Mc lc

1 M u 3
2 Gii thiu chung v x l nh 5
2.1 Tng quan v x l nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Cc vn c bn trong x l nh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Cc khi nim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2 Biu din nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Tng cng nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 Phn vng nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.5 Trch chn c tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.6 Nhn dng nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.7 Nn nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.8 Cc nh dng nh c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 Mt s bi ton v x l nh 18
3.1 Cc bi ton ci thin nh s dng ton t im . . . . . . 18
3.2 Tng tng phn (Stretching Contrast) . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Tng gim sng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 Ci thin nh dng ton t khng gian . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
3.4.1 4.1 Lm trn nhiu bng lc tuyn tnh: lc trung
tnh v lc di thng thp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4.2 Lm trn bng nhiu lc phi tuyn . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 Bi ton v pht hin bin nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5.1 Mt s khi nim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5.2 Phn loi cc k thut pht hin bin . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5.3 Quy trnh pht hin bin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.4 Cc phng php pht hin bin . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 Gii thiu v th vin Aforge.NET v chng trnh minh
ha 36
Kt lun 42
Ti liu tham kho 43
2
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Chng 1
M u
X l nh l mt lnh vc mang tnh khoa hc v cng ngh. Ti sao
ni nh vy th trong phn bo co ca bi tp ln ny em hy vng s gip
mi ngi hiu r hn v x l nh v nhng ng dng thc tin ca n
mang li.
X l nh l mt nghnh khoa hc cn mi m so vi nhng nghnh
khoa hc khc nhng tc pht trin ca n l rt nhanh, c bit trong
thi i bng n cng ngh thng tin hin nay. N kch thch cc trung
tm nghin cu, cc ng dng v c bit l cc my tnh chuyn dng h
tr cho n.
Phng php x l nh bt u t vic nng cao cht lng hnh nh
v phn tch nh. ng dng u tin c bit n l nng cao cht
lng nh bo c truyn qua cp London n New York t nhng nm
1920. Vic nng cao cht lng hnh nh c pht trin khong t nm
1955 v vic nng cao hnh nh lin quan n mc phn b mc sng
v phn gii ca im nh. Sau nhng nm ca th chin th II, my
tnh pht trin nhanh to iu kin cho vic x l nh s c thun li.
Nm 1964, my tnh c kh nng x l v nng cao cht lng hnh
nh t Mt trng v v tinh Ranger 7 ca M gm lm ni ng bin
v lu nh. T n nay cc phng tin x l, nng cao, nhn dng
3
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
nh pht trin khng ngng. Cc phng php tri thc nhn to nh nhn
din khun mt, mng n-ron nhn to, cc thut ton x l hin i, cc
cng c nn nh ngy cng c p dng rng ri v thu nhiu kt qu
kh quan, ng dng rt nhiu vo thc tin.
Trong nhng nm gn y, phn cng my tnh v cc thit b lin
quan c nhng tin b vt bc tc tnh ton, dung lng lu tr,
kh nng x l v.v...Khi nim nh, nh s tr nn thng dng v mi
ngi thu nhn hnh nh bng thit b c nhn ri a vo my tnh x
l tr nn n gin hn rt nhiu. Vit Nam, x l nh c a
vo ging dy bc i hc, vic nghin cu xy dng v pht trin cc
ng dng v lnh vc x l nh l mt vn mi v ang c quan tm
nhiu hn. X l nh l mt lnh vc ang c quan tm v tr thnh
mn hc chuyn nghnh ca nhiu nghnh cng ngh thng tin, ton tin
trong nhiu trng i hc trn c nc. Nhng phn ln gi trnh ti liu
u di dng cng thc ton, t c th hin di dng cng thc c th
lp trnh c. V vy vic xy dng thut ton v lp trnh mt s c bn
trong x l nh l rt cn thit gip cho vic nghin cu tm hiu v l
thuyt x l nh c trc quan sinh ng hn.
V vy bi bo co ny em xin ginh gii thiu v x l nh, gi
th vin x l nh trong C# l Aforge.NET cc hm trong th vin
v mt s ng dng n gin v x l nh trong th vin ny.
4
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Chng 2
Gii thiu chung v x l
nh
2.1 Tng quan v x l nh
Qu trnh x l nh c xem nh l thao tc u vo nhm cho ra
kt qu mong mun. c hnh dung qu trnh mt h thng x l nh ta
c th xem xt cc bc cn thit sau trong x l nh.
5
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Hnh 1.1 Cc giai on chnh trong x l nh.
Trc ht l qu trnh thu nhn nh, nh c th thu nhn qua camera.
Thng nh thu nhn qua camera l tn hiu tng t (loi camera ng kiu
CCIR), nhng cng c th l tn hiu s ha (loi CCD-Charge Coupled
Device). Ngoi ra, nh cng c th nhn t v tinh qua cc b cm ng
(sensor) hay nh, tranh c qut trn scanner.
Tip theo l qu trnh s ha (digitalizer) bin i tn hiu tng
t sang tn hiu ri rc (ly mu) v s ha bng lng t ha, trc khi
chuyn sang giai on x l, phn tch hay lu tr li.
Qu trnh phn tch nh thc cht bao gm nhiu cng on nh,
trc ht l cng vic tng cng nh. Do nhng nguyn nhn khc nhau:
c th do cht lng thit b thu nhn nh, do ngun sng hay do nhiu
m nh c th b suy bin. Do vy cn phi tng cng khi phc nh
lm ni bt mt s c tnh ca nh, hay lm gn ging vi trng thi
gc-trng thi trc khi nh b bin dng. Giai on tip theo l pht hin
cc c tnh nh: bin, phn vng nh, trch chn cc c tnh,v.v...
Cui ty theo mc ch ca ng dng m s l giai on nhn dng,
phn lp hay cc quyt nh khc.
2.2 Cc vn c bn trong x l nh.
2.2.1 Cc khi nim
im nh (pixel element)
Gc ca nh l nh lin tc v khng gian v sng. x l bng
my tnh nh cn phi c s ha. S ha nh l s bin i gn ng mt
nh lin tc thnh mt tp hp im ph hp vi nh tht v v tr ( khng
gian) v sng (mc xm). Khong cch gia cc im nh c thit
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
