1

Lecture 9
Power Amplifiers
-Class B





























2
Class-B Amplifier :-
v
in
v
out
A
v
Class-B operation :-
Common-collector class-B amplifier :-
+V
CC
v
0
+0.7V
Transistor
conducts
out
v
in
Transistor off
Class-B amplifier provides an output signal varying over one-half the input
signal cycle + zero phase shift.
?? where is the Q-point on the load line ???



























3
The dc bias point for class-B amplifier is therefore at 0 volt.
i.e. biased at cutoff :-
I
CQ
= 0 and
V =V
CEQ CE (off )
The advantage of a class-B amplifier is that the collector current is zero
when the input signal to the amplifier is zero.
Therefore the transistor dissipate no power in the quiescent condition,
i.e. more efficient !!
class-B amplifier was developed to improve on the low efficiency
rating of the class-A amplifier.
Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if only one
half-cycle is present.
Therefore, a two-transistor configuration, is necessary to get a sufficiently
good reproduction of the input waveform.
This amplifier configuration is known as push-pull emitter follower (push-
pull amplifier) or complementary-symmetry amplifier.













4
Push-Pull Operation :-
Class-B push-pull amplifier circuit :-
+V
CC
Q
1
= on
R
L
Q
2
= on
-V
CC
Q
1
Q
2
v
in
The circuit configuration feature is the use of complementary transistors,
i.e. one of the transistors is a npn and the other is a pnp.
The term push-pull comes from the fact that two transistors in a class-B
amplifier conduct on alternating half-cycles of the input.
The combined half-cycles then provide an output for a full 360
0
of operation.
Note :- Need dual-polarity power supplies.


















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No Input :-
When the transistor is in its quiescent state (no input), both transistors are
biased at cutoff.
Positive Input :-
During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, Q
1
is biased above cutoff,
and conduction results through the transistor R
L
.
During this time, Q
2
is still biased at cutoff.
provide output on the positive-output half-cycle.
Negative Input :-
During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, Q
1
is returned to the
cutoff state, and Q
2
is biased above cutoff.
As a result, conduction of Q
2
start to built while Q
1
remains off.
provide output on the negative-output half-cycle.
The combined half-cycles then provide an output for a full 360
0
of operation.
It is important that the two transistors in a push-pull configuration be
carefully matched.
?? WHY ??












6
Crossover Distortion :-
Among the disadvantages of a class-B amplifier is that the nonlinear cut-
off region is included in the operation range.
Because of the biasing arrangement, class-B amplifiers are subject to a type
of distortion.
When V
B
= 0, the input signal voltage must exceed V
BE
before a transistor
conduct.
Therefore, there is a time interval between the positive and negative
alternations when neither transistor is conduction.
The resulting distortion in the output waveform is quite common and is
called crossover distortion.
To prevent crossover distortion, both transistors will normally be biased at a
level that is slightly above cutoff.
Biasing both transistors slightly above cut-off will allow the amplifier to
provide a linear output that contains no distortion.
Class-AB Amplifier









7
Class-AB Amplifier :-
To eliminate crossover distortion, both transistors in the push-pull
arrangement must be biased slightly above cut-off when there is no signal.
This can be done with, for example, a voltage-divider arrangement.
This variation of the class B push-pull amplifier is designated as class-AB.
(1) Voltage-Divider Bias :-
+V
CC
R
L
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
Q
1
Q
2
Q
1
= on
Q
2
= on
v
in
Voltage-divider bias class-AB amplifier.
Note R
L
is capacitively coupled
(dual-polarity power supplies single-polarity power supply)

















8
However, difficult to maintain a stable bias point with this circuit due to
changes in V
BE
over temperature changes. (i.e. temp Q-point )
A more stable arrangement
(2) Diode Biasing Circuit :-
R
1
D
1
D
2
+V
CC
Q
1
R
L
Q
2
R
2
When the diode characteristics of D
1
and D
2
are closely matched to the
transconductance characteristics of the transistors, a stable bias can be
maintained over temperature.
This can be also be accomplished by using the base-emitter junction of two
additional transistors instead of D
1
and D
2
.
Although technically incorrect, class-AB amplifiers are often referred to
as class-B in common practice.















