedietis
high) and for maintenance of adult dogs should be 17%. The protein level for
growingkittensisoften listedas24%.Nutrientrequirementsfordogsandcatscanbe
found inTable 10.5and the quantity of nutrients available invariousforms of pet
foodsisgiveninTables 10.1and 10.5.Otherreferences includeapublication titled
'Nutrient Recommendation for Dogs'byJimCorbin (undated).Thecompositionof
meat,seafood andpoultryby-productscanbefound inTables 10.6and 10.7.
PETFOOD LABELS
In the U.S., the Association of American Food Control Officials (AAFCO)
establishesandenforces thelabelregulation forpet foods.
268
c
[Ch. 10
Table 10.5Nutrient requirements (and selected recommended allowances) for
growingdogsandcats(percentageoramount perkilogram*
1
of food)
6
Requirements Qualityofnutrients
Dog, Cat, Dog Cat
dry
basis
dry
basis Dry
type
Semi-
moist
Canned
orwet
Dry
type
Semi-
moist
Canned
orwet
Moisturelevel (%) 0 0 10 25 75 6-9 29 72-80
Drymoisturebasis(%) 100 100 90 75 25 91-94 71 20-28
Protein (%)
Arginine (%)
22
0.50
24
1.0
20 16.5 5.5 33-35 25 9-11
Histidine (%)
Isoleucine (%)
0.18
0.36
0.3
0.5
Leucine (%)
Lvsine (%)
Methionine-cystine (%)
0.58
0.51
0.39
1.2
0.8
0.75
Phenylalaninc-tyrosine (%) 0.72 0.85
Threonine (%)
Tryptophan (%)
0.47
0.15
0.7
0.15
Valine (%)
Dispensable
0.39 0.6
aminoacids (%)
Fat (%)
Linoleicacid (%)
Arachidonic (%)
6.26
5
1
9
1
0.02
4.5
0.9
3.75
0.75
1.25
0.25
9-10 9.8 4-5
Minerals 7-11 6.5 2-3
Calcium (%)
Phosphorus (%)
0.59
0.44
0.8
0.6
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.3
0.22
Potassium (%)
Sodium (%)
Chloride {%)
0.44
0.06
0.09
0.4
0.05
0.19
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.45
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.12
0.18
Magnesium (%)
Iron(mg)
Copper(mg)
Manganese(mg)
Zinc
0.04
31.9
2.9
5.1
35.6
0.04
80
5
5
50
0.036
54
6.5
4.5
45
0.03
45
5.5
3.8
38
0.01
15
1.8
1.2
12
Iodine(mg)
Selenium
c
(mg)
0.59
0.11
0.35
0.10
1.39
0.10
1.16
0.08
0.39
0.03
Vitamins
VitaminA (IU)
VitaminD (IU)
VitaminE(IU)
Thiamin(mg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Pantothenicacid(mg)
3710*
404'
22'
1.00
2.5
9.9
3333
500
30
5.00
4.0
5.0
4500
450
45
0.90
2.0
9.0
3750
375
37.5
0.75
1.6
7.5
1250
125
12.5
0.25
0.5
2.5
Niacin(mg)
Pyridoxine (mg)
Folicacid(mg)
Biotin
c
(mg)
VitaminB,
2
C
(mg)
Choline(mg)
11.0
1.1
0.2
0.10
0.026
1250
40.0
4
0.8
0.07
0.02
2400
10.3
0.9
0.16
0.09
0.020
1100
8.6
0.75
0.14
0.075
0.017
900
2.8
0.25
0.04
0.025
0.006
300
"Toobtain the amount perpound divide by2.205. Blank spaces meansdata not reported.
*Basedondietswithmetabolizableenergyconcentrationsintherangeof3.5-4.0 kcal/gofdrymatter. Ifenergydensityexceedsthisrange,it
maybe necessary toincrease nutrientconcentrations proportionately. Recommended nutrient levelsselectedtomeettherequirementsof
the most demanding segments, i.e. rapidgrowth and lactation.
Recommended allowances basedon research with other species.
d
ThisamountofvitaminAcorrespondsto1.5 mgofallr/wu-retinol perkilogramofdrydiet(oneIUofvitaminA activityequals0.3 figofall
rraru-retinol).
' This amount of vitamin D activity corresponds to 12.5Mgof cholecalciferol per kilogram of drydiet (one IU of vitamin D activity equals
0.025/igof cholecalciferol).
' This amount of vitamin E activity corresponds to 50mgof <f/-alpha-tocopheryl acetate per kilogram of dry weight (one IU of vitamin E
activity equals 1mgof rf/-alpha-tocopheryl acetate).
Source: National Academy of Sciences (1974,1978), Perry (1984),Subcommittee on Dog Nutrition (1985),Subcommittee oncat Nutrition
(1986).
Currentregulationsrequirethatproductnameontheprincipaldisplaypaneland
a flavour designation if used in the same type of lettering. If the product name
includes a meat item, then there must be at least 10% of this meat item in the
269 Ch. 10] Petorexoticanimal food
Table10.6Composition ofrawmeat by-products
Percentage
Moisture Protein Fat Fibre Ash Calcium
Cattle
Lips,raw 70.0 18.0 6.9
Liver,raw 73.0 20.0 3.2 0 0.01
Lungs,raw 80.0 16.0 3.0

Spleen,raw 75.0 18.0 4.0
Udder,raw 75.0 12.0 12.0

Hogs
Bone,raw 55.0 15.0 13.0
17.0
Cracklins 2.5 84.0 11.5
2.0
Defatted
porktissue 61.5 27.0 10.5
1.0
Kidney,raw 75.5 15.6 6.9
1.5
Liver,raw 71.0 20.0 4.6
1.5
Lungs,raw 78.5 13.6 6.7
1.0
Skin,raw 48.0 21.0 31.0
0.5
Spleen,raw 69.5 16.5 12.5
1.5
Horse
Meat,raw 76.0 18.0 4.1
0.03
Meatwith
bone,raw 64.0 32.6 12.2
Source:National Academy of Sciences (1974),OSU (1987).
product.Iftheproductnameincludesonlyasinglemeatitem,thentheremustbeat
least70%ofthismeatiteminthepetfood.Iftheproductnamecontainsseveralmeat
items,thentheremustbeatleast70%ofthesetotalingredientsintheproduct and
thequantitymustbeintheorderlistedinthename.Thewords'dogfood', 'cat food'
orsimilardesignation mustappearontheprincipaldisplaypanel.
Currentnutrient guaranteesarerequired onthelabelandtheyinclude:
Minimumcrude protein
Minimumcrude fat
Maximumcrude fibre
Maximum moisture
Ifthemanufacturer desirestolistadditionalguarantees,theywillfollow moisture.
All ingredients use in the manufacture must be listed in descending order by
weightintheingredientlisting.Theterms'meat'and'meatby-products'shallmean
cattle, hogs (pigs), sheep or goats, and, if other species are used, they must be
declared.
Table10.7Composition ofmeat,seafood andpoultry by-products
Composition
Drymatter (%)
Drybasis
Protein (%X
Fat (%)
Fibre (%)
Minerals
Calcium (%)
Copper (%)
Iron (mg/kg)
Magnesium (%)
Manganese (mg/kg)
Phosphorus (%)
Potassium (%)
Sodium (%)
Zinc(mg/kg)
Vitamins
Biotin (mg/kg)
Choline (mg/kg)
Folicacid (mg/kg)
Niacin (mg/kg)
Pantothenicacid
(mg/kg)
Pyridoxine (mg/kg)
Riboflavin (mg/kg)
Thiamin (mg/kg)
Vitamin B
12
(/ug/kg)
Vitamin E(mg/kg)
Aminoacids
Arginine (%)
Cystine (%)
Histidine (%)
Isoleucine (%)
Leucine (%)
Lysine (%)
Methionine (%)
Phenylalanine (%)
Threonine (%)
Tryptophan (%)
Tyrosine (%)
Valine (%)
Meat
meal
92-93
57-65
8-11
2-3
6-8
1(M2
0.05
0.1-0.3
10-21
3-4
0.6
1.8
0.1
2000
0.05-1.6
43-61
3-5
3.2
3-6
0.2
55
1
4
0.6
1-6
1-2
4-12
4-9
0.9-1.1
2-6
2-4
0.3-1.1
1-2
3-8
Meat Bone
Animal
and meal liver
bone meal
meal
94-96 95-97 93
51-54 6-13 72
10-12 3 16
2 2 1
10-11 25-31 0.5
1.6 17 96
0.05 0.09 0.07
1.2 0.7
13 32 9
5 13-14 1
1.6
0.8 0.5
104 450
0.1 0.02
2300
0.05
6
51 4 220
4 2.5 49
2.6
4.7 1 50
1.2 0.4 0.2
48 540
1
4 0.5 4
0.6 1
1 0.2 2
2 0.5 4
3 0.9 6
4 0.9 5
0.7 0.2 1
1.9 0.6 3
1.9 0.6 3
0.2 1
0.8 0.7 2
3
5
Continued next page
271 Ch.10] Petoi-exoticanimalfood
Blood Fish Crab Condensed Dried Oyster Hydrolyzed
meal meal meal fish fish shell poultry
solids solubles flour feathers
91-93 93 93 51 92 100 94
84-90 71 33 62 68 1 85-93
0.18-2 17 2 13 8 2.6
1.1 1.1 12 2 1.1 0.6
0.3-0.5 0.5 16 1.2 38 0.2
9-11 96 35 95
0.3-0.4 0.07 0.5 0.06 0.3
0.(K-0.2 1 0.04 0.3
6-7 9 144 23 133
0.2-0.4 1.3 2 1.4 0.07 0.75-0.9
0.4-1 0.5 3.4 0.1
0.4 0.9 6 0.2
75
0.4
306-832 2150 7900 5677 977
31-35 47 330 251 34
1-6 6 69 49 12
1-5 6 28 8 2.4
0.4 11

= =
4 2 5 3 6
1 3 4
5 0.5 5 3 0.6
1 1.3 3 2 5.3
11-12 1.7 5 3 7.4
8-9 1.5 5 3 2
1 0.5 2 1 0.6
6 1.3 3 1 4.7
4 1.1 2 1 5.0
1 0.3 2 1 0.5
2 1.3 1 1 2.8
7-8 1.6 3 2 6.5
Source:National Academy of Sciences (1974),Spencer (1985).
Antioxidants such as butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), butylated hydroxyto-
luene(BHT)ortocopherol maybeadded tofatstoretard oxidation and rancidity.
Propyleneglycol,(C
3
H
8
O
2
)sorbicacid(C
6
H
8
O
2
) andpotassiumsorbate (C
6
H
7
O
2
)
and potassium sorbate (C
6
H
7
KO
2
) may be used to prevent mold and bacterial
growth.
By 1989all pet food material in U.S. must meet nutritional adequacy (Anon.
1987). There are two procedures for establishing a nutritional claim and they are
'laboratory analysis'and'animalfeeding test'. Forthelaboratorytestitisnecessary
todemonstrate requirednutrientsandapparentdigestibility.Therequirednutrients
include essential amino acids, dry matter digestibility and protein digestibility. A
company must resubmit data every two years or whenever a product undergoes a
significant change. The label mustbecomplete nutritionally, includingthetestused
to determine the category into which the product fits. The following information
must beon the label:
(1) basisclaim (e.g. complete and balanced),
(2) life-stage orcycle (e.g. allstagesoradult cat maintenance),
(3) nutritional basis for claim (e.g. 'based on AAFCO protocol feeding test'or
'based on NAS NCR nutritional criteria').
ROUGH FISH FOR MINK FEED
Feeding mink with cleaned raw marine fish asthe only source of protein resultsin
hypochromia:iron-deficiency. Fish can be supplemented with an organic chelate
containingferricironchelatedwithglutamic (C
5
H
9
NO
4
) orribonucleicacid (RNA)
(Ender, 1975)topreventirondeficiency. Theenzymethiaminaseinfishfleshcanalso
be a problem in feeding mink since this enzyme depletes the flesh of the vitamin
thiamin.
Mink need auniform-quality, stable, easily storable, non-thiaminase-activefish
product.Therefore, thereisaneedforaninexpensive producttobemadeon-board
ship or at dockside. A product fitting this description can be manufactured by
grinding (0.635cm (iin) plate) the fish, extruding the ground fish in a thin layer
(1.27cm(H in))intoasteam-cookingchamber,quicklyheatingtheproductto82C
(180F) and holding at this temperature for 5-10 minutes (to destroy enzymes),
grinding the cooked product, pressing the cooked ground fish for 5 minutes at
0.7-1.05 kg/cm
2
(10-15psi) (reduces storage area by 50%), cooling the press cake
for one hourandthen freezing.
MINK FEEDFROM POULTRY BY-PRODUCTS
Poultryhead,fatandviscera,whichincludeintestinaltract,lungs,spleen,windpipe,
preen gland (uropygial gland, oil-producing gland located at the base of the tail
feathers) and reproductive organs, can be used for feeding fur-bearing animals
includingmink.Theproductisgenerallypreparedbywashing,grindingandfreezing
the by-product anditisheld frozen untiljust before feeding.
A typical mink ration mayconsist (Mountney, 1976) of:
25% high-quality protein horse meat
cheese
rabbit
whale meat
20% poultry by-products
20% supplemented cereal
15% tripe
15% whole fish
5% liver
Thecompositionofchickenby-productscanbefound inTables 10.7and10.8.
DRYMINK FEED
Feedingfreshfishandfishor meat by-products tominkcreatesdifferent problems
depending on the raw material, such as seasonal availability of raw material, fur
defects caused byfishsuch as coalfish, whiting, hake and turbot, the presence of
thiaminaseinfish,andthepossibilityofbotulinumtoxin.Forthesereasons,aheated
dryfeed isoften desirable.Thecomposition shown inTable 10.9ofdrymink feed
(Gillies1975)hasproven successful. Theproductisthen pelleted.
PORPOISE,DOLPHIN ANDSEAL FOOD
Sinceporpoises,dolphinsandsealsconsumeprimarilyfreshfish,thereisaneedfora
substitutefeedforcaptiveanimals.Aproteingelhasbeendeveloped(Gillies,1975)
bycomminuting whole fresh fish, dissolving the aqueous fraction and forming an
emulsionofitwiththeoilfraction. Theproteinfraction isthencoagulatedtoforma
geland pasteurized.
Other processes have incorporated 1-5% kelp (seaweed) with frozen ground
fish, 1-1.7%NaCl,sodiumtripolyphosphate(Na
5
P
3
Oi
0
)andwater.Thegroundand
mixedproductispassedthroughanorifice-typecolloidmilltoproduceagelandthen
pasteurized82-88C(180-190F)with steam.
FISH-TANK FEEDING GEL
Ageltomaintain food forfishinapalatableform for extendedperiodsoftimeina
fish tankisneeded.
The compositions (Gillies, 1975) of dryfish-foodmixtures which have proven
successfularegiveninTable10.10.Whenreadytouse1partofdryfishfood ismixed
with3to5partsof49-100C(120-212F)water toform anagglomerate mass (firm
gel)whichisaddedtothefishtank.
POULTRY BY-PRODUCT USE
Poultry heads, feet and viscera (intestinal track, lungs, spleen, windpipe, preen
glandandreproductiveorgans)makesatisfactory petfood. Visceraisalsousedasa
digestingredienttomakeadrypalatabilityenhancer. Itisfirstwashedand ground,
then often mixed with meal or pelletsfrom plant sources;an increasing amount is
1
to
Table10.8Compositionofchickenby-products
Composition Broilers Cull Day-old Hatcheryby-products Eggs Feet Gizzards Heads Offal Offal
whole hens, chicks with raw raw raw with without
o
raw whole whole Broiler
Egg
shell feet, feet,
raw raw type type raw raw raw
s
ft
Drymatter 24 58 24 35 29 34 47 25 33 31 27
Drybasis
BO
Protein (%) 77 28 57 22 32 37 53 80 58 42 44
Fat (%) 20 35 23 10 18 31 23 10 18 42 42
Fibre (%) 0.9 3.6 0 0 0.7
Calcium (%) 25 17 4.4 2.6 1
Phosphorus (%) __ 0.3 0.6 __ 1.3 0.7
Source:NationalAcademyofSciences(1974),Vandepopuliere(1984).
n
275 Ch.10] Petorexoticanimalfood
Table10.9Composition ofadrymink feed
Ingredient Percentage byweightof
drymink feed
Comminuted freshfishareheated to60C,oilremoved 47
bycentrifugation and a spray-dried fish meal with
60%protein and6% lysineisproduced
Dryboiledpotatoesorgrain 18
Lard^ 9
Sugar 8
Molasses 5
Casein 4
Barleyhuskmeal 4
Fishsolubles 2
Dryyeast 2
Vitaminpreparation 0.88
Combinedironpreparation 0.12
Source:Gillies,1975.
Table10.10Composition ofadryfishfood
Ingredient Percentage informula A Percentage informula B
Driedground shrimp 84.2
Oyster,shrimp,clam, 80-92
fish orcrabmeal
Kelgum(mixture oflocust 0.5-5.0 0.5-5.9
beangumand fermented
cornsugar)
Guargum 0.5-5.0 0.5-5.0
Borax(Na
2
B
4
O
7
) 1.2 1.5
Citricacid(C
6
H
8
O
7
) 1.2 1.5
Methylparaben (C
8
H
8
O
3
) 0.95 1.1
Sodium propionate
(C
3
H
5
Na0
2
) 1.9 2.3
Ironoxide(Fe
2
O
3
) 0.95
Dicalcium phosphate
(orsuitabledesiccant) 0.95 1.0
Source:Gillies,1975.
beingcanned.Duetotheincreasingconsumerdemandforprimepoultryparts(legs,
thighsand breasts) alargevolumeofpoultry necksand backsareusedaspet food
ingredients.
FROZEN FISHUSE
Cats, even though fond of fish, usually find thawed frozen fish an unacceptable
commerical catfood item. Itisbelieved that theenzymaticdegeneration ofthe5'-
nucleotide content of freshfishduring freezing and thawing isresponsible for the
rejection of the thawed product by cats. A typical formulation (Gillies, 1975)in
whicha5'-nucleotide ispresentasanadditive,andtherefore isacceptabletocats,is
asgiveninTable 10.11.Thisproductismixedandcookedat71-77C(160-170F)for
5-15minutes,sealed insmallcans(307x113mm)andretorted at 121C(250F)for
50minutes.
Table10.11Composition offish-basedcannedcat food
Item Percentage
Thawedfish(ground9.5mm(|in)) 60
Beef (ground9.5mm(|in)) 10
Meatby-products (ground9.5mm(|in)) 15
Chicken 14
Vitaminsandminerals 0.6
Disodiumguanylateand/orguanylicacid(Ci
0
H
14
N
5
O
8
P) 0.01
Disodium inosinate and/orinosinicacid(Ci
0
H
13
N
4
O
8
P) 0.01
Source:Gillis,1975.
CLAMWASTE
Portions(bellies,stomach,livers,otherorgansandsmallamountsofmuscle)ofsea
clams (Mactra solidissma)are discarded during the shucking operation and thisis
referred toasclamwaste.Thisfreshwasteiswashedtoremovesand,shellsandsalt,
sometimesground, heated to71C(160F)and arethencombinedwithathickener
(1-10%)orbinder(gums,seaweedextracts,agar,pectinsorsyntheticproductssuch
as methyl cellulose, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, propylene glycol esters of
alginicacid)andcooledtoobtainthedesiredconsistencyforpetfood.Theproductis
placedincansandvacuumsealedandthenheatsterilizedtoproduceasoftgelwhich
maybe spooned.
DRIEDBLOODINPETFOOD
Driedblood,whichhasbeencoagulatedwithsteamanddriedwhencoarselyground
iscalledbloodmeal.Ifithasbeenfinelygrounditiscalledbloodflour.Thisproduct
is approximately 85% excellent quality protein. Blood meal is not particularly
Ch.10] Petorexoticanimalfood 277
palatableandisusuallyusedatlowlevelsandmixedwithwell-likedfoods.Inagruel
(thinwater mixture) blood has atendency to settle and some processors makea
solublebloodflour,inwhichthefibrinhasbeenremoved,toalleviatethisproblem.
SUMMARY
Sincepetfoodmanufacturingisafairlyprofitable endeavor,thisindustryhasbeen
very innovative in utilization of animal by-products. It has also built some very
efficient, modern,technologically advancedplants.Becauseofthisenvironmentit
hasalsobeenaleaderinnewtechniquesforprocessingfoodanditisanticipatedthat
the pet food industry will continue its leadership in efficient animal by-product
utilization.
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Alpo (1987) Alpo Beef Chunks Dinner. Label Allentown, Pennsylvanian, Alpo
Petfoods.
Anon(1986)Rendererupgradespetfoodwithcoldprocess. National Provisioned
June7,p.24-36.
Anon(1987)Industryrespondstoimproveregulationsofpetfoods. Petfood Indus-
try.Nov.-Dec. p.10-12.
Balaz,A.,Bone,D.P.andShannon,E.L.(1976)USPatent3959511,Washington,
DC.
Beraotavicz,J.W.(1975)USPatent3922353,WashingtonDC.
Bone,D.P.(1977)USPatent4039689,WashingtonDC.
Bone,D.P.andShannon,E.L.(1975)USPatent3883672,WashingtonDC.
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Bone,D.P.andShannon,E.L.(1977b)USPatent4006266,WashingtonDC.
Brody,J.(1965) Fishery by-products technology. AVI,Westport,Connecticut.
Burkwall,Jr,M.P.(1976)USPatent,3974296,WashingtonDC.
Burrows, I. E., Chaney, P. A. and Ariss, S. A. (1977) US Patent 4041181,
WashingtonDC.
Cagle,J.D. (1975)USPatent3882257,WashingtonDC.
Carnation (1987), Friskies Buffet Mixed Grill For Cats. Label. Carnation, Los
Angeles.
Charter,W.M.(1973)USPatent3765902,WashingtonDC.
Clausen,E.E.(1977)USPatent4039692,WashingtonDC.
Carbin, J (1984) Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles for Growing Puppies.
DistillersFeedConference, Cincinnati.
Carbin,J. (undated) Nutrient requirement and nutrient recommendations for dogs.
NRA General Publication No 409-E. National Renderers Association. Des
Plaines,Illinois.
Ender,F.(1975)USPatent3911117,WashingtonDC.
Gillies,M.T. (1975) Fish and shellfish processing.Noyes Data, ParkRidge, New
Jersey.
Hildebolt,W.M.(1975)USPatent3916029,WashingtonDC.
Horn,C.P.(1975)Personalcommunication. Star-KistFoods,LongBeach,Calif.
Kern, J. P., Lemarechal, J. and Desforges, M. (1975)USPatent 3924011,Wash-
ington, DC.
King,D. P.(1974)USPatent 3857989,Washington DC.
Kotthoff, L.L.(1975)USPatent 3922355,Washington DC.
Lugay,J. C.and Beale,R.J. (1978)USPatent4070490,Washington DC.
McCulloch,M.G.andNelson,W.E.(1977)USPatent4020187,Washington,DC.
Mann,I.(1962) Processing and Utilization of Animal By-Products. FoodandAgric.
Org.ofUN. No.75.
Miller,T. A. and Hansen, C.J. (1975)USPatent3908025,Washington DC.
Mountney,G.J. (1976) Poultry products technology.AVI,Westport, Connecticut.
National Academy of Sciences, (1974) Nutrient requirements of dogs. National
AcademyofSciences,Washington DC.
National Academy of Sciences, (1978) Nutrient requirements of cats. National
Academy ofSciences,Washington DC.
OSU (1987).Analysis.Not published.
Palmer, H. C , Horrocks, D. and Buckley, K. (1975) US Patent 3873736 Wash-
ington DC.
Perry,T. W. (1984) Animal life-cycle feeding and nutrition.Academic Press,New
York.
PetFood Institute(1983) SAM I Report.PetFood Institute,Washington DC.
PetFood Institute (1987) SAMIsays . . . Petfood Industry. Nov/Dec.p.8.
PetFoodLabels(1987) Survey of petfood labels in Columbus, Ohio.Unpublished.
RalstonPurina(1981) Nutrition and management of dogs and cats.St.Loius.
Reardanz,E.H.andBoudreau,J.N.(1976)USPatentB-441,789,WashingtonDC.
Reesman, S.H. (1974)USPatent 3843815,Washington DC.
Riggs,N.S.andSarno,F.S.(1975)USPatent3897572,Washington DC.
Spencer, C. (1985) The utilization of meat by-products in the pet food industry,
Special Report, Department of Animal Science, Ohio State University,
Columbus.
Stocker,C.T.,Schara,R. E.,Marshall,W.E.,Hayes,Jr,J.T.andGlicksman,M.
(1976)USPatent 3965268,Washington DC.
Subcommittee on Cat Nutrition (1986) Nutrient requirements of cats, revised
edition,Washington, DC,NationalAcademyPress.
Subcommittee onDogNutrition (1985) Nutrient requirements of dogs,Washington
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Vandepopuliere, J. M. (1984) Animals as converters of by-products from animal
preocessing. Proceedings of an International Symposium, Wageningen,
Netherlands.
11
Seafood by-products
INTRODUCTION
Sea food products are obtained from awide variety of species of animals, and of
thoseanimalsonly aportion isusuallyseparated fromthecarcassandusedasfood.
Theremainder isaby-product, often highinprotein, that canusually be processed
intouseful products. When harvestingfishandcrustaceans, there aremany species
that are not used as human food that are also caught. These 'trash fish' can
consequently be processed into useful by-products. Two major references in this
area are Tressler and Lemon (1951) and Windsor and Barlow (1981) and these
shouldbeconsulted foradditional detailsonseafood by-products. Examplesof the
moreimportant by-products obtained from seafoods arediscussed inthischapter.
SURIMI
Fishareheaded, guttedandcleaned (sometimesthebackbone isremoved) inwater
and then the flesh is separated with a belt-drum-type separator ( 3 4 mm
(0.12-0.37 in) perforations). Surimi is the mechanically deboned fish flesh that is
repeatedlywashedin5-10C (41-50F)wateruntilallthewater-soluble proteinsare
removedandtowhichacryoprotectantisadded.Agoodreviewofsurimitechnology
maybefound inLee (1984).Thevolume ofwaterusedis5-20 timesthatofthefish.
This washing removes not only water soluble proteins but also other undesirable
substances and enzymes and this results in aconcentration of the actomyosin. The
last wash can contain 0.01%-0.3% sodium chloride (NaCl). The product is de-
watered with ascrew press and strained to remove black skin, bones and scales. A
silent cutter or ribbon blender is used to mix the cryoprotectants, which normally
consist of 4% sugar (C
12
H
2
2On, up to 8% can be used, but this usually makes the
producttoosweet), 4%sorbitol (C
6
H
14
O
6
, notsosweet) and0.2% polyphosphates
(triphosphate (Na
5
O
10
P3) and pyrophosphate (H
4
O
7
P
2
) have equal cryoprotective
effect). The cryoprotectants' role isto prevent actomyosin from denaturing during
frozen storage. Table 11.1 indicates terminology that isused inthe processing area
andFig. 11.1gives aflowchartof surimi manufacturing.
Surimiisgradedusingmanyfactorsdependinguponitsultimateuse.Someofthe
currentlyused andproposed standards maybefound inTable 11.2.
280 Seafood by-products [Ch. 11
Table11.1Terminology insurimi production
Surimi Mechanically debonedfishfleshthat hasbeenwashed
withwaterandmixedwith cryoprotectants.
Minced fish Mechanicallyseparatedfishfleshthat hasnotbeen
washed.
Kamaboko Productsmadefrom surimithat aremounted ona
woodenplateandsteamed or broiled.
Chikuwa Productsmadefrom surimithat are broiled.
Tempura Productsmadefrom surimithatare fried.
Kaen-surimi Surimicontainingsalt.
Muen-surimi Surimiwithout salt.
Source:Lee (1984);Connell andHardy(1982).
Fish,100%(e.g.pollock,croaker,tuna,mackerel,andshark)
I
Headed,gutted,cleaned
i
Backboneandbellyflap maybemechanically removed
Mechanically separatedfleshfrom bonesandskin
I
( 3- 4 mm (0.12- 0.16in) perforations)
Repeated(onceonshipandaminimum ofthreetimesonshore)washing in3- 10C
(37- 50F)water,watervolume is5- 20timesthatoffish
I
Dewateringwith press
1
Cryoprotectants suchas4%sugar,4%sorbitol and0.2%polyphosphates
aremixedwith asilentcutter or ribbon blender. Temperature
maintained below 10C(50F)
t
Frozen(- 20Cor4F)surimi;22- 32%yield
Fig. 11.1Surimi manufacturing.