lp sao cho mt ngi khng phn bit c ranh gii gia chng. Mi
im nh vy gi l im nh (PEL: Picture Element) hay gi tt l pixel.
Trong khun kh nh 2 chiu, mi pixel ng vi mi cp ta (x,y).
phn gii ca nh
phn gii (Resolution) ca nh l mt im nh c n nh
trn mt nh s c hin th. Theo nh ngha khong cch gia cc im
nh phi c chn sao cho mt ngi vn thy s lin tc ca nh. Vic
la chn khong cch thch hp to nn mt mt phn b, chnh l
phn gii c phn b theo trc x v y trong khng gian hai chiu.
V d: phn gii trn mn hnh Smartphone VGA l 800*480 ( tc
l 800 im nh chiu hc*480 im nh chiu ngang) th thy vi mn
hnh 4 thy mn hn mn hnh 5. L do l cng mt mt nhng din
tch mn hnh rng hn th mn km hn (tc l lin tc cc im).
Mc xm ca nh (Gray level)
L kt qu ca s bin i tng ng mt gi tr sng ca mt
im nh vi mt gi tr nguyn dng. Thng thng c xc nh trong
khong [0...255]. Ty thuc vo gi tr xm m mi im nh c biu
din trn 1, 4, 8, 24 hay 32 bit.
nh s
L tp hp hu hn cc im nh, thng c biu din bng mt
mng hai chiu I(m,n) vi m l s hng, n l s ct. Ta k hiu P(x,y) l
mt im nh ti v tr (x, y). S lng im nh trn mi hng hoc cc
hng xc nh phn gii ca nh. nh s c chia lm 3 loi:
nh nh phn: Gi tr xm ca tt c cc im nh ch nhn 0 hoc
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
1. Nh vy th mi im nh trong nh nh phn c biu din bi
1 bit.
nh xm: Gi tr xm nm trong khong 0 n 255, mi im nh
trong nh xm c biu din bi 1 byte.
nh mu: nh mu theo l thuyt ca Thomas l nh t hp t 3
mu c bn: R (Red), G (Green), B (BLue) v thng thu nhn trn
cc di bng tn khc nhau. Vi nh mu cch biu din cng tng
t nh nh en trng ch khc l cc s ti mi phn t ca ma trn.
Ngi ta dng 3 byte m t mc mu, khi cc gi tr mu :
2
83
= 2
24
= 16,7 triu mu.
Quan h gia cc im nh.
Mt nh s gi s c biu din bng hm f (x,y)
Ln cn ca mt im nh
Mt im nh p ti ta (x, y) c cc ln cn theo chiu ngang v
chiu dc l: (x+1, y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x, y-1).
Tp hp cc im nh trn c gi l ln cn 4 ca p, k hiu N
4
(p).
Mi iM nh c khong cch n v n (x, y), v nu (x, y) nm trn
bin ca nh th ln cn ca n c th nm ngoi nh.
Cc ln cn cho ca p c ta : (x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1),
(x-1, y-1).
Tp ln cn cho c k hiu N
D
(p).
Tp ln cn cho cng vi ln cn 4 to thnh ln cn 8 ca p, k hiu
N
8
(p).
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Hnh 1.2 Ln cn ca 1 im nh
Lin kt gia cc im nh
Cc Mi lin kt c s dng xc nh gii hn ( Boundaries) ca
i tng vt th hoc xc nh vng trong mt nh. Mt lin kt c
c trng bi tnh lin k gia cc im v mc xm ca chng.
Gi s V l tp cc gi tr mc xm. Mt nh c cc gi tr cng
sng t thang mc xm t 32 n 64 c m t nh sau:
V={32, 33, . . . 63, 64}.
C 3 loi lin kt:
+ Lin kt 4: Hai im nh p v q vi cc gi tr cng sng V c
ni l lin kt 4 nu q nm trong tp N
4
(p).
+ Lin kt 8:Hai im nh p v q vi cc gi tr cng sng V c gi
l lin kt 8 nu q nm trong tp N
8
(p).
+ Lin kt m (lin kt hn hp):Hai im nh p v q vi cc gi tr cng
sng V c ni l lin kt m nu: q thuc N
4
(p)hoc q thuc N
D
(p).
Lc mc xm (Histogram)
Lc mc xm ca nh l mt hm cung cp tun sut xut hin
ca mi mc xm trong nh. Lc mc xm c biu din trong h
ta Decac xOy, trong Ox biu din cc mc xm ca nh (256 mc
trong trng hp chng ta xt), Oy biu din s im nh cho mt mc
xm (s im nh c cng mc xm).
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Lc mc xm cung cp rt nhiu thng tin v s phn b mc
xm ca nh. Theo thut ng ca x l nh gi l tnh ng ca nh, tnh
ng ca nh cho php phn tch mt khong no phn b phn ln
cc mc xm ca nh: nh rt sng hay rt m. Nu nh sng, lc
xm nm bn phi (mc xm cao), cn nh m th lc xm nm bn
tri (mc xm thp).
Hnh 1.3 Hnh nh biu din lc xm ca mt bc nh.
2.2.2 Biu din nh
nh sau khi s ho s c lu vo b nh, hoc chuyn sang cc khu
tip theo phn tch. Nu lu tr nh trc tip t cc nh th, i hi
dung lng b nh cc ln v khng hiu qu theo quan im ng dng v
cng ngh. Thng thng, cc nh th c c t (biu din) li (hay
n gin l m ho) theo cc c im ca nh c gi l cc c trng
nh (Image Features) nh: bin nh (Boundary), vng nh (Region). Mt
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
s phng php biu din thng dng:
Biu din bng m chy (Run-Length Code)
Biu din bng m xch (Chaine -Code)
Biu din bng m t phn (Quad-Tree Code)
Biu din bng m chy
Phng php ny thng biu din cho vng nh v p dng cho nh
nh phn. Mt vng nh R c th m ho n gin nh mt ma trn nh
phn:
U(m,n) = 1 nu (M,n) thuc R.
U(m,n) = 0 nu (M,n) khng thuc R.
Trong : U(m, n) l hm m t mc xm nh ti ta (m, n). Vi
cch biu din trn, Mt vng nh c m t bng mt tp cc chui s
0 hoc 1. Gi s chng ta m t nh nh phn ca mt vng nh c th
hin theo to (x, y) theo cc chiu v c t ch i vi gi tr 1. Khi
dng m t c th l: (x, y)r; trong (x, y) l to , r l s lng cc
bit c gi tr 1 lin tc theo chiu ngang hoc dc.
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Hnh 1.4 Hnh minh ha biu din bng m lot di
Biu din bng m xch
Phng php ny thng dng biu din ng bin nh. Mt
ng bt k c chia thnh cc on nh. Ni cc im chia, ta c cc
on thng k tip c gn hng cho on thng to thnh mt dy
xch gm cc on. Cc hng c th chn 4, 8, 12, 24,. . . Mi hng c
m ho theo s thp phn hoc s nh phn thnh m ca hng.
Hnh 1.5 Hng cc im bin v m tng ng
A11070110764545432
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Biu din bng m t phn
Theo phng php m t phn, mt vng ca nh coi nh bao kn bi
mt hnh ch nht. Vng ny c chia lm 4 vng con. Nu vng con gm
ton im en(1) hay ton im trng (0) th khng cn chia tip. Trong
trng hp ngc li, vng con gm c en v trng gi l vng xm li
tip tc c chia lm 4 vng con tip. Qu trnh chia dng li khi khng
th chia tip c na, c ngha l vng con ch cha thun nht im
en hay trng. Nh vy, cy biu din gM Mt chui cc k kiu b(black),
