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11/11/2011

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11/11/2011 Electrical Measurement 1
ELECTRICAL
MEASUREMENT
ESRA SAATI
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Bridges and their
Applications
CONTENTS
DC Bridges
Wheastone Bridge
Kelvin Bridge
Microprocessor-Controlled Bridges
Bridge Controlled Circuits
Loop Test with portable test set
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Bridges
Works as a null measurement technique:
The null-measurement occurs when the reading on the
ammeter or voltmeter is zero. This is a huge practical
benefit. Making a meter which is precisely linear, with an
accurate scale, and negligible resistance, is a challenge.
None of these issue matter in a null measurement, since
the purpose of the meter to determine the presence or
absence of current or voltage. It does not need to be
linear; it is only important to detect the zero value. The
resistance does not matter, since there is no current
through the meter at the point of measurement.
The only concern is that the meter be able to detect
fairly small currents, during the nulling step. This makes
the design much easier.
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Bridges
A bridge is just two voltage dividers in parallel.
The output is the difference between the two
dividers.
Used for measuring component values, such as
resistance, inductance, or capacitance, and of
other circuit parameters directly derived from
component values
Its accuracy can be very high
Accuracy is directly related to the accuracy of
the bridge components, not to that of the null
indicator itself
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Wheastone Bridge
Figure 1. Simplified schematic of the Wheatstone bridge.
3 4
1 3 2 4
2
3 4
1
A B
V V
E E
R R
R R R R
R
R R
R
=
=
+ +
=
Measures resistance (from 1 to 1M)
Upper limit is set by the reduction in sensitivity to unbalance
Lower limit is set by the resistance of the connecting leads and the
contact resistance at the binding posts.
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Wheastone Bridge
The main source of measurement errors are:
Limiting errors of the three known resistors.
Insufficient sensitivity of the null detector,
Changes in resistance of the bridge arms due to
the heating effect,
Thermal emfs in the bridge circuit or the
galvanometer circuit,
Errors due to the resistance of leads and
contacts exterior to the actual bridge.
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Wheastone Bridge
Figure 2. Application of Thevenin theorem to the Wheatstone bridge.
1 2
1 3 2 4
th
R R
E E
R R R R

=

+ +

1 3 2 4 th
R R R R R = +
th
g
g th
E
I
R R
=
+
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Thevenin Method
Find Vth (open circuit voltage)
Remove load if there is one so that load is open
Find voltage across the open load
Find Rth (Thevenin resistance)
Set voltage sources to zero (current sources to
open) in effect, shut off the sources
Find equivalent resistance from A to B
Vth
=
0
Rth
A
B
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Example
Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with
values of bridge elements as shown. The battery voltage is 5V and its
internal resistance negligible. The galvanometer has a current
sensitivity of 10mm/A and an internal resistance of 100. Calculate
the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5 unbalance in
arm BC.
Figure 3. Wheatstone bridge.
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Example
1 2
1 3 2 4
100 1000
5 2.77
100 200 1000 2005
th
th
R R
E E
R R R R
E V mV

=

+ +


= =

+ +
Thevenin equivalent is determined with respect to galvanometer terminals A and B
1 3 2 4
100 200 1000 2005 730
th
th
R R R R R
R
= +
= + =


2.77
3.34
730 100
th
g
g th
g
E
I
R R
mV
I A
=
+
= =
+
3.34 10 33.4 d A mm A mm = =
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Example
The galvanometer of Example 1 is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500 and a current sensitivity of 1mm/A. Assuming that a
deflection of 1mm can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine
if this new galvanometer is capable of detecting the 5 unbalance in arm
BC.
Since the bridge constants have not been changed, the equivalent circuit is
again represented by a Thevenin generator of 2.77mV and Thevenin
resistance of 730 . The new galvanometer is now connected to the output
terminals, resulting in a galvanometer current:
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Example
2.77
2.25
730 500
th
g
g th
g
E
I
R R
mV
I A
=
+
= =
+
2.25 1 2.25 d A mm A mm = =
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Wheastone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge smoke detector
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Wheastone Bridge
Strain Gauge in a Bridge Circuit
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Example
At 20
o
C, the Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure is in balance condition
when R
1
=1000, R
2
=842, and R
3
=500 . Meanwhile, R
4
is copper
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD).The internal resistance of
galvanometer, R
g
=100 and the temperature coefficient of the RTD,
=0.0042/
o
C. If the RTD is dipped into boiling water (100
o
C), determine
the deflection of galvanometer if its sensitivity is 1mm/A
= = 0.0042 20 0.084
RTD
R

= =



=
2
4 3
1
842
500 0.084
1000
420.916
RTD
R
R R R
R
= =
= + = + =
'
'
4
0.0042 100 0.42
420.916 0.42 421.336
RTD
x RTD
R
R R R
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Example