Surimimaybeutilized inmanufacturing manyreformed meat-like and seafood
items. For example, surimi may be used as raw material for artificial crab-leg
manufacture, fish sausage-like items, fish wiener-like items, moulded fish-like
281 Ch.11] Seafoodby-products
products and fibrous fish-like products. The various processing possibilities are
outlinedinFig.11.2.
Table11.2Propertiesusedorproposed forgradingsurimi
Chemical and visual
Moisturelevel
PH
Whiteness-Hunter colour meter
Impurities-black skinand bones
Physical properties
Expressibledrippressed
Viscosityin3.5%NaCl solution
Gel-forming ability (constant moisture)
Gelstrengthplunger
Foldingtestcrackwhen folded
Firmnesssensory
ChewinessEnergyusedwithrepeated compressions
Elasticitytensibleforce tobreak sheet
Waterbindingslopeofgelstrength versusmoisture
Frozen storage
Freeze-thaw cyclespressedfluid
FISHPROTEIN CONCENTRATE (FPC)
In 1962, the U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF) mounted efforts to
produceafishproteinconcentratesuitableforhumanconsumption (Ockerman and
Stombaugh, 1987). The resulting FPC A was a tasteless, odourless, colourless
powderwithaminimumof67.5%crudeprotein (percentageofnitrogenx6.25)and
amaximumof0.75%fat.FPCAwasdesignedforuseasa5-10%componentofmost
familiar foods without compromising their acceptability. Arriving at this extreme
state of blandness required a solvent-extraction technique that made the product
expensive.
In addition, FPC A ran afoul of regulatory provisions. Becuase FPC A was
prepared from whole fish, including viscera, bones, scales, etc., it contained
substancesclassified asadulterantsasdefined inSection402oftheU.S.Food,Drug
and Cosmetic Act (FDA). The U.S. National Academy of Sciences reviewed the
safetyofFPCandconcludedthattheproductwashighlynutritious,stable,safeand
capableofbeingeconomicallyproducedandmarketed.However,duetoregulations
andotherrestraints,FPChasnotbeenutilizedtoanymajorextentintheU.S.Itwas
usedinothercountriesuntil1978.
The second (FPC B) and current product has a 10% fat content, as well as a
282 Seafoodby-products [Ch.11
Surimi Water Salt Flavour Flesh Starch and/or
extract
eggwhite
and
enhancer
I
Blender
Paste
Silentcutter
Extruded
Meat
grinder
Paste
Paste Pump
I
Nozzel
String
former
Straight
mould
Stuffed
casing
I
Conveyerbelt
I
Partial
heat
heat
setting Steam Steam Partial
cook or heat Steam
Mix
smoke-
house
cook
setting
- Heat
I
Stuffer
I
Casing
Patty
I
Freeze
Cooling
I
Strings
I
Steam
mixed
I
Rope
former
or former
smoke
house
I
wrapper
cook Steam
cooked
Oblique Straight
Sausage
type
Sausage
type
Moulded
type
Wiener
type
Moulded
type
cut cut
Flake, Stick
chunk
I
Steam
Steam
cook
cook
Fibrous
Fibrous
typ.e
type
Fig. 11.2Processingprocedure usingsurimi.
distinctfishysmellandtaste,whichmeansthatitspresenceinacommonfood isnot
easily concealed. FPC Bcan be produced from almost any kind offish,iseasy to
transportanddistribute,andstoreswell(upto2-3yearsinIndianandAfricantests).
It isrecommended to be used at the levelof 35g/person/day (1.25oz/person/day).
Because it is purposely less bland than FPC A, its processing technology is
comparativelysimpleandmuchlesscostly.ExtensivetastetestsshowedthatFPCB
iswell accepted by people accustomed to a diet containing fish, notably those in
Africa and Asia.
Afishprotein concentrate that isbland inflavourand alsohasgood functional
propertieshasbeenproducedbyenzymically(usinge.g.papain,pancreatin,brome-
lin,ficin,orRhozymeP-11)modifyingwholefishproteinandremovingthemodified
proteins asprotein-phosphate complexesusingalinear condensed phosphate such
283 Ch. 11] Seafoodby-products
assodium hexametaphosphate ((NaPO
3
)
4
). Theprotein-phosphate complexes are
precipitatedbyloweringthepHto2.5-3.5withanacid,andtheprecipitatedcomplex
iscentrifuged, washedandextractedwithapolarsolventtoremovelipids.Itisthen
neutralizedwithabase,and 10-20%carbohydrates areadded. Themixtureisthen
drum-,spray-or freeze-dried.
FISHMEALANDOIL PRODUCTION
Fish meal is a popular animal feed because of its high nutritional value. When
correctly processed it has a high level of essential amino acids (especially lysine
(C
6
H
14
N
2
O2)),B-complexvitamins(B
12
(C
6
3H
88
CoN
14
O
14
P),choline (C
5
H
14
NO),
niacin(C
6
H
5
NO
2
),pantothenicacid(C
9
Hi
7
NO
5
)andriboflavin (Ci
7
H
2
oN
4
0
6
)) and
mineralsincludingcalcium,copper,iron,phosphorus,andothertraceminerals.Itis
alsopopular because itislowinfibreandiseasytoproduce. Forswine,cattle,and
poultry,itisoften addedatapproximatelya3% ratetotheircerealdiets.Ofcourse,
caremustbetaken toprevent 'fishy' odoursandflavoursbeingimparted toanimal
tissueoranimalproductssuchaseggormilk,sothefollowing levelsareoften used
(Anon,1945):
cattle 907g/day/454kg(2lb/day/1000lb)
pigs 113-227g/day (\-hlb/day)accordingtoweight
poultry
chicks notmorethan5%of ration
hens notmorethan 10%of ration
sheep 45-91g/day(^ to \lb/day)accordingtoweight
Fishmeal,fishsolublesandfishoilsareobtained bycookingandpressingwhole
fish, suchasherring,menhaden,pilchards,sharks,andgrayfish, ortrashfishand/or
fish scrapsorcannerywastes,whichareoftencalled'gurry'fromfilletingandcanning
operations.Fishscrapsnormallyconsistofthehead,skeletonandadheringproteina-
ceoustissue.Fishmealsareusuallyproduced inaratioof3:1whencomparedwith
fish oil. Yield of both is approximately one-sixth to one-eighth the weight of the
originalfishorfishscraps.
Thechemicalcompositionoffishmealwillvarywiththerawmaterialusedthe
species of fish and whether whole or parts offishare used and the processing
procedure. Somerangesofcomposition canbefound inTable11.3.
Fishmealmeanufacturing followstwobasictechniquescalledwetreduction and
dry rendering. For more information on rendering see Chapter 3. Also, solvent
extractionmethodsusingacids,bases,hydrogenperoxide(H
2
O
2
)orsulphurdioxide
(SO
2
) are sometimes used and these solvents are later removed. The addition of
antioxidantsissometimesnecessary, particularly for highlyoil-containingfish.The
advantagesanddisadvantagesofwetordryrenderingmaybefound inTable 11.4.
The wet reduction method (see Fig. 11.3) is normally a continuous process
adaptabletohandlinglargequantitiesoffish.Ifthesupplyoffishisgreaterthan the
processingfacilities,itispossibletopreservethefishin15-25%(basedonremaining
water inthefish)solvent (e.g. ethanol (C
2
H
6
O), isopropanol (C
3
H
8
O), -butanol
(C
4
H
10
O),sec-butanol (C
4
H
10
O) and isobutanol (C
4
H
10
O)) which normallywould
284
Seafood by-products [Ch.11
Table11.3Chemicalcomposition offishmeal
Component Percentage Comment
range
Protein,fishflesh 15-18
Aminoacids,fishflesh 15-18% protein
Arginine 0.84-1.03 infishflesh
Histidine infishflesh
Isoleucine 0.76-0.93 infishflesh
Leucine 1.12-1.38 infishflesh
Lysine 1.31-1.60 infishflesh
Methionine 0.43-0.53 infishflesh
Phenylalanine 0.55-0.68 infishflesh
Threonine 0.65-0.79 infishflesh
Tryptophan 0.15-0.18 infishflesh
Valine 0.79-0.97 infishflesh
Protein,fishmeal 50-77 Mostmeals60-65
Fat 5-15 Desired maximum8%
Lowfat isdusty
Ash 8-33 18% satisfactory
12%inhigh-protein meal
33% inlow-protein meal
Moisture 6-12 8% issatisfactory
12%subject tomould growth
Lessthan6% heatingwilloccur
Crudefibre Lessthan 1% low-fibre feed
Vitamins
B
12
0.1-0.33mg/lb
Choline 1500mg/lb
Niacin 30mg/lb
Pantothenic acidmg/lb
Riboflavin 3mg/lb
Source:Brody(1965),Nielson (1950),U.S. FishandWildlife Service,(1962),OrrandWatt(1957).
be used in the subsequent extraction process. This solvent is added after disinte-
gration, boiling, deboning, separation, pressing and partial dewatering (12-20%
moisture). Wet reduction isuseful with fattyfishsuch asmenhaden, redfish, sea-
herring, pilchard (California sardine) and salmon cannery waste. It produces not
onlyfishmeal,butalsofishscrap,fishsolublesandfishoil.
The wet reduction method uses a continuous cooker with the product moved
throughthecookerbyascrewconveyor.Later,steamisinjected intothecookerand
proper cooking coagulates the protein and releases the oil. Cooking rate can be
varied bychangingthesteam pressure (usually0.35to0.70kg/cm
2
(5-10psi)),and
therefore bychangingtemperature,andbyvaryingtheconveyorspeed.Thecooking
rate needstobealtered accordingtotherawmaterial used.
Table11.4Comparisonsofdryandwetreductionmethodsofproducingfishmeal
Dry method Wet method
Typeof operation Small,batch, slower Large,continuous, faster
Installation andcost More expensive Lessexpensive
of operation/capacity
Easeof operation Easier Morecomplex
Flexibilityof More Less
operation
Production capacity Less Greater
Yieldofoil from Larger Smaller
lowoil fish
Yieldfishsolubles No Yes
Oilquality Darker and inferior Lightand superior
Mealcontainswater Yes Usuallydoesnot
soluble material
Source:Brody(1965).
After moist cooking, the cooked fish are fed into a continuous screw press
encased in a cylindrical screen (perforations of approximately 1.2mm (<|in) in | i
diameter at the inlet end and approximately 0.8mm (^ in) in diameter at the
discharge end). The pitch of the screw flights progressively decreases and conse-
quentlyincreasesthepressureonthecookedproduct. Insomesystems,pressureis
appliedandabruptlyreleasedtocausecellularrupture.Themealisdriedinadirect
flame,inasteam-jacketed dryer orinasteam-tube dryer. Sincedryingisoften the
mosttime-consuming process,thewetpresscakecan betemporarily preserved by
mixingand storing it in alcohol (C
2
H6O) which maybe subsequently removed by
azeotropic distillation.
The press liquor is placed on a vibrating fine screen and the small particles
captured are recombined with the press cake. The liquid is then heated to 90C
(195F)andcentrifuged or,for lessdesirableoil,allowedtorise(thewater fraction
settles) to obtain the oil. If settlingisused, the oilisoften washed inthisprocess.
After this separation, the oil is again polished using a centrifugal technique.
Unfortunately, the vitamin content of fish body oil is not as high as the vitamin
contentoffish liveroil.Afteroilremoval,thewaterportion(stickwater)isdiscarded
orconcentrated undervacuumtomakefishsolubles.
Thepresscakeisfluffedanddriedtoapproximately 8% moisture.
The dry rendering batch method (see Fig. 11.4) of fish meal production is
primarilyusedonnon-oilyfishornon-oilyfishoffalsuchascodandhaddockcanning
wasteorcarcassesofgrayfishorshark.Sincethisisabatchprocess,itismucheasier
tomanipulate than thecontinuouswetreduction method.
Thefirststepindryrenderingisthegrindingofthelargepiecesandthenplacing
them in a steam-jacketed cooker-dryer equipped with a power-stirring device
0.70-5.6kg/cm
2
(10-80psi)inthejacket).Thecooker-dryermaybeoperated under
286 Seafood by-products [Ch. 11
Oily
rawfish
Grindingor
hogging
Cooking,
livesteam
Screw
pressing
I
I . I
Solid Liquidcontaining
40- 60% oil,water,and
moisture finesolids
Recoveredsolidparicles Vibratingscreen
orcentrifuge
Wetmill |
or flutter Stickwater
R
0t ar
y Heatedto91C(195F)
dryer, I
Settlingtanks,
usuallyfiveheatedtanks
withawash-water
I inlet
Trimming I
and Centrifuge
curling (betterqualityoil)
floor
Disintegrator
Stickwater (non-oil) Cookingoil
Mill I |
I I Oilpolisher
' Vacuum centrifuge
risn evaporator I
s c r a p
ismnîct.,r
O
\ 5- 50 % solids I
(8%moisture) storage Storage
tround i
fish I
meal Concentrated
O i l
storage fish I
solids 0.11% moistureandvolatile
I matter,0.01% insoluble
' impurities,0.01%free
o r
light incolour btorage fatty acidsasoleicacidand
Wholemeal
Fig. 11.3Continuousfishwet-reduction plant. From Brody (1965).
atmospheric pressure or under a vacuum. Themeal ispressed hydraulically to
removetheliquid.Duetothehightemperature andlongtimenecessary (6-7hours
forvacuumcooking)forcooking,theoilobtainedisusuallycomparativelydarkand
isofinferiorquality.Indryrendering,thewater-solublematerialsareretainedinthe
meal.
HYDROLYSIS OFFISH PROTEIN
Theprotein portionoffishcanbeprogressively hydrolysed intopeptones,albumin
oraminoacids.Oftheproteinfraction, approximately 16%-22%isalbumin,which
haschemicalpropertiessimilartoeggwhite.
287 Ch. 11] Seafood by-products
Rawfish
or offal,
non-oily
type
Coarse
grinding
Cooking
insteam -
jacketed
cooker -
dryer with
stirring
Hydraulic press
I I
Solid Liquid
Presscake Heated
disintegrator settling
| tank
Dryer
Cooled Stickwater
i I
Dryfish Discarded |
meal Storage
storage
Fig. 11.4Batchfishdryreduction. From Brody (1965).
Peptones are partially hydrolysed proteins which are soluble in water and not
heat coagulable. They are prepared by grinding the fish flesh with water and
hydrolysing it with peptic or tryptic enzymes, or with acid or alkali at elevated
temperatureandpressure.Thenextstepistheseparatingoftheresultinglayersand
subsequent concentration, often includingasteptoremovesaltoracid.Torecover
theproduct in solid form, spray dryingisoften used. Someof these products may
haveasmuch as5-10% oilbased on dryweight. For peptichydrolysis,thefleshis
heated to 100C(212F)for 5-10 minutes,cooled to35C(98F),acidified topH2
with hydrochloric acid (HC1), treated withfishintestinal mucosa, which contains
pepticenzymes,orcommercialpepsinandincubatedfor 12hoursto2weeksat35C
(98F).After digestion,themixtureiscentrifuged, theproteinhydrolysateisheated
to80C(144F) to inhibit the enzyme, cooled, neutralized with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH),filtered,concentratedto30%solidsandspraydried.Fortryptichydrolysis,
theintestinalmucosaisreplacedwithpyloriccaeca,whichcontainstrypticenzymes.
Acid hydrolysis is accomplished with hydrochloric acid (HC1) or sulphuric acid
(H
2
SO
4
)atapHof0.5-1.5underpressureof1.1kg/cm
2
(15psi)at121Cfor(250F)
for 15minutes to 5hours. The acidity of the liquid phase may be neutralized by
adding a'base or by passing it through a suitable ion-exchange medium. In alkali
hydrolysis,lye(NaOH)issubstitutedfortheacid.Theproductisfilteredandtheacid
or lye isremoved by ion-exchange, then the product isconcentrated and vacuum
dried.
The peptones produced may be used for bacteriological culture media and are
veryhelpful incultivatingpathogenic bacteria.
Toextractalbumin,low-fatfish,molluscs,andcrustaceansareusuallyused.The
flesh orscrapsaremincedina0.5%aceticacid(C
2
H
4
O
2
)solution andcookedfor1
hour at 80-90C (160-176F) which partially hydrolyses and extracts most of the
connective tissue.Theunextracted material iswashed toremove acidanddigested
proteins,pressed,ground,andextractedfor6-8hourswithether(C
4
H
10
O),alcohol
(C
2
H
5
O)ortrichloroethylene(C
2
HC1
3
)toremovethefat.Itisthenvacuumdriedfor
2-3hoursat50C(122F)toyieldtheinsolubletechnicalgradealbumin.Toproduce
the food or pharmaceutical grade, it is further digested with caustic soda 6-8g
(0.2-0.3oz)ofNaOHin5001(132gallons)water/100g(3.5oz)protein)foronehour
at 25C (86F) and another hour at 80-90C (176-194F). The product is then
neutralized with lactic acid (C
3
H
6
O
3
) and spray-dried at 125-150C (257-302F).
Thefinishedproduct containsprimarily polypeptides and veryfew amino acids.It
canbeusedinplaceofeggalbuminasawhipping,suspendingorstabilizingagent.It
is used in confectionery products, bakery products, ice cream, soap, puddings,
custard,andmayonnaise.Industrially,itisusedinpaints,varnishes,lacquers,foam
extinguishers,textiles,paper, resinreplacements,leather, soaps,andcosmetics.
Aminoacidscanbepreparedfromfishproteinbyhydrolysiswithenzymes,acids,
or alkalis.The aminoacidshavebeen studied for useinthe medical area andthey
maybeusedtosupplement animal feeds.
Fish protein can alsobe hydrolysed byyeast, enzymesproduced bymouldsor
bacteria.Intheseprocesseswholefish,molluscs,crustaceansorseafoodremainsare
mixed with 7-10% molasses and the mixture fermented. The end product can be
usedforhumanfood, animalfeedorfertilizer. Fermentationisusuallyconductedat
28-35C (82-95F) for 18-24 hours. The product is then filtered, degreased by
mechanical means,thesolidsconcentrated to50%,andtheproduct then dried.
Plant enzymes (e.g.bromelain) havealsobeen used todigestfishorfishmixed
with fat. A pre-treatment with plant enzymes will also reduce the digestion time
requiredwhenisolatedproteolyticenzymesareusedfor hydrolysis.
CANNERY WASTE
Inthesalmon-canningindustry,approximatelyone-thirdofthefishareclassified as
cannerywaste.Thiswaste,onaverage,iscomposedof56%headandcollar,13%tail
andfins,4% liver, 11%roe,5% milt, 10%digestive tract, and 0.7% heart. These
percentageschangewiththeseasonduetoanincreaseintheamountofmilt(male)
and roe(female) duringthespawningseason.
Cannery waste can befed directly to mink or processed into pet food, and the
headscanbeusedashalibutbait.Fishoffalhasbeenfedintheinitialgrowthphaseto
pigs,butitmustberemovedfromthediet6-8weekspriortoslaughtertoavoida fish
flavourinthetissue.
Salmonheadoilcanbeaddedtocannedsalmon.Salmonoilisprimarilyproduced
from salmon offal.
Salmoneggscanbeprocessed intocaviar(smallereggs),usedasfishbaitorasa
rawmaterialfor theproduction ofcholesterol (C
27
H
46
O),lipidsand proteins. The
salmoneggsarecollectedfrom thebodycavitywiththevisceraandremovedfromit
byhand.Theeggsmaythen befrozen, salted orchemically preserved. For salting
theyarewashedinsaltwaterandthenplacedinasaturatedbrinesolutioncontaining
colouradditivesfor 20minutes.They arethen packed inboxeswith salt sprinkled
between the layers and allowed to cure at room temperature for one week. After
curing,theyarestored at5C(40F).
Miltisalsoseparated from the viscera. Each gallon of milt istreated with 0.13
gallons of caustic soda (NaOH) solution (600g/1(51b/gallon)), which acts as a
preservativeandisthefirststepinprocessing.
Salmon eggs contain an average of 13% fat, 6.2% phospholipids (probably
lecithin) and 0.4% cholesterol. The fat contains 3% cholesterol, has an iodine
number of 200 and contains 6% unsaponifiables (53% of the unsaponifiables are
cholesterol).The protein in salmon eggsisof high quality because of its relatively
high level of lysine (C
6
H
14
N
2
O2), methionine (C
5
H
n
NO
2
S) and isoleucine
Insulin(seeChapter7)canalsobeobtained fromfish.Cod,halibut, andpollak
arethemostfrequentlyusedspeciesandthelargeisletsor'caps'whicharelocatedby
thegall-bladder arecollected. Thecapscontain ahighconcentration ofinsulin and
areclipped off with scissors.The excised tissue isfrozen with solid carbon dioxide
(CO
2
) or placed in 95% alcohol (C
2
H
6
O), acidified with 0.3% hydrochloric acid
(HC1),andprotected from sunlight. The alcoholicsolution oftissueisthen chilled
and shipped for no more than 24 hours. Insulin is extracted from the tissue by
filtering thealcoholsolution,grindingthetissueandre-extractingwitha75%alcohol
solutionfor 1.5hours,filteringthealcoholandre-extractingasmanyasthreetimes.
Thealcoholisthenremovedbyvacuumdistillation.Theaqueousinsulinsolutionis
washedwithether andthealcoholicextract isconverted toinsulin hydrochloride.
InJapan, insulinisalsoobtained from bonito, albacore and yellow-fin tuna. In
someproceduresthewhalepancreasisalsousedasasourceofinsulin.
Otherbiochemicalproductsthatcouldbeobtainedfromfishincludenucleosides
and nucleic acids from testes; protamines (combined with 5-iododeoxyuridine
(C
9
H
n
IN
2
O
5
,usedinterminalcancerpatients)fromsalmonmilt;strepogeninorthe
'protein utilization factor' (stimulates growth of certain microorganisms) fromfish
flesh; glutathione(Ci
0
Hi
7
N
3
O
6
S,coenzymeforcarbohydratemetabolism)from the
fish heart, liver, kidney or spleen; cortisone (C
2
iH
28
O
5
, anti-inflammatory action)
from fish plasma; bile salts such as cholic acid (Q4H40O5) and deOxycholic acid
(Q4H40O4)fromgallbladder;ointmentforskinfromunsaturatedfishoilfattyacids;
cholesterol depressants fromfishoil,fatty acidsoresters;and proteolytic enzymes
(used in leather bating and to produce protein hydrolysates and peptones) from
pyloriccaeca (blind tube-like sacsattached tothestomach near thepyloricend)of
fish.
The pyloric caeca are extracted several times with a mixture of 90% acetone
(C
3
H
6
O) and 10%ether (C
4
H
10
O) toobtain the activeenzyme.The solid isdried
undervacuum and ground to a20mesh size.The yellow powder is approximately
30%watersoluble.TheenzymehasamaximumactivitybetweenpH8.0and8.7and
amaximumtemperature between 40and50C(105and 122F).
290 Seafood by-products [Ch.11
PROCESSING OFFISH STICKWATER
Fish stickwater isaby-product offishcanning. Fishheads,tails,viscera andwhole
fish are steam cooked (0.35kg/cm
2
(5psi)) for 7-15 minutes and pressed by a
continuous screw press.The presscakecontainsapproximately 50%moisture and
after dryingiscalledfishmeal.Thefiltrate(5-10%solids)isknown aspresswater.
This presswater isheated to 88C(190F) and centrifuged to remove the oil.The
waterportionthencontains1%oil,0.75-1.25%insolubleproteinsand3-5%soluble
proteins, and is now calledfishstickwater. The pH of this islowered to 4-5,the
productheatedto82C(180F)untilitisevaporatedtoa50%solidcontent,whichis
calledconcentratedfishsolubles.
ANIMAL FEEDS
Fishoffal (heads,spinesandsimilarbones,ventricularportions,skinandsometimes
theintestines)maybemixedwithstraw,potatomashorothercarbohydrates.Itmay
also be mixed with mill by-products, such as bread, chaff and residual flour, and
fermented atslightlyelevatedtemperaturestoproduceauseful animalfeed(Gillies,
1975;seealsoChapter 10).Problemswiththisprocedure arethat largevolumesof
liquid must be handled and that feeds with pronounced tastes and odours are
produced andtheseodourscanbetransferred tothetissueofmeat animals.These
processesalsocausethegenerationoftoxiccarbohydrate-protein complexes,which
arenotdesirable inanimal feeds.
Suggestedproceduresforreducingtheseproblemsinvolveproducingafishbroth
from fish waste or by-products, de-oiling and concentrating (40% moisture) this
broth, mixing with a carbohydrate, and then fermenting (with e.g. diplococci) at
16-25C(61-77F)toproduce apleasant-flavoured animal feed.
Fishsolublescanalsobefermented toproduceapalatableanimalfeed. 'Cooker
water' containing oil and protein isseparated from the cooked meat in acannery
plant and combined with 'press water' obtained from pressing the head and other
wastematerialpriortomakingfishmeal.Thiscombinationisknownas-'stickwater'
(average 5% solids). This stickwater is next vacuum evaporated to 50% solids,
known asfishsolubles.Thefishsolublescanbecombined withmolassestomakea
palatablecattlefeed. However,thestickwatercanalsobecombinedwithmolasses,
thepHadjusted to4.8,brewer'syeastadded,andthemixturefermented. Fromthe
fermented productadistillateisremoved.Theslopisconcentrated (50-60%solids),
thenthedistilledspiritsarerecombinedwiththeconcentrateandadditionalmolasses
areadded. Thisproducesanutritionally balanced,palatable livestock feed.
Fishsolublescannotbecommerciallydriedandstoredinexcessof50%solidsdue
totheirhighdegreeofhygroscopicity. However,adrynon-hygroscopicproductcan
be made by mixing condensed fish solubles with relatively low concentrations
(10-20%) of exfoliated vermiculite. Thistype of product hasbeen used in 'starter
rations'for swineand poultry.
'Trashfish'(caughtataratioof6poundsoftrashfishto1 poundofshrimp)can
alsobeconverted intoanimalfeed. Thefishareseparated from theshrimp,ground
andplacedinaheatedorsometimesacooledliquidtankaboardship.Alsoaddedto
the tank are preservatives, water, enzymes and achelating agent. When the ship
reaches port, the tank's contents are pumped to a land-based tank and heated to
70-80C (158-176F) for 30-60 minutes to inactivate the enzymes. The bones and
scalessettletothebottomofthetankwhiletheoilrisestothetop.Thisprocedure,
after centrifuging, drying or evaporation, produces bone and scale meal (28%
protein,8% moisture,55%ashand5%oil),fishmeal (61% protein, 8% moisture,
12%ashand5%oil),fishsolubles(42-50%solids,32%proteins) andfishoil.
Pelletingoffishscrapor mealisoften desirable because itreducesthe volume,
preventsrapidoxidation andcharring andreducesthedustinessofthe product.
Crustacean (e.g. shrimp,prawn, crawfish, crab) mealsare utilized for aquacul-
turediets,notonlyfortheirnutritionalvalue,butalsoasasupplyofthe carotenoid
pigmentastaxanthin (C40H52O4).Whenthispigmentisconsumedbytroutandcoho
salmon,itprovidesenhancementofintegumentandfleshcolouration.Asoybeanoil
extractionprocesshasbeendevelopedtorecoverastaxanthinpigmentfrom peeling
waste.
FISHSILAGE
Fishsilage,aswellassilagefrom theentrailsfrom warm-blooded animals,hasbeen
produced on a limited scale for a number of years and Raa and Gildberg (1982)
present arecent reviewofthestateofthisart.
There are two principal methods of production and they include the 'acid-
preservedsilage'(inorganicand/ororganicacidsareaddedtolowerthepHand the
silagebecomesliquidduetonauturallyoccurringenzymes)and'fermented silage'(a
fermentable sugar is added to the fish and either naturally occurring lactic acid
bacteria or astarter culture isused to generate lacticacid and lower the pH). The
fermentation technique hascurrently notbeen used commercially.