w(white) v g (grey) km theo k hiu m ha 4 vng con. Biu din theo
phng php ny u vit hn so vi cc phng php trn, nht l so vi
m lot di. Tuy nhin, tnh ton s o cc hnh nh chu vi, M-men l
kh kh.
2.2.3 Tng cng nh
Tng cng nh l bc quan trng, to tin cho x l nh. Tng
cng nh nhM hon thin cc c tnh ca nh nh:
Lc nhiu, hay lm trn nh.
Tng tng phn, iu chnh mc xm ca nh.
Lm ni bin nh.
Cc thut ton trin khai vic nng cao cht lng nh hu ht da
trn cc k thut trong min im, khng gian v tn s.
2.2.4 Phn vng nh
phn tch cc i tng trong nh, chng ta cn phi phn bit
c cc i tng cn quan tm vi phn cn li ca nh. Nhng i
tng ny c th tm ra c nh cc k thut phn vng nh.
13
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Vng nh l mt chi tit, mt thc th trong ton cnh. Ni n vng
nh l ni n tnh cht b mt ca nh. N l mt tp hp cc im c
cng hoc gn cng mt tnh cht no : mc xm, mu sc. . . ng
bao quanh mt vng nh (Boundary) l bin nh. Cc im trong mt
vng nh c bin thin gi tr mc xm tng i ng u hay tnh
kt cu tng ng.
Mt phng php phn vng nh l s dng mt ngng gi tr xm
phn tch nh thnh i tng v nn (nhng im di ngng xm
thuc v nn, ngc li thuc v i tng).
2.2.5 Trch chn c tnh
Da trn cc thng tin thu nhn c qua qu trnh phn vng, kt
hp vi cc k thut x l a ra cc c trng, i tng nh cng
nh cc thng tin cn thit trong qu trnh x l.
Vic trch chn hiu qu cc c im gip cho vic nhn dng cc i
tng nh chnh xc, vi tc tnh ton cao v dung lng nh lu tr
gim xung.
2.2.6 Nhn dng nh
Nhn dng l qu trnh phn loi cc i tng c biu din theo
mt m hnh no v gn chng mt tn (gn cho i tng mt tn gi,
tc l mt dng) da theo nhng quy lut v mu chun.
Theo l thuyt v nhn dng, cc m hnh ton hc v nh c phn theo
hai loi nhn dng nh c bn:
Nhn dng theo tham s.
Nhn dng theo cu trc.
14
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Mt s i tng nhn dng kh ph bin hin nay ang c p dng
trong khoa hc v cng ngh l: nhn dng k t (ch in, ch vit tay, ch
k in t), nhn dng vn bn (Text), nhn dng vn tay, nhn dng m
vch, nhn dng mt ngi. . .
Ngoi ra, hin nay mt k thut nhn dng Mi da vo k thut
mng n ron ang c p dng v cho kt qu kh quan.
2.2.7 Nn nh
Nhm gim thiu khng gian lu tr ca nh, nn nh thng c
tin hnh theo c hai khuynh hng l nn c bo ton v khng bo ton
thng tin.
Nn khng bo ton th thng c kh nng nn cao hn nhng kh
nng phc hi th km hn. Trn c s hai khuynh hng, c 4 cch tip
cn c bn trong nn nh:
Nn nh thng k: K thut nn ny da vo vic thng k tn sut
xut hin ca gi tr cc im nh, trn c s m c chin lc
m ha thch hp. Mt v d in hnh cho k thut m ha ny l
*.TIF
Nn nh khng gian: K thut ny da vo v tr khng gian ca cc
im nh tin hnh m ha. K thut li dng s ging nhau ca
cc im nh trong cc vng gn nhau. V d cho k thut ny l m
nn *.PCX
Nn nh s dng php bin i: y l k thut tip cn theo hng
nn khng bo ton v do vy, k thut thng nn hiu qu hn.
*.JPG chnh l tip cn theo k thut nn ny.
Nn nh Fractal: S dng tnh cht Fractal ca cc i tng nh,
th hin s lp li ca cc chi tit. K thut nn s tnh ton ch
15
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
cn lu tr phn gc nh v quy lut sinh ra nh theo nguyn l
Fractal.
2.2.8 Cc nh dng nh c bn
nh thu c sau qu trnh s ha thng c lu li cho cc qu
trnh x l tip theo hay truyn i. Trong qu trnh pht trin ca k thut
x l nh, tn ti nhiu nh dng nh khc nhau t nh en trng (vi
nh dng IMG), nh a cp xm cho n nh Mu: (BMP, GIF, JPE. . . ).
Tuy cc nh dng ny khc nhau, song chng u tun th theo mt cu
trc chung nht. Nhn chung, Mt tp nh bt k thng bao gm 3 phn:
Mo u tp (Header)
L phn cha cc thng tin v kiu nh, kch thc, phn gii, s
bit dng cho 1 pixel, cch m ha, v tr bng mu. . .
D liu nn (Data CoMpression)
S liu nh c m ha bi kiu m ha ch ra trong phn Header.
Bng Mu (Palette Color)
Bng mu khng nht thit phi c, v d khi nh l en trng. Nu
c, bng mu cho bit s mu dng trong nh v bng mu c s dng
hin th mu ca nh.
nh BMP (Bitmap)
L nh c m t bi mt ma trn cc gi tr s xc nh mu v
bng mu ca cc i nh tng ng khi hin th. u im ca nh Bitmap
l tc v v tc x l nhanh. Nhc im ca n l kch thc rt
ln.
16
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
nh JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
y l mt nh dng nh c h tr bi nhiu trnh duyt web. nh
JPEG c pht trin nn dung lng v lu tr nh chp, v c s
dng tt nht cho ha c nhiu Mu sc, v d nh l nh chp c
scan. File nh JPEG l nh Bitmap c nn li.
nh GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)
nh GIF c pht trin dnh cho nhng nh c tnh cht thay i.
N c s dng tt nht cho ha c t mu, v d nh l nh hot
hnh hoc l nhng bc v vi nhiu ng thng. File nh GIF l nhng
nh Bitmap c nn li.
C hai s khc nhau c bn gia nh GIF v nh JPEG:
nh GIF nn li theo cch gi nguyn ton b d liu nh trong khi
nh JPEG nn li nhng lm mt mt s d liu trong nh.
nh GIF b gii hn bi s Mu nhiu nht l 256 trong khi nh
JPEG khng gii hn s mu m chng s dng.
17
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Chng 3
Mt s bi ton v x l
nh
3.1 Cc bi ton ci thin nh s dng ton
t im
X l im nh thc cht l bin i mt gi tr im nh da vo c
tnh ca chnh n m khng h da vo cc im nh khc. C hai cch
tip cn phng php ny. Cch th nht dng mt hm bin i thch
hp vi mc ch hoc yu cu t ra bin i gi tr mc xm ca im
nh sang mt gi tr mc xm khc. Cch th hai l dng lc xm
(Gray Histogram). V mt ton hc, ton t im l mt nh x t gi tr
cng sng u(m,n) thng qua hm f(.) tc l :
v(m,n)=f(u(m,n)).
Ni mt cch khc, ton t im l ton t khng b nh, mt
mc xm u [0, N] nh x sang mt mc xm v [0, N] : v = f(u). ng
dng chnh ca cc ton t im l i tng phn ca nh. nh x f
khc nhau ty theo cc ng dng. Cc dng ton t c gii thiu c th
nh sau :
18
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Tng tng phn
f(u) =
_

