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Definitions

Aztec people
When used about ethnic groups the term "Aztec" refers to several Nahuatl speaking peoples of
central Mexico in the postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology, especially the ethnic group that
had a leading role in establishing the hegemonic empire based at Tenochtitlan, theMexica !ther
ethnic groups associated "ith the Aztec empire are the Acolhua and Tepanecethnic groups and some
of the ethnic groups that "ere incorporated into the empire, and the term is also sometimes used
about them #n older usage the term "as commonly used about modern Nahuatl speaking ethnic
groups, as Nahuatl "as previously referred to as the "Aztec language" #n recent usage these ethnic
groups are rather referred to as the Nahua peoples
$%&$'&
(inguistically the term "Aztecan" is still used
about the branch of the )to*Aztecan languages+also sometimes called the yuto*nahuan languages,
that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives -ochutec and -ipil
To the Aztecs themselves the "ord "aztec" "as not an endonym for any particular ethnic group
.ather it "as an umbrella term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl
speaking, that claimed heritage from the mythic place of origin, Aztlan #n the Nahuatl language
"aztecatl" means "person from Aztlan" #n /0/1 Alexander von 2umboldt originated the modern usage
of "Aztec" as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language
to the Mexica state and the Triple Alliance #n /0%3, "ith the publication of the "ork of William 2
-rescott, it "as adopted by most of the "orld, including /4th century Mexican scholars "ho sa" it as a
"ay to distinguish present*day Mexicans from pre*con5uest Mexicans This usage has been the
sub6ect of debate in more recent years, but the term "Aztec" is still more common
Aztec culture
Aztec culture is the culture of the people referred to as Aztecs, but since all ethnic groups of central
Mexico in the postclassic period shared most basic cultural traits,

many of the basic traits of Aztec
culture cannot be said to be exclusive for the Aztecs 7or the same reason the notion of "Aztec
civilization" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization
The culture of central Mexico includes maize cultivation, the social division bet"een
noble pipiltin and macehualli commoners, a pantheon
+featuring Tezcatlipoca, Tlaloc and 8uetzalcoatl,, and the calendric system of a xiuhpohualli of 39'
days intercalated "ith atonalpohualli of :91 days -articular to the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan "as the
Mexica patron ;od 2uitzilopochtli, t"in pyramids, and the ceramic "are kno"n as Aztec # to ###
Aztec Empire
The Aztec <mpire "as a tribute empire based in Tenochtitlan, "hich extended its po"er
throughout Mesoamerica in the late postclassic period #t originated in /%:= as a triple*
alliance bet"een the city*states Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan "ho allied to defeat
theTepanec state of Azcapotzalco, that had previously dominated the >asin of Mexico ?oon Texcoco
and Tlacopan became 6unior partners in the alliance "hich "as de facto led by the Mexica of
Tenochtitlan The empire extended its po"er by a combination of trade and military con5uest #t "as
never a true territorial empire controlling a territory by large military garrisons in con5uered provinces,
but rather controlled its client states primarily by installing friendly rulers in con5uered cities, by
constructing marriage alliances bet"een the ruling dynasties, and by extending an imperial ideology to
its client states @lient states paid tribute to the Aztec emperor, the 2uey Tlatoani, in an economic
strategy limiting communication and trade bet"een outlying polities making them depend on the
imperial center for the ac5uisition of luxury goods The political clout of the empire reached far south
into Mesoamerica con5uering cities as far south as @hiapas and ;uatemala and spanning from the
-acific to the Atlantic oceans The empire reached its maximal extent in /'/4 6ust prior to the arrival of
the ?panish con5uistadors led by @ortAs "ho managed to topple the Aztec empire by allying "ith
some of the traditional enemies of the Aztecs, the Nahuatl speaking Tlaxcalteca
History
Migrational period
The Nahua peoples began to migrate into Mesoamerica from northern Mexico in the 9th century They
populated central Mexico dislocating speakers of !to*Manguean languages as they spread their
political influence south As the former nomadic hunter*gatherer peoples mixed "ith the complex
civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices, the foundation for later Aztec