Thefishsilageproducedmaybeusedasaproteinsupplementtoanimalfeed and
maybefedasaliquidormixedwithcarbohydrates.Ifthefishhadahighoilcontent,
thisoilneedstoberemoved(ifoilisgreaterthan2%netweight)beforefeedingsince
highfish-oillevelswill impart a 'fishy taint' to the animal products and rancid oil
lowersthenutritionalvalueofthe feed.
Thenatural alternativetofishsilageisfishmeal,andtheadvantagesofsilagein
contrasttomealinclude (Raa and Gildberg, 1982):
(1) Fishsilagedoesnotputrefy evenwhenstoredathightemperatureandthereare
lesspollution problemsencountered initsproduction.
(2) Fishsilageisalmoststerile and Salmonellaisdestroyed.
(3) Thescaleoffishsilageproductioncanbevariedwithoutaffectingtheeconomyof
production.
(4) Energy requirementsofproduction areverylowcompared tofishmeal.
(5) Fishsilagemixedwithcarbohydratescanbesun-dried withoutflyinfestation.
Thedisadvantagesoffishsilagecompared tofishmealinclude:
(1) Fishsilageismorebulkyandexpensiveto transport.
(2) Therearesomenutritionaldisadvantagestofishsilage,particularlyiffedathigh
levels.
292 Seafoodby-products [Ch. 11
Production offish silage
Theproductionofsilagebytheinorganicacid(e.g.sulphuric(H
2
SO
4
),hydrochloric
(HC1)orphosphoric(H
3
PO
4
)acids)techniquesrequiresloweringthepHtobelow2
for preservation. This can be accomplished by adding 91 (2.4gallons) of a 14N
inorganic acid (e.g. 6.3kg(13.9lb)or 3.41(0.9gallons) of concentrated sulphuric
acid)forboneyfishand41(1.1gallon)ofa14Ninorganicacid(e.g.2.8kg(6.2lb)or
1.51 (0.4gallons) of concentrated sulphuric acid) for oily fish (with low ash and
protein content) per 100kg (2201b) offish.This acid level requires neutralization
prior to feeding and the addition of 1-5 kg (2.2-11lb) chalk (calcium carbonate,
CaCO
3
)per 100kg(220lb)ofsilageisoften used.Thisproducesahighsaltlevelin
thesilage,whichisundesirablefrom anutritional standpoint.
Organicacids(e.g.3%offormic(CH
2
O
2
),propionic(C
3
H6O
2
)acids)aremore
effective thaninorganicacids.Theorganicacidsdonothavetobeneutralized before
feeding, but the organic acidsare more expensive. In order to reduce thepriceof
production, a mixture of organic and inorganic acids are often used to make this
silage.
Nutrition offishsilage
Aminoacidsarefairlystableinfishsilage.Thethiaminaseenzymesystemwilloften
degradate vitamin Bi, causing a thiamin deficiency. This loss of thiamin can be
avoided by heating the silage to boiling, thus destroying the enzyme system.
Oxidation of lipids has been reported to be responsible for the sometimes poor
nutritionalvaluereportedforfishsilage.Itisnotcurrentlyknownifallpathogensare
destroyed by silage production; therefore, heating seems advisable and this also
improvesthenutritionalvalue.
Thenutritionalvalueoffishsilagehasbeenreportedasagoodsourceofprotein,
but other reports indicate that it is inferior tofishmeal. Many of these reported
differences are probably due to silage quality and level of incorporation into the
animals' feed. Certainly high salt levels will reduce feed intake and growth. To
reducecarcassoffflavours,afishlipidleveloflessthan 1%(below0.6% inthelast
fewdaysbeforeslaughter)ofthedryweightisoften recommended.Alevelof5-10%
ofthedryweightofthedietisusedforpigs.Fishsilagehasbeenusedsatisfactorilyat
the30%oftotalproteinlevelforchickensandatthe 12-23%levelforbroilers.The
30%levelresulted ina2.7%oilcontentwhichresulted incarcasstaintbuttheeggs
were of normal, good quality. Other feeding trials resulted in lower nutritional
valueswhenfishsilagewasusedforpoultryfeed,dependingonthelevelofinclusion.
Thenetproteinutilization hasbeenreported asrangingfrom 52%toslightlyabove
70% forfishsilage.
The nutritional value of fermented fish silage has been reported asgood, and
biologicalvaluesimilartoskimmedmilkpowderorfishmealhasbeenobtained.In
most reports, the feeding value of fermented silage issuperior to inorganic-acid-
produced silage.
FISH OILS
Fish species can be divided into two categories (see Table 11.5) based on the
structure of their skeleton. This division also separates them into the general
category of whether or not they are used as food fish, and they can be further
subdividedintowheretheirdepotfatislocated.Inadditiontospecies,fatdeposition
depends upon feeding habits, season, spawning cycle, and the temperature of the
waterinwhich they live.The chemical composition depends, to alarge extent, on
ingested diet, which also relates back to species, since most speciesoffishhave a
fairlyspecificdiet.Storeddepotfatisnormallysimilartoingestedfat. Ingeneral,the
morethefisheatsthegreater itsfat content.Thespawningcycleinfluences feeding
habits,sincethefishnormallystopseatingbefore spawningandlivesoff stored fat.
Atthistime,energy isalsorequired to develop their rapidly maturing sexorgans.
Thisdepletionofstoredfatatspawningtimeoccursinbothfishthatstoretheirfatin
muscletissueandfishthatstoretheirfat inthe liver.
Fish oil can be processed like other oils and will undergo hydrolysis and
saponification, hydrogenation, oxidation,sulphation andsulphurization, fractiona-
tion,andbodyingofoilwith heat.
Fishingeneralcontain oilofwhichapproximately 25% issaturated and75%is
unsaturated(usuallyhighlyunsaturated);thecompositionoffish oilscanbefoundin
Table11.6.Thequantityofunsaponifiablesisextremelyvariableinfishoilsandmost
fish liveroilcontainsrelativelylargeamountsofcholesterol(C
2
7H
46
O),butbodyoils
arerelativelylowinthiscomponent.Ingeneral,fishoilsaremorecomplexduetothe
longchainofhighlyunsaturated fatty acids,than arefatsfrom animalsthat liveon
landorfrom vegetable fats. Itisgenerallybelieved thatfishoilodour isdueto the
highlevelofunsaturated fatty acids.Hydrogenation offishfat willcausethefat to
losethisodour. Fishthat inhabit northern regionshave ahigherdegree of unsatu-
rationintheiroilthanfishthat arecaughtinwarmer latitudes.
Fishoilsdeteriorateduetotheactionofnaturallipasesinthefishtissueor from
microorganisms in the fat. This generates free fatty acids, causes development of
oxidative rancidity of both fats and vitamins, and encourages flavour reversion.
Maintaining the oil at less than 0.3% moisture will prevent bacterial growth and
prevent deterioration caused by their growth and by enzymes produced by the
microorganisms. Tissue that is stored as cold as possible will delay bacterial,
enzymatic and chemical reactions that result in deterioration. Maintaining tissue
intactratherthanmincedwillalsoretarddeteriorationduetolesscontaminationand
more segregation of components by tissue barriers. Heating of tissue or oil to
8(M00C (176-212F) for 15-20 minutes will inactivate the enzymes and prevent
theircontinuingcatalyticeffect. Avoidanceofmetalswhichactascatalystswillalso
retardoxidation.Slighthydrogenationaswellastheadditionofantioxidantsandthe
exclusionofairalsoinhibit oxidation.
Fishoil refining
Fishoilcanberefined usingthesametechniquesusedwithotheroils,butbecauseof
thechemicalnatureandprocessingtechniques,specifictypesofrefiningarepopular.
Most refining of fish oils consist of removal of free fatty acids, stearine (cold
clearing),pigments(bleaching),andodours(deodorization). Removaloffree fatty
acidscanbeaccomplishedbyalkalinerefining,vacuumsteamdistillation, esterifica-
tion,orsolvent separation.
Alkalinerefining isthemostpopularofthesetechniques.Itneutralizesthe free
fatty acid with sodium hydroxide (NaOH, caustic soda) or sodium carbonate
294 Seafood by-products
[Ch.11
Table11.5Distribution ofoilin fish
Class Teleostomi orteleost Selachii
Use
commonfoodfish Generally notusedasfood
Skeleton Calcified, internal Cartilaginous, internal
Fish Cod, Shark,
flounder, skates,
haddock, ray
hake,
halibut,
herring,
pilchard,
salmon,
sole
Large quantities Liver
ofoil cod shark
haddock skate
hake ray
Muscle
herring shark
pilchard
salmon
Intestineor mesentery
blackcod
flounder
lingcod
redcod
salmon
sole(some)
eggs(at spawning)
salmon
Source:Brody(1965).
(NaCO
3
,sodaash).Thecalculatedamountofthealkaliisaddedtotheoil,whichis
generally stirred and heated 2O-30C (6&-95F) for NaOH and 90C (176F) for
NaCO
3
,isenoughfor thealkalitoreactwiththefree fatty acids,butinsufficient to
saponifytheoil.Theoilandsoapstockisallowedtoseparate,sometimeswiththeaid
of a salt brine. The oil is washed several times with hot water. The absorbing
properties of soap will usually also remove some of the pigments and dispersed
proteinaceousparticles.Centrifuging and/orfilter-acidsandfilteringareusuallyalso
helpful inseparatingthesetwo fractions.
Vacuum-steam distillation isprimarilyuseful indeodorization, butalsosomeof
the free fatty acids are removed. The minimum practical level is approximately
0.25%free fatty acids,whichmaybesufficient for someuses.
Esterification isthe reaction of thefree fatty acidswith an alcohol. Ifthere are
Table11.6Rangeofpercentage distribution offatty acidsinfishoils
Percentage offatty acids
Liver Muscle Viceral Eggs
Teleostomi Selachi
Unsaponified
(%) 0.8-8.0 0.3-80.0 0.7-2.1 0.75 7.2-8.8
Saturated
C14 0.30-7.6 1.2-7.4 3.4-7.0 5.8 2.3-3.1
C16 6.5-19.2 8.4-17.0 11.3-18.6 15.7 12.9-16.0
C18 0-8.9 0-7.2 0.8-3.5 2.0 0.5-2.2
C20 0-3.6
C22 0-3.2
C24 0-0.4
Unsaturated*
C14 0-1.5 0-1.7 0.1-1.2 1.4 0.1
(2.0) (2.0) (2.0) (2.0) (2.0)
C16 3.4-21.4 2.5-12.6 6.2-15.5 10.5 9.6-12.6
(2.0-2.5) (2.0-2.2) (2.0-2.7) (2.5) (2.0)
C18 20.0-39.6 12.8-50.6 17.7-30.0 31.8 23.7-34.8
(2.0-3.0) (2.0-3.4) (2.7-4.0) (2.6) (2.7-4.0)
C20 3.5-31.5 10.6-32.5 17.9-26.6 22.4 23.2-27.2
(4.1-7.1) (2.0-7.3) (4.1-10.0) (7.1) (7.6-8.0)
C22 6.9-18.1 7.9-30.5 12.0-21.9 9.3 15.0-16.8
(4.4-10.0) (2.1-10.5) (4.3-10.0) (10.5) (10.4-11.2)
C24 0-12.0 0.1-15.2
(2.0-5.9) (3.8-10.9)
"(value)istheaverageunsaturationforindividualspeciesoffishinterms of-H.
Source:Baily(1952).
shortchainalcohols,suchasmethylorethyl,theirestersmayberemovedbyvacuum
(orsteam)distillation,butifpolyhydroxy alcoholssuchasglycerolarepresent, the
estersmaysatisfactorily remainwithinthe fat.
Solvent extraction withsuchsolventsasalcoholordiluteacetone,inwhich free
fatty acidsaremoresolublethan inneutraloil,canalsobeusedtoremovethe free
fatty acids.
Separation of the solid triglyceride from the oilwhen the oiliscooled iscalled
'coldclearing', 'winterization' or 'destearination'. Thispreventstheoilfrom cloud-
ingincoldweatherorunderrefrigeration. Thisisnotonlydesirablefrom acooking
oilstandpoint, butisalsouseful infast-drying paints.
Bleaching of oilmaybe accomplished byadsorption ofthe pigmentsoncolloi-
dally dispersed natural or activated clay or carbon particles; the combination is
removed by filtering. Decolonization can also be accomplished with oxidizing or
reducingagents.
Deodourization of oils withfishyodours is usually accomplished by vacuum-
steamdistillation at hightemperatures orbyhydrogenation oftheoil.
Fish oils arc used for human use as canning oil (e.g. salmon and sardine),
margarine production (usuallyhydrogenated),cookingfats (usually hydrogenated;
notpermitted intheU.S.) andshortening(notpermitted intheU.S.).Fishoilsare
usedinthemedicalandanimalfeedareasforvitaminAandDcontentasthenatural
oil, 'base oils' (carrier for vitamins), combined in a dry pre-mix or as a water
dispersion of vitamins. Industry uses fish oils in the production of soaps and
detergents,paintsandvarnishes,floorcoveringsandoilcloths,oiledfabrics,printing
inks, rubber and lubricants, and in the processing of insecticides, alkalied resins,
cosmetics,metal andprocessed leather.
Typesofcodliveroil
There are three types of cod liver oil that vary in purity and vitamin level, and
consequently areusedfor different purposes.
Number one oil is a light straw-coloured, medical-grade oil, which is used
exclusivelyforpharmaceuticalpurposes.Thisoilisonlyobtainedfromfreshliversby
thelow-temperature (82-87C(180-190F))thermalruptureofthecellswiththeoil
allowedtooozeout.Thisoilishighinvitamin Apotency.
Numbertwooilisareddish-orangecolouredoilcausedbypartialoxidationofthe
oilandisobtained byfurther processingoftheresidueafter extractionofNo. 1 oil.
Theresidue issubjected toadditional steamingandpressing. Becauseitislowerin
vitamin Apotency,itisused asstockfeed andfor industrial purposes.
Codoilisadark-colouredoilobtainedfrompartiallydecomposedlivers.Itishigh
infreefattyacids.Itcompeteswithfishbodyoilsandisusedintheindustrialareafor
such things as lubricating leather, tempering steel, and making printing inks, oil
cloth,linoleum,paints,andvarnishes.
Fish liveroils
Fish liver oilishigh invitamin A and Dandfor these reasonsithasbeen used for
manyyearsforthetreatmentofricketsandnightblindness.VitaminAtodaycanbe
produced synthetically, but by extracting the liver oil products, the vitamin D
complex in addition to vitamin A is available from the press residue. The non-
triglyceride fraction offishoils will contain, as previously mentioned, vitamin A
(vitaminAi (C
2
oH
30
0),andvitaminA
2
(C20H28O))andvitaminD (D
1
(C
56
H
88
O2),
D
2
(C28H44O) or calciferol, and D
3
(C27H44O) or activated 7-dehydrocholesterol
(C27H44O)).Itwillalsocontain cholesterol ((C^HÔ), e.g. Atlanticcod liveroil,
0.3%), lecithin, pigments (astacin (C4oH4804, red), fucoxanthin (C42H
58
O
6
,
yellow),xanthophyll(C
40
H
56
O2,yellow),carotene(C4oH
56
,redtopurple),taraxan-
thin, zeaxanthin (C4oH
56
0
2
, yellow), and chlorophyll (C54_55H
7
o_72MgN
4
05_6,
green)),monoglycerideesters,andhydrocarbons (squalene,C30H5).
The water-soluble vitamins, including the B-complex, are often obtained from
the press-liquor comingfrom thefishmeal manufacturing process,inwhichwhole
fish areutilized.Thepress-liquoriscentrifuged andtreatedwith0.25%-0.5%alum
(A1KO
8
S2)toprecipitatetheproteins.Theclearliquorisevaporated undervacuum
ormaybeacidifiedortreatedwithasolidabsorbantwhichabsorbsthevitamins.The
vitaminsareremovedfrom theabsorbant withasolvent,whichislater removedby
evaporation.
Duetothedifferingcompositionoffishlivers,extractionproceduresoftenvary;a
classification offishlivers and viscera and extraction techniques may be found in
Table11.7.
Thehigh-oil,low-vitaminApotencyliversdonotjustify anexpensiveextraction
procedure.ThehighfatlevelalsoactsasasolventforthevitaminAandhelpswithits
extraction.
The simplest and most economical technique is direct steaming at 85-88C
185-192T (some procedures call for 70-75C (158-167F)), which thermally rup-
turesthetissue.Theoilisthenskimmed andfilteredorcentrifuged from thewater
fraction. With fresh liver, thistechnique producesgood-quality oil,but stale livers
resultinahighfatty acidlevel.Yieldsofonly70-75%areoften obtained.
Asimplepercolator can alsobeusedtoextract the liverswithsteam. A 5-hour
extractionwillyieldapproximately 80%oftheoilinthe liver.
Thefishliverscanalsobecoldextractedbygrindingthefishliversandremovalof
approximately 80%oftheoilfrom therawliverswitha centrifuge.
A flotation technique is also available in which the livers are treated with a
preservative (2% formaldehyde (CH
2
O), phenol (QFÔ), resorcinol (Ci
2
H
9
O
2
NaO
5
S),cresol(C
8
Hi
0
O
2
)oralcohol(C
2
H
6
O)mixedwithabasesuchashydrateof
sodiumcarbonate (Na
2
CO
3
inH
2
O) toyield apHofnine)that alsocoagulatesthe
liverproteinandinactivatestheenzymes.Thedenaturedmaterialisnextgroundand
mixedwithwater and allowed toseparate.Theextracted material isthen vacuum-
dried todehydrate it and tocoagulate anyextracted protein, which isremoved by
filtering.The filtered fraction isthen chilled to0C(32F)to remove the solidified
stearicacidby re-filtering.
Oilcan alsobe separated fromfishliver byadding calcium chloride (CaCl
2
) to
coagulatetheprotein,whichreleasesapproximately 50%oftheoil.
Toaccelerateoilextractiontime,withmostextractionprocedures,fishliverscan
be vacuum cooked at a reduced (compared to non-vacuum) temperature and this
procedure willalsoincreasetheyieldofoil.
Liveroilcan alsoberemoved byfreezing thefishliversandpressingout theoil
from thefrozen liver.
Dehydration of livercan alsobe used asatechnique toseparate theoil. In this
techniquethedisintegrated liversaremixedwithdrybeetpulpordehydrated cereal
grain pulp which coagulates the protein. The oilisthen removed from the dehyd-
rated liversbycoldpressing.
In the fish livers classified as low-oil high-vitamin A potency, the oil is more
tightly held to the protein and steaming techniques are not sufficient to break this
combination.Inthiscase,itisusuallynecessarytodigestorsolubilizetheproteinin
ordertoreleasetheoil.Alkalidigestioncanbeusedtoreleasetheoil.Theliversare
firstground andthen 1-2% sodiumhydroxide (NaOH)or2-5%sodium carbonate
(Na
2
CO
3
)isadded.Theproperquantityofalkaliisimportantorsaponification may
occur and vitamin A absorption inthesoap maytake place.The mixture isstirred
and cooked with steam at 82-87C (180-190F) and then the oil is removed by
centrifuging.
298 Seafood by-products [Ch.11
Table 11.7Classification offishliversandviscera
Type
Highoilcontent,
Lowvitamin A
Lowoil content,
Highvitamin A
Highoil content,
Highvitamin A
Viscera,
lowoil content,
highvitamin A
Source:Brody(1965).
Fish Liver contains Extraction
Cod, 50-75% oil, Steam,
greyfish, 500-20000 percolator,
haddock, U.S.P. units cold extraction,
hake. ofvitamin A flotation,
vacuum cooking,
freezing,
dehydration.
Halibut, 4-28% oil, Alkali digestion,
lingcod 25000-600000 enzymeand alkali
rockfish, U.S.P. units digestion,
sablefish, ofvitaminA acid digestion,
tuna. solvent extraction,
extraction withlow
vitamin Aoil.
Basking 30-75% oil, Extraction bymany
shark islow 0-340000 ofthe above
invitamin A; U.S.P. units procedures
hammerhead ofvitamin A dependingon
shark ishigh composition.
invitamin A;
Soup fin 45-75% oil,
sharks: 20000-200000
female low U.S.P. units
invitamin A, ofvitamin A.
malehigh
invitamin A.
Blackcod, 2-15% oil, Extraction with
halibut, 2000-700,000 lowvitamin Aoil,
lingcod, U.S.P. units solvent extraction
rockfish, ofvitamin A.
swordfish.
Another alkalinedigestion techniqueplacesthefishliversin82C(180F)water
and asufficient quantity of sodium hydroxide isadded to neutralize the free fatty
acids.Themixtureisstirredforonehourat90C(194F)andtheoilisseparatedwith
threevolumesof5% salinesolution.Theextractingmixtureisnextwashed,heated
to75C(167F)and centrifuged.
Anadditionalalkalinetechniqueinvolvesgrindingtheliversanddigestingthem
atapHof8.5-12.5witheither borax (B
4
Na
4
0
7
) orammonium hydroxide (NH
3
in
H
2
O)ortrisodiumphosphate(Na
3
PO
4
)atatemperatureof76-79C(170-175F)for
1520minutes.Theoilisthen separated by centrifuging.
Acombination ofenzyme and alkaline digestioncan alsobeutilized to remove
theoilfromthefishlivers.Theliversaregroundanddilutedwithanequalvolumeof
water,thepHisadjusted with25%sodiumhydroxide(NaOH)and0.05%commer-
cialpepsinisalsoadded.Thetemperatureismaintainedat43-48C(110-120F)for
35-48 hours. After hydrolysis, the pH is re-adjusted to 9with sodium carbonate
(Na
2
CO
3
)andthealkalinedigestioncontinuesforonehourat79C(175F).Theoil
isthenseparated by centrifugation.
Aciddigestioncanalsobeutilizedtoseparatetheoilfromfishliver.Theliversare
ground and the pH isadjusted to 1.5 withacid andthe mixtureisthencooked and
stirred.Theoilisseparated by centrifugation.
Solvent extraction can also be used to separate the oil from fish livers. The
extraction is normally preceeded by disintegration of the liver and removal of
moisture. Other preliminary procedures might include steaming at 70-75C
(158-167F) for 30-45minutes,orheatingortreatingwithaceticacid (C
2
H
4
O
2
) to
denaturetheliverproteins.Solventsoften usedincludeacetone(C
3
H
6
O), benzene
(C
6
H
6
),carbon disulphide (CS
2
),carbon tetrachloride (CC1
4
),dioxane (C
4
H
8
O
2
),
ethylene dichloride (C
2
H
4
C1
2
),ethyl ether (C
4
H
10
O), light petroleum, or trichlor-
oethylene (QHC^; most popular). The solvent extract isthen filtered, sometimes
washed, and the solvent is removed by vacuum distillation. Oxidation imparts a
reddish colour. A reduction invitamin A potency isoften aproblem with solvent
extraction,particularly ifprolonged heatingorelevated temperatures are used.
The high-oil high-vitamin A content fish liver have a tremendous variation in
vitamin A as well as oil content and the extraction procedure for an individual
species,and sometimessex,dependson thiscomposition. The appropriate extrac-
tion procedure can often be found in the previously mentioned procedures or a
combination of them.
Extractionoffishliverslowinoilcontent (e.g.salmon)isoften accomplishedby
mincingtheliverswith alowvitamincontent oil(e.g.grayfish liverorpilchard oil)
andheatingat 100C(212F)for 30-60minutes.Theadded oilactsasasolvent for
some of the liver oil and vitamins. The oil is then separated by settling or
centrifuging.
Thevisceraofsomefish,eventhoughlowinoilarehighinvitaminAcontent.Itis
usually extracted byremoval of the stomach, liver, milt, or roe and the remaining
visceraaregroundandalkali-digested.Thedigestedmaterialisrepeatedlywashedin
a'pickupoil'(e.g.herringoil),whichislowinvitamin A, andthen centrifuged.
VitaminAandDconcentratesfromfishliveroilaremanufactured bysaponifica-
tion and then non-polar solvent extraction of the vitamins (both A and D). The
solventisthen removed bydistillation.
Another technique used to concentrate the vitamins is short-path distillation,
whichrequiresahighvacuum (0.001mmmercury).Athinfilmofoilisheated and
thevitaminconcentrate distillsoff andiscondensed onacooledsurface. Usingthis
technique, vitamins A and D can be separately removed from the oil. Another
technique involves absorption of the vitamin: after conversion to an alcohol by
methanolysis, it isseparated from the methyl estersof fatty acid by absorption on
aluminaorsilicicacid.Inothertechniques,itisabsorbedonsoap.Impuritiesofthe
vitaminconcentrate areoften absorbed onweakened acidclay.
Fish liver oils should be protected against oxidation of vitamin A and the
unsaturatedfattyacidsbystorageinacoolplace,inaclean,dry,airtightdrum,witha
minimum of headspace, which is filled with nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Some
processorsput atinor enamel coaton theinsideofthe drums.Theoilshould also
contain lessthan 0.3%moistureorsediment (otherthanstearineorwaxes)andbe
free ofproteins.Oilshould alsobeprotected from light.
FISH LIVER PRESERVATION
Livers can spoil due to rancidity, enzymic degeneration and fermentation, or
putrefaction due to microorganisms. Fishlivermaybehandled fresh, but theyare
veryvulnerabletobacterialactionandlipolyticaction.Packinginicecanbeusedfor
onlyashortduration ofstorage.
Freezing with exclusion of oxygen isthe best way of preservingfishliver, but
often thethawingoftheliverleadstoruptureofthelivercells,whichareevenmore
vulnerable to microbial, biochemical and chemical deterioration than before
freezing.
A10%good-gradesalt(NaCl)ora0.25%formalin (CH
2
Oinwater)additioncan
beused,butthiscoagulatesthetissueandmakesthelivermoredifficult toprocess.A
combinationofgermicideandbase(previouslydiscussed)canalsobeused.Mixing9
partsofsodaash(Na
2
CO
3
)with 1partofsodiumnitrate (NaNOa) andsolubilizing
thismixtureinanequalvolumeofwaterandthen adding5%ofthissolutiontothe
livercanalsobeusedasapreservative.
FISH GELATINE
GelatineproductionisdiscussedinChapter5.Someofthedifferences inlandanimal
andfishgelatinewillbediscussedinthissection.
Fishskinandfishbonesarethesourceoffish gelatine.Therawfishskinsare first
washed for 3-4 hours in running water and then soaked in adilute alkali solution
(maximum of 0.5% sodium hydroxide, NaOH) for 6-8 hours, with three fresh
solutionsbeingused. It isnext washed again inrunning water for 3-4 hoursandis
thenmacerated inadiluteweakacid[sulphurousacid:asolutionofsulphurdioxide
(SO
2
) inwater]withthree fresh solutionsbeingused.Theskinsarethenwasheda
thirdtimewithrunningwater.Theskinsarenowreadytobeextracted,concentrated
anddriedinthenormalmanner.Onetechniquethatisoften usedistoadd2partsof
water toeach part ofpre-treated material andthen extract thegelatine at70-80C
(15&-176F)for twoconsecutive30-minuteperiods.
Gelatine obtained from fish does not have as good gelling properties as land-
animalgelatine,butcanoftenbeusedadvantageouslyincoastalcountriesthathavea
verysmallanimalpopulation. Bothlandanimalandfishgelatinecanproducehigh-
strength glue, be made sensitive to light for use in the photographic process, or
applied toalmost anysurface togiveaphotographically activecoating.
Isinglassismadefrom the air bladder, sound bladder, or swimmingbladderof
fish,which can be used to produce an excellent-grade fish gelatine or glue. This
bladderislocatedintheabdominalcavitybelowthevertebralcolumnandconsistsof
severalmembranouslayers,whicharefibrousandrichincollagen.
After removal, during the dressing operation, the air bladders are usually
temporarily preserved by salting. They are then washed and air-dried for longer
preservation. Examplesofyieldsofisinglassmaybefound inTable 11.8.
Table11.8Isinglassyields
Fish Poundsofdryisinglassper Percentagegelatin Quality
tonof fish from dryisinglass
Hake 45 85 Best
Cod 18 50 Poorer
Source:Brody(1965).
Theairbladdersarenextsoftened byimmersinginwaterfor severalhours,and
laterarerolledbetweenironrollerstoconverttheisinglassinto3-6mm(| -i in)thin
stripsorsheets.Thesheetsarefurther compressed byribbon rollersinto^ inthick
ribbonsthat aredried androlledintocoils.