_
u u < a
(u a) + v
a
a u < b
(u b) + v
b
u < L
.
Cc cp ,, xc nh tng phn tng i. L l s mc xm
cc i.
Tch nhiu v phn ngng
Tch nhiu l trng hp c bit ca dn tng phn khi h s
gc = = 0. Tch nhiu c ng dng c hiu qu gim nhiu khi
bit tn hiu u vo trn khong [a, b].
Phn ngng l trng hp c bit ca tch nhiu khi a = b = const.
Trong trng hp ny, nh u vo l nh nh phn (c 2 mc). Phn
ngng thng dng trong k thut in nh 2 mu v nh gn nh phn
khng cho nh nh phn khi qut do c nhiu t b cm bin v bin i
ca nn.
f(u) =
_

_
0 0 u < a
u a u < b
L u b
.
Bin i m bn (Digital Negative)
m bn nhn c bng php bin i m. Php bin i rt c nhiu
hu ch trong cc phim nh dng trong cc nh y hc.
f(u) = L u to m bn
Ct theo mc ( Intensity Level Slicing)
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Bin i ny cho php phn on mt s mc xm t phn cn li ca
nh. N c tc dng khi niu c tnh khc nhau ca nh nm trn min
mc xm khc nhau.
f(u) =
_
_
_
L a u b
0 #
.
Trch chn bit (Bit Extraction)
Nh trnh by trn, mi im nh thng c m hoa trn B
bit. Nu B = 8 ta c nh 2
8
= 256 mc xm ( nh nh phn ng vi B
=1). Trong cc bit m ha ny, ngi ta chia lm 2 loi : bit bc thp v
bit bc cao. Vi bit bc cao, bo ton thng tin cao hn so vi bit bc
thp. Cc bit bc thp thng biu din nhiu hay nn.
f(u) = (i
n
2i
n1
)L vi i
n
= Int
_
it/2
n1