culture "as laid Buring the -ostclassic period they rose to po"er at such sites as Tula, 2idalgo #n the
/:th century the Nahua po"er center "as in Azcapotzalco, from "here the Tepanecs dominated the
valley of Mexico Around this time the Mexica tribe arrived in central Mexico
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Rise of the Triple Alliance
The true origin of the Mexicas is uncertain According to their legends, the Mexica tribe place of origin
"as AztlCn #t is generally thought that AztlCn "as some"here to the north of the Dalley of MexicoE
some experts have placed it as far north as the ?outh"estern )nited ?tates
>ased on these codices as "ell as other histories, it appears that the Mexicas arrived
at@hapultepec in or around the year /:%0
At the time of their arrival, the Dalley of Mexico had many city*states, the most po"erful of "hich
"ere @ulhuacan to the south and Azcapotzalco to the "est The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco soon
expelled the Mexicas from @hapultepec #n /:44, @ulhuacan ruler @ocoxtli gave them permission to
settle in the empty barrens of Tizapan, "here they "ere eventually assimilated into @ulhuacan culture
According to Aztec legend, in /3:3, the Mexicas "ere sho"n a vision of an eagle perched on aprickly
pear cactus, eating a snakeThis vision indicated that this "as the location "here they "ere to build
their home #n any event, the Mexicas eventually arrived on a small s"ampy island in (ake Texcoco
"here they founded the to"n of Tenochtitlan in /3:' #n /3=9, the Mexicas elected their first Huey
Tlatoani, Acamapichtli, "ho "as living in Texcoco at the time
7or the next '1 years, until /%:=, the Mexica "ere a tributary of Azcapotzalco, "hich had become a
regional po"er, perhaps the most po"erful since the Toltecs, centuries earlierMaxtla, son
of Tezozomoc, assassinated @himalpopoca, the Mexica ruler #n an effort to defeat Maxtla,
@himalpopocaFs successor, #tzcoatl, allied "ith the exiled ruler of Texcoco,Nezahualcoyotl This
coalition "as the foundation of the Aztec Triple Alliance, "hich defeated Azcapotzalco in /%:0
The triple*alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan "ould, in the next /11 years, come to
dominate the Dalley of Mexico and extend its po"er to both the ;ulf of Mexico and the -acific shore
!ver this period, Tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant po"er in the alliance
T"o of the primary architects of the Aztec empire "ere the half*brothers Tlacaelel andMontezuma #,
nephe"s of #tzcoatl Moctezuma # succeeded #tzcoatl as Hueyi Tlatoani in /%%1 Although he "as also
offered the opportunity to be tlatoani, Tlacaelel preferred to operate as the po"er behind the throne
Tlacaelel reformed the Aztec state and religion According to some sources, he ordered the burning of
most of the extant Aztec books claiming that they contained lies 2e thereupon re"rote the history of
the Aztec people, thus creating a common a"areness of history for the Aztecs This re"riting led
directly to the curriculum taught to scholars and promoted the belief that the Aztecs "ere al"ays a
po"erful and mythic nationE forgetting forever a possible true history of modest origins !ne
component of this reform "as the institution of ritual "ar +the flo"er "ars, as a "ay to have trained
"arriors, and created the necessity of constant sacrifices to keep the ?un moving
Spanish conquest
The empire reached its height during AhuitzotlFs reign in /%09G/'1: 2is successor, MotehcuzHma
Iocoyotzin +better kno"n asMoctezuma ## or Moctezuma, or Montezuma,, had been Hueyi Tlatoani for
/= years "hen the ?paniards, led by 2ernCndo @ortAs, landed on the ;ulf @oast in the spring of /'/4
Bespite some early battles bet"een the t"o, @ortAs allied himself "ith the AztecsJ long*time enemy,
the @onfederacy of Tlaxcala, and arrived at the gates of Tenochtitlan on November 0, /'/4
The ?paniards and their Tlaxcallan allies became increasingly dangerous and un"elcome guests in
the capital city #n Kune /':1, hostilities broke out, culminating in the massacre in the Main
Temple and the death of Moctezuma ## The ?paniards fled the to"n on Kuly /, an episode later
characterized as (a Noche Triste +the ?ad Night, They and their native allies returned in the spring of
/':/ to lay siege to Tenochtitlan, a battle that ended on August /3 "ith the destruction of the city
Buring this period the no" crumbling empire "ent through a rapid line of ruler succession After the
death of Moctezuma ##, the empire fell into the hands of severely "eakened emperors, such
as @uitlChuac, before eventually being ruled by puppet rulers, such as AndrAs de Tapia Motelchiuh,
installed by the ?panish
Bespite the decline of the Aztec empire, most of the Mesoamerican cultures "ere intact after the fall of