9
DC Operating Characteristics :-
+V
CC
+
D
1
D
2
R
2
Q
1
Q
2
R
1
V
CC
2
-
+ +
V
CC
V
CC
2 2
- -
DC equivalent circuit.
Assume :- (i) R
1
= R
2
,
(ii) transconductance characteristic of the diodes and the
transistors are identical.
Q-point :-
V
BE1Q
V
BE2Q
, V
CE1Q
V
CE2Q
, I
C1Q
I
C2Q
, V
CC
2V
CEQ
Because both transistors are biased near cutoff :- I
CQ
= 0
















10
AC Operating Characteristics :-
V
CE
V
CC
V
CEQ
I
C(sat)
I
C
(mA)
a
c
l
o
a
d
l
i
n
e

0V
Q
1
=on
Q
2
=on
V
CEQ
=
V
CC
2
v
ce
i
c
R
L
Q
1
Q
2
2 1
R R
AC equivalent circuit. AC load line.
Under maximum conditions :-
both transistors Q
1
and Q
2
are alternately driven from near cutoff to near
saturation
V V
CC CC
Q V Q 0
1 CC 2
2 2
and :-
v V
ce ( peak ) CEQ
V
CC
V
CEQ

2
v
ce ( peak )
V
CEQ
V
CC
I = = =
C ( sat )
R R 2R
L L L














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In ac operation -
+V
CC
R
L
R
1
R
2
Q
1
Q
2
Q
1
=on
Q
2
=on
v
in
D
1
D
2
v
o
2
CC
V
0
v
L
0
C
C
v
in
= +ve
When input v
in
is positive and Q
1
is conducting, current is drawn from the
power supply and flows through Q
1
to the load.
v
in
= -ve
When Q
1
is cut-off by a negative input, no current can flow from the supply.
At those times, Q
2
is conducting and capacitor C
C
discharges through that
transistor.
Thus, current flows from the load, through C
C
, and through Q
2
to ground
whenever the input is negative.
The R
L
C
C
time constant must be much great than the period of the lowest
signal frequency.
The lower cut-off frequency due to C
C
is given by
f =
C L
R C 2
1


























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Power Calculations :-
(1) DC Input Power :-
The total (dc) input power comes from the V
CC
source :-
P (dc) = V I
i CC CC
I = I + I
CC C ( ave ) 1
I I (I >> I )
CC C ( ave ) C ( ave ) 1
P (dc) =V I
i CC C ( ave )
The total current drawn from the supply is the sum of the average Q
1
collector current and the current through the amplifier base circuit. The
average value of the current through the collector of Q
1
is given as -
I
1
I
C ( sat )
I =

T
I dt =
C ( ave)
0
C
t
T
I
c(sat)
T T/2
I
c(ave)
c
i.e. just a standard I
ave
equation for the half-wave rectifier.

I
C ( sat )

P
i
(dc) =V
CC

V I
CC C ( sat )
P
i
(dc) =

13
(2) Maximum AC Output Power :-
I
C
(mA)
V
CE
V
CC
V
CEQ
I
C(sat)
a
c
l
o
a
d
l
i
n
e

0V
Q
1
=on
Q
2
=on
V
CEQ
=
V
CC
2
v
ce
i
c
R
L
Q
1
Q
2
2 1
R R
The class-B amplifier has the same (ac) output power characteristics as the
class-A amplifier :-
v
2
o ( rms )
P (ac) = i v =
o c ( rms ) o ( rms )
R
L
The maximum load power is:
P (ac) = i v
o max c (max)( rms ) o (max)( rms )
I V
C ( sat ) CEQ
P (ac) =
o max
2 2
I
C ( sat )
V
CC
P (ac) =
o max
2 2 2
I V
C ( sat ) CC
P (ac) =
o max
4
I V
P
C ( sat ) CC
o( ac )
4