, n = 1, 2 . . . B.
3.2 Tng tng phn (Stretching Con-
trast)
Trc tin cn phi lm r khi nim tng phn. nh s l tp
hp cc im, mi im c gi tr sng khc nhau. y, sang
mt ngi d cm nhn song khng phi l quyt nh. Thc t ch ra rng
hai i tng c cng sng nhng t trn hai nn khc nhau s cho
cm nhn sng khc nhau. Nh vy, tng phn biu din s thay i
sng ca i tng so vi nn. Ni mt cch khc, tng phn l
ni ca mt im nh hay vng nh so vi nn. Nh vy, nu nh c
tng phn km, ta c th thay i ty theo mun.
nh vi tng phn thp c th do iu kin sng khng hay
khng u, hoc do tnh khng tuyn tnh hay bin ng nh ca b phn
cm nhn nh. iu chnh lai tng phn ca nh, cn iu chnh
20
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
li bin trn ton di hay trn di c gii hn bng cch bin i tuyn
tnh bin u vo (dng hm bin i l hm tuyn tnh) hay phi tuyn
(hm m hay hm logarit). Khi dng hm tuyn tnh cc dc ca ,,
phi chn ln hn mt min cn dn. Cc tham s a v b ( cc cn) c
th chn khi xem xt lc xm ca nh. Ch , nu dn tng phn
bng hm tuyn tnh ta c :
= = = 1 nh c kt qu trng vi nh gc.
, , > 1dn tng phn.
, , < 1co tng phn.
Hnh 2.1 Dn tng phn
Hm m thng c dng dn tng phn. Hm c dng
f(u) = (X [m, n])
p
.
vi p l bc thay i. Thng chn l 2.
3.3 Tng gim sng
Gi s nh u vo I - kch thc(mn) v s nguyn c.
Khi k thut tng, gim c thc hin qua thut ton :
Bc 1: vi mi im nh thc hin cng mc xm vi gi tr.
21
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
for (i =0; i < m; i++)
for( (j=0; j < n; j++)
I[i,j] = I[i,j] +c;
Bc 2: Gn gi tr xm mi cho im nh u ra.
c > 0 : nh sng ln.
c < 0 : nh ti i.
thy s thay i xem hnh nh di y tng sng vi c = 100;
.
Hnh 2.2 Hnh v d v tng sng
3.4 Ci thin nh dng ton t khng gian
Ci thin nh l lm cho nh c cht lng tt hn theo s dng.
Thng l nh thu nhn c nhiu cn phi loi b nhiu hay nh khng
sc nt b m hoc cn lm t cc chi tit nh ng bin nh. Cc ton
t khng gian dng trong k thut tng cng nh c phn nhm theo
cng dng: lm trn nhiu, ni bin. lm trn nhiu hay tch nhiu,
ngi ta s dng cc b lc tuyn tnh (lc trung bnh, thng thp) hay lc
22
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
phi tuyn (trung v, gi trung v, lc ng hnh). T bn cht ca nhiu
(thng tng ng vi tn s cao) v t c s l thuyt lc l: b lc ch cho
tn hiu c tn s no thng qua do , lc nhiu ngi ta thng
dng lc thngthp (theo quan im tn s khng gian) hay ly t hp
tuyn tnh san bng (lc trung bnh). lm ni cnh (ng vi tn s
cao), ngi ta dng cc b lc thng cao, lc Laplace.
Trc khi xem xt chi tit cc k thut p dng, cn phn bit cc
loi nhiu hay can thip trong qu trnh x l nh. Trn thc t tn ti
nhiu loi nhiu; tuy nhin ngi ta thng xem xt 3 loi nhiu chnh:
nhiu cng, nhiu nhn v nhiu xung:
Nhiu cng :
Nhiu cng thng c phn b khp nh. Nu gi nh quan st (nh
thu nhn) X
qs
, nh gc l X
goc
, nhiu l nh thu c biu din bi:
X
qs
= X
goc
+ .
Nhiu nhn :
Nhiu nhn thng phn b khp nh v nh thu c s c biu
din bi cng thc :
X
qs
= X
goc
.
Nhiu xung :
Nhiu xung thng gy t bin ti mt s im nh.
3.4.1 4.1 Lm trn nhiu bng lc tuyn tnh: lc
trung tnh v lc di thng thp
Do c nhiu loi nhiu can thip vo qu trnh x l nh nn cn c
nhiu b lc thch hp. Vi nhiu cng v nhiu nhn ta dng cc b lc
23
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
thng thp, trung bnh v lc ng hnh (Homomorphie); vi nhiu xung
ta dng lc trung b, gi trung v, lc ngoi (Outlier).
Lc trung bnh khng gian
Vi lc trung bnh, mi im nh c thay th bng trung bnh trng
s ca cc im ln cn v c nh ngha nh sau:
v(m, n) =

k,lW

a(k, l)y(mk, n l).

Nu trong k thut lc trn, ta dng cc trng s nh nhau, phng
trnh trn s tr thnh:
v(m, n) =
1
N

k,lW

a(k, l)y(mk, n l).

vi:
y(m, n) : nh u vo,
v(m, n) : nh u ra,
a(k, l) : l ca s lc.
a
k.l
=
1
N
v N
W
l s im nh trong ca s lc W.
Lc trung bnh c trng s chnh l thc hin chp nh u vo vi
nhn chp H. Nhn chp H trong trng hp ny c dng:
H =
1
9
_

_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_

_
Trong lc trung bnh, thng ngi ta u tin cho cc hng bo
v bin ca nh khi b m khi lm trn nh. Cc kiu mt n c s
dng ty theo cc trng hp khc nhau. Cc b lc trn l b lc tuyn
tnh theo ngha l im nh tm ca s s c thay bi t hp cc im
ln cn chp vi mt n.
24
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Gi s u vo biu din bi ma trn I:
I =
_

_
4 17 3 7 1
5 7 1 7 1
6 6 1 8 3
5 7 5 7 1
5 7 6 1 2
_

_
nh s thu c bi lc trung bnh c dng Y = H I c dng:
_

_
23 26 31 19 16
35 39 46 31 27
36 43 49 34 27
36 48 48 34 22
24 35 33 22 11
_

_
Mt b lc trung bnh khng gian khc cng hay c s dng. Phng
trnh ca b lc c dng
Y [m, n] =
1
2
_
X [m, n] +
1
4
{X [m1, n] + X [m + 1, n] X [m, n 1] + X [m.n + 1]}
_
.
y, nhn chp H c kch thc 2 2 v mi im nh kt qu c
gi tr bng trung bnh cng ca n vi trung bnh cng ca 4 ln cn gn
nht.
Lc trung bnh trng s l mt trng hp ring ca lc thng thp.
Lc thng thp
Lc thng thp thng c s dng lm trn nhiu. V nguyn l
ca b lc thng thp ging nh trnh by trn. Trong k thut ny
ngi ta hay dng mt s nhn chp c dng nh sau:
H
t1
=
1
8
_