Leafisinglassismadebyimmersingthebladdersinwarmwaterandtheyarethen
opened and air-dried. Book-isinglassisproduced byfolding theswimbladders and
coveringwithadampcloth.
A2%solutionofisinglasswillproduceafirmgel.Itwilldissolveindilutedacidor
in alkali, but is insoluble in alcohol. In hot water, it swells and produces a
characteristicfibrousstructurethat isnotpresent inothergelatine.
Isinglass is used as a clarifying agent for such foods as cider, wine, beer, and
vinegar.
FISHGLUE
Themarketforfishglueshrankconsiderablyinrecentyearsduetocompetition from
newtypesofadhesives.FishglueisdiscussedinChapter5.Someofthe differences
betweengluederivedfromfishandgluederivedfrom otheranimalproductswillbe
discussedinthis chapter.
Rawmaterialsforfishgluearefishskinsandfishheads.Fishskinscanbesalted
forshort-termpreservation,butshouldbedriedforlonger-termstorage.Fishheads
mustbeusedfresh. Gluesmadefrom headsareinferior tothosemadefrom skins.
For manufacturing glue from fish skins, the salted skins arefirstcooled for 12
hours(fresh skins,1-2 hours)incoldrunningwaterusingarollermill.Thisreduces
thechloridecontenttolessthan0.1%,whichisnecessarytopreventthefinishedglue
from beinghygroscopic (readily accepting moisture). After washing, the skins are
treatedwith0.2% causticsoda (NaOH)orsaturated lime(CaO),then thisalkaliis
neutralizedwith0.2%hydrochloricacid(HC1),andfinallythefishskinsarerinsedin
coldrunning water.
Thepumped washed stock isnextcombined withanequalweightofwaterinto
whichsteamisinjected. Additionof 1.91(0.5gallon)ofglacialaceticacid(C
2
H
4
O
2
)
duringcookingwillincreasetheclarityoftheglue.
The'first run'cookingisforapproximately8hoursandthedilutedglueliquoris
strained. The stock is then recombined with water and a 'second run' cook is
accomplished atahighercookingtemperature,whichproducesaweakeradhesive.
Often, a'thirdrun'isalsocooked.Theskinresidueisthendriedandusedasanimal
feed or fertilizer. The dried residue contains50% proteins, and, if madefrom fish
heads,containstricalcium phosphate (Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
).
Theglueiseitherchemicallypreservedatthistimeor,moreusually,continuously
processed. The next step in processing is evaporation in an open pan, or more
properly in a vacuum concentrator. The glue is concentrated until it contains
approximately50-55%solids.After concentration,smallamountsofvolatileessen-
tial oils, such asoilof sassafras or oilof wintergreen, are added to mask the fishy
odourandtoactalsoasapreservative.
Fish heads are processed slightly differently from skins. The heads are usually
processedfresh ratherthansalted.Bleachingagentssuchassulphurousacid(sulphur
dioxide in water) or sodium bisulphite (HNaO
3
S) are added. Aso, 1-2 gallonsof
glacialaceticacid(C
2
H
4
O
2
)areusedpertonofstockduringcookingaswellaslarger
amountsofpreservativesandessentialoils.Successful attemptshavebeenmadeto
reducesaltcontent bydialysisandelectrodialysis.
The qualityoftheglueisusuallyevaluated bydetermining viscosity,gelpoint,
moisture, speed of set, drying and hygroscopicity, and bythe shear test. If proper
concentration hastakenplace,theglueshouldweigh 1.17kg/1(9.75lb/gallon).
Theadvantagesoffishgluearethatitneedsnofurther preparation,itisreadyfor
immediateapplication,anditcanbeusedfrom thesamecontainerforseveraldays.
Fishgluesetsmore slowlythan animalglue,givingtheoperator timetoadjust the
joint. This slow setting time allows the glue to penetrate the wood better and
producesgreater adhesion.
LEATHER FROM FISH SKINS
Skin from aquatic animals can be converted into leather using much the same
techniques(seeChapter4)thatareappliedtolandanimals.Themajor difference is
theexternalcoveringofanimalsthatneedstoberemoved,andthenormallysmaller
sizeof thefinishedproduct. Aquatic animals that have been proposed for leather
production canbefound inTable11.9.
Landanimalsoften havetheirhairremovedinthetanningoperationandaquatic
animalsoften needtohavetheirscalesorshagreen(calcareousdepositonsharkskin)
removed. Normally the skins are soaked and the scales removed mechanicallyby
cuttingthemoffattheroots,whichleavesonlythescalepatternandthuseliminates
theraspysurfacewhichispresentonmanyfish-typeskins.Shagreenisnowremoved
chemicallysincescrapingoften damagestheskin.Becauseoftheshagreen removal
procedure,chrometannagecannot beusedon sharkskin.
The tanning procedure, except for thepreviously mentioned exception, isvery
similartotheoneusedforland-typeanimalsandconsistsoftheremovalofscalesor
shagreen, leaching out of salt, treating skins with sodium carbonate (Na
2
CO
3
) to
Table11.9Aquaticanimalsthatcouldbeusedfor leather production
Animal Usage
Alligator Usedfor manyyears
Dolphin Could beutilized
Ground fish Neglected
Cod
Cusk
Haddock
Hake
Pollack
Porpoise Couldbeutilized
Ray Couldbeutilized
Salmon Utilizedtosomeextent for shoes
Seal Usedfor manyyears
Shark Usedfor manyyearsfor shoes
Skate Couldbeutilized
Walrus Slightlyutilized
Source:Brody (1965).
saponify smallamountsoffat remainingintheskin,batingtheskin,andtanningby
eitherthevegetableprocedure(mostpopular)orthechromeprocedure(notusedif
shagreen isremoved chemically).
Ingeneral,fishskinsproduce asmooth,flexible,fine-textured,durable,strong,
long-wearing, non-scuffing, naturally and variably patterned leather which has
porosity andcomfort against thefoot. Theleathercanbecleaned withgood polish
anditmaintainsitsoriginalcolourswell.
Fishskinsarenotresponsibleforalargeshareoftheleathermarketbecausethey
havetroublecompetingeconomicallywithsyntheticsandleatherfrom landanimals
(Brody, 1965).
Agreatmanytypesofleathercouldbeproducedfrom aquaticanimalsduetothe
wide variety of possible species of skins, types of tanning, colouring types and
concentrationsused,exposuretimes,andtypesofchemicalreagents utilized.
CHITIN AND CHITOSAN
Chitin and chitosan are primarily acetylated polymers of glucosamine which have
basic(highpH)characteristics.Chitosanisacollectivetermappliedtodeacetylated
chitinsinvariousstagesofdeacetylationanddepolymerization.Chitosanisprimarily
analiphaticpolyamine.Thepolysaccharidechitinisfoundinawidevarietyofanimal
species(seeTable11.10)and,infact,isthesecondmostabundantorganicsubstance
on earth after cellulose. Chitin production is primarily from shellfish waste. The
immediateprincipalsourceisshrimpandcrabwaste.
Approximately65%ofwholeclamsand85%byweightofwholeoystersconsists
of shells,and theshellscontain 3-6% chitin. Currently, the shellsare usedfor soil
liming, animal feed additives and road building, but they could be used for chitin
extraction. Processing,however, isachallengeduetothelargeamountofminerals
(85-90%)intheshells.Themineralsareremovedbyaceticacidandthenextraction
continues normally.
Thebackboneorpenofsquidisoneofthepurerformsofchitin,butitaccounts
foronly1%ofthesquid'sbodyweight.Onadry-weightbasis,itcontains40%chitin.
Thedemineralization stepcanbeeliminated sinceitisfree ofcalciumsalts.
Table 11.10Percentagechitin ondry-weight basisinprocessingwaste
Originofwaste Chitin (%)
Clams/oysters 3-6
Fungi 10-25
Insects 0-8
Krill 3-7 24% innon-tail
Shellfish 14-35 25% average
Squid 1-2 40% in backbone
The manufacture of chitosan from the exoskeletons of crustaceans involves
demineralization withdiluteacid,deproteinization withdilutealkali atamoderate
temperature to purify chitin, and deacetylation with concentrated alkali at ahigh
temperature to convert chitin to chitosan. Variation in reagents, concentrations,
time and temperature will determine the chemical characteristics and molecular
weightdistributionofchitosan.Anextracellularchitinaseenzymeofmicrobialorigin
has alsobeen used tohydrolyse chitin wasteintosmaller sugar unitswhichcanbe
used inanimal andaquaculture feed. Other research hasshownthattheenzymatic
hydrolysateofchitincanbeconverted intoasinglecellprotein byyeast.
The usesandproposed usesofchitin andchitosancanbeoutlined asfollows:
Usesofchitin:
(1) Paper andtextileadditivesandfinishes.
(2) Foodwrappingfilmandspecialityfilaments.
(3) Absorbentsfor metalions
(4) Cementsfor leather
(5) Drillingmuds
(6) Photographic products
(7) Coagulantsuseful forflocculatingsuspensions.
(8) Wound-healing activity
(9) Toproduceyeastsingle-cell protein
Usesofchitosan:
(1) Biodegradableand,therefore,food-processing wastecoagulatedwithitcanbe
fed to animals
(2) Dewateringof sludge
(3) Water purification
(4) Ion-exchange
(5) Chelatingsolidsfor chromatography
(6) Tough,flexiblefilms
(7) Wound-healing promotion
(8) Adhesives
(9) Ion-exchange membranes
(10) Laundry-shrinkage control
Processingofvariousmarine animalsfor chitin andchitosenhasmanycommon
features. Krillwillbe described here inmore detail asanexample (see Fig. 11.5).
ProcessingofAntarctickrillstartsbymechanicalpeelingwhichresultsin14.9%non-
tailprocessingwastewhichcontains24%chitin,8.6% nitrogen,41%protein,11.6%
lipidsand23%ashon adry-weight basis.Thedeproteinization isaccomplished by
extraction (1part solidto 10partsofsolvent)with3.5%NaOH at90-95Cfor two
hours. Demineralization is accomplished by extraction (1 part solid to 22 parts
solvent)oftheNaOH extracted wastewith0.6NHC1at20C(68F)for 2hours.
In some procedures the demineralized protein isfurther treated by enzymatic
hydrolysis.Yeastmaythenbegrownonthisproducttoproducesingle-cell protein.
PEARLESSENCE
Quaninisanirridescent substancefound intheepidermallayerandonthescalesof
fish speciesthatswimnearthesurfaceofthewater(e.g.herringandmackerel).Itis
often isolated and used tocoat objects inorder togivethem alustrouseffect. The
crystalline quanin is much easier to recover from the scales than it is from the
epidermis.A suspension of crystalline quanin inasolvent iscalled 'pearl essence'.
Whenquanin isdeposited ontheinsideofhollowbeadsorcoated onthesurfaceof
solid beads, it produces an optical effect similar to real pearls. Pearl essence and
pearlsare,infact,totallydifferent chemicallyandareproducedbydifferent animals.
This material is also used to coat objects other than beads where iridescence is
desired.
Pearlessencecanbeobtainedfromthescalesofmanypelagicfish.Manythatare
usedcommercially aregiveninTable 11.11.
The scales are preserved by placing them in a 10-15% brine, which is later
drained. The scales are then squeezed and compressed and then the scalescan be
storedforseveralweeksat0C(32F).Thepearlessenceiscollectedbywashingand
scrubbing the quanin from the scales with a large agitator similar to a domestic
washingmachine.Sometimeskerosene (Ci
0
toC
i6
) isusedasthewashingmedium.
Thepearlessencematerialisthenseparatedfrom thewashmaterialwiththeuseofa
centrifuge.Topurify thequanin,proteincontaminatesmaybedegradedwithpepsin
inanacidmediumat25-30C(77-86F)for50hours.Fatisremovedbyanon-polar
(e.g.benzene(C
6
H
6
)orether(C
4
H
10
O))solvent.Thecrystallinequaninisseparated
bycentrifugal forcefrom thesolvent. Itisthensuspended ineitheranaqueousora
non-aqueous liquid.
306
Seafood by-products [Ch.11
Whole krill
(1) Mechanically peel
(2) Separate
Tails (85%) Waste (15%)
(1)Grind in
collodial
mill
(2) Extraction
with NaOH
(3) Centrifuge
Processing waste(15%) Protein (85%)
(1) Extraction with 3.5%
NaOHsolution,2hours,
90- 95C(194- 203F),10%suspension
(2) Filter
(3)Wash
Deproteinized waste (47%) Protein + some lipids
I
(1)Extraction with 0.6N
53%
HC1solution,2 hours
20C(68F), 11% suspension
(2) Filter
(3)Wash
Minerals and small Crude chitin
amount of protein (49%)
51 %
Fig. 11.5Processingofkrillforchitin. FromAnderson et al.(1977).
For aqueous suspension, the scales are washed with water to which some
ammonia (NH
3
) has been added. The extract is strained and then the quanin is
allowedtosettle.Thesupernatant isdecanted andreplacedwithfresh ammoniated
water.Thisprocedureisrepeated severaltimesuntiltheproduct ispurified. Tothis
suspension,0.3%salicylicacid(C
7
H
6
O
3
)andadhesivesofanimalorfishoriginmay
be added.
For non-aqueoussuspensionsorlacquers,suchorganicsolventsasamylacetate
(C
7
O
2
H
14
),ethylacetate (C
4
H
8
O
2
),acetone (C
3
H
6
O),aceticanhydride (C
4
H
6
O
3
),
chloroform (CHC1
3
),carbontetrachloride(CC1
4
),aceticacid(C
2
H
4
O
2
)orthepearl
essence may be suspended in a highly concentrated form in a viscous lacquerof
celluloid inamylacetate.
The chemical properties of quanine placesitinthecategory of a nucleoprotein
found innucleicacid.Ithasthefollowing structural formula:
Table11.11Sourcesofpearlessence.
Area Fishscalesused
California Pilchard, sardine
Florida,fresh water Gizzard, shad
GreatLakes Cisco, whitefish
Maine Sardine herring
MississippiValley Silvercarp
Pacificcoast Alaskanherring,Atlanticmenhaden, salmon,
southern mullet
Otherareas Barracuda, bonito,butterfish, mackerel, mullet,
shad
Source:Brody (1965).
HN- C =O
I I
H
2
N - C C- NH
N - C - I M *
USEOFSHELLS
Shells have been used to raise the pH of agricultural soil (liming), and as a feed
additivetoaddcalciumandothermineralstoanimalsdietsandtobuildroads.Equal
partsof oyster shells,lime (CaO; alsoobtained from shells),sand and water have
beenusedformanyyearsincoastalareastomakeatypeofconcrete(tabby)usedfor
building and seawall construction. Lime needed for hardening the mixture is
extractedfromtheshellsbyburningthemwithpinelogsinakiln.Ashesleftfrom the
logsgivetabbyitsgreycolour.Thiscoastalconcreteisverydurable,withmanyofthe
structureslastingfor hundredsofyears.
Inthe early 1900s,unionid shellswereused extensively inthe button industry.
Today, macreous spheres are cut from unionid shells and are embedded into the
tissueofJapanesepearloysters.Thesecomprise90%ofthemarketable pearl.
FERTILIZERFROMFISH
Ithasbeenrecognizedforalongtimethatfishproductswouldincreasethegrowthof
plantmaterial.TheNorthAmericanIndiansincreasedtheircornyieldbyplantinga
fish ineveryhillof corn.
Crawfishwasteappliedattherateof6283to11210kg/ha(5000to10000lb/acre)
canbeusedtosupplycalcium,nitrogen,phosphorusandotherelementsessentialto
plantgrowth.Sincetheseelementsareintheorganicform, theyhavetheadvantage
of being released over a longer period of time than most commercial fertilizer
sources.Crawfish wasteincreasesthesoilcalciumlevelandactsasalimingagentby
raisingthesoilpH.
Fishoffal ortrashfishcanbeconverted toplantfertilizer bydigestingthemwith
sulphuricacid(H
2
SO
4
).Thetreatmentreducesthefishodour,convertsproteininto
ammonium sulphate (H
8
N
2
O
4
S) and makes the bone phosphate absorbable by
plants. Another process solubilizes the fish products with urea (CH
4
N
2
O). This
fish-urea blend hasareducedfishodour, and the urea isimmediately available to
plants asasource of nitrogen. Thefishproteinsarestillintheiroriginal proteinor
proteose state and must undergo several hydrolytic changes by soil bacteria to
becomeavailableforplantuse.Therefore,theseproteinsareabsorbedbyplantsata
slower ratethan areinorganic fertilizers.
REFERENCES
Anderson, C.G., dePablo,N.andRomo,C.R. (1977)Antarctickrill (Euphausia
superba)asasourceofchitinandchitosan. Proceedings of the First Internatio-
nal Conference on Chitin and Chitosan.pp.54-63.M.I.T., Cambridge,Mass.
Anon(1945) Guide to commercial shark fishing in the Caribbean area. U.S.Fishand
Wildlife Service,Fishery Leaflet 135.
Bailey, B. E. (1952) Marine oil with particular reference to those of Canada.
FisheriesResearch Board Con. BulletinNo.89,Ottawa.
Brody,J. (1965) Fishery by-products technology.Westport, Connecticut, AVI.
Connell, J. J. and Hardy, R. (1982) Trends in fish utilization. Farnham, England,
FishingBooks.
Gillies,M.T. (1975) Fish and shellfish processing.Park Ridge,NewJersey,Noyes
Data Corporation.
Lee,C.M.(1984)Surimiprocesstechnology. Food Tech.38(11)69-80.
Nilson, H. W. (1950) Feeding value offish meals.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
September No.269.Washington DC.
Ockerman,H.W.andStombaugh,I.(1987)Scienceandsuperfoodsfortheworld's
hungry. Accepted for publication in Science of Food and Agriculture, CAST,
Iowa.
Orr, M. L. and Watt, B. K. (1957)Amino acidcontent offood. Home Economics
Research Report No. 4.Washington, DC,U.S.Department of Agriculture.
Raa, J. and Gildberg, A. (1982) Fish Silage; A Review. CRC Critical Reviewsin
Food Scienceand Nutrition. CRCPress,BocaRaton, Florida, pp383419.
Tressler, D. K. and Lemon, J. Mew. (1951) Marine products of commerce,p712.
Reinhold, New York.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Bureau ofCommercial Fisheries. (1962) Industrial
fish products-1961, annual summaryC.F.S. No.2863.
Windsor, M. and Barlow, S. (1981) Introduction of fishery by-products, Farnham,
England, FishingNewsBooks, 187pp.
12
Poultryby-products
POULTRY
By-productsofthepoultryprocessingindustryareessentiallyedibletissueandbone
fromthecarcass,inediblecarcasspartsthatarerendered,eggshellsandfeathers(see
Table12.1).Poultrymanureisconsideredasaby-productfromtheproductionphase
ofthe industry.
Mechanical separation of meat from bone is discussed in Chapter 6. In this
process,largeamountsofmechanicallydebonedpoultryresiduesareobtained.This
residuemayvary,dependingonthetissuedebonedandthedeboningprocess,butan
avergecompositionis17%proteinand 13%fat(Jackson et al., 1982).Theproteinis
primarily collagen, but as much as 20% may be sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar
quality.Extractionofthisproteinmaybeaccomplishedwithsolventssuchassodium
chloride (NaCl)orbyalkalitreatmentsfollowed byacidprecipitation. Oneextrac-
tionprocedureinvolvestumblingofdeboningresidueatapHof10.5at23C(73F)
for30-60minutes.After thistreatment,theliquidextractcanbeseparatedfrom the
solidresiduebycentrifugal force andthenthepHcanbeadjusted to5.5byadding
1NHC1to precipitate the soluble protein. The coagulated protein can then be
separated from theliquid asaprotein curdbycentrifuging orscreening.
Poultryby-productmealismanufactured bydryorwetrenderingofgroundclean
partsof thecarcasssuch ascondemned chickens,racksfrom deboning operations,
head,feet, underdeveloped eggsandviscera,butexcludingfeathers,exceptintrace
amounts as might occur in normal processing procedures. The material is highly
abrasiveduetogritfrom gizzards(gritisusedinonlyaverysmallpercentageofthe
chickens fed in the U.S. today) which subjects the equipment to rapid wear.
Backprimingwithfat issometimesusedtofluidizethematerial,toreducewearand
improveheattransfer. Continuousprocessingequipment (Anon, 1979)containinga
tubular shaft fitted with vertically mounted double-walled discand asteam jacket
giving a temperature of 113-116C (235-240F) is used by some of the larger
processors.Insomeoperationstwocookersareruninseries.Theproductisusually
first ground (often with cage mill grinders), screened (often pellet-mill whirly
cleaners)through acoarsescreen toremoveferrous material and then ground toa
310 Poultry by-products [Ch. 12
Table 12.1Yieldofby-productsfrom broilers,fowl and turkeys
Material
Wasteyieldfrom pantry
Offal
Blood
Feathers
Feathers,wet
Mixed (dry feathers)
Waterpick up
Offal
Blood
Feathers
Mixed
Totalwasteyield
Offal
Blood
Feathers
Mixed
Water evaporated
Offal
Blood
Feathers
Mixed
Dryproduct (8%Moisture)
Offal
Blood meal
Feather meal
Mixed
Pressedproduct (1 % fat)
By-product meal
Grease
Percentage ofliveweight
Broilers Fowl Turkey
17.5(15-20) 17.0(17-18) 12.5
3.5(3.2-4.2) 3.0 3.5
7.0(4.8-7.5) 7.0 7.0
22.0 20.0 14.0
28.0 a 23.0
1.0 1.0

15.0 13.0 7.0
16.0 a 7.0
18.5 18.0 12.5
3.5 3.0 3.5
22.0 20.0 14.0
44.0 a 30.0
12.7 10.6 7.5
2.7 2.3 2.7
16.5 14.5 8.1
31.9 a 18.3
5.8 1A 5.0
0.8 0.7 0.8
5.5 5.5 5.9
12.8 a 11.7
5.2 4.3 4.2
0.6 3.2 0.8
a Noadvantage tomixingpriortocooking,since fatlevelwillrequirepressingpriortogrinding.
From:Lortscher etal. (1957).
consistency between those of cornmeal and flour and then passed through afine
screen. Coarsematerial from thescreeningisreturned tothe grinder.
Inrendering(dry)themoisturelevelisreducedinaseparatedryertoapproxima-
tely8%andthentheproductispressedtoremoveexcessfatsousuallyafat levelof
approximately 10%remains.Aflowchartshowingrenderingofbroilermixedwaste
andofbroileroffal maybefound inFigs12.1and 12.2respectively.
311 Ch. 12] Poultryby-products
Thefinalapproximate compositionofpoultryby-products(NRA, 1970;Vande-
populiere, 1984)isasgiveninTable 12.2.
The final product is usually used in pet food because of its light colour and
palatability.
FEATHERS
Feathers, a by-product of the poultry industry, may be utilized for clothing,
insulation, bedding, decorations, sporting equipment, feather meal and fertilizer.
Feathercharacteristicsvaryaccordingtothespeciesofbird,age,sexandlocationon
thebody.Theyareoftenclassified (HardyandHardy,1949)inthefollowinggroups:
(1) Hard feathersstiff quillsandheavyvanes.
(2) Saddlefeathers long,narrow,vaned feathers from thesaddle andback ofa
rooster.
(3) Halffluffvanedfeathers withfluffalongthelowerhalf ofthequill.
(4) Three-quarter fluffvaned featherswithfluffalongthelowerthree-quartersof
thequill.
(5) Fluff bodyfeathers withfirmshafts.
(6) Plumulessmalldownfeathers withsoft shafts.
(7) Downlight-weightfeatherswithoutashaft andwithalongfibrelength.They
arethreedimensional and donotpack down.
When feathers are saved, the more important feathers of thewingand tail are
removed after slaughter and before scalding, but this is not done in commercial
operationsintheU.S.today.Thecarcassesthenproceedtothescalder.Thescalding
water temperature for chickensisnormally between 53and58C(127-136F) and
scaldingnormallyrequires90-120secondswithaslightlyhighertemperature (60C
(140F))andlongertimebeingusedforturkeys.Waterfowl carcassesarescaldedin
therange60-63C(140-145F)for2minutes,andifthefeathersarenotsaved,they
aredippedinwaxat91C(195F)andthenintocoldwater.Theageofducksisalso
importantintheeaseoffeather removal.Whenfeathersaresaved,theymaybeheld
foraslongas12hoursifsoakedinasolutioncontaining6.8kg(15lb)ofsalt(NaCl),
473ml(1pint)hydrochloricacid(HC1)and 1131(30gallons)ofwater.The feathers
are usually washed with mild soap to remove dirt and blood. If appropriate, a
bleaching agent such as potassium permanganate (KMnO
4
), hydrogen peroxide
(H
2
O
2
) orchlorine (Cl
2
)canalsobeutilized. Stoddard'ssolvent (ahighflash-point
gasoline)issometimesusedtoremoveobjectionableodours.Finallythefeathersare
thoroughly rinsed incleanwater, blow-dried toencouragefluffing,andthen sorted
by air currents into groups by size (weight and length). Depending upon their
ultimateuse,somefeathersarelightlysprayedwithmineraloiltoreplacesomeofthe
naturaloilsthat havebeen removed inprocessing.
The use of feathers in bedding has declined because of the development of
syntheticfibresandplasticfoam, butgood-quality beddingstillusesbody feathers,
generallyfrom waterfowl. Basicrequirements for good beddingfeathers aremaxi-
mum volume when in use and minimum volume for storage. Other desirable
312 Poultryby-products
[Ch.12
100Ib broilers
161bwater
Slaughter plant
44 1bmixed waste
17.5 1b offal
3.5 Ib blood
7.0 Ib feathers
16.0Ibadded water
Drying in cooker Final drying in dryer
Cooker *- Waste gas, Waste gas Cooker
27.4% yield 31.9 Ib water 22.8Ibwater 48.2%yield
12.1Ib Mixed meal (27.5%) 21.2IbWet mixed meal (48%)
1.0 1bwater (8%) 10.1Ibwater (47.5%)
1.2 1bfat (10.4%) 1.21b fat (5.8%)
9.9 Ibsolid (81.6%) 9.9 Ibsolids (46.7%)
I
I
Waste gas, Dryer
Grinder
9.1 IbWater
57%yield
I
12.1Ib Mixed meal (27.5%)
21.1Ib Mixed meal (48%)
1.01b water (8%)
0.9 Ibwater (8%)
1.2 1bfat (10.4%)
1.2 1bfat (10.4%)
9.9 Ibsolids (81.9%)
9.9 Ibsolids (81.9%)
8.1 Ib protein (67.4%)
1.7 Ibfibre and ash (14.5%)
Grinder
12.1Mixed meal (48%)
0.9 Ibwater (8%)
1.2 1bfat (10.4%)
9.9 Ibsolid (81.9%)
8.1 Ib protein (67.4%)
1.7 1bfibre andash (14.5%)
Fig. 12.1Broilermixedwasteby-productprocessing. 1 Ib=0.454kg.FromLorchester et al.
(1957).
characteristics include ability to return to their original volume, fluffability, low
absorption,softness,drapability,warmth,cleanliness,fire-resistance, launderability
and durability.
Colour,shape,sizeandplumagepatternsareimportantwhenfeathers areused
for decorative purposes. Forthisreason,cockpheasantsareindemand becauseof
their brightly coloured feathers. In many cases the feathers are dyed, bent and
trimmedtodesired patterns.
For sporting equipment, feathers are carefully hand-selected. For example
sturdy feathers from mature turkeys are used forfletchingarrows. Feathers onan
313 Ch. 12] Poultry by-products
100Ib Broilers
11bwater added
Slaughter plant
18.51bOffal
62- 77%water
4- 20%fat
18- 24% solids
Drying in cooker Final drying in dryer
Cooker
31.4%yield "
Waste gas,
12.7 Ibwater
Waste gas,
9.1 Ib water
Cooker
51 % yield
5.8IbDrytankage (31.4%) 9.4 IbWet tankage (50.8%)
0.5 Ibwater (8%) 4.1 Ibwater (43%)
1.2 1bfat (20-21%) 1.2 Ibfat (12.5%)
4.2Ibsolids (71 -72%) 4.2 Ibsolids (44.5%)
49% protein
Waste gas, Dryer
Press - 0.6 Ib Fat(3.2%) 3.6 Ib Water 62%yield
I I
Grinder 5.8 IbDrytankage (31.4%)
0.5 Ibwater (8%)
5.2 IbBy-product meal (28.1%)
1.2 1b fat (20%)
0.5 Ibwater (8.9-9.1%)
4.2 Ibsolid (72%)
0.5 Ibfat (10.0-10.1%)
49% Protein
4.2Ibsolids (81- 82%)
2.8Ibprotein (55%)
0.6 lbs. Fat (3.2%) Press
1.31b fibre and ash (26%)
I
Grinder
I
5.2 Ib By-product meal (28.1%)
0.5 Ibwater (8.9%)
0.5 Ibfat (10.1%)
4.2 Ibsolid (81%)
2.8 Ibprotein (55%)
1.3 1bfibre and ash (26%)
12.2Broileroffal by-productprocessing. 1 Ib=0.454kg.
individual arrow must allcome from either the right or left wingto assure proper
rotationofthearrow.Stifffeathersarealsousedforshuttlecocksusedinbadminton.