Tenochtitlan #ndeed, the freedom from Aztec domination may have been considered a positive
development by most of the other cultures The upper classes of the Aztec empire "ere considered
noblemen by the ?paniards and generally treated as such initially All this changed rapidly and the
native population "ere soon forbidden to study by la", and had the status of minors
The Tlaxcalans remained loyal to their ?panish friends and "ere allo"ed to come on other con5uests
"ith @ortAs and his men
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Colonial period population decline
#n /':1G/':/, an outbreak of smallpox s"ept through the population of Tenochtitlan and "as decisive
in the fall of the city #t is estimated that bet"een /1L and '1L of the population fell victim to this
epidemic
?ubse5uently, the Dalley of Mexico "as hit "ith t"o more epidemics, smallpox +/'%'G/'%0,,
and typhus +/'=9G/'0/, The ?paniards, to consolidate the diminishing population, merged the
survivors from small to"ns in the Dalley of Mexico into bigger ones This broke the po"er of the upper
classes, but did not dissolve the coherence of the indigenous society in greater Mexico
The population before the time of the con5uest is unkno"n and hotly contested, but disease is kno"n
to have ravaged the regionE thus, the indigenous population of the Dalley of Mexico is estimated to
have declined by more than 01L in the course of about 91 years
Cultural patterns
Government
The Aztec <mpire "as an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means (ike most <uropean
empires, it "as ethnically very diverse, but unlike most <uropean empires, it "as more of a system of
tribute than a single system of government #n the theoretical frame"ork of imperial systems posited
by Alexander K Motyl, the Aztec empire "as an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert
supreme authority over the con5uered landsE it merely expected tributes to be paid #t "as also a
discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories "ere connectedE for example, the southern
peripheral zones of Ioconochco "ere not in direct contact "ith the center The hegemonic nature of
the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers "ere restored to their positions
once their city*state "as con5uered and the Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs, as long as the
tribute payments "ere made
Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas "ithin the empire
"ere organized as city*states, kno"n as altepetl in Nahuatl These "ere small polities ruled by a king
+tlatoani, from a legitimate dynasty The <arly Aztec period "as a time of gro"th and competition
among altepetl <ven after the empire "as formed +/%:0, and began its program of expansion through
con5uest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level The efficient role
of the altepetl as a regional political unit "as largely responsible for the success of the empireFs
hegemonic form of control
Tribute and trade
?everal pages from the @odex Mendoza list tributary to"ns along "ith the goods they supplied, "hich
included not only luxuries such as feathers, adorned suits, and greenstone beads, but more practical
goods such as cloth, fire"ood, and food Tribute "as usually paid t"ice or four times a year at differing
times
Archaeological excavations in the Aztec*ruled provinces sho" that incorporation into the empire had
both costs and benefits for provincial peoples !n the positive side, the empire promoted commerce
and trade, and exotic goods from obsidian to bronze managed to reach the houses of both
commoners and nobles Trade partners included the enemy Tarascan, a source of bronze tools and
6e"elry !n the negative side, imperial tribute imposed a burden on commoner households, "ho had
to increase their "ork to pay their share of tribute Nobles, on the other hand, often made out "ell
under imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization The empire had to rely on
local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintaining order and keeping the
tribute flo"ing
Economy
The Aztec economy can be divided into a political sector, under the control of nobles and kings, and a
commercial sector that operated independently of the political sector The political sector of the
economy centered on the control of land and labor by kings and nobles Nobles o"ned all land, and
commoners got access to farmland and other fields through a variety of arrangements, from rental
through sharecropping to serf*like labor and slavery These payments from commoners to nobles
supported both the lavish lifestyles of the high nobility and the finances of city*states Many luxury