_
0 1 0
1 2 1
0 1 0
_

_
25
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
H
b
=
1
(b + 2)
2
_

_
1 b 1
b b
2
b
1 b 1
_

_
Ta d dng nhn thy khi b = 1,H
b
chnh l nhn chp H
t1
(lc trung
bnh). hiu bn cht kh nhiu cng ca cc b lc ny, ta vit li
phng trnh thu nhn nhn di dng:
X
qs
[m, n] = X
goc
[m, n] + [m, n] .
Trong [m, n] l nhiu cng c phng sai
2
n
. Nh vy theo cch
tnh lc trung bnh ta c:
Y [m, n] =
1
N
w

k,lW

X
qs
(mk, n l) + [m, n]
hay:
Y [m, n] =
1
N
w

X
qs
(mk, n l) +

2
n
N
w
.
Nh vy nhiu cng trong nh gim i N
w
ln.
Lc ng hnh (Homomorphie Filter)
K thut lc ny hiu qu vi nh nhiu nhn. Thc t, nh quan st
c gn nh gc nhn vi mt h s nhiu. Gi (m, n) l nh thu c,
X(m, n) l nh gc v (m, n) l nhiu, nh vy:
X(m, n) = (m, n) (m, n).
. Lc ng hnh thc hin ly logarit ca nh quan st. Do vy ta c
kt qu sau:
log(X(m, n)) = log((m, n)) + log((m, n)).
R rng, nhiu nhn c trong nh s b gim. Sau qu trnh lc tuyn
tnh, ta chuyn v nh c bng php bin i hm e m.
26
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
3.4.2 Lm trn bng nhiu lc phi tuyn
Cc b lc phi tuyn cng hay c dng trong k thut tng cng
nh. Trong k thut ny, ngi ta dng b lc trung v, gi trung v, lc
ngoi. Vi lc trung v, im nh u vo s c thay th bi trung v cc
im nh cn lc gi trung v s dng trung bnh cng ca 2 gi tr trung
v (trung bnh cng ca max v min).
Lc trung v
Trung v c vit bi cng thc:
v(m, n) = trungvi(y(mk, n l)) vi {k, l} W.
K thut ny i hi gi tr cc im nh trong ca s phi xp theo
th t tng hay gim dn so vi gi tr trung v. Kch thc ca s thng
c chn sao cho s im nh trong ca s l l. Cc ca s hay dng l
ca s c kch thc 3 3, hay 5 5 hay 7 7. V d:
Nu y(m) = {2, 3, 8, 4, 2} v ca s W=(1, 0, 1) nh thu c sau
lc trung v s l:
v(m) = (2, 3, 4, 4, 2).
do :
v[0]= 2<gi tr bin>;
v[1]= Trungvi<2,3,8>=3;
v[2]= Trungvi<3,4,8>=4;
v[3]= Trungvi<8,4,2>=4;
v[4]= 2<gi tr bin>;
Tnh cht ca lc trung v:
Lc trung v l loi lc phi tuyn. iu ny d nhn thy t:
Trungvi(x(m) + y(m))#Trungvi(x(m)) + Trungvi(y(m)).
27
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
C li cho vic loi b cc im nh hay cc hng m vn bo tan
phn gii.
Hiu qu gim khi s im trong ca s ln hay bng mt na s
im trong ca s. iu ny d gii thch v trung v l (N
w
+ 1) /2
gi tr ln nht n N
w
l. Lc trung v cho trng hp 2 chiu coi nh
lc trung v tch theo tng chi
Lc ngoi (Outlier Filer)
Gi thit c ngng no cho cc mc nhiu (c th da vo lc
xm). Tin hnh so snh gi tr xm ca mt im nh vi trung bnh
s hc 8 ln cn ca n. Nu sai lch ln hn ngng, im nh ny c
coi nh nhi u. Trong trng hp , thay th gi tr ca im nh bng gi
tr trung bnh 8 ln cn va tnh c. B lc ngoi c th din t bng
cng thc sau:
Y (m, n) =
_
_
_
(w) khi|u(m, n) (w)
u(m, n) #
.
vi (w) l trung bnh cng cc im trong ln cn w; l ngng
ngoi
Cc ca s tnh ton thng chn l 3x3. Tuy nhin, ca s c th m
rng n 5x5 hay 7x7 m bo tnh tng quan gia cc im nh. Vn
quan trng l xc nh ngng loi nhiu m vn khng lm mt
thng tin ca nh.
28
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
3.5 Bi ton v pht hin bin nh
3.5.1 Mt s khi nim
im bin: Mt im nh c coi l im bin nu c s thay i
nhanh hoc t ngt v mc xm (hoc mu). V d trong nh nh phn,
im en gi l im bin nu ln cn n c t nht mt im trng.
ng bin (ng bao: boundary): tp hp cc im bin lin tip to
thnh mt ng bin hay ng bao.
ngha ca ng bin trong x l: ngha u tin: ng bin l
mt loi c trng cc b tiu biu trong phn tch, nhn dng nh. Th
hai, ngi ta s dng bin lm phn cch cc vng xm (mu) cch bit.
Ngc li, ngi ta cng s dng cc vng nh tm ng phn cch.
Tm quan trng ca bin: thy r tm quan trng ca bin, xt v
d sau: khi ngi ha s mun v mt danh nhn, h a s ch cn v vi
ng nt tc ha m khng cn v mt cch y .
M hnh biu din ng bin: theo ton hc: im nh c s bin i
mc xm u(x) mt cch t ngt theo hnh di.
Hnh 5.1 ng bao ca nh
3.5.2 Phn loi cc k thut pht hin bin
T nh ngha ton hc ca bin ngi ta s dng hai phng php
pht hin bin nh sau (phng php chnh) .
29
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
a, Phng php pht hin bin trc tip: phng php ny ch yu
da vo s bin thin sng ca im nh lm ni bin bng k thut
o hm.
Nu ly o hm bc nht ca nh: ta c phng php Gradient.
Nu ly o hm bc hai ca nh: ta c phng php Laplace.
Hai phng php ny cn c gi chung l phng php d bin cc
b.
Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn s dng phng php i theo ng bao da
vo cng c ton hc l nguyn l quy hoch ng v ng gi l phng
php d bin tng th. Phng php d bin trc tip c hiu qu v t b
tc ng ca nhiu.
Phng php pht hin bin gin tip: Nu bng cch no y, chng
ta thu ng cc vng nh khc nhau th ng phn cch gia cc vng
chnh l bin. Ni cch khc, vic xc nh ng bao ca nh c
thc hin t nh c phn vng. Phng php d bin gin tip kh
ci t nhng p dng tt khi s bin thin sng nh.
Ch : K thut d bin v phn vng nh l 2 bi ton i ngu
nhau.
3.5.3 Quy trnh pht hin bin
B1: Do nh ghi c thng c nhiu, bc mt l phi lc nhiu theo
cc phng php d tm hiu cc phn trc.
B2: Lm ni bin s dng cc ton t pht hin bin.
B3: nh v bin. Ch rng k thut ni bin gy tc dng ph l
gy nhiu lm mt s bin gi xut hin do vy cn loi b bin gi.
Lin kt v trch chn bin.
30
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
3.5.4 Cc phng php pht hin bin
Phng php Gradient
Phng php Gradient l phng php d bin cc b da vo cc i
ca o hm. Theo nh ngh, Gradient l mt vector c cc thnh phn
biu th tc thay i ca im nh theo hai hng x v y. Cc thnh
phn ca Gradient tnh bi:
f(x, y)
x
= f