= 100% = 100% = 100% = 79%

P
(
V I
4
i dc )
CC C ( sat )

max
79%













14
Power Amplifiers
-Class C











15
Class-C Amplifier :-
V
in
V
out
A
v
Class-C amplifier operation (inverting).
Basic Operation :-
The transistor is biased with a negative V
BE
. Thus it will conduct only when
the input signal is above a specified positive value.
i.e. transistor ON when V
in
> V
BB
+ V
BE

















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A class-C amplifier load line, where V
BEQ
is set to a negative value.
The power dissipation of the transistor in a class-C amplifier is low because
it is on for only a small percentage of the input cycle.
For example :-
If a sinusoid forms the input to a class-C amplifier, the output consists of
blips at the frequency of the input.
Since this is a periodic signal, it contains a fundamental frequency
component plus higher-frequency harmonics.
If this signal is passed through an inductor-capacitor (LC) circuits tuned to
be resonant at the fundamental frequency, the output is approximately a
sinusoidal signal at the same frequency as the input.
This approach is often used if the signal to be amplified is either a pure
sinusoid or a more general signal with a limited range of frequencies.
Class-C amplifiers are capable of providing large amounts of power,
They are often used for transmitter power stages, such as radio or
communications, where a tuned circuit is included to eliminate the higher
harmonics in the output signal.

max
> 98%

















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Tuned Class-C Amplifier :-
Because the collector voltage (output) is not a replica of the inputs, the
resistively loaded class-C amplifier is of no value in linear applications.
It is therefore necessary to use a class-C amplifier with a parallel resonant
circuit, as shown in Figure (a).
The resonant frequency of the tuned circuit is determined by the formula :-
1
f =
2 LC
The tuned circuit in the output will provide a full cycle of output signal for
the fundamental or resonant frequency of the tuned circuit of the output.
This type of operation is therefore limited to use at one fixed frequency, as
occurs in a communications circuit, for example.
Operation of a class-C circuit is not intended primarily for large-signal or
power amplifiers.









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Power Transistor Heat Sinking :-
Power transistor can dissipate many watts.
For example :- 2N3055, an inexpensive power transistor of great popularity,
can dissipate as much as 115 watts if properly mounted.
All power devices are packaged in cases that permit contact between a metal
surface and an external heat sink.
In most cases that metal surface of device is electrically connected to one
terminal (e.g. for power transistors the case is always connected to the
collector).
Insulator :- insulated from heat sink, as is usually necessary, especially if
several transistors are mounted on the same sink.
Chassis or heat sink :- provides additional surface area to conduct heat
away from the transistors more quickly to prevent overheating.





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The whole point of heat sinking is to keep the transistor junction (or the
junction of some other device) below some maximum specified operating
temperature.
For silicon transistors in metal packages the maximum junction temperature
is usually 200
0
C, whereas for transistors in plastic packages it is usually
150
0
C.


20 20








21
Summary:-
Power Amplifiers
Amplifier Efficiency
Amplifier Classification
Class-A Amplifier
Basic Operation Principle
DC Operating Characteristics
AC Operating Characteristics
AC Load Line
Amplifier Compliance
Power Calculations
Maximum Efficiency
Class-B Amplifier
Basic Operation Principle
Push-Pull Emitter Follower
Crossover Distortion
Class-AB Amplifier
Voltage-Divider Configuration
Diode Bias Configuration
DC Operating Characteristics
AC Operating Characteristics
Power Calculations
Maximum Efficiency
Class-C Amplifier
Basic Operation Principle
Tuned Class-C Amplifier
Basic Operation Principle
Power Transistor Heat Sinking