goods "ere produced for consumption by nobles The producers of feather"ork, sculptures, 6e"elry,
and other luxury items "ere full*time commoner specialists "ho "orked for noble patrons
#n the commercial sector of the economy several types of money "ere in regular use ?mall purchases
"ere made "ith cacao beans, "hich had to be imported from lo"land areas #n Aztec marketplaces, a
small rabbit "as "orth 31 beans, a turkey egg cost 3 beans, and a tamal cost a single bean 7or larger
purchases, standardized lengths of cotton cloth called 5uachtli "ere used There "ere different grades
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of 5uachtli, ranging in value from 9' to 311 cacao beans !ne source stated that :1 5uachtli could
support a commoner for one year in Tenochtitlan A man could also sell his o"n daughter as a sexual
slave or future religious sacrifice, generally for around '11 to =11 beans A small gold statue
approximately 19: kg +/3= lb, cost :'1 beans Money "as used primarily in the many periodic
markets that "ere held in each to"n A typical to"n "ould have a "eekly market +every ' days,, "hile
larger cities held markets every day @ortAs reported that the central market of Tlatelolco,
TenochtitlanFs sister city, "as visited by 91,111 people daily ?ome sellers in the markets "ere petty
vendorsE farmers might sell some of their produce, potters sold their vessels, and so on !ther vendors
"ere professional merchants "ho traveled from market to market seeking profits The pochteca "ere
specialized merchants organized into exclusive guilds They made long expeditions to all parts of
Mesoamerica, and they served as the 6udges and supervisors of the Tlatelolco market Although the
economy of Aztec Mexico "as commercialized +in its use of money, markets, and merchants, land and
labor "ere not commodities for sale
Transportation
The main contribution of the Aztec rule "as a system of communications bet"een the con5uered
cities #n Mesoamerica, "ithout draft animals for transport +nor, as a result, "heeled vehicles,, the
roads "ere designed for travel on foot )sually these roads "ere maintained through tribute, and
travelers had places to rest and eat and even latrines to use at regular intervals, roughly every /1 to
/' kilometres +9 to 4 mi, @ouriers +paynani, "ere constantly travelling along those "ays, keeping the
Aztecs informed of events, and helping to monitor the integrity of the roads
ytholo!y and reli!ion
The Mexica made reference to at least t"o manifestations of the supernaturalM ttl andtixiptla Ttl,
"hich the ?paniards and <uropean scholars routinely mistranslated as "god" or "demon", referred
rather to an impersonal force that permeated the "orld Tixiptla, by contrast, denoted the physical
representations +"idols", statues and figurines, of the ttl as "ell as the human cultic activity
surrounding this physical representation The Mexica "gods" themselves had no existence as distinct
entities apart from these tixiptla representations of ttl
Deneration of 2uitzilopochtli, the personification of the sun and of "ar, "as central to the religious,
social and political practices of the Mexicas 2uitzilopochtli attained this central position after the
founding of Tenochtitlan and the formation of the Mexica city*state society in the /%th century -rior to
this, 2uitzilopochtli "as associated primarily "ith hunting, presumably one of the important
subsistence activities of the itinerant bands that "ould eventually become the Mexica
According to myth, 2uitzilopochtli directed the "anderers to found a city on the site "here they "ould
see an eagle devouring a snake perched on a fruit*bearing nopal cactus +#t "as said that
2uitzilopochtli killed his nephe", @Npil, and thre" his heart on the lake 2uitzilopochtli honoured @Npil
by causing a cactus to gro" over @NpilFs heart, (egend has it that this is the site on "hich the Mexicas
built their capital city of Tenochtitlan This legendary vision is pictured on the @oat of arms of Mexico
According to their o"n history, "hen the Mexicas arrived in the Anahuac valley +Dalley of Mexico,
around (ake Texcoco, the groups living there considered them uncivilized The Mexicas borro"ed
much of their culture from the ancient Toltec "hom they seem to have at least partially confused "ith
the more ancient civilization of Teotihuacan To the Mexicas, the Toltecs "ere the originators of all
cultureE "ToltecayHtl" "as a synonym for culture Mexica legends identify the Toltecs and the cult
of 8uetzalcoatl "ith the mythical city of Tollan, "hich they also identified "ith the more ancient
Teotihuacan
As all other Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztecs played a variant of the Mesoamerican ballgame,