Other selected feathers areusedtomanufacture artifical luresfor fishing.
Featherscan alsobeusedfor fertilizer and mulch.They decompose slowlyand
graduallyreleasetheirnitrogen.Topreventunwanteddistributionbythewindthey
shouldbeploughed under.
Theproductionoffeather mealisthelargestmarketoffeathers.Aflowchart for
feather mealproduction maybefound inFig.12.3.
Feathers are composed of acomplex protein (keratin), which must be broken
314 Poultry by-products
[Ch.12
Table12.2Compositionofpoultry by-products
Protein Minimumasspecified
Moisture Maximum 10%
Fibre Maximum4%
Ash Maximum15%
Acid
Insolubleash maximum4%
Fat Maximumorminimum asspecified
Grind 100%through U.S.No.7screen
95% through U.S.No. 10screen
From NRA, 1970;Vandepopuliere, 1984.
100IbBroilers
15Ibwater added
Slaughter plant
22IbWetfeathers
Drying incooker Finaldrying indryer
Cooker Wastegas, Wastegas,
Cooker
25%yield 16.51bwater 11.8Ibwater
46.5%yield
5.5 IbFeather meal (25%) 10.2IbWetfeather meal (46.4%)
0.4 Ibwater(8%)
5.2Ibwater (50.5%)
0.06 Ibfat(1%)
0.06Ibfat(0.6%)
5.0 Ibsolid (91%)
5.0Ibsolids (48.9%)
Grinder
Wastegas,
Dryer
4.7Ibwater 54%yield
I
5.5IbFeather meal (25%)
5.5 IbFeather meal (25%)
0.4Ibwater(8%)
0.4 Ibwater(8%)
0.2 Ibfat(3%)
0.06 Ibfat(1%)
4.9Ibsolids (89%)
5.0 Ibsolids (91%)
4.7Ibprotein (85%)
0.2Ibfibre andash (4%)
Grinder
5.5IbFeather meal (25%)
0.4Ibwater(8%)
0.2 Ibfat(3%)
4.9Ibsolid (89%)
4.7Ibprotein (85%)
0.2Ibfibre andash (4%)
Fig. 12.3Broilerfeather by-productprocessing. 1 lb=0.454kg. FromLortscherefa/. (1957).
315 Ch. 12] Poultryby-products
down by hydrolysis to make them digestible. After collection from a processing
plant,thefeathers arewashedwithwater.Insomeoperationstheyaredewateredby
mechanicalpressure rather thanheat.After someofthewaterisremoved,theyare
steamed,wet-cookedforhydrolysisunderpressurewithconstantagitation,andthen
usuallyprocessedindry-renderers(cookers)under2-3atmospherespressurefor 1-2
hours. The feathers are then cooled and dried, often in atube drier that has been
converted toanairdrier, andthen ground. Theground mealgoesthrough ametal
detectorandthenisscreenedtoremovecoarseparticles.Thedigestibilityof feather
meal is directly affected by cooking time and pressure (amount of hydrolysis),
usuallywithmoreintensiveprocessingresultinginhigheravailabilityofaminoacids
and higher biological values. Feather meal (hydrolysed poultry feathers) should
(NRA, 1970)becomposed asshowninTable12.3.
Table12.3Composition offeather meal
Protein 75%ofcrudeprotein (range70-80%) asdigestible protein.
Minimim as specified.
Mostcontain 85-90%crude protein.
Moisture Maximum 10%.
Fibre Maximum 4%.
Fat Maximum as specified.
Grind 100%through U.S.No.7screen
95% through U.S.No. 10screen
From NRA, 1970.
Feather meal isrich in cystine, threonine and arginine, but isdeficient in four
essentialaminoacids;lysine,methionine,histidineandtryptophan(seeTable12.4).
Therefore, when feather meal isfed to monogastric animals (poultry and swine),
theseaminoacidsneedtobeaddedtotheration.Thepracticallevelforuseoffeather
mealinthediet is0.5-1.5%.
Feather meal isutilized better bythe ruminant animal (e.g.cattle) in vivo (live
animal) than would be suggested by in vivo (test tube) tests. Utilization in the
ruminantanimalcanbeimprovedwhenthefeather mealissupplementedwithurea.
Although feather meal can be utilized to supply half of the dietary nitrogen of
ruminants,utilization ispoorwhenexcessiveamountsarefed. Oneoftheproblems
inprocessingfeathers andotherby-productsusedforfeed isrecontamination ofthe
rendered product by incoming unprocessed material. The contaminated rendered
productisthenfedtolivestock.Thisisaspecialproblemwith Salmonellaorganisms
inpoultry feeds.
EGG SHELLS
Egg shells represent approximately 11% of the total weight of an egg and are
available in large quantities from egg-breaking plants and commercial hatcheries.
Eggshellscontainapproximately94%calciumcarbonate (CaCO
3
), 1%magnesium
316 Poultry by-products [Ch. 12
Table 12.4Chemical analysisoffeather meal
Percentageof protein
Alanine 2.2-4.4
Arginine 4.4-8.8
Asparticacid 3.4-6.1
Cystine 1.6-3.7
Glutamicacid 6.1-8.9
Glycine 4.2-9.0
Histidine 0.4-1.8
Isoleucine 3.0-6.2
Leucine 5.4-11.9
Lycine 0.9-2.4
Lycine,available 1.2-1.6
Methionine 0.3-0.6
Phenylalanine 3.2-7.9
Proline 6.8-14.7
Serine 7.9-12.0
Threonine 1.7-3.4
Tyrosine 1.9-3.2
Valine 4.0-10.4
Protein (%) 82.9-84.7
Ether extract (%) 1.2-2.4
Ash (%) 3.6^.2
Pepsin,digestible 71.8-74.6
Source: Morris and Balloun (1973),Wessels(1972),McCosland and Richardson (1966).
carbonate (MgCO
3
), 1%calcium phosphate (CaPO
4
) and 4% organic matter (see
Table 12.5). In egg-breaking plants, egg shells are centrifuged before disposal to
recover adhering egg white. The inedible egg white material is used as technical
albumin,usuallyfor adhesives.Eggshellsareoften hauledtoland-fillsfordisposal,
butthisisexpensiveandcausespollutionproblems,andtheshellsaresusceptibleto
bacterial spoilage and insect infestation, resulting in offensive odours. Some
progresshasbeenmadeinconvertingtheshellstohumanandanimalfeedtosupplya
sourceofcalcium,especiallyforpoultryfeeds. Eggshellmealismadebydrying,as
soonafter collection aspossible,andbyheatingtheeggshellsat80Cuntiltheyare
sterilized. Processingassoonaspossibleafter collection reducescontaminationand
consequently reduces the heating time required for sterilization. The processed
shellsarethen ground intosmallparticles.Grittinesscanbepartiallyeliminatedby
grindingfineenough for theproduct topassthrough aNo.400sieve.Inaddition to
beingarichsourceofcalcium,eggshellmealalsohastheaddednutritionalvalueof
theprotein from thealbuminresidue,eggshellmembraneandtheeggshellmatrix.
When used inhuman food, levelsofupto0.4% havebeenincorporated intomixes
withoutaffecting palatabilityorcookingquality.Thecalciumlevelinpoultryrations
Table12.5Composition (dry-weight basis)ofeggshellwaste
With adhering Centrifuged Washed
albumin samples sampels
Originalmoisture (wet basis) 29-35 16.2
Protein 7.6-8.1 5.3 5.1

Alanine 0.45 0.26 0.20
Arginine 0.56-0.57 0.38 0.37
Asparticacid 0.83-0.87 0.52 0.45
Cystine+cysteine 0.37-0.41 0.20 0.35
Glutamicacid 1.22-1.26 0.76 0.67
Glycine 0.48-0.51 0.38 0.35
Histidine 0.25-0.30 0.24 0.20
Isoleucine 0.34 0.19 0.15
Leucine 0.57 0.32 0.25
Lysine 0.37 0.20 0.20
Methionine 0.28-0.29 0.19 0.16
Phenylalanine 0.38-0.46 0.18 0.10
Proline 0.54-0.62 0.45 0.45
Serine 0.64-0.65 0.38 0.34
Threonine 0.45-0.47 0.30 0.29
Tyrosine 0.25-0.26 0.15 0.12
Valine 0.54-0.55 0.32 0.29
Lipid 0.10-0.20 0.3 0.05
Ash 89.9-91.1 94.2 95.4
Calcium 35.1-36.4 36.7 37.3
Chlorine 0.09
Iron 0.002 0.002 0.002
Potassium 0.10-0.13 0.07 0.06
Magnesium 0.37-0.40 0.40 0.41
Sodium 0.15-0.17 0.13 0.11
Sulphur 0.09-0.19 0.09 0.04
Phosphorus 0.12 0.10 0.12
CaCO
3
90.9 91.9 93.1
Neutralizingpower CaCO
3
87-89 88.0 89.0
Source:Walton etal.(1973),WaltonandCotterill(1972).
isimportantinmaintainingeggshellquality.Poultrycanutilizeeggshellsasasource
of calcium more effectively than calcium from other sources. The amino acids
derived from thenon-shellportion ofeggshellwasteare alsoreadilyavailable and
effectively utilized by poultry. Generally, however, calcium in poultry rations is
supplied atlowercostsfrom othersources.
Eggshellscanalsobeusedfor fertilizer, asasourceofcalciumand nitrogen.
318
Poultry by-products
[Ch. 12
BLOOD MEAL
Poultry blood isdried and then ground and used asanimal feed. Aflowchart for
broiler blood processingmaybefound inFig.12.4.AlsoseeChapter9.
100Ib Broiler
Slaughter plant
3.5 Ib blood
Drying in cooker
Final drying in dryer
Cooker
Waste gas, Wastegas, Cooker
22.3% yield
2.7 Ib water 1.9 Ib water 44% yield
0.8 Ib Dried blood (22.8%)
1.5 IbPartially dried blood (42.8%)
0.06 Ibwater (8%)
0.8 Ibwater (53.5%)
0.008Ibfat (1%)
0.008Ibfate (0.5%)
0.7 Ibsolid (91%)
0.7 Ibsolids (46%)
Grinder
Waste gas, -^ Dryer
0.8 Ibwater 50%yield
0.06 Ibwater (8%)
0.06 Ibwater (8%)
0.008Ibfat (1%)
0.008Ibfat (1%)
0.7 Ibsolids (91%)
0.7 Ibsolids (91%)
0.6 Ibprotein (80%)
0.09 Ibfibre and ash (11%)
Grinder
0.06 Ibwater (8%)
0.008Ibfat (1%)
0.7 Ibsolid (91%)
0.6 Ib protein (80%)
0.09 Ibfibre and ash (11%)
Fig. 12.4Broilerbloodby-productprocessing. 1 lb=0.454kg.FromLortscher et al.(1957).
MIXEDPOULTRY BY-PRODUCTMEAL
Mixed poultry by-product mealisamixtureofblood,offal andfeathers, innatural
proportions,thathavebeenrenderedanddried.Sometimesexcessfatisremoved.It
isusedmainlyforpetfood.Mixedpoultryby-productmealismoredifficult andtakes
longertoprocessthanother meals,butisbetter balanced nutritionally.
__ __
INEDIBLE EGGS
Inedible eggs are often used ashog (pig) feed, must be cooked before feeding to
preventspreadofdisease.Sinceshellsconstitute 10%oftheegg,thewholeeggoften
containstoolargeaproportionofcalciumforbalancedhogrations.Forthisreason,
inedibleeggsaresometimesbroken andseparated from theshellsbefore cooking.
HATCHERY WASTE
Hatcherywasteconsistsofinfertileeggs,deadembryos,deadchickensorpoults,and
shells of hatched eggs. Waste from hatcheries that produce egg-laying chickens
sometimes also contain male chicks that are destroyed at the time of sexing.
Composition ofhatcheryby-product mealmaybefound inTable12.6.
Table12.6Percentagecompositionofpoultry by-products
Feather Dried By-pro-
ducts Tankage Hatchery by-product
meal
meal blood meal
Broiler Eggtype
Protein 75-90 75-85 50-60 45-55
(average) 85 80 55 50 22a 32a
Moisture 5-15 5-15 5-15 5-12
(average) 8 8 8 8 65 71
Fat 2-4 0.8-1.2 6-15 16-25
(average) 3 1 10 20 10a 18a
FibreandAsh i 2-7 8-14 25-30 20-25
(average) 4 11 27 22
Calcium 25a 17a
Phosphorus 0.3a 0.6a
a
Drybasis.
FromLortscher etal. (1957);Vandepopuliere(1984).
POULTRY GREASE
Poultry grease isextracted from poultry offal. It isgenerally darker incolour and
loweringradethanfat collectedfrom beef,pork,orlamb.
POULTRY OIL
Poultry oil is oil which is removed from poultry by-product meal with a screw
immediatelyaftercooking.Theremovalimprovesthehandlingcharacteristicsofthe
poultry by-product meal. The oil is an excellent energy source and enhances the
palatability ofpet food.
320 Poultryby-products [Ch.12
LABORATORYUSEOFEGGS
Because viruses require livingtissuefor culture, embryonated eggsare sometimes
theonlypractical media that can beused for virusculture,production ofvaccines,
tissueculture, toxicity or inhibiting studies or assays,embryology studies and asa
medium for growthofmalignant tumourcells.
MANUFACTURING USESOFEGGS
Eggalbuminhasbeenusedforpaints,cosmetics,ingredientsinmedicines,ointment,
photographic supplies, ink, tanning of leather, moisturizers, soaps, shampoo,
cement, artificialfibresandasanantidotefor poisons.
REFERENCES
Anon (1979) World's biggest poultry Tenderer goes continuous. Meat Industry,
April.
Hardy,J.J.,andHardy,T.M.P.(1949) Feathers from domestic and wildfowl. U.S.
Department ofAgriculture Circular803.
Jackson,E.D.,Consolacion,F.I.,andJelen,P.(1982)Bacteriologicalevaluationof
alkali-extracted protein from poultryresidues.J. Food Prot.45797-800.
Lortscher, L. L., Sachsel, G. F., Wilkelmy, Jr, D., and Filbert, Jr, R. B. (1957).
Processing poultry by-products in poultry slaughter plants.U.S. Departmentof
Agriculture MarketingResearch Department, No.181.
McCosland, Mw. E. and Richardson, L. R. (1966) Methods for determining the
nutritivevalueoffeather meal.PoultryScience451231-1236.
Morris, W. C. and Balloun, S. L. (1973) Evaluation offivedifferently processed
feathermealsbynitrogenretention,netproteinvalues,xanthinedehydrogenase
activityandchemical analysis. Poultry Science521075-1084.
NRA (1970) Trading rules governing purchase and sale of animal and poultry
proteins. National RenderersAssociation, DesPlaines,Illinois.
Vandepopuliere, J. M. (1984) Animals as converters of by-products from animal
processing. Proceedings of an International Symposium, Wageningen,
Netherlands.
Walton, H. V., Cotterill, O. J. and Vandepopuliere, J. M. (1973)Compositionof
shellwastefrom eggbreakingplants.Poultry Science521836-1841.
Walton, H.V.andCotterill,O.J. (1972).Composition ofeggshellwastefrom egg
breakingplants. Poultry Science511884.
Wessels,J. P. H. (1972) A study of the protein quality of different feather meals.
Poultry Science51 537-541.
13
Animalprocessingwastedisposal,
reduction andutilization
Ahog (pig)processor onceclaimed, 'Weuseallpartsofthe animalexcept for the
squeal.'Inreality,intheanimalprocessingindustry, anaverageof4.5kg(10lb)of
proteinislosttothesewerfor every454kg(1000lb)ofliveweightkill(lwk).Some
animalproductssuchasboneandbloodaregrosslyunderutilized. Muchofthislost
and underutilized product can be recovered and/or upgraded through in-plant
pollution-reduction techniques and wiser processing of animal by-products. The
process changes necessary to accomplish thesetaskscanprovide additional profit,
save/upgradevaluableproteinandreducepollution.Ifhalfoftheproteinnowlostto
thesewerwererecovered therewould beat leastan additional 181million kg(400
million lb) of protein each year, worth perhaps $400 million (1987 dollars) from
animalprocessingintheU.S.A. (Hansen, 1983).
Wastecharacteristicsandproblemsofdisposal,etc.aresimilarfor allaspectsof
animal processing, which includes seafood, poultry, and red meats. Methods for
pollution reduction and upgrading of animal by-products discussed can be applied
throughout the industry.
MEAT-PROCESSING WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Meat processing waste consistsof solid and liquid portions. Solidsinclude manure
andpaunch manure (contentsof aslaughtered animal's digestivetract) and bitsof
animaltissue.Theliquidportionincludesbloodandotherbodyfluids.Inapractical
sense, most of the small tissue solids and often the manure/paunch solids become
mixedwithwaterusedforcarcassrinsingorforcleanupandaredrainedtothesewer
asliquidwaste.Blood isusuallycollected,especiallyinthelargerplants,and dried
for animalfeed (seeChapter9).
Fourmajor surveyshavedefined meatplantrawwastewatercharacteristics.The
results of those studies are shown in Table 13.1.Average wastewater flowrate is
about 8.31 I/kg lwk (1gallon/lb lwk). Smaller scale surveys (Steffen, 1978;Bras-
322 Animal processing wastedisposal, reductionandutilization [Ch. 13
Table 13.1 Mean values of reported meat-packing waste load characteristics per
1000kgliveweight kill (2205 lb lwk)
Survey by BOD* SS
fl
FOG
fl
TKN
a
kg (lb) kg (lb) kg (lb) kg (lb)
North Star 12.1(26.7) 8.7 (19.2) 6.0(13.2) 1.0(2.2)
Mohlman 14.6 (32.2) 11.3(24.9) 1.5(3.5) 1.7(3.7)
Hill 15.0(33.1) 12.4 (27.3) 1.7(3.7)
Kerrigan 11.8(26.0) 9.0(19.8) 8.2(18.1) 0.9 (2.0)
Average 13.3 (29.3) 10.3 (22.7) 5.2(11.5) 1.3(2.9)
"Abbreviations aredefined inthetext.
Source:Hansen, 1980
ington, 1978;Berthouex et aL, 1977;Witherow, 1973;Hansen, 1980) substantiate
theresultsofthefourmajorsurveys,althoughawidervariabilityinresultswasseen.
Wastewater parameters included inTable 13.1areasfollows:
(1) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen
required bymicroorganisms toassimilate available nutrientsinaliquidsystem
intomicrobialcellsin5daysat20C.
(2) Suspended solids (SS) is a measure of the total non-filterable residue that is
retained onastandard glass-fibrefilterafter filtration.
(3) Fats,oils,andgrease (FOG) aremeasured byextractionwithhexaneor freon.
(4) Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) isameasure ofthetotalnitrogen,organic,and
inorganicinasample.
IfBOD,SSorTKNisunusuallyhighinwastewaterfrom ameat-processing facility,
otherparametersaregenerallyrelativelyhighalso(Hansen etal., 1984;Pilney etal,
1972). BOD is proportional to water usage; as water usage increases, the BOD
concentration (mg/1)inthewastewater from theplant increases. Onemightexpect
theconcentrationofBODinmg/1tobeloweredwithgreateruseofwaterunlessthe
wastewater per unit of product is some kind of index of the plant's 'wastewater
consciousness
1
.'Wastewaterconsciousness'wouldmeangreaterattentionisgivento
dry cleanup and recovery of blood, meat scraps and paunch material etc., in the
plant. Plants that are wastewater conscious tend to pay attention towater conser-
vation andthushavelowersewerandwater-usebills.
MEAT-PACKING WASTE TREATMENT
Meat packing wastewater treatment schemes include most types of industrial
wastewatertreatment. By1967,99%ofmeatplantsintheU.S.A.usedsometypeof
wastewater treatment (FWPCA, 1967).Wastewater treatment maymean anything
from simple sedimentation (removal of solids bygravity) tocomplicated physical-
-biological-chemical treatment that mayinvolvephysically separatingsolids(sedi-
323 Ch.13] Animalprocessingwastedisposal,reductionandutilization
mentation, screening),biologicaldestruction oforganicmatter andchemical treat-
menttoenhancephysicalseparation, removalofinorganicssuchasphosphorus,or
destruction of pathogens by chlorination. A detailed discussion of wastewater
treatmentmethodsisbeyondthescopeofthisbook.Therearenumeroustextsonthe
subject andtreatment methodsarediscussed indetailinthereferences listedatthe
endofthischapter. Commonmethodsoftreatinganimal-processingwastewater are
brieflydiscussedandcategorized intophysicaltreatment (Table 13.2),physicalplus
biological treatment (Table 13.3), land application and refeeding. Because of
Table13.2Removal efficiencies of animal-processing physicalwastewater treat-
mentunit processes
Removalefficiency (%)
a
Unit Operation SS FOG BOD
Screening 15-60 N/A* N/A
Centrifugation 50-60 50-60 N/A
Catchbasins (settling
basins) 40-50 50-60 20-30
Airflotation 60 60-90 25-60
"Removal efficiencies reported are for idealoperating conditions.
fc
Notavailable.
Source:Steffen etal. (1973),EPA (1976).
Table 13.3 Removal efficiencies of biological wastewater treatment systems
combined withphysicaltreatment inanimal-processing plants
Removalefficiency (%)
a
System SS FOG BOD
Anaerobic lagoons 86-95 95-99 85-95
Aerobiclagoon
6
90-98 95-99 95-99
Activated sludgeprocess
and variations 97 95-97 95-99
Tricklingfilters N/A 95% 86-95
Rotating biological
contactor N/A N/A 95
"Removal efficiencies reported are for idealoperating conditions.
b
\n thecaseof mechanically aerated lagoons,some typeofclarification suchasastabilization pond must
beutilized after the aerated lagoon to removeSS.
Source:Wells etal., (1973);EPA, (1974).
N/A: Not available.
324 Animal processing wastedisposal, reduction andutilization [Ch. 13
obvious advantages for the animal processing industry, land application of animal
wasteisdiscussed inmoredetail.
Physical treatment systemsoften used in animal processing and corresponding
SS,FOG, and BODremovalefficiencies aregiveninTable 13.2.Screensandcatch
basins generally require less maintenance and less energy for operation than the
other two methods. Air flotation isaprocess where air isdissolved in wastewater
under pressure. The wastewater then moves to a quiescent stage and air bubbles
come out of solution carrying solids with them as they rise to the surface. Air
flotation has advantages in that skimmings can be utilized asinedible grease. The
highestremovalefficiency forcentrifugation, settlingbasinsandairflotationrequires
theaddition ofchemicalflocculates.
Biologicalwastewatertreatmentsystemsoften follow physicaltreatment.These
two treatment systems together are called secondary treatment. Secondary treat-
mentsystemsusedintheanimal-processingindustryaregiveninTable13.3.Oneof
themostcosteffective, efficient, andpopularunitprocessesfortreatmentofanimal-
processing effluent is the anaerobic (without air) lagoon which, when operating
properly, can remove upwards of 82% of the applied BOD (in addition to that
removed by physical treatment) at an average loading of 0.4 kg/day/m
3
(24.7 lb
BOD/day/1000 ft
3
) (Baker et al., 1974). Microorganisms in an anaerobic lagoon
utilize organic matter in the wastewater asfood, and inthe processof growth and
maintenance theyconvert the organicmatter intobiogas,whichismostly methane
(60-80%) (CH
4
) and carbon dioxide (CO
2
) (20-40%). Methane is the principle
componentofnaturalgasandcanbeburnedtoprovideheatenergy. Unfortunately,
it is not economical to collect the methane produced in most anaerobic lagoons
becauseofthelargesurface area.
Anaerobic treatment alternatives to the lagoon have been developed recently.
These include the plug-flow digester for waste with a high solids concentration
(Walker, 1980) and various typesoffixed-filmand sludge-blanket digesters (Chy-
noweth etal, 1984;CallenderandBarford, 1983).Thefixed-filmand sludge-blanket
digesters feature alonger solid retention time relative to the liquid portion of the
wastewater. This allows much shorter hydraulic retention times (often at least an
orderofmagnitudeshorter)thananaerobiclagoonsorconventionalcompletemixed
digesters. The short hydraulic retention time results in smaller digesters, which
facilitates methane collection and utilization. Even so, it is necessary to compare
capitalcosts,maintenanceandvalueofmethaneonacase-by-casebasistodetermine
if a solid-retention-type anaerobic process is more economical than an anaerobic
lagoon intreatinganimal-processing wastewater (Hansen, 1980).
The aerobic lagoon hasexcellent removal efficiencies and hasthe advantageof
lessodourthanananaerobiclagoon.Ithasamajor disadvantageofrequiringeither
artificial (mechanically aerated lagoons) or natural aeration. Naturally aerated
lagoonsarelimitedindepthtoabout1.5m(5ft).Thisrequiresalargesurfaceareato
provide the necessary water-holding capacity. Electrical costsfor the mechanically
aerated lagoon generally prohibit itsusefor animal-processing waste unlessodour
emissionsareofprimary concern.
The activated-sludge process (Fig. 13.1) is an aerobic treatment process with
recyclingof microorganisms that break down thewaste.Organicmatter inanimal-
processingwastewaterisbiologicallyconvertedprimarilyintocarbondioxide,water
325
Ch. 13] Animalprocessingwastedisposal,reductionandutilization
Raw
wastes i Aeration Clarifier Effluent
Returnsludge
Wasteexcess
sludge
(smallornone)
Fig. 13.1Activated sludge process.
and more microorganisms. These microorganisms are removed bysettling and fed
backintotheincomingwastewater.Thisabundanceofmicroorganismsquickensthe
rate of breakdown of organic matter several-fold relative to an aerobic lagoon.
However, the activated-sludge processhasdisadvantages of costsfor high ratesof
mechanical aeration, and additional management and maintenance requirements
(Cheremisinoff, 1987).
Atricklingfilter(Fig.13.2)isadevicewherewastewaterissprayedoverbedsof
Fig. 13.2Trickling filter.
326 Animal processing wastedisposal, reduction andutilization [Ch. 13
rock or plastic media to achieve contact between microorganisms present on the
surface of the media and organic material in the wastewater. Rotary distribution
arms are used to uniformly distribute the wastewater over the media. The media
providesbothasurfaceforthebiologicalgrowthaswellasvoidsformovementofair
and waterthrough thefilterbed.
The rotating biological contactor (RBC) process (Fig. 13.3) consists of large
Fig. 13.3Rotatingbiological contacter.
diameter,lightweightdiscsmountedonahorizontalshaft andplacedinasemicircu-
lartank. Wastewater isfed through thesemicircular tank. Discsrotatethrough the
wastewater,whichadheresandtricklesdownexposedareasofthediscastheyrotate
out of the water. Aerobic organisms attached to the discabsorb organicmatter as
they rotate through thewastewater and obtain oxygen required tobreak down the
organicmatter whentheyareexposed abovethe wastewater.
Animal-processing wastewater has an extremely high strength compared with
municipalsewage.Animal-processingwasteaveragesover 1200mg/1BODandmay
exceed2700mg/1BOD(Loehr, 1977).Ifuntreated animal-processingwastewateris
discharged tomunicipal treatment, itcanputastrainonsmallmunicipal treatment
systems. Therefore, municipal wastewater-treatments systems either forbid dis-
charge of these high-strength wastesor exact asurcharge totreat them. Generally
municipalwastewater-treatment plantsexactasurchargeonindustrialwastesequal
towhatitcoststoremoveanequivalent amountofpollutantsfrom domesticwaste.