=


+ +


= =

+ +

1 2
1 3 2
1000 842
10 1.77
1000 500 842 421.33
th
x
th
R R
E E
R R R R
E V mV
Thevenin equivalent is determined with respect to galvanometer terminals A and B
= +
= + =


1 3 2
1000 500 842 421.33 614.14
th x
th
R R R R R
R

=
+
= =
+
1.77
2.47
614.14 100
th
g
th g
g
E
I
R R
V
I A
= = 2.47 1 2.47 d A mm A mm
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Kelvin Bridge
Figure 4. Wheatstone bridge.
Modification of the Wheatstone bridge
Measures low-value resistance (1)
If the galvanometer is connected
to a point p and the adjusted ratio
is:
=
2
1
np
mp
R
R
R R
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Kelvin Bridge
Balance equation is:
+ = +
2
3
1
( )
x np mp
R
R R R R
R
y mp np
R R R = +
=
+
1
1 2
y
mp
RR
R
R R
=
+
2
1 2
y
np
R R
R
R R
=
2
3
1
x
R
R R
R
=
2
1
np
mp
R
R
R R
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Kelvin DoubleBridge
Figure 5. Basic Kelvin double bridge circuit.
The galvanometer indication will be
zero when E
kl
= E
lmp
G
R2
R1
R3
Rx
p
n m
Ry
l
b
a
o
E
I
k
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Kelvin DoubleBridge
The galvanometer indication will be zero when E
kl
= E
lmp
( )
2 2
3
1 2 1 2
( )
x y kl
R R
E E I R R a b R
R R R R
= = + + +
+ +

3
( )
y lmp
b
E I R a b R
a b

= + +


+

( )
2
3 3
1 2
( ) ( )
x y y
R b
I R R a b R I R a b R
R R a b

+ + + = + +


+ +


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Kelvin DoubleBridge
1 3 1
2 2
( )
y
x
y
bR
RR R a
R
R a b R R b

= +

+ +

If we establish the condition that: 1
2
R a
R b
=
1
3
2
x
R
R R
R
=
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Microprocessor-Controlled
Bridges
Amplifier Microprocessor
Digital
Readout
R1 R2
R3 Rx
Programmable
resistor
E
Digital Control Signal
Figure 6. Block diagram for a Wheastone bridge with a
microprocessor control.
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Bridge Controlled Circuits
Example 3:
5k 5k
5k Rv
6V A B
Error signal
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temp(
0
C)
1
2
3
4
5
R(k)
(a) Circuit
(b) variation of Rv with
temperature
Resistor R
v
is
thermistor, with
relation between its
resistance and
temperature as shown
in the figure.
Calculate
a) At what temperature
the bridge is balanced,
b) The amplitude of the
error signal at 60C.
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Bridge Controlled Circuits
2 3
1
5 5
5
5
v
R R k k
R k
R k

= = =

From the graph, the bridge is balanced at 80C.


a) the value of Rv when the bridge is balanced is calculated as:
b) From the graph, the resistance of Rv at 60C is 4.5k.

=


+ +


= =

+ +

1 2
1 3 2
5 5
6 158
5 5 5 4.5
th
v
th
R R
E E
R R R R
k k
E V mV
k k k k
158
g th
e E mV = =
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Loop Test with portable test
set
The portable Wheatstone bridge is often used to locate faults in
multicore cables, telephone wires, or power transmission lines by means of
the so-called Murray-loop
Figure 6. Locating a ground fault (short circuit) by the Murray-loop test
G
R2
R1
E
La
Lb
Lx
Metal
sheath of
cable
Ground fault
Short
Circuit at
cable
termination
Faulty
conduct
Return
conduct
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Loop Test with portable test
set
At balance:
R
a
and R
b
are the resistance of the return conduct and faulty conduct
respectively
R
x
is the resistance of the faulty conductor from the bridge terminal to
the location of the ground fault.
wire resistance is proportional to
the length and the cross sectional
area of the conductor
( )
( )
+
= = +
+
2 1
1 1 2
a b x
x a b
x
R R R
R R
R R R
R R R R
= +
+
1
1 2
( )
x a b
R
L L L
R R
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Loop Test with portable test
set
In a multicore cable the return conductor L
a
has the same length
and the same cross section as the faulty core
L
a
= L
b
= L
=
+
1
1 2
2
x
R
L L
R R
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Loop Test with portable test
set
Figure 9. Wheastone bridge connected for a Varley loop test.
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Loop Test with portable test
set
To locate the fault, first set switch S to position a. balance the
bridge by adjusting R3. When the bridge is balanced:
2 2
3
1 3 1
a b
a b
R R R R
R R R
R R R
+
= + =
Now set the switch to position b and balance the bridge again.
The equation for balance is now:
( ) ( )
1 1 3 2
1 3 1 2
a b x a b
x
x
R R R R R R R R R
R
R R R R R
+ +
= =
+ +

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