named tlachtli or ollamaliztli in Nahuatl The game "as played "ith a ball of solidrubber, called an olli,
"hence derives the ?panish "ord for rubber, hule The players hit the ball "ith their hips, knees, and
elbo"s and had to pass the ball through a stone ring to automatically "in The practice of the ballgame
carried religious and mythological meanings and also served as sport
Human sacrifice
While human sacrifice "as practiced throughout Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, if their o"n accounts are to
be believed, brought this practice to an unprecedented level 7or example, for the reconsecration of
the ;reat -yramid of Tenochtitlan in /%0=, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed 01,%11 prisoners
over the course of four days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the ;reat ?peaker himself This number,
ho"ever, is not universally accepted
Accounts by the Tlaxcaltecas, the primary enemy of the Aztecs at the time of the ?panish @on5uest,
sho" that at least some of them considered it an honor to be sacrificed #n one legend, the "arrior
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Tlahuicole "as freed by the Aztecs but eventually returned of his o"n volition to die in ritual
sacrifice Tlaxcala also practiced the human sacrifice of captured Aztec @itizens
Class structure
The highest class "ere the ppiltin or nobility !riginally this status "as not hereditary, although the
sons of pillis had access to better resources and education, so it "as easier for them to become pillis
(ater the class system took on hereditary aspects
The second class "ere the mcehualtin, originally peasants <duardo Noguera
$:3&
estimates that in
later stages only :1L of the population "as dedicated to agriculture and food production The other
01L of society "ere "arriors, artisans and traders <ventually, most of the mcehuallis "ere
dedicated to arts and crafts Their "orks "ere an important source of income for the city
?laves or tlacotin also constituted an important class Aztecs could become slaves because of debts,
as a criminal punishment or as "ar captives A slave could have possessions and even o"n other
slaves 2o"ever, upon becoming a slave, all of the slaveFs animals and excess money "ould go to his
purchaser ?laves could buy their liberty, and slaves could be set free if they had children "ith or "ere
married to their masters Typically, upon the death of the master, slaves "ho had performed
outstanding services "ere freed The rest of the slaves "ere passed on as part of an inheritance
Traveling merchants called pochtecah "ere a small, but important class as they not only facilitated
commerce, but also communicated vital information across the empire and beyond its borders They
"ere often employed as spies
Education
)ntil the age of fourteen, the mandatory universal

education of children "as in the hands of their
parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calplli -art of this education involved learning a
collection of sayings, called huhuetltolli +"sayings of the old",, that embodied the AztecsF ideals
There "ere t"o types of schoolsM the telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and the calmecac,
for advanced learning in "riting, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas
Arts
?ong and poetry "ere highly regardedE there "ere presentations and poetry contests at most of the
Aztec festivals There "ere also dramatic presentations that included players, musicians and acrobats
A remarkable amount of this poetry survives, having been collected during the era of the con5uest #n
some cases poetry is attributed to individual authors, such as Nezahualcoyotl,tlatoani of Texcoco,
and @uacuauhtzin, (ord of Tepechpan, but "hether these attributions reflect actual authorship is a
matter of opinion Miguel (eNn*-ortilla, a "ell*respected Aztec scholar of Mexico, has stated that it is
in this poetry "here "e can find the real thought of the Aztecs, independent of "official" Aztec ideology
"-oetry" "as in xochitl in cuicatl a dual term meaning "the flo"er and the song" and "as divided into
different genres Yaocuicatl "as devoted to "ar and the god+s, of "ar, Teocuicatlto the gods and
creation myths and to adoration of said figures, xochicuicatl to flo"ers +a symbol of poetry itself and
indicative of the highly metaphorical nature of a poetry that often utilized duality to convey multiple
layers of meaning, "-rose" "as tlahtolli, also "ith its different categories and divisions +;arganigo et
al,
The most important collection of these poems isRomances de los seores de la Nueva spaa,
collected +Tezcoco /'0:,, probably by Kuan >autista de -omar
$nb 3&
>autista de -omar "as the great*