327 Ch. 13] Animalprocessingwastedisposal,reductionandutilization
ThismeansthatanindustrythatdischargesBODequivalenttothatfrom 1000homes
willpay 1000times the fee of the homeowner. When surcharges are levied in this
fashion, it isalmost certain the industry willget more net benefit from pretreating
wastebefore dischargetothemunicipality ascompared todischargingrawwasteto
themunicipality (Hansen etal., 1984).
LANDAPPLICATION OR RE-FEEDING OFANIMAL-PROCESSING WASTE
Landapplication orlandtreatment ofwastesisthesurface spreadingor subsurface
injection (10-25cm(4-10in)down)ofliquidorsolidwastematerialonorintosoil.
This method of treatment remove a greater percentage of organic and inorganic
pollutants from animal-processing waste than treatment methods discussed pre-
viously in thischapter (Stevens et al., 1972).Land treatment employs mechanical,
biological and chemical processes which occur naturally in or on the soil in the
purification ofwaste water.
Organicmatter inanimalwastewhichrepresents highBOD isdegraded bysoil
bacteria andbecomespartofthesoilmatrix.Nutrientsinthewastearetaken upby
cropsorrecycled intothesoil(Loehr, et al., 1979a).
Commercial agricultural manure spreaders and liquid-manure injection equip-
ment are suitable for land application of animal-processing waste. Subsurface
injection ofoffensively odoriferousmaterialwillcontrolodours,reduceattractionof
insects and conserve nitrogen. Surface-applied animal-processing waste can be
incorporatedintothesoilbyploughingordiscingsoonafter application. References
which explain land application of wastes in more detail include Loehr et al.,
(1979a,b) and Reed andCrites1984.
Wastewater polluted with organics, including wastewater from an animal-
processingfacility, canbelandapplied. However,thelargeamountsof wastewater
produced byaplant would require avery largeland area for even a medium-sized
plant (Hansen et al., 1984, Loehr et al, 1979a,b). Alternatively, waste streams
should besegregated and themost heavilypollutingwastescanbeland applied, as
for exampleblood atabout 160000mg/1BOD.
The handling and disposal of manure/paunch is integral to animal processing
because of the need todisposeof manure from holdingpensandpaunch (partially
digestedfeed)fromslaughtering.Theamountofmanureproduceddailybylivestock
peranimalunit(454kg(1000lb)liveweight)isgiveninTable 13.4(MWPS,1985).
The amount and characteristics of blood and paunch manure produced from
slaughtering beef aregiven inTable 13.5.Blood quantitiesper animal slaughtered
for otherspeciesaregiveninChapter 9.Paunch produced byruminantsother than
beef canbeestimated based ontheirsizerelativetobeef.
Theestimatedexpenseforapplyingmanure,paunchorbloodtolandisapproxi-
mately one third the estimated cost for dehydration (Reddell et al., 1976) in a
rendering facility (see Chapter 3).Waste materials from animal processing can be
beneficial for the soil. However, if these materials are mixed with water and
discharged into the sewer, thewastewater hashigh BOD, SSand TKN, which are
costlytoremoveusinganyofthemethodsdiscussed previously.
00
Table13.4Manureproduction andcharacteristics asproduced per454kg(1000lb)liveweightfor givenanimal species
Nutrient Content
Anima! Manure Production Water VS (kg/dayxlO"
2
(lb/day))
(kg/day) (lb/day) (m
:
VdayxlO"
4
) (gal/day)
(%)
(kg/day(lb/day)) N
P
2
O
5
K
2
O
Dairycattle 37.3 82 370 9.8 87.3 3.9(8.6) 18.6(.41) 7.5(.17) 14.7(.32)
Beefcattle 27.3 60 280 7.4 88.4 2.7(5.9) 15.4(.34) 11.3(.25) 13.1 (.29)
Marketpigs 29.5 65 299 7.9 90.8 2.2(4.9) 20.4(.45) 15.4(.34) 16.1 (.35)
Sheep 18.1 40 174 4.7 75 3.9(8.6) 20.4(.45) 6.8(.15) 17.7(.39)
Poultrybroilers 31.8 70 335 8.9 74.8 5.5(12.1) 54.4(1.2) 27.9(.62) 20.4(.45)
Horses 20.4 45 212 5.6 79.5 3.4(7.5) 12.2(.27) 4.8(.11) 9.3(.21)
Source: MWPS(1985).
5*
n
Table13.5Typicalwastecharacteristicsfor bloodandpaunchforbeef cattle
Parameter Blood Paunch manure
Fresh Dehydrated Fresh Dehydrated
(1)
Waste quantity,
(partsperthousanc
38
1
8.1 45 9.7
bodyweight
(2)
Moisture Content 80 6 80 6
(3)
Totalsolids, 7.5 7.5 9 6
(kg/1000kg(lbs/
1000 lbs) body
weight)
(4)
Volatilesolids, 8.4 8.4
(kg/100kg(lbs/
1000 lbs) body
(5)
(6)
weignij
BOD
5
*(mg/1)
COD
C
(mg/1)
160,000
220,000
50,000
180,000
(7) PH
7.3 6.5
(8)
(9)
Protein (%)
Nitrogen (%)
20
3.3
88
14.2
2.5
0.4
12.6
2.0
(10) Phosphorus 0.0010 0.0047 0.3 1.46
(P
2
O
5
) (%)
(11)
Potassium 0.0010 0.0046
(K
2
O) (%)
(12) Sodium (%) 0.029 0.135
(13) Calcium (%) 0.001 0.047 0.13 0.59
(14) Iron (%) 0.039 0.184
(15) Magnesium (%)
"Allpercentagesonwetweightbasis.Thereisstillsomemoisturein'dehydrated'products.Dehydrationis
sufficient, howevertoreducespoilagebymicroorganisms.
6
Fivedaybiochemicaloxygendemand.
c
Chemicaloxygendemand.
Source:Reddell etal, (1976).
Plantnutrientvalueofmanure/paunch
Manure, paunch and blood (organicwaste) put on land improve the tilth and add
nutrientsnecessaryforcropgrowth.Itisdifficult topredicttheworthofland-applied
organic waste from an improved tilth standpoint, but the value of the nutrients,
which can be calculated, issignificant. Organic wastes should be applied so as to
maximize useof nutrients,particularly nitrogen, phosphorus andpotassium.Phos-
phorus and potassium usuallyarebound inthesoil,whereasnitrogen, ifappliedin
excess of crop requirements, will leach out of the soil and contaminate receiving
waters.Therefore, available nitrogenshould notexceed thenitrogen requirements
of the crop to be grown on the soil. Nitrogen requirements and yield goals for
selectedcropsaregiveninTables 13.6and13.7.
Table13.6Amountofnitrogenrecommendedannuallyforcornbasedonprevious
crops
Yield Goals
Corn,grain 13.9m
3
/ha (160bushels/acre) 17.4m
3
/ha (200bushels/acre)
Corn,silage 48.2tonne/ha 60.5tonne/ha
Previouscrop AnnualNapplication recommended (kg/ha (lb/acre))
Forage legume 112(100)
168(150)
Grasscrop 168(150) 196(175)
Soybeans 191(170) 280(250)
Continuouscorn
andother crops 224(200) 336(300)
Source:White and Logan, (1981).
Table13.7Amount ofnitrogen recommended annuallyforselected crops
Crop Yieldgoal AnnualNapplication
recommended.
(kg/ha) (lb/acre))
Wheat 4.4m
3
/ha (50bushels/acre) 17(15)(autumn)
0
45(40) (spring)
Oats 8.7m
3
/ha (100bushels/acre) 45(40)(spring)
Forage legume 11.2tonne/ha (5tons/acre) 73(65)(split)
14.6tonne/ha (6.5tons/acre) 95(85) (split)
Grasscrop 11.2tonne/ha (5tons/acre) 95(85)(split)
14.6tonne/ha (6.5tons/acre) 140(125) (split)
Soybeans Alegumecanfixadequateatmosphericnitrogenfor5m3/ha(60
bushels/acre)to6m
3
/ha (70bushels/acre).
Ti m e of yearwaste isapplied.
Source:White and Logan (1981).
Nitrogeninorganicwasteincludinganimalprocessingwasteisoftwoforms,organic
and ammonia. The nitrogen in the ammonia form is available when spread.
However, if the organic waste is spread onto the surface, sizable amounts of
ammoniaNmaybelosttotheatmospherebyvolatilization. Onlyone-third toone-
halfoforganicNisavailabletoplantsintheyearitisspread(WhiteandLogan,1981;
MWPS,1985).OrganicNreleased(mineralizedbreakdownoforganicNtoavailable
ammonia N) during the second, third and fourth cropping years after initial
application isusually about 50%,25%and 12.5%respectively of that mineralized
duringthefirstcroppingseason (MWPS,1985).
Todeterminehowmuchnitrogenwillbeavailabletocropsfrom landapplication
of animal-processing waste, it isnecessary to havethewaste analysed (thiscan be
doneatmoststateuniversitiesintheUSAoratacommerciallaboratory). Records
should bekeptof eachyear's application. Thetotalnitrogen available tothe crops
willbethecumulativeamountsofNmineralizedfrompreviousyear'sapplicationsof
organic N plus the present year's application of ammonia N. For purposes of
estimating,onemightconservativelyestimatethenitrogeninpaunchandmanureto
be about 50% organic and 50% ammonia N. The nitrogen in blood is nearly all
organic but iseasily broken down and made available to plants.The exact rateof
mineralization inanimal-processing wastedependsonanumber offactors anditis
recommendedthatsoilbetestedeachyeartodetermineactualnutrientlevels.State
universities or many commercial laboratories will test soil. With soil and waste
analysis,animal-processingwastecanbepreciselyappliedinamountsthatwillmeet
cropneeds.Laboratoriesthattestsoilandwastesoften recommendapplicationrates
basedonthetestresults.
Animal-processingwasteisagoodsourceofphosphorusandpotassium (P&K).
NearlyalloftheP&Kinanimal-processingwastesisavailableforplantusetheyear
ofapplication.Ifanimal-processingwastehasbeenappliedtolandregularlyoverthe
years, soil test levels for P&K should be in the adequate to high range. Applying
largeamountsofanimalwastetothesesoilsisinefficient becauseP&Kwillbeginto
exceed crop requirements and can cause trace nutrient deficiencies in plants. For
example,excesslevelsofavailablePmayleadtozincdeficiencyinplants(Whiteand
Logan, 1981). Animal waste application rates should be designed to match the
nutrients removed by the crop. Table 13.8lists approximate amounts of nutrients
Table13.8Approximateamountsofplantnutrientsremovedfromsoilbyselected
crops
Crop and yield goal N P
2
O
5
K
2
O
(kg/ha (Ib/acre) (kg/ha (lb/acre) (kg/ha (lb/acre)
Alfalfa (lucerne) 13.4 tonne/ha 381(340) 90(80) 404(360)
(6 tons/acre)
Corn: 13.9m
3
/ha (160 bushel/acre)
Corn: 17.4m
3
163(145)
202(180)
67(60)
84(75)
50(45)
62(55)
Corn silage:60.5Tonne/ha 275(245) 95(85) 275(245)
(27 tons/acre)
Soybeans:4.4m
3
Soybeans:5.7m
3
Wheat: 0.9m
3
213(190)
275(245)
78(70)
45(40)
56(50)
39(35)
78(70)
101(90)2
22(20)
Source:White and Logan (1981)
332 Animalprocessingwastedisposal,reductionandutilization [Ch.13
removedfrom thesoilbyseveralcrops.Again,animalwasteandthelandtowhichit
isbeingapplied should betested on aregular basistoensurethattheP &Kinthe
wasteisassimilated.IfsoilishighinP& K,thenadditionalnitrogeninacommercial
form shouldbeappliedorlegumesshouldbegrownthatsupplytheirownnitrogen.
Anexampleproblemfor land-applicationofanimal-processingwasteisgivenin
theappendix tothischapter.
RE-FEEDING
Manure, and more particularly paunch manure, may be more valuable as a feed
ingredient than asasourceofplantnutrients.Thesewastescanbemixedwith feed
and re-fed to meat-producing animals. Ruminants have microorganisms in the
rumen that can utilize fibre and non-protein nitrogenous compounds to a greater
extentthannon-ruminants,sothereisadditionalbenefitfromfeeding non-ruminant
manureandpaunchtoruminants.Neitherthequantityofanimalproductsnortheir
palatability isaffected whenwasteisfed atnutritionallyacceptablelevels(Dayand
Sweeten, 1979).
Ontheotherhand,manure/paunchmaycontainpathogens,parasites,residuesof
drugs, excess levels of metal ion and contaminants of natural or industrial origin,
suchasglass,metalorwood.There-feeding ofanimalwastecouldbehazardousto
animalsunlesscontaminantsareremovedorkeptatacceptablelevels.Someformof
processing isnecessary to obtain pathogen kill, reduce odours, preserve nutrients
and enhance palatability. Some successful methods includedrying,chemical treat-
mentorbiological treatment.
Biological treatment of the animal wastebyensilingwith corn orother normal
feedstuff hasbeen shown to beinexpensive and effective inincreasing palatability
andnutritivevalue.Prepared inthismanner,animalwastecanreplaceupto50%of
thenormalfeedstuffs required bylivestock. (MWPS,1985)
ANIMAL-PROCESSING POLLUTION REDUCTION
Pollutionreductionwithinanimal-processingplantsinvolvesgoodhousekeepingand
commonsense.Avoidingspills,avoidingdisposalofscrapsorbloodintofloordrains
andutilizingby-productsinashighaqualityproductaspossibleisgoodhousekeep-
ing (see Chapter 3). Concepts of pollution reduction by good housekeeping and
careful husbandryofwasteandenergyresourcesshouldbetaughttoemployeesand
emphasizedonaregularbasis.Plantmanagementshouldalsocontinuallyinvestigate
changesinprocessingtechniquesthatcoulddecreasepollution andincrease profits.
Implementation of desirable changes is not always simple. Capital costs and/or
production delaysmaybeunacceptable,therefore, itisimportant tofirstconducta
plant survey for the purpose of evaluating energy usage and pollution-reduction
processchangesbasedonpotential net benefit.
In-plantreductionsurveystrategy
The first stage of an in-plant reduction study isawalk-through survey to identify
pointsofwateruse,grossspillageandcollectionsofbloodorscrapsonthefloor.This
333 Ch. 13] Animal processingwastedisposal, reduction and utilization
visual survey willidentify grossproblems and willtarget processesfor an in-depth
evaluation, includingmore-completedataacquisitions.
Thesecondstageistogetinformation fordecision makingasinexpensively and
quickly as possible and without a large-scale measurement program. Since water
savings alone can be significant, flow measurements should be made for those
processesthathavebeenestimated (inthepreviousstage)torequirelarge amounts
ofwaterandforwhichtheremightbeanalternative.Compositewastewatersamples
shouldbetakenandanalysedtodeterminewastewatercharacteristicssuchasoxygen
demand,solidsbothsuspended anddissolvedandnitrogen.Energyconsump-
tion should be measured when applicable. The monitoring program may be orga-
nizedasoutlinedinFig.13.4.Inmakingthewastesurveyitself,oneshouldnormally:
(1) Developaflowsheetfor theprocess.
(2) Determine wherewastesamplesaretobe taken.
(a) Review building plans and determine the number and location of sewer
outfalls from theprocess.
(b) Determinetypesofenergy(electricity,steam,etc.)usedintheprocessand
locationofsteamlines,wires,etc.
(c) Determine solidwasteoutflows from theprocess.
Select
analytical
methods
i
Selection
r
ofin-house
staff
Select
parameters
Process Waste tobe
analysis survey monitored
j i
1
l
|
Contract
outside
assistance
\
j
i
"Equalizeflows
"Separatewaste
*Locateout-falls
"Characterize
outfall
effluents
"Characterize
wasteproperties
ofeach
manufacturing
process
Reviewand
modify
program
Continual Execute
operation program
"Measureflow
"Sample
"Analyse
"Collectdata
"Evaluatedata
"Reportdata
Fig. 13.4Stepsinvolvedinestablishing amonitoringprogram. Source:Berthouex et al.(1977).
(3) Determine samplinglocations.
(4) Determine howenergydata,flowandwastesamplesaretobecollected.
(5) Determine theduration ofthesampling period.
(6) Determine theanalysestobe performed.
(7) Check rawandfinishedproduct receipts.
(8) Reviewsubunit processeswithintheprocessandmonitor ifnecessary.
(9) Reviewmaintenance andspillagereports.
(10) Determine calculations needed to reduce collected data for evaluation of the
process.
The third stage of in-plant reduction study is to generate a list of possible
solutions for each problem site, such asbroom and shovel pick-up, installation of
catchtroughs,curbinganareatodivertwater,installationofanautomatic shut-off,
useof analternativeprocess,etc.Engineers,theplant manager, maintenance staff
and workers involved with the process should allbe involved infindingsolutions.
Each solution should include an optimistic and pessimistic economic outcome. In
order tomake theseestimates,thesolution-generating team mustknowthecostof
water, energy,labour, sewagetreatment surcharges,theprobable impactofindus-
trial cost-sharing in the community, likely changes in the required level of waste-
water treatment and the selling price of renderings, grease or other marketable
materialsthat maybeaffected bychangesintheprocess.
Thesolution-generatingteamshouldconsiderseveralalternatives,includingnot
changingtheprocessorrecommendingthatmoredatabecollectedbefore makinga
decision. Somesolutionsmaybeconditional;asfor examplecontingent ondispro-
portionate cost increases for labour and electricity. Otherwise, the survey team
should prioritize possible solutions, and recommend implementation of the best
solutions.
In-plantmodifications toreduce pollution
First Case Study
An example of asuccessful in-plant reduction project isthat performed byBerth-
ouex et al.(1977)inhog-packingfacilities.Althoughtheproject datawaslimitedto
hog processing, the problems and solutions reported here have application to all
types of animal processing. Dollar values are given that will change with time;
however, the given ratios, adjusted for price change and commodity or utility
savings,willstillbe appropriate.
Process change in the bleed area
Problem:After thelastanimalwaskilledfortheday,sixspraysalongandabovethe
bleed trough werestarted towashsomeofthebloodfrom thetroughstotheblood
recovery system.Thefirstsluiceofwater went tothe blood recovery system; after
thisshort initial sluice,drainage wasdiverted from the blood recovery systemtoa
floordrain.Thefirstsluicingremovedonlyabout50-60%ofthebloodinthetrough
and this blood, obviously, was diluted as it entered the blood recovery system.
Anotherinefficiency associatedwiththispracticewasthattheremaining50%ofthe
bloodwaswashed intoafloordrain duringtheclean-up shift.
Solution:Asqueegeewithanoffset handlewasmadetoremovebloodfrom the
bloodtroughintothebloodrecoverysystemwithoutusingtheinitialsluiceofwater.
Thisdrycleaningprocedure increased the amount ofblood recovered from 50%of
thatonthetroughasclean-upbeganto80-90%ofthebloodthatwasonthetroughat
thestartofclean-up.Thisisanincreaseof11.3kg(25lb)ofbloodandrepresents2.3
kg (5 lb) of BOD removed from the wastewater system. Not only is more blood
recoveredbythismethod,butthecostofrecoveringthebloodwasreduced because
the water added to clean-up did not have to be handled and heated in the blood
recoveryprocess.Theonlybloodfrom thebleedingtrough,then,thatdidnotgoto
bloodrecoverywasbloodwhichwasinaccessiblebecauseitwasbeneathsurfaces or
in pipes where the squeegee could not reach. Additional labour required was
considered insignificant.
Process change for the rail polisher
Problem:Water use inthe railpolisher wastoo high,principally because clean-up
personnel left the sprays on during clean-up shift. This water served no useful
purpose.
Solution:Onesolutionwasbettertrainingandsupervisionofclean-uppersonnel.
Thiswasnotalwayseasytoaccomplish,soamechanicalsolutionwasdevelopedand
tested. An automatic switch was installed that turns off the water when the last
animalhasgonethrough therailpolisher. Asteelpushbarisdepressed bythehog
trolleytoactivateasolenoidvalveonthewatersupplytotherailpolisher.Ifthereare
not any hogs going through, the water supply is automatically shut off. There is
bypass piping and valving around the solenoid for use in case of malfunction. To
discourage improper use of this bypass, the hand-operated valve is inaccessible
without a ladder. Different switching mechanisms, perhaps light rays and photo-
receptortubes,couldbeusedtoshutoffthewaterbetweenthepassageofindividual
hogs.Thesavingsfromthissophisticatedsystemwouldbeatmosthalfofthethetotal
wateruseduringtheproductionshift, or48.5kl/day(12800gallons/day).Themore
reasonable target isto eliminate wastage during the clean-up shift which is6.2 kl
(1,640gallons)everyhourthesespraysarelefton.Thecostoftheautomatedshutoff
was$255.00.Theestimatedannualsavinginwaterusewas6.1Ml(1600000gallons)
(6400gallons/dayx250day/year)equalto$624.00.
Process change for carcass shower
Problem:The problem wasexcessivewater use.Thefinalcarcassshower required
3.781/s(60gallonsperminute).
Solution:Different kindsandconfigurations ofnozzlesweretried toreduce the
volumeofwater required toclean thecarcasses. InaMadison,Wisconsin,plant,a
seriesofsixVeejet nozzles(SprayingSystemsCo.)wasinstalled tospraythetopof
the carcass to sluice off loosened soil. These nozzles removed dirt satisfactorily
from thecarcassand reduced thewater usefrom 3.78to2.71/s(60to43gpm)ora
33kl/day (8753gallons/day) reduction inwater usage. Thiswasalsoequivalent to
336 Animal processing wastedisposal, reduction and utilization [Ch. 13
50.8l/1000kg(6.1gallonreduction/1000lb)ofliveweightkill.Table 13.9listssavings
intermsof flow reduction andcosts respectively.
Change in carcass work-up area
Thecarcasswork-upareaisdefined asthatpartofthekillfloorafterthefinalcarcass
showerwherethecarcassisbeingtrimmed,cutandsplit.Inthissectionthefocuswas
oncontrollingtheamountofwater,meatandfatscraps,andbloodthatfellontothe
floorunderandaroundthekillchain.Pollutionwaseliminatedbyproperlyhandling
these scrapsanddrippings.
Problem: Tissue scrapsremoved from thecarcassafter thecarcassshowerwere
dropped onto the floor. Despite periodic dry pick-up, many of these scraps were
washed intothe drain bywateroriginating inthecarcass shower.
Solution: A combination bridge andscreen was built tofitacrossthe drain and
gutter to keep tissue scraps out of the drain. About 5.4 kg (12 lb) of this scrap
formerly entered the drain. The amount of grease, BOD, etc. removed was not
known,butthereisnodoubtthatthissimplechangehasreducedthepollutionload.
Problem: Trimmings,bloodclots,andmeatandbonedustfromcarcasssplitting
litteredthecarcasswork-uparea.Mid-shift andfinalclean-uppersonneloften found
it more convenient to flush this material into a drain rather than use dry clean-up
methods. This caused alarge periodic pollution load and lost material for inedible
rendering. Dry clean-up with a broom and shovel, the normal procedure, was an
effective procedure. An industrial vacuum cleaner readily picked up blood, floor
scraps, sawdust, and even whole kidneys and left the floor to dry, but it was
cumbersome and slow. Some congested areas were not accessible. A man with a
broom andshovel could do almost aswell inlesstime andwithlessinterference to
kill-line operations. The vacuum system could be used to good advantage in some
places, particularly if installed as a central system, thereby eliminating the cart,
electrical cords, andmovable tank.
Problem: When the hog brisket was split open andwhen viscera was removed,
largeclotsofbloodfellintothegutterbeneaththekillrail.Duringmid-shift and final
clean-up these were often pushed down the chute leading to the hasher-washer
ratherthanbeingpicked upforrendering. Sluicingto the hasher-washer breaksup
theclots andleachessubstantial amountsof soluble material.
Solution: Thesolutionwasdryclean-up.Trainingandsupervisionofpersonnelis
vital. Vacuum cleaning would beeffective insome places.
Changes in viscera handling
Problem: There was a continual loading of blood and other materials that were
washedoff theevisceratingtreadmillbywater-spray.Thesespraysusedatotalof57
1/min(15gallons/min),partofwhichwas82C(180F)watertosanitizethetreadmill
and part of which was cold water-spray to loosen blood and other matter. The
problem wasto reduce the amount of water used for washing.
Solution: Experimentsshowedthatcleaningwithonly 191/min(5gallons/min)of
waterwassufficient. Thereductioninwaterusewasaccomplished byinstallingnew
nozzlesinthespraysystem.Thechangesaved 17.7kl(4670gallons)ofwater/dayon
Table13.9Annual savingsduetocarcassshower reductions
Item Amount
Flowsavings,1year:
33kl/day (8753gallons/day) = 8.3Ml/year
(2 188250gallons/year) @$0.39/1000gallons $853/year
Presentvalueofsavings(5years@10%)
a
$3,233
Totalcostofinstallingchange $184
Estimated netpresentvalueofsavings $3,049
Thisistheamountthatmustbeinvestedat10%interesttosecureannualpaymentsequaltothesavings
($853inthiscase)eachyearforfiveyears.
Source:Berthouex etal (1977).
the treadmill alone, which resulted in an annual savings of $455.00f. The cost of
makingthechangewas$63.00.
Problem:Excessiveamountsofwaterwerebeingusedontheviscerapansandthe
viscerationtreadmillduringclean-up.Theclean-upmenwouldleavetheviscerapan
andtreadmillspraysonduringmostoftheclean-up.After thefirst 30minutes,this
accomplished nouseful purpose.
Solution: Solenoidvalveswereinstalledonthethreewaterlinesthatsupplythe
viscerapanspraysandtreadmillsprays.Thesevalvesarecontrolledbyalockedtimer
box.Duringproductionthetimerissetonmanualoperationandthesolenoidvalves
remainopen. Attheendofproductionthetimerissetonautomaticandthecontrol
cabinet islocked. To use the sprays the clean-up man must push abutton on the
control cabinet to activate the timer and open the water supply valve. The timer
automaticallyclosesthesolenoidvalveafter 15minutes.Thesprayscanberestarted
bypushingthebuttonagainifmorewaterisneeded,buttheycannotbeleft running
byinaction orcarelessness.Thisautomated lockoutwouldnotberequired ifclean-
upworkerswereproperly motivated toward goodconservation practices and were
wellsupervised. In manyplants automation willbethe practice that iscertain and
effective. Table 13.10documentsthesavingsaccomplishedbyusingthis automated
valveduringclean-up shift.
Change in the hasher-washer
Problem:Thehasher-washerdrainwasthelargestcontributorofpollutionload from
thekillfloor.Intestinesandgreatquantitiesofothersolidmaterialsweresluicedinto
thehasher-washer from variouspartsofthekillfloor.Knivesinthe hasher-washer
slashed the intestines and this enabled the sluice water toflushout the intestinal
contents.Theobjectivewastohavefatandmeatsolidsgotoinediblerenderingand
tohavewastewater gotothewastewater-treatment plant. Theseparation of solids
andtheliquidwasveryinefficient. Largequantitiesofsolidsescapedwiththewater
through the large slotsinthe hasher-washer drums. This represents an extremely
t 10gpm(7.79hour/day)(60min/hour)(250day/year)($0.39/1000gallons) = $455/year.
Table 13.10 Annual savings due to use of lockout switch for cleanup of
evisceration Treadmill
0
Item Amount
Annualsavings:
7456,250gallons@$0.39/1000gallons $2907
Present valueofsavings:
5years@10% 11019
Installation cost $1285
Netpresent valueofsavings $9734
"Nochange in BOD or SS;flowreduction = 113kl/shift (29 825gallons/shift)=28.2 Ml/year (7 456250
gallons/year).
Source: Berthouexe/a/., (1977).
highloadintermsofBODsolids,grease,andotherpollutantsthatweredisposedof
atthemunicipalwastewater treatment plant.
Solution:Thechoppingbladeswereremovedfromthehasher-washersotheunit
functioned only as a dewatering device. The large and small intestines and their
contents remained intact and were sent to inedible rendering. This increased the
quantityofmeatscrapandmaterialforrenderingbyanaverageof3856kg/day(8500
lb/day).Thevalueforrenderedmeatscrapwas3856kg/day($5.75/100lb);thus$0.13
kg(8500lb/day) isworth $488.75.The additional income wasnotthe total savings
associated with the change because allowance must also be made for savings in
wastewatertreatment.Analysisofmeatmealproducedduringthetestperioddidnot
indicate reduction inthe quality, although the crudefibrecontent of the meal did
increasefrom 1.5% to 1.7%.