x

f(x + dx, y) f(x, y)
dx
.
f(x, y)
x
= f

y

f(x, y + dy) f(x, y)
dy
.
Trong dx l khong cch gia cc im theo hng x (khong cch
tnh bng s im) v tng t vi dy. Trn thc t, ngi ta hay dng vi
dx = dy = 1.
Trong phng php Gradient, ngi ta chia thnh 2 k thut (do dng
2 ton t khc nhau): k thut Grandient v k thut La Bn.
K thut Gradient
T nh ngha v Gradient, ta thy nu p dng n vo x l nh, vic
tnh ton s rt phc tp, n gin ha m khng lm mt tnh cht
ca phng php Gradient ngi ta s dng mt cp mt n H
1
v H
2
trc giao (theo 2 hng vung gc). Nu nh ngha g
1
v g
2
l 2 Grandient
tng ng theo 2 hng x v y, th bin g(m, n) ti im (m, n) c
tnh:
g(m, n) =
_
g
2
1
(m, n) + g
2
2
(m, n) = A
0
.

r
(m, n) = arctan(g
2
(m, n)).
gim phc tp tnh ton, A
0
c tnh gn ng nh sau:
A
0
= |g
1
(m, n)| +|g
2
(m, n)|.
31
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Mt s ton t Gradient tiu biu nh ton t Robert, ton t (mt
n) Sobel, ton t (mt n) Prewitt, ng hng (Isometric), ton t 4-ln
cn. . .
Thut ton d bin theo k thut Gradient nh sau:
u vo: ma trn nh cn tm bin:
mt n Hx v Hy
u ra: Mt ma trn nh (cha cc ng bin c tm thy).
Gii thut:
For (mi im nh ca nh)
if(Nu im nh nm trn ng vin nh)
Gn gi tr cc im nh trn ng vin nh = 0(hoc bng mu
nn nh).
else
{
+ Tnh xp x Gradient theo chiu x (Gx): nhn chp vi mt n Hx.
+ Tnh xp x Gradient theo chiu y (Gy): nhn chp vi mt n Hy.
+ Tnh gi tr im nh theo cng thc xp x G:
G=|Gx|+ |Gy|
+ Nu gi tr im nh ln hn ch s mu ca nh th gn gi tr nh
l gi tr mu ln nht.
}
K thut La Bn
V phng php k thut ny cng tng t k thut Gradient. Tuy
nhin, im khc k thut Gradient ch ly o hm theo 2 hng, cn k
thut La Bn ly o hm theo 8 hng. Kirsh xut cc mt n theo
8 hng nh 8 hng ca la bn (Compass). M hnh 8 hng v c t
32
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
tn theo hng a l v theo chiu kim ng h: ng, ng-Nam, Nam,
Nam-Ty, Ty, Ty-Nam, Ty-Bc, Bc, ng-Bc; mi hng lch nhau
45 .
Hnh 5.2 Mt n 8 hng theo Krish
Tm li: Cc k thut s dng phng php Gradient kh tt khi
sng c tc thay i nhanh, kh n gin trn c s cc mt n theo
cc hng. Nhc im ca cc k thut Gradient l nhy cm vi nhiu
v to cc bin kp lm cht lng bin thu c khng cao.
Phng php Laplace
khc phc hn ch v nhc im ca phng php Gradient, trong
s dng o hm ring bc nht ngi ta ngh n vic s dng o
hm ring bc hai hay ton t Laplace. Phng php d bin theo ton
t Laplace hiu qu hn phng php ton t Gradient trong trng hp
mc xm bin i chm, min chuyn i mc xm c tri rng.
Ton t Laplace c nh ngha nh sau:

2
f =

2
f
x
2
+

2
f
y
2
.
Ton t Laplace dng mt s kiu mt n khc nhau nhm tnh gn
ng o hm ring bc hai. Cc dng mt n theo ton t Laplace bc
33
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
3x3 c th:
H
1=
_

_
0 1 0
1 4 1
0 1 0
_

_
H
2
=
_

_
1 1 1
1 8 1
1 1 1
_

_
H
3
=
_

_
1 2 1
2 5 1
1 2 1
_

_
Ghi ch: Mt n H
1
cn ci bin bng vic ly gi tr tm bng 8
thay v gi tr 4. thy r vic xp x o hm ring bc hai trong khng
gian hai chiu vi mt n H
1
lm v d, ta c th tnh gn ng nh sau:

2
f
x
2
= 2f(x, y) f(x 1, y) f(x + 1, y).