The solidsfrom the hasher-washer were rendered toproduce grease and meat
meal. During the test with the hasher-washer blades removed, therewere several
customercomplaintsaboutthequalityofthechoicewhitegrease.Someofthisgrease
hadtobedowngradedtoA-whitewiththeresultantlossinthesellingpriceof$0.75/
100weight.(Choicewhitegreasewas$14.75/100weight,andA-whitegrease,which
islowerquality,was$14.00/100weight).Duringafour-yearperiodatthetimeofthe
study, the plant produced an average of 5 188000 lb (2353 Mg) of choice white
grease/year. IfthistotalproductionweredowngradedtoA-white,therewasalossin
income of $25940/year. This was offset by the increase in meat scraps going to
rendering, estimated as $488.75/day, which over 250working days/year approxi-
mates $122000.The extra costofdryingthe additional meat scraps,thesavingsin
power and maintenance in not running the hasher, and savings in wastewater
treatmentwerenotincluded.Removingthehasher-washerbladesgaveasubstantial
reduction in BOD,suspended solids,and other pollutantsgoingtothe wastewater
treatment facility. Tables 13.11and 13.12contain detailed pollution andcostdata.
Second case study
Anin-plantpollutionreductionstudybyHansen etal.(1983)revealedthatbetterin-
plant water management results in significant energy saving, reduced wastewater
Table13.11Reductioninproductionshiftpollutionloadduetoremovalofhasher
washer blades
Item Pollution load
(partsperthousand
(byweight) 1wk
Before After Net reduction Totalfor plant
change change partsper thousand (kg/day(lb/
day))
(byweight)lwk
Flow Nochange Nochange

BOD 2.70 0.6498 2.050 1337(2948)
SS 2.35 0.324 2.020 1318(2906)
Grease 2.83 0.255 2.625 1712(3775)
TKN .23 0.134 0.096 63 (138)
COD 6.80 1.581 5.219 3404(7505)
Source:Berthouexef a/., (1977).
Table13.12Annualsavingsduetoremovingthehasherblades(basedon250work
days/yearandcostsof$1.48/m
3
,$0.39/1000gallons,$0.07/kg($0.0319/lbBOD),and
$0.06/kg($0.0264/lb)SS
Item Amount
Row savings None
BODsavings:
2948lb/shift = 737250lb/year (334 110kg/year) $23518/year
SSsavings:
2906lb/shift = 726500lb/year (329540kg/year) $19 179/year
Total annualsavings $42,697
Annualaddedvalueduetoincreased meatscrap:
3860kg/day (8500lb/day) = 963894kg/year (2 125000lb/year)
@$0.13/kg($5.75percwt) $122 187/year
Annual lossduetodowngradinggreasequality $25940
Annualnetsavings $138944
Presentvalueofsavings
5years@10% $526681
Costofmodification $275
Netpresentvalueofsavings $526406
Source:Berthouexe/a/., (1977).
treatment and potable water conservation. In a study of 16 meat- and poultry-
processing plants major water and energy conservation opportunities common to
most of the plants were identified including the following examples. Costs and
savingsgivenindollarswillchangewithtime,butthepaybackperiodsandratiosof
coststosavingswillinicatebenefit toprocessors.
Reduce hot water usage by lowering hot water temperature and using nozzles with
automatic shutoffs on cleaning hoses
A numberoftheplantsvisitedwereusingflexiblehosestowashprocessequipment,
floorsand walls. Many times these hoses did not have spray nozzles or automatic
shutoffs and the temperature of the water used for clean-up was not closely
monitored. Atoneplantthecleanupwaterwassohotthatitflashedintosteamasit
cameoutofthehose.Forgeneralcleaningpurposes,waterdoesnotneedtobeany
hotter than 49C(120F).Part Aofthissectiondiscussesconservation bylowering
water temperatures. Part B looks at the use of automatic shutoffs and nozzleson
hoses,productwatersprays,andhandwashers.
A. Lowering water temperatures
Annual savings for lowering water temperature from 71C (160F) to various
temperaturesarepresentedinTable 13.13.Theeaseofloweringwater temperature
Table 13.13Annual energy and cost savings per hose from lowering hot water
temperature from 71C(160F)
fl
New temperature Energysavings Costsavingsusingnatural
settingC(F) (therms/year)
6
gasat$4.95per 1000ft
3
(28.3m
3
)
$$/Year
68.3(155) 826 580
65.6(150) 1651 1170
62.8(145) 2477 1750
60 (140) 3303 2340
57.2(135) 4128 2920
54.4(130) 4954 3500
51.9(125) 5780 4090
48.9(120) 6605 4670
46.1(115) 7431 5260
43.3(110) 8257 5839
32.2 (90) 11560 8174
26.7 (80) 13211 9342
"Assume: (1) useof hose6hours/day,250days/year.
(2) Flowrate/(hose) is8311/min (22gallons/min).
(3) Incomingwatertemperature average is16C(60F).
(4) Gasisusedtoheatwaterandsystemis70% efficient.
6
Therm=1x105 Btu(0.11GJ).
341 Ch.13] Animalprocessingwastedisposal,reductionandutilization
atafood processingplantmaydependonthetypeofhotwatersystemfound ata
plant. If hot water is provided by a standard domestic-type water heater, the
temperature can easily be lowered byresetting the dial. Hot water ismost often
providedbyblendingsteamwithunheatedplantwateratthepointofuse.Thewater
temperature is controlled by manually adjusting the steam and water blending
valves.Steampressureand/orwaterpressuremayvarythroughouttheday,which
willcausethewatertemperaturetovary.Sinceaminimumtemperatureofwashor
rinse waterisoftenrequired,anoperatormayopensteamvalvesenoughsothathot
waternevergoesbelowacertaintemperature.Thiscausesunnecessarilyhighwater
temperature whensteampressureisuporwater pressure isdown.Sometimesan
untrained operator willsetwater temperature high and needlessly waste energy.
Manuallysetwatertemperaturesshouldbecarefully monitored.Asolutionthatis
probably better than frequent monitoring isto install thermostatically controlled
steamandwaterblendingvalvesthatautomaticallycontrolwatertemperature.
Thepaybackonthesevalves,whichcost$450-$700,willdependuponpresent
water temperature settings and variation of temperature above the settings. An
addedadvantageofautomaticcontrolvalvesisthatautomaticshutoffs (discussedin
PartB,below)canusuallybeusedonhosesattachedtothosevalves.Calculations
aregivenforaplantwherewatertemperatureforonecleaninghosewasobservedto
be100C(212F).
Energysavingscalculationsfor loweringtemperature ofclean-upwateratone
stationbyinstallinganautomatictemperature-controlsteam/water-blendingvalve:
Assume:
(1) Presentwatertemperatureis100C(212F).
(2) Flowrateis83.31/min(22gallons/min).
(3) Requiredclean-upwatertemperatureis60C(140F).
(4) Gasisusedinsteamboiler@$0.495/therm(1therm=100000Btu(0.11GJ)).
(5) Steam/waterblendingisusedtoprovidehotwater.
(6) Systemis70% efficient
(7) Hoseisused2hours./day,250days/year.
(22gallons/min) (60min/hour) (2hours/day) (250days/year)
(8.34lb/gallon)(1Btu/lbF)x(212F- 140F)(1/0.7) * ' '
5.66x10* , 0.54TJ
year year
Valueofenergysaved:
5.66x10* , $0,495 ^
OMI
^
Btu's TT^TT- =$2802/year (13.2)
year 106Btu
Costs:
Basecostis$700
Amortized cost (8%/yearfor 10years)=700/6.71=$104.32
Nooperatingormaintenancecost
Annualsavings
2802-104.32=$2697.68
Simplepayback
700x12
=3months (13.3)
2802
B. Automatic shutoffs and nozzles on cleaning hoses, product water sprays, and hand
washers.
Potential annual savingsfor shutting off hot waterflows,when they are not being
utilized,canbedetermined from Figs13.5and 13.6.Manyplantshavebeenableto
T5=24hours
7 -
6 -
en
O
1
5-
T4=16hours
m
3
<5
T3= 8hours
i T2=4hours
T1=2hours
Flow-rateQ,gallons/min (gpm)
Fig.13.5Yearlywateruseasafunctionofflowrate(Q)anddailyusage(T).1milliongallons
isequalto3.78Ml, 1gpm=3.781/min. Source:Hansen et al.(1983).
reducewaterusagebyinstallingautomaticshutoffsand/ornozzlesoncleaninghoses,
product water-sprays, and hand washes. Electric or air-operated valves can be
installed that shut off allproduct water-sprayswhenever theprocessinglinestops.
343
Ch. 13] Animal processing wastedisposal, reductionand utilization
CO
C
o
c
o
0.8
T5=24hours
0.7-
0.6-
0.5-
T4=16hours
0.4-
0.3-
T3=8 hours
0)
0.2-
T2=4hours
0.1-
T1=2hours
Flow-rateQ,gallons/min (gpm)
Fig.13.6Yearlywateruseasafunctionofflowrate(Q)anddailyusage(T).1milliongallons
isequalto3.78Ml,1 gpm=3.781/min.Source:Hansen et al. (1983).
Automatictrigger-control shutoffs similartothoseusedongarden hosescan easily
beinstalled onindustrial hoses.Theycanbeaddedtocleaninghoseswithnoother
modifications if a water heater is used to provide hot water. If a steam/water-
blendingvalveisused toprovide hotwater itisnecessarytoinstallcheckvalvesto
insuresteamorwaterdoesnotbackupintothewrongline.Automaticshutoff valves
areoften soldwithnozzlesattached.Nozzlesincreasewaterimpactwhiledecreasing
flow.If nozzles are installed without automatic shutoffs the equipment cost isless
than $10.00/nozzle. An automatic trigger-controlled shutoff with anozzlewillcost
approximately $90.00. Calculations are shown for installing ahose-end automatic
shutoff valveandnozzleonaclean-uphose.Itwasassumedthatthehoseran4hours/
day before installing the automatic shutoff and 2hours/day after installation. The
temperature ofthewaterwas71C(160F).
Example 1 Energy savings calculations for one station by installing an auto shut-off
valve and nozzle on a clean-up hose:
Basecostis$90.00
Annual amortization (8%for 10years)is90/6.71=$13.41
Assume:
(1) Hoseflowis761/min (20gpm) before installing nozzle and 571/min (15gpm)
after installation.
(2) Watertemperature is71C(160F).
(3) Hoseflowis8hours/daybeforeinstallationofautoshut-off and4hours/day after
installation.
(4) Watercosts$0.8037851(1000gallon).
(5) Efficiency ratefor treatingwateris70%.
/ AT=152(84)
80000 " / AT=120(67)
CO
d>
a
> 60000 -
/ /
^.
a>
c
/ / . AT=80(44)
CD
* *
f O
a>
.c
40000 -
a
c / /
CO
/ / yS ^ r AT=40(22)
V)
o 20000 -
o
~>Z2< AT'=0(0)
0 -
^V-r-7-T-T~T"T~ ^
10
Milliongallonsofwaterusedperyear(mgy)
Fig. 13.7 Cost of heat energy andwater as afunction of water use andtemperature (T).
mgy=3.8Ml/year;"ATischangeintemperatureinC(F)fromwatercomingintotheplantto
temperatureofuse.AtAT=0,waterisassumedtobe16C(60F).Source:Hansenefo/. (1983).
*Watersavings(from Figs13.5-13.7).
From Fig. 13.5yearly water use isseen to be 9.5 Mlbefore and 4.9 Ml after the
installation ofthevalue.
9.5-4.9 = 4.6Ml/year .
Thevalueofthiswater (Fig. 13.7)isabout$5000.00.
Annualsavingsis5000-13.41 = $4986.59 (13.4)
Paybackperiod isimmediate
345
Ch. 13] Animalprocessingwastedisposal,reductionandutilization
20000-
AT=152(84)
AT=120(67)
15000"
Q3
c
CO
a>
.c
a
c
(0
i
AT=80(44)
10000-
_
5000-
AT=40(22)
V)
o
O
AT
#
=0(0)
Millions of gallons ofwater used per year (mgy)
Fig. 13.8Costof heatenergy andwaterasafunction ofwateruse andtemperature (T).1
milliongallonsisequalto3.78Ml;"ATischangeintemperatureinC(F)fromwatercoming
into the plant to temperature of use. At AT=0, waterisassumed tobe 16C(60F). Source:
Hansenrta/. (1983).
Annualenergysavings:
Valueofwater
(0.6X10
6
gallons) (0.80/1000 gallons)=$480.00
Amount of energy
(3500/year-480year) (l.OxlO
5
Btu/0.495) (1.0/0.7)
=871millionBtu/year = 0.919TJ/year (13.5)
Use high pressure low volume sprays for clean-up
High-pressure low-volume (HPLV) water-sprays for clean-up of food processing
plantswilloften savewaterandenergy.HPLVinvolvespumpingcleaningwaterora
water-airmixtureto4.1-8.3MPa(600-1200psi).Chemicalcleaningaidsaremixed
with the high-pressure water and the mixture issprayed against the surfaces to be
cleaned. These systems are especially effective for cleaning complex processing
equipment.Cleaningsystemsarealsoavailablethatusemoderatepressures,1.4-4.1
MPa (200-600psi).The goalshould betouseaslittlewater asnecessary todothe
job.Thevalueofthewater savedisusuallynotasmuch asthevalueofthe energy
savedbynothavingtoheat asmuch water.
346 Animal processing wastedisposal, reductionandutilization [Ch.13
Example 2 Energy saving with HPLV clean up:
Energyrequirement calculationsfor ahot-waterhosedischarging831/min(22gpm)
0.41MPa (60psi),71C(160F)for4hoursdaily:
Assume:
(1) Incomingwater is16C(60F)
(2) Noadditional pumpingrequiredtobringpressureto0.41MPa(60psi).Energy
to heat water: (22 gal/min.) (8.34 lb/gal) (60 min/hr) (Btu/lbF.)
(160-60F.)=l.lxl0
6
Btu/hour=1.16GJ/year
Valueofheat inwater:
(1) Natural gasboiler heatswater.
(2) Boileris80% efficient.
(3) 1thermofgasisl.OxlO
5
Btu (0.11GJ).
(4) 1thermofgascost$0,495.
(5) Hoseflows4hoursdaily
$6.81/hour (4 hours) = $27.25/day (13.7)
Energy requirement calculations for a high pressure low volume clean up system
discharging30.31/min (8gpm),4.1MPa(600psi),71C(160F)4hoursdaily
Assume:
(1) Incomingwatertemperature is16C(60F).
(2) Pumpefficiency is50%.
(3) Electricity costs$0.05/kWh
Valueofheat inwater:
Use30.31/min (8gpm)insteadof83.31/min (22gpm)for low-volume
effectiveness
(Use ratio):(8/22)$27.25/day=$9.91/day (13.8)
Pumpingcosts:
/ o x ,rr^ x0 h p
m m
) ( 1 ft) ( 14 4i n
2
)( 1 )
=
5 6 h p
"
4 2 k W (139)
^
( 8 g p m ) ( 6 0 0 p s i )
k mt d I MJ ^ Ls - TW
1
5 3
_, . , . , , . , ,
347 Ch. 13] Animal processing wastedisposal, reduction andutilization
(0746kW^
(5.6HP) ^r (4hours/day) ($0.05/kW h)=$0.84/day (13.10)
Total costs:
$9.91+0.84=$10.75/day (13.11)
Energy saving calculations per station (hose)
Pumping energy
1horsepower houris2545Btu
(5.6 hp) (4hour/day) (2545Btu/hp hr) = 57000Btu/day (13.12)
Energyinwater:
(1.1x 10
6
Btu/hour) (8/11) (4hr/day)= 1.6 x 10
6
Btu/day= 1.7 GJ/day
(13.13)
Totalenergyfor hoseatplant pressure
(1.1x 10
6
Btu/hour) (4hour/day)=4.4x 10
6
Btu/day=4.6 GJ/day
(13.14)
Valueofenergy saved:
(4.4x 10
6
- 1.657 x 10
6
)=2.743x 10
6
Btu/day=2.9 GJ/day (13.15)
$27.25- $10.75=$16.50/day=$4125/year (13.16)
Valueofwater saved:
(22- 8gpm) (60min/hour) (4hour/day)=3360 gallons/day
= 12.7kl/day (13.17)
(3360gallons/day) ($.80/1000gallons)=$2.69/day (13.18)
$2.69/day (250day/year)=$672.50/year (13.19)
Install thermostatically controlled valves to reduce the flow of cooling water
Manypiecesofequipment inthefood processingindustryarewatercooled,suchas
refrigeration compressorheads.Usually,thewaterflowissethightomakesurethe
equipmentneveroverheats,evenundermaximumload.Inonerelativelylargeplant
thecombinedflowofcoolingwaterinthecompressorroomwasestimatedtobeclose
to37.81/min,(10gallons/minute), or over 18.9km
3
year (5millionsgallons/year).
Seldom are the compressors operating constantly and they do not require cooling
waterwhentheyarenotoperating.Thermostatically controlledvalveslimitcooling
waterflowtomaintainasteadypre-settemperature intheequipmentbeingcooled.
Thisusuallyresultsinatleasta50%watersaving.Thermostaticallycontrolledvalves
installedoncompressorsmayhaveapayback asshortas3months.
Recovering and upgrading animal by-products
Processchanges,such astheexamplesgivenabove, arespecific for the equipment
and processes listed. This section lists and discusses methods for recovering/
upgrading animal by-products with associated energy conservation. It has been
shownthatproteinrecoveredfrom by-productsorevenmeatpackingwastewateris
often ofahighqualityandhasgoodfunctional properties(Knorr, 1983;Pereraand
Anglemier, 1980).
The processes available to the animal-processing industry for upgrading or
reclaiming by-products and conserving energy are listed in Table 13.14. The
following text briefly describes each process. Some of the methods listed are
discussedmorefully inotherpartsofthisbook.
1. Blood
Blood ishigh inprotein, minerals,andvitamins,makingitasourceof high-quality
food(Resler,1973).IntheU.S.,bloodisnotcommonlyusedforhumanfood;partof
thebloodfromslaughteredanimalsisdriedforuseasotherthanhumanfood (animal
feed or fertilizer) and most of the rest iswashed down the sewer and becomes a
pollutant. Animal blood isused for food inother partsoftheworld. Processingof
animal blood to fractionally remove protein and/or decolourize it may make the
product more appealing.
Blood used for human consumption must be collected using USDA-approved
methodstoensurecleanliness.
Chemical processing.
Tybor et al. (1973), Drepper and Drepper (1979) and Landmann and Dill (1972)
describe procedures for manufacturing protein product from blood that issuitable
for inclusion infood products.Thestagesinvolved intheprocedure arecollection,
followed byadditionofananticoagulant,thencentrifugation toseparatetheplasma
and red cells.Plasma maybefurther treated (ultrafiltration isonemethod) and/or
dried.Redcellsareopened(haemolysis)andthentreatedwithanenzyme(Drepper
andDrepper, 1979)orotherchemicals(Tybor et al., 1973)fordecolourization.The
final decolourizedproductmaybeuseddirectlyinmeatproductsordriedtoawhite
powder.
Ultrafiltration/reverse osmosis.
Ultrafiltration (UF) and reverse osmosis (RO) are processes that separate and
concentrate dissolved components from liquids.Small molecules,including water,
passthroughasemipermeablemembraneunderpressure,whereasproteinandother
Marge' molecules will be retained. A description of the process isgiven by Kaup
(1973)andFernando(1981).ROdiffersfromUFinthattheporesizeforROismuch
smallerthusretainingsmallermolecules.Pressure for UFisintherangeof69-690
kPa (10-100 psi),while that for RO isin the range 3.4-10.3MPa (500-1500psi),
thoughlowerpressuresarenowbeingused.
n
Table13.14Processingmethodsfor animalproduct recovery/upgrading orenergy conservation
Product Processingmethods Application Potentialvalue
Blood Chemical
Ultrafiltration/
Reverseosmosis
Additiveforprocessed
meats.Balancestheamino
acidsfrom vegetable
proteins.
Thereare110000-180000metrictonnes
(350-400millionlb)
ofbeefbloodsolidsinthebloodremoved
from slaughteranimalsinU.S.peryear
(Resler, 1973;AMI,1978).
Bloodofashighaqualityfrom other
animalspeciesisnotasreadilyavailable
asbeefbloodbecauseof difficulty
ofcollectingwithout contamination.
Bone Mechanicaldeboning Mechanicallydebonedmeat
(MDM)isusedinasimilar
mannerastrimmedmeat.
Thequalityisusuallythought
tobelowerthanthatofhand-
trimmedmeat,mainly
becauseoffinebone
particles,textureandcolour
About2millionmetrictonnes(4.4billionslb)
ofMDMcouldberecovered/year
(Field, 1976).Porkcarcassescouldyield
1.4-1.8kg(3-4lb)morepercarcass
thanwithhand-trim(Goldstrand,1975).
Thereisa50-70%yieldoffleshfrom
fish frames (Baker,1980).
difference.
Protein Mechanicalboningand Canbeincorporatedinto Bonefrom freshly dressedanimals
f
proteinextraction sausagestosupplyupto containsmorethan20%proteinsand
to
20%oftheproteincontent 15%fat (KatzandAckroyd,1976).
withoutobjectionableflavour, 8.
texture,andodour.
Viscera Proteinextraction Proteinextracted from Notenoughdataexisttoaccurately
viscerahasgoodquality predictvalue.Proteincanbeextracted
andfunctional propertiesfor fromvisceraofanimals.
fabricated foods. (Perera
andAnglemier, 1980;Young
andLawrie1975)
g
I
Product Processingmethods Application
Animalprocessing Physical-chemical Treatmentof
waste treatment animal-processing
wastewater
Biogas Anaerobictreatment
ofanimal-processing
waste
Productionofsingle-cellprotein Meatpackingwaste
Ultrafiltration for Treatmentofanimal-
recoveryofprotein processingwastewater
andtoreduceBOD toreduceBODand
totalsolids.Concentrate
retainedbythemembrane
canbedriedintoanutritious
animalfood.
Trimmings, Tumblingormassaging Bindstrimmings,thus
meatforcuring upgradingtrimmings,
whichcanbeusedforcured
products.
Liquidproduct Concentrationwithmultistage Usedforconcentrating
evaporationorreverseosmosis/ solidsinanimalby-products
ultrafiltration. Reclamationof
heatvapoursfromdrying.
Carcass Maintainrelativehumidity Meatcoolersfollowing
closeto95%incoolers. killfloor.
Source:HansenandGeorge(1983).
Potentialvalue
Dependsonthechemicalanalysisofthe
sludge,therenderingfacultiesattheplant
andtheconstraintsonsludgedisposal.In
onestudyofphysical-chemicaltreatmentof
meatpackingwastewater,89%ofthe
suspendedsolidswereremoved.The
coagulatedsuspendedsolidscontained 41%
crudeproteinand17%fat (Baugh,1976).
Woulddependonlocalenergycosts,volume
andtypeofwastetreatmentanddisposal
methodspresentlyused.
Dependsuponconsumeracceptance.
Considerablemarketdevelopmentwould
probablyberequiredtoutilizetheseproducts.
Notenoughdataexisttoaccuratelypredict
value.Inonetrial,94%ofthetotalprotein
inwastewatersamplewasrecoverableas
animalfeed (ShinandKozink,1980) a
n
I
80
Increasescuringyieldby4-6%overthatof
a.
non-tumbledtissue(Ockerman et al.,1982a)
N
Potentialexistsforremovingwaterfrom
foodproductsusinglessthan25%ofthe
energynormallyrequiredbytheevaporation
process(Teixera,1981).
Increasesmeatyieldby1%ormore.
9
UFcanbeusedtoconcentratebloodproteinswithoutheatdamagewhilesaltand
othersmallmoleculesareremoved.UFcanbeusedtopreparebloodserumforusein
sausageortoeconomically concentrate serum before itisspray-dried. ROcan also
be used to concentrate blood with greater retention of protein and minerals as
comparedwithUF.ProcessingofbloodwithROhasnotbeenpopular intheU.S.,
probably because of critical membrane limitations (low temperatures, ease of
fouling, etc.)and relativelyinexpensiveenergy. Advancements havebeen madein
membranetechnology togiveROmuchwiderapplication (SRI,1981).
Bone
Mechanical deboning
Mechanical deboning isaccomplished bypressing aground or crushed meat/bone
mixture against a porous metal screen with a screw press or piston. Soft tissue is
forcedthroughtheopenings,whileboneisretained.Adiscussionoftheprocessand
the properties of mechanically deboned meat (MDM) now referred to for
labelling purposes as 'mechanically separated (species)' is found in Field (1976),
Baker (1980), Goldstrand (1975), Katz and Ackroyd (1976), and Ockerman et al.
(1981).
Atpresent,hand-trimmedbonesaretreatedasaby-productoflittlevalue.Bones
constitute 16-20%ofthecarcassweight,andatleast30%oftheboneweightcanbe
savedashumanfood (KatzandAckroyd, 1976;Field, 1976).Bonesthatarehardto
hand-trim, such as the vertical column and ribs, yield the most meat. However,
MDMisseldomusedinamountswhichexceed30%oftheproductbecause colour,
texture and flavour problems often occur when higher levels are used. More than
10% MDMinsausagemaycausecolourchanges(Field, 1976).
Protein extraction
Boneprotein extractscanbeobtained from ground bonesbyanalkaline treatment
and tumbling (ground bones are placed in rotating drum), short-term storage,
filtration,precipitation,andcentrifugation (OckermanandCaldironi,1982;Jelen et
al.1978).OckermanandCaldironireportedthatsausagemadewithupto20%bone
protein extract had good functional properties and was acceptable in flavour,
texture,odour, andcolour;theextractcontained nearly 10%protein (wetbasis).
Viscera
GaultandLawrie(1980)describeaprocedureforextractingproteinfromoffal. Offal
ishomogenizedinwater,thepHisadjusted andadetergentsolutionmaybeaddedto
thesolutionandagitatedfor3hoursatroomtemperature.Theprotein isseparated
outbycentrifugation. PereraandAnglemier(1980)reportthatabout90%ofrumen
proteincouldbeextractedatpH3or10whenthetissuewaswellhomogenized. The
rumen protein was about 30% lower in emulsifying capacity than that of skeletal
muscle protein. The whippability and foam stability were superior to those of
purified eggalbumin andtheprotein hadexcellentsolubilityand consistency.
Meat-packing wastewater
Wastewaterfromanimalprocessingisoftendifficulttotreat,yetthemajor pollutants
inthewastewaterareofhighnutritionalvalue.Producingasaleableby-product from
wastewater wouldhelptooffset theoperatingcostsforwastewater treatment.
Single cell protein
Microorganismsthatcanbeusedtoproducesingle-cellprotein(SCP)includeyeast,
filamentous fungi, bacteria, and algae (Hang, 1979). These microoganisms can
utilize a great variety of carbonaceous materials. Microorganisms feed on waste
materialsandbuildproteinthroughcellsynthesis.SCPprovidedbymicroorganisms
mayshowanappreciableimprovementinaminoacidcompositionandquantityover
thematerialtheyfeed on (MWPS,1975).
SCP production processes are capital and energy-intensive, and it may be
necessarytonutritionally supplement thefeedstock for themicroorganisms (Litch-
field, 1977). An advantage of SCP production in meat packing is that it may be
possibletocombinetheprocesswithwastetreatment.Moreresearchwillhavetobe
donetodeterminetheapplicabilityofSCPforthemeat industry.
Physical-chemical
The recovery of by-product from meat packing wastewater is generally an extra
benefit oftreatingthewastewater. Thecostofwastetreatment maybereducedby
saleofby-productrecovered.Proteinmaybeseparatedbycoagulationandsettling.
Fatsandoilsmaybeseperatedbyflotation inaprocesssuchasdissolved-air flotation
orelectrocoagulationandcanbeskimmedoffthesurface(Clemens,1981).Sherman
(1979)reportsonaprocessfor specific precipitation ofprotein usingligninsulpho-
natesunder acidconditions.Chitosan,aby-productofshrimpandcrabwastes,has
been shown to be effective in reducing BOD and SS from meat- and poultry-
processingwastes.Coagulated solidscontained upto68%protein on adry-weight
basis(Baugh, 1976).