2
f
y
2
= 2f(x, y) f(x, y 1) f(x, y + 1).
do :

2
f =

2
f
x
2
+

2
f
y
2
= 4f(x, y)f(x1, y)f(x, y1)f(x+1, y)f(x, y+1).
Thut ton d bin theo phng php Laplace:
u vo: ma trn nh cn tm bin:
mt n H2
u ra: Mt ma trn nh (cha cc ng bin c tm thy).
Gii thut
For (mi im nh ca nh)
if(Nu im nh nm trn ng vin nh)
Gn gi tr cc im nh trn ng vin nh =0 (hoc bng mu
nn nh).
else
{
+ Tnh xp x Laplace G: nhn chp vi mt n H2.
+ Nu gi tr im nh ln hn ch s mu ca nh th gn gi
tr nh l gi tr mu ln nht.
}
34
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Tm li: K thut theo ton t Laplace to ng bin mnh (c
rng 1 pixel). Nhc im ca k thut ny rt nhy vi nhiu, do vy
ng bin thu c thng km n nh.
Ngoi cc phng php trn, ngi ta cng p dng mt s phng
php khc ci tin nh tip cn bi m hnh mt, cch tip cn ti u ha.
Cch tip cn theo m hnh mt da vo vic thc hin xp x a thc
trn nh gc hay nh thc hin php lc Laplace. Cch tip cn ti u
nhm xc nh mt hm (mt b lc), lm gim phng sai
2
hoc gim
mt s im cc tr cc b.
35
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Chng 4
Gii thiu v th vin
Aforge.NET v chng
trnh minh ha
Th vin AForge.NET
AForge.NET l mt th vin m ngun m mnh dnh ca C# thit
k cho cc nh pht trin v nh nghin cu trong cc lnh vc ca my
tnh v tr tu nhn to - x l nh, mng n-ron, thut ton di truyn,
logic m, robot. . .
Bao gm cc b th vin, cc ng dng mu v tnh nng ring ca
tng th vin:
AForge.Imaging - th vin x l nh v cc b lc.
AForge.Vision - th vin th gic my tnh.
AForge.Neuro - mng n-ron th vin tnh ton.
AForge.Genetic - th vin lp trnh tin ha.
36
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
AForge.Fuzzy - th vin tnh ton m .
AForge.MachineLearning - th vin my hc tp.
AForge.Robotics - th vin cung cp h tr ca mt s b dng
c robot.
AForge.Video - tp hp cc th vin x l video.
. . .
37
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Chng trnh minh ha
Trong chng trnh ng dng minh ha em s dng lp th vin
AForge.Imaging. Vi AForge.Imaging.Filters c cha b su tp cc giao
din v cc lp, trong cung cp cc b lc x l hnh nh khc nhau.
Cc lp ny cho php lm bin i khc nhau ca mt hnh nh ngun, tc
ng trc tip trn hnh nh ngun, cung cp hnh nh mi l kt qu ca
mt php x l nh.
Giao din chnh ca chng trnh.
Hnh 4.1 Giao din chng trnh.
Chng trnh gm mt s chc nng c bn nh: zoom nh, xoay nh,
chuyn nh sang nh xm, hin th Histogram ca mt nh, ty chnh
sng, ty chnh kch thc ca mt bc nh.
38
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
V d, trong chng trnh minh ha em c s dng b lc GrayscaleBT709
chuyn t mt nh mu sang mt nh xm. Trong b lc ny chuyn
nh mu sang nh xm bng thut ton BT709.
Hnh 4.2 Hnh nh v chuyn t nh mu sang nh xm
trong chng trnh.
39
N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Cn v d, xoay nh th em s dng b lc RotateBilinear xoay
nh, c th ty chn cc gc xoay nh chng trnh ny em chn l xoay
phi 30, 90, 120, 180 .
Hnh 4.3 Hnh nh v xoay nh trong chng trnh.
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Cn mt s bi ton v d bin, lc trung v, to sng cho nh.
y l ng dng v bi ton d bin:
Hnh 4.4 Hnh nh v bi ton tm bin trong chng trnh.
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Kt lun
ti tp trung nghin cu v l thuyt x l nh s, mt s bi
ton c bn trong x l nh v vit mt chng trnh minh ha v cc bi
ton .
ti hon thnh mc tiu v ni dung l nghin cu cc khi
nim ca x l nh, cc khi nim v cc loi nh,. . .Gii thiu mt s bi
ton c bn trong x l nh nh nng cao tng phn, sng ca nh,
lc nhiu nh, lm ni ng bin, thay i kch thc nh. V s dng
ngn ng C# lp trnh mt s bi ton c bn trong x l nh.
Trong thi gian lm n vi s c gng n lc bn thn, s gip
ca gio vin hng dn l thy V Thnh Nam cho n nay n hon
thnh ng ni dung v thi hn. Tuy vy, do cn hn ch v kin thc v
kinh nghim thc t nn khng th trnh c nhng thiu st. Rt mong
nhn c s gp ca thy c.
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh
Ti liu tham kho
[1] Lng Mnh B, Nguyn Thanh Thu, Nhp mn x l nh s, Nh
xut bn, Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut, 2003.
[2] Nguyn Quc Trung, X l tn hiu v lc s, Nh xut bn Khoa hc
v K thut, 2004.
[3] Bhabatosh Chanda, Dwijesh Dutta Mumder, Digital Imge Processing
and Analysis, Prentice Hall of India, 2001.
[4] Th vin m ngun: http://www.aforgenet.com.
[5] Th vin m ngun: http://www.codeproject.com.
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N 3: X l nh Sv: Trn Tun Vinh