Biogas
Volatile suspended solids in meat packing wastewater are often decomposed in
anaerobiclagoonslocatedatmeatpackingplants(Hansen,1980).Biogas(methane)
is produced as a by-product of this process. Meat packing plants may consider
anaerobic digestion processes that are designed for collection and utilization of
methane.Jewell(1979)describesmethodsofmethanegeneration and collection.
Ultrafiltration
The permeate from ultrafiltration treatment of animal-processing wastewater may
bedischargedtothesewerwithoutadditionaltreatmentorsurchargesforhighBOD
andsuspendedsolids.Theretentatemaycontainsignificant amountsofproteinand
fat which can bedried for animalfood. Thisprocess hasbeen shown towork ona
laboratory scaleinapoultry-processingplant (Shinand Kozink,1980).
Tumbling or massaging
Tumblingreferstoplacingthemeatinarotatingdrumthatisshapedsomewhatlikea
cement mixer. Massaging involves placing the meat into a vat in which a large
rotating paddle performs the mechanical manipulation process. Tumbling or mas-
sagingofmeat (Ockerman et al> 1982a)isaninnovationinthemeat-curingarea. In
thetumblingprocess,protein isextracted toform abindingagent.Itcan transform
trimmings into a product that resembles intact cuts of meat, thus upgrading the
trimmings. It also salvages protein that would otherwise be lost (exuded from the
tissuebythebrine)usingconventional curemethods.
Liquid product
Manyplantsinthemeatindustryboiloffliquid,withlittleornoreclamationofheat
energyinthevapours.Thehotvapoursmayevenend upasanundesirable heat or
odourpollutant.Thedryingprocessisbestdoneintwostages:liquid concentration
followed bydrying.Concentration processesarediscussedbelow (Flink, 1977).
Evaporation processesthat conserveenergyreclaimtheheat ofvaporizationof
water (about 2.26MJ/kg (970.3Btu/lb)) at 100C(212F).These processes include
multiple-effect evaporators, mechanical vapour recompression (MVR), and batch
cookers that utilize vapours to pre-heat incoming feedstock in a heat exchanger
(Schwartzberg, 1977; Gartlan, 1975). The vapour generated in one effect of a
multiple-effect evaporator isused to provide the heat required to produce evapo-
rationdownstreaminaneffect operatedatlowerpressure.InMVR,vapourfromthe
liquid being concentrated iscompressed to provide, through heat of compression,
heatforfurther concentrationoftheliquid.Inbothcases,theheatofvaporizationis
reclaimed.Multiple-effect evaporatorscanbeusedinrendering(Anderson Interna-
tional 1983).Asteamsavingof31% isreportedbyarenderingplantinEurope that
uses reclaimed vapours from batch cookers to pre-heat raw feedstock goingto an
evaporator (Anon., 1981).
ROandUFcanalsobeusedtoconcentrateliquidfood.Sincenophasechangeis
involved,theenergyrequiredtoremovewaterbyROandUFisintheformofwork
todrivepressurizingandcirculatingpumps.EnergyusedinROisrelatedtopressure
requiredtoovercomeosmoticforces.Astheconcentrationofthesolutionincreases,
osmoticforces build, and systempressure mustexceed osmoticforces. Becauseof
this limitation, solution concentrations are limited. For pure sucrose, the limit is
about 25%(Teixeira, 1981).
7. Precision control of relative humidity in carcass coolers
Coolers should be kept at 95% relative humidity (RH) to avoid shrink and
condensation of water vapour on rails and structural members (Anderson, 1982).
Beaded condensate incoolers isprohibited bygovernment regulation for sanitary
reasons.ControllingRHrequiresprecisecontroloftemperature,airmovement,and
moisture removal. A0.6C(1F)spread between wet and dry bulbtemperature at
2C(35F)givesadifference inRHof10%.Airmovementinthecoolersisneededto
achieveauniform RH andtemperature throughout the cooler.
Excessmoisturewillcondenseontheevaporatorcoilsandberemovedfrom the
air.Anderson(1982)suggestsrunningthecoilswet(abovefreezing)tobettercontrol
heat transfer rateandtoavoidrunningadefrost cycle.Refrigeration unitsmayrun
moreefficiently withwetevaporatorcoils.
Hot deboning
Hot deboning is often paired with carcass skinning, used by many whole-hog
processorsandsausagemakers.AdiscussionoftheprocessisgivenbyOckerman et
al. (1982b). Release of the muscle prior to rigor results inmuscle contraction and
somemuscletoughening.Therefore, hotboningisusuallyusedwithtissuethatwill
be ground or emulsified. Ockerman (1980) reported that 30-40% less time is
required to bone a carcass hot; yet employees who are used to cold boning may
initially object to changing. Advantages of the process include lessshrinkage,less
rancidity, increased shelf life, andbetter colour.
Ifusedcollectively,theprocessesdiscussedfor recovering/upgrading animalby-
products could substantially increase meat yield from animals and reduce energy
consumption.Unfortunately, manyoftheprocessesdescribedarenotavailableona
commercialscale.Commercialdevelopmentofsomeprocessesrequiresapplications
research and development of marketing strategy. These processes do indicate the
potentialforincreasedprofitandpollutionreductionbybetterutiliziationofallparts
ofthe animal.
SUMMARY
Someanimalpartsareunderutilized andsignificant amountsofbloodandscrapsare
lost to the sewer. Additionally, many processing techniques use more water and
energy than isneeded to accomplish the given task. Supervisory personnel should
develop astrategy to reduce pollution and increase profits. The plant mustfirstbe
surveyed for pollution-reduction opportunities. Plants must develop a'waste con-
sciousness'includinggoodhousekeepingpracticesandwatchingforopportunitiesto
reduce pollution. Processingmethodsmustbeconstantly updated accordingtothe
state-of-the-art. Processesthatneedupdatingareidentified bypollutionandenergy
usage monitoring and consultation with key employees and outside consultantsif
necessary. A collection of processes that recover/upgrade animal by-products
thereby reducingpollution andincreasingprofit areavailable.
APPENDIX:EXAMPLEPROBLEMFORLANDAPPLICATIONOFANIMAL-
PROCESSINGWASTE
Animal-processingwasteisappliedtolandtobeplanted withcorn.
355
Ch. 13] Animal processing waste disposal, reduction and utilization
Table13.15 Nutrient analysisofanimal-processing waste
Parameter Analysis kg/10 0001 (lb/1000gallons)
Total Solids 6.58% wb
fl
TotalN 26.8 22.4
Ammonia N 13.9 11.6
OrganicN 12.9 10.8
Phosphorus 4.4* 3.7
Potassium
10.2kgP
2
O
5
18.2
C
8.5 lbP
2
O
5
15.2
21.9kgK
2
O 18.3lb K
2
O
Calcium 8.5 7.1
Magnesium 2.9 2.4
PH 7.5
"wbiswet basis.
b
4A kg/10 0001waste of the element phosphorus, however Pisoften reported as P
2
O
5
.
C
18.2 kg/10 0001waste of the element potassium, however Kisoften reported as K
2
O.
Animal-processing waste application plan
Assume cropping needsare224kgavailableN/ha (200lb/acre).
(a) Determine mineralized N available from previous years of animal-processing
waste application: (Assume 100000 1/ha (10700 gallons/acre) yearly for pre-
viousfour years). Assume half the organicnitrogen wasavailable toplants the
yearitwasspread. OrganicNreleasedduringthesecond,third,fourth andfifth
cropping years was50%,25%,12.5% and 12.5%respectively of that released
duringthefirstcropping season.
64.5kgN/ha=[0.5(12.9kgN/10 0001)xl00 0001/ha] (0.5+0.25+0.125+0.125)
57.8 lb N/acre=[0.5 (10.8 lb N/1000 gallons)x10700 gallons/acre]
(0.5+0.25+0.125+0.125)
(b) Determine N available in animal-processing waste during year of application.
Assume50% lossof ammonia nitrogen (NH
3
N)dueto volatilization.
13.4kgN/100001=0.5 (12.9kgorganicN+13.9 kgNH
3
-N)/10 0001
11.2lbN/1000gallons=0.5 (10.8lborganicN+l l / 6 lbNH
3
-N)/1000 gallons
(c) Determine how much animal processing waste willbe required to meet all the
224kg/ha (200lb/acre) nitrogen needswith animal processingwaste. (Amount
of Nneeded isfound inTable 13.6).Nneeded thisyear isamount required by
cropminus amount available inmineralized form from previousyears.
159.5kgN/ha needed thisyear=224 kgN/ha needed - 64.5kgN/hafrom past
years.
356 Animal processingwastedisposal, reductionandutilization [Ch. 13
<ntt
159kg N/ha needed
119klwaste/ha =
1 3 4 k
142.2lbsN/acreneeded=200lbN/acre- 57.8lbN/acrefrom pastyears
t^nnn / 142.2lbN/acre
12700gallons waste/acre=
11.2lb N/1000gallonsx1000
(d) Ifapplying 119kl(12700gallons)animal-processingwaste/ha,howmuchP&K
isapplied?
52.4kgP= 11.9x4.4kgPor 121.4kgP
2
O
5
216.6kgK=11.9x18.2kgKor260.6kgK
2
O
46.6lbP=12.7x3.7lbPor 108lbK
2
O
193lbK=12.7x15.2lbKor232.4lbK
2
O
(e) Assume youwant tofully utilizetheP&Knutrientsinthisanimal processing
waste. Your soil testsvery lowforP&K. How much land planted with corn
(yield goal 17.4 m
3
/ha (200 bushels/acre) can you fertilize with 119kl(5280
gallons) of animal-processing waste: (a) according toP requirements, (b)
accordingtoKrequirements. P
2
O
5
and K
2
Oneedsarefound inTable13.8.
84kg P
2
O
5
/ha
108lbP
2
O
5
1.4 acre=
75lbP
2
O
5
/acre
(b)4. 2ha=
m6kgK2
v ;
62.6kg K
2
O/ha
232.4lbK
2
O
4.2 acre=
55lbK.O/acre
Therefore ifNrequirementsaremet, P&Krequirementsareexceeded by
1.4and4.2timesrespectively.Onecouldapplyanimalprocessingwastetomeet
Por KneedsandsupplyadditionalNrequiredwithcommercial fertilizer.
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Index
acidyeastproteinase, 243
ACTH, 179,183,195
Addison'sdisease, 181
ADH, 195
adrenalgland, 181-182
adrenaline, 181
adrenocorticotrophic hormone, see ACTH
agar-agar, 132-133
albumin,blood, 184,233, 246-247
albuminoids, 132
alkalase,243
amylase, 177
animalsby-products
classification of, 13
economicsof, 11
edible, 13
English,categoriesof, 16
historyof, 16-20
inedible, 13,20
quantity, 11,20-25
requirementsforutilizationof, 16
terminology, 13
varietyof, 13-15
animalfeeds,20,27, 290-291
see alsopet food
animal-processingwaste, see meat-processing
waste
anthelone E, 199
anticoagulants, 236-237
arterenol, 181
arteries, 182
arthritis, 195
Ascomycete, 267
Asporogene, 267
astaxanthin,291
asthma,bronchial, 195
autoclave,72,73
bacteria,lacticacid,31,39
see also under names
batchrendering, seedrybatchrendering
bates, 119
beefbung,226
see alsocasings
beefby-products, 36-37
beefcheek meat,50
beefcheekpapillae, 50-51
beef headmeat,50
beef lips,50
beef outside skirt,50
beef tonguetrimmings,50
beefweasand,50
bezoars, 182,183
bile, 182-183,187
biogas,352
bladder,226
blastinggelatine, 133
blindend,226
blood, 53-54,184-185
albumin, 184, 233,246-247
albuminglue, 149
char, 251-252,253
chemicalpreservationof, 238
components,compositionof, 238-239
composition, 184
co-processingofpaunchmanureand,250-251
dried,inpetfood, 276-277
dryingof, 82-84, 238-241
feedingofwhole,250
flour,67
foam products,252
industrial usesof, 233
meal,67,233,248-250, 318
nutritional aspectsof, 252
pickledoracidified, 250
processingforhumanconsumption,55
propertiesoffractionsof, 241-246
serum,246
spray-dried, 247-248
upgradingof, 348-351
utilization, 232-255
bone
calciumcontentof, 72
coldalkalineextractionof, 171-172
defattingof, 172-173
edibletissuefrom, 158-175
flavouring ingredientsfrom, 172
inedibleusesof, 174
362
liquidextractionof, 171
mechanical separationof, 159-160
mineralcontentof, 72
osseinproduction from, 145-149
proteinextraction from,351
upgradingof, 351
bone meal, 65-68
bone protein, 173
bovine serine albumin (BSA), 185
brains,48-49, 186
caecum,226
calciferol, 296
calcitonin,200
candles, 17-18,20,58
cannerywaste, 288-289
canning, 257-258
capsules,pharmaceutical, 150-152
carotene, 296
cartilage,bone, 185
casingsaltingmachine,216,223
casings,27
beef, 212-213
cellulopse, 202
collagen,202,228-230
comparisonof, 204
equipment for, 208-214
evaluation of, 202-203
hog,211
lamb, 223-224
natural,206
pullingtrayfor,214
sheep, 210
strippercrusherfor, 213-214, 217-219
stuffing andpackingof, 214-223
terminology, 205-206
yieldandstorageof, 227-228
catalase, 191
catgut, 191,227
caulfat, 13
cellulosecasings,202
centrifuge
decanter, 80-81
disc,82
cephalin, 186
char,blood,251-252,253
chenodeoxycholic acid, 183,186,187
Chinese Moss, 133
chitin, 303-305
chitosan,303-305,352
chitterling, 226
chlorophyll, 296
cholecystokinin (CCK), 199
cholesterol, 63, 186, 192, 197,200,293,296
cholicacid, 186
chymosin, 198
chymotrypsin, 193
clamwaste,276
codliveroil,296
collagen,72, 132, 134,197
casings,202,228-229
continuouscooker/drier,77,78,82
Index
continuousdryrenderingsystem,72,73,75
advantagesanddisadvantages,85
continuouslow-temperature systems, 72-75
continuous renderingequipment, 76-84
corpusluteum, 192
corticosteroids, 181,183
cortisone, 181,183,186
cretinism,200
cyanocobalamin, 191
cysticfibrosis,194
curing,96-114
fleshing,106-108, 109
mixer, 103-104
non-salt, 105-106
pit-curing, 105
raceway, 104-105,108
salt-curingof, 102-103
vat-curingof, 105
cuttingfat, 13
deboned meat
chemicalcompositionof, 162-168
emulsionproperties, 169-170
microbiological qualityof, 168-169
oxidationof, 169
usesof mechanically, 170-171
yieldof, 160-162
deboningmachines, 159-160,351
decantercentrifuge, 80-81
7-dehydrocholesterol, 296
dehydrocholicacid, 183,186,191
desoxycholic acid, 186,187
diabetesinsipidus, 195
diastase, 177
digestorwet rendering,84
dimethylamine (DMA), 169
disccentrifuge, 82
dolphinfood,273
drybatchrendering,72,74
advantagesanddisadvantages, 84-85
drycontinuous rendering, seecontinuousdry
rendering
duodenum, 186
ediblemeatby-products, 27-57
percentage ofselected USpackerssaving,
42-43
perishabilityof, 27-28
storageandpackingof, 29, 31-32
yieldof, 28
egg-shell powder, 186
eggshells, 315-317
eggs
inedible,319
laboratoryuseof, 320
manufacturing usesof, 320
enterogastrone, 186,199
enzymatichydrolysis,44
epinephrine, 181-182
Escherichia coliy154
evaporators,79
multiple,80
Index 363
single-effect, 79,80
exoticanimal food, 256-278
Fat AnalysisCommittee (FAC) Colour, 61-62
fats
from bones, 156-157
edible, 13
from glue and gelatine production, 156
feather, 186,311-315
meal,67,316
fertilizer, 20,27,58,233
from fish, 307-308
finishingmachine, 214,221-222
fish,fertilizer from, 307-308
fishgelatine, 300-301
fishglue 149,301-302
fishliveroils,296-300
fishliver preservation, 300
fishmeal,67,283-286
fishoffal, 258,308
fishoil,283-286, 292-300
refining, 293-296
fishprotein concentrate (FPC), 281-283
fishprotein, hydrolysisof, 286-288
fish,rough,272
fishsilage, 291-300
acid-preserved, 291
fermented, 291
nutrition of, 292
production of, 292
fishskins, leather from, 302-303
fishstickwater, processing of, 290
fish-tank feeding gel,273
flaying, seehide: removal
frozen fish use,276
fucoxanthin, 296
gall, 187
gallbladder, 186-187
gallstones, 187
gastrin, 199
gelatin, 20,133
gelatine, 132-157,197
acidprecursor, preparation from, 137-142
alkaline procedure for production of, 137-142
aminoacidcontent of, 134
extraction of, from rawmaterials, 134
fish,300-301
manufacturing of, 134-137
physicalproperties of, 151,153-154
preservatives, 143
type A,142-145
type B, 137-142
waste from production of, 154-157
usesof, 149-153
giblets,poultry, 176-181
glands,animal, 176-181
see also under names
glucagon, 193
glue,20,72, 132-157
blood albumin, 149
fish, 149, 301-302
manufacturing of, 134-137
preservatives, 143
usesof, 149-153
waste from, 154-157
glycerine,69
goldleaf, beatingof, 227
gonadotrophic hormone, 195
grinders,76
growth-promoting hormone (GH), 195,196
gut bread, 47
haemin, 245
haemoglobin
bleachingof, 242,244-245
digestion withproteolyticenzymes, 243-244
oxidation of, 242-243
removal of haem groupfrom, 242-243
utilization of, 242-246
haggis,52
hair, 187
removal of, 99-102
hammer mills,76,77
Hancock Standard heartvalves, 188
'hard-hair' season, 99
hatcherywaste,319
heart, 41,188-190
heart bread, 47
heparin, 190-191,227,233
hides, 89-131
chrome-tanning of, 114
classification of, 90,94
composition, 94-96
curing, 96-114
damages and defect to, 110-113
depilation of, 99-102
and physicalproperties of leather, 126-129
qualityevaluation, 114
removal of, 96-99
sortingof, 110
tanningof, 114-126
trade in, 89-90
transportation of, 114
trimmingof, 110
hogbung, 224-225
see alsocasings
hogstomach, 225
hogor, 76-77
hogs, miniature, 192
hot deboning,354
hyaluronidase, 199
hydrolysed animal protein, 172
hyodeoxycholic acid, 183
hypothyroid, 200
hypothyroidism, 199
insulin, 193,289
intestines,52, 190-191
invasin, 199
Irish Moss, 133
isinglass, 133,144, 149,300-301
Japanese gelatin, 133
364
Japanese isinglass, 133
jelliedproducts,52
kephalin, 186
kidney, 46-47
Koshermeat,228,232
krill,305,306
lactogen, 196
lambby-products,40
lard, seetallow
leather,20
buffing of, 125
colouringof, 123
conditioningof, 124
dryingof, 124
dyeingof, 123-124
finishing, 125-126
fromfishskins, 302-303
fullgrain,125
gradingof, 126
hangingof, 124
pastingof, 124
physical propertiesof, 126-129
platining, 126
settingoutof, 124
shoddy,130
softening of, 124-125
stakingof, 125
temperof, 124
togglingof, 124
tradein, 89-90
wettingbackof, 124
lecithin, 182,296
Leuconostoc spp.,31
leukaemia, 195
lipase, 177,193
lipotropichormone, 193
liquidproducts,353
liver,32,37, 39-40,191
Lovibond tintometer,63
low-temperature rendering, 86-87
lungs, 191
lupuserythematosus, 195
Lycoil System, 108,110
Mactra solidissima, 276
mammary-stimulating hormone, 195
manure,plantnutrientvalueof, 329-332
manurestripper,210
margarine,69
massaging,353
meal
blood,67,233,248-250,318
bone,65-68
feather, 67,316
fish,67, 283-286
meat, 65-68
poultry,67,318
meatextract, 49-50
meatmeal, 65-68
aminoacidsin,70-71
Index
calciumandphosphoruscontentof, 71
composition of, 68
qualityrequirementof, 67
rendering, 70-71
meat-packingwaste treatment, 322-327
meat-packingwastewater,352
meat-processing waste
characterization, 321-322
landapplicationof, 327-332
pollution reduction, 332-354
re-feeding of, 327-332
mechanicaldeboned meat(MDM), seedeboned
meat
mechanical deboning, 159-160
miniature hogs, 192
minkfeed, 258
dry,273
frompoultryby-products, 272-273
roughfishfor,272
Modified Orifice (MO) heartvalves,188
moisture,impuritiesandunsaponifiable matter
(MIU), 62-63
impurities(insoluble),62
impurities (oilsoluble), 62-63
unsaponifiable matter,63
mucin, 199
Mucor pusillus, 198
mucosa,227
mucosastripper,213-214,216,220
musicalinstrumentstrings,227
myeloma, multiple, 195
myxoedema, 200
neck bread,47
nervoussystem, 192
nightblindness,296
nitroglycerine, 69,133
noradrenaline, 181
norpinephrine, 181
oestrogen, 192
offal, 13
fish,258,308
inpetfood, 266
oil
fish,283-286, 292-300
poultry,319
oleomargarine,69
osseinproductionfrombones, 145-149,155-156
ovaries, 192
oxtail,49
oxytocin, 196
oystershell, 192
packerbones, 145
Paget'sdisease,200
pancreas, 192-194
pancreatin, 194
pancrelipase, 194
parathormone, 194
parathyroidhormone, 194
parathyroids, 194
Index 365
paunch
co-processingof blood and, 250-251
plant nutrient valueof, 329-332
pearl essence, 305-307
pectin, 133
pepsin, 177, 198,227
pet food, 27
canned, 258-259, 264-266
colouring in,266
extruded flesh and bone used in,266
gelling agents,266
gravy in,266
marbled, 266
textured offal in,266
categories of, 258-259
dried blood in, 276-277
dry, 258,259-260
bone substitutes,263
hard and soft mixture of, 263
high-fat, 263
marbled, 260
with meat-like texture,263
soft-crumb, 263
frozen, 266
labels, 267-272
non-canned, 259
nutrient requirements, 267,268
palatability enhancers, 267
pet snacks,259
processingof, 257-258
quantity required, 256
and rendered animal protein, 70-71
semimoist, 263-264
binders in,264
deep-fat frying of, 264
egg-containing, 264
liver flavour, 264
marbled, 264
pastry-shell filled, 264
typesof, 259-266
phosphatidylcholine, 182
phytobezoars, 182
pigs'feet, 51-52
pigtail,51
pilobezoars, 182
pineal gland, 194
pituitary gland, 194-196
plasma, utilization of, 241-242
pollution reduction, animal processing, 332-354
in-plant modification for, 334-354
bleed area, 334-335
carcassshower, 335-336
carcasswork-up area, 336
hasher-washer, 337-338
railpolisher, 335
viscera handling, 336-337
in-plant reduction survey strategy, 332-334
water saving, 340-348
pork by-products, 38-39
pork cheek meat, 51
pork hanging tender, 51
pork head meat, 51
pork skins, 52-53
pork skirt,51
pork snouts,51
pork sweetbread, see pancreas
porpoise food, 273
poultry
by-product meal,67,318
by-products, 272-273,276,309-320
poultry giblets, 55-56
poultry grease,319
poultry oil,319
prednisolone, 183
prednisone, 183
progesterone, 183,192
prolactin, 195,196
protein concentrate, 196
protein efficiency ratio, 167
protein extraction
from bones, 173,351
from offal, 351
protein, fish, 286-288
protein, singlecell,352
Pseudomonas spp.,31
psoriasis, 195
quanin, 305
red blood cellpaste,247
re-feeding, 332
relative humidity, precision control of, 353-354
rendering methods, 84-87
rendering systems, 58-88
high-temperature, 84-86
low-temperature, 86-87
productsof, 59-68
semi-continuous, wet and dry, 85-86
rennet, 198
rennin, 177,198
re-tanning, 121
rhinitis, 195
rickets, 199,296
RingDryer, 82-83
rotatingbiological contactor (RBC) process,326
saipo, 17
salmon, 288-289
Salmonella, 154,291,315
saponarius, 17
saponification, 63
sausage casings, seecasings
sausage, by-products in,43
schizophrenia, 194
screw presses,79
sea food by-products, 279-308
sealfood, 273
secretin, 186
seminal vesicles, 196
serum, blood, 196-197,246
shells,useof, 307
shoes, 89-90
shortenings,69
sizereduction equipment, 76
366
'skeens', 52-53
skin, 197
see alsohide
skingrafting, 197
soap, 17,20,58,69
contaminantsof, 63
spinalcord, 197
spleen,54-55,197-198
sportsracketsstrings,227
sprue,191
stock, 49
stomach, 198-199
hog,225
Streptomyces griseus, 191
surgicalligatures,227
surimi, 279-281
sweetbreads,47
syntans, 123
tallow, 58,59-65
AFOA rulingon,63
bleachabilityof, 63-65
colourof, 61-62
objectionable, 63
differential valuesforgradesof, 66
edible, 69-70
free fattyacid(FFA) in,61
inedible, 68-69
titreof, 60-61
tradingstandardsfor,65
tankage,65-68
tannerywaste, 130
tanning, 114-126
alkalineswelling, 117
bating, 118-119
chrome, 114,120
mordanting, 117
pickling, 119
'sammy', 121
scudding, 117
setting, 121
shaving, 121
soaking, 115
splitting, 121
sweating, 115
'tawing', 120
'unhairing', 115-117
vegetable, 120
wringing, 121
tanningeffluent, 129
tannins, 121,123
taraxanthin,296
tennisracketstrings,227
Index
testicles,52,199
thiaminase,258
throatsweetbread,47
throatbread,47
thrombin, 185,237
thromboplastin, 186
thymusgland, 199
thyrocalcitonin, 200
thyroglobulin,200
thyroidgland, 199-200
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 195,196
thyrotropin, 196
thyroxin, 199
thyroxine,200
tid-bits,51
tongue,41,46
tricklingfilter, 325-326
tri-iodothyronine, 200
trimethylamine (TMA), 169
trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), 169
trimmings, 50-51
tripe,48
tropocollagen, 132
trotters,51
trypsin, 177,193
tumbling,353
twin-screwpress,79
upgradingby-products, 348-354
varietymeats, 13,27
cholesterolcontentof, 27,32
compositionof, 30
fattyacidcontentof, 13,31
importsandexports,29
nutritionalpropertiesof, 27,30
preparing, 33-35
vasopressin, 195
vealby-products, 36-37
vegetable agar,133
vegetable tanning, 120
viscera, removing, 203-208
vitaminA, 296,299,300
vitaminB
12
,191
vitaminD,296,299
weasand,226
wetrendering, seeautoclave
wool ,20,200
xanthophyll,296
zeaxanthin,296
ELLIS HORWOOD
TheOhio State University
H.W.Ockerman,
C.L.Hansen
3 2435 012217170
TS1955O241988
0 1
Animal by-product processing /
AnimalBy-Product
Processmg
Thishandbook reports methodsofanimal by-product pro-
cessingand highlights recent innovationsinthe field with
respecttoenergy conservation, product upgrading,and
waste reduction, utilization, and disposal. Itprovides infor-
mationonquantitiesofby-products available, their chemical
and histological properties,onalternative processing techni-
ques, associated equipment and energy requirements.
By-products from the meat, poultry, and sea-food processing
industries arecovered. Intheir discussionofprocessing tech-
niques,theauthors include equipment, energy,water, labor,
and chemicals needed. Numerous tables, illustrationsaswell
ascomprehensive reference listshelpthe readertoget easy
accesstothe information needed bypeople workinginthe
field.
ISSN 0930-3332
ISBN 3-527-26211-3 (VCH Verlagsgesellschaft)
ISBN 0-89573-406-0 (VCH Publishers)
VCH

Animal By-Product Processing

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EllisHorwood SeriesinFood ScienceandTechnology

Table1.4Meatproduction inselected countries (thousands ofmetrictonnes*) t o

Subtotal 615 822 11030 16258 1338 1937

Glycine 33.5-33.8 31.4 32.6 26.9-27.5 27.2 26.4-30.5 27.5

Kidney,raw 75.5 15.6 6.9

Protein 7.6-8.1 5.3 5.1

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