grandson of Netzahualcoyotl 2e spoke Nahuatl, but "as raised a @hristian and "rote in (atin
characters
+!ee also" "#s #t OouP"# a short poem attri$uted to Netzahualcoyotl#
and "(ament on the 7all of Tenochtitlan"# a short poem contained %ithin the &'nales de Tlatelolco&
manuscript(,
City"buildin! and architecture
The capital city of the Aztec empire "as Tenochtitlan, no" the site of modern*day Mexico @ity >uilt on
a series of islets in (ake Texcoco, the city plan "as based on a symmetrical layout that "as divided
into four city sections called campans The city "as interlaced "ith canals "hich "ere useful for
transportation
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Tenochtitlan "as built according to a fixed plan and centered on the ritual precinct, "here the ;reat
-yramid of Tenochtitlan rose '1 m +/9%1% ft, above the city 2ouses "ere made of "ood and loam,
roofs "ere made of reed, although pyramids, temples and palaces "ere generally made of stone
Around the island, chinampa beds "ere used to gro" foods as "ell as, over time, to increase the size
of the island )hinampas, misnamed "floating gardens", "ere long raised plant beds set upon the
shallo" lake bottom They "ere a very efficient agricultural system and could provide up to seven
crops a year !n the basis of current chinampa yields, it has been estimated that / hectare of
chinampa "ould feed :1 individuals and 4,111 hectares ofchinampas could feed /01,111
Anthropologist <duardo Noguera estimates the population at :11,111 based in the house count and
merging the population of Tlatelolco +once an independent city, but later became a suburb of
Tenochtitlan, #f one includes the surrounding islets and shores surrounding (ake Texcoco, estimates
range from 311,111 to =11,111 inhabitants
A!riculture
The pre*con5uest Aztecs "ere a society that had four main methods of agriculture The earliest, most
basic form of agriculture implemented by the Aztecs is kno"n as Qrainfall cultivationR The Aztecs also
implemented terrace agriculture in hilly areas, or areas that could not be used for level ground farming
#n the valleys irrigation farming "as used Bams diverted "ater from natural springs to the fields This
allo"ed for harvests on a regular basis The Aztecs built canal systems that "ere longer and much
more elaborate than previous irrigation systems They managed to divert a large portion of
the @uauhtitlan .iver to provide irrigation to large areas of fields The net"ork of canals "as a very
complex and intricate system
#n the s"ampy regions along (ake Iochimilco, the Aztecs implemented yet another method of crop
cultivation They built "hat are called chinampas @hinampas are areas of raised land, created from
alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake, and plant matterSother vegetation These Qraised
bedsR "ere separated by narro" canals, "hich allo"ed farmers to move bet"een them by canoe The
chinampas "ere extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually #n
order to plant on them, farmers first created Qseedbeds,R or reed rafts, "here they planted seeds and
allo"ed them to germinate !nce they had, they "ere re*planted in the chinampas This cut the
gro"ing time do"n considerably
The Aztecs are credited "ith domestication of the subspecies of "ild turkey, *elea+ris +allopavo,
"hich is native to this region
While most of the farming occurred outside the densely populated areas, "ithin the cities there "as
another method of +small scale, farming <ach family had their o"n garden plot "here they gre"
maize, fruits, herbs, medicines and other important plants
!f the various crops gro"n by the Aztecs, maize "as the most important Aztec diets centered on it
Maize "as gro"n across the entire empire, in the highland terraces, valley farms and also on the
chinampas Women ground maize into a coarse meal by rubbing it "ith a grinding stone called
a manos against a flat stone called a metate The Aztecs made tortillas from the corn meal !ther
crops that the Aztecs relied upon "ere avocados, beans, s5uashes, s"eet
potatoes, tomatoes, chia, amaranth and chilies These crops "ere also gro"n every"here @rops that
"ere specific to the lo"land regions "ere cotton, fruits, cacao beans and rubber trees
Relationship to other esoamerican cultures
Aztecs admired Mixtec craftsmanship so much that they imported artisans to Tenochtitlan and
re5uested "ork to be done in certain Mixtec styles The Aztecs also admired the Mixtec codices, so
some of them "ere made to order by Mixteca for the Aztecs #n the later days, high society Aztec
"omen started to "ear Mixtec clothing, specifically the ,uex,uemetl #t "as "orn over their
traditional huipil, and much coveted by the "omen "ho could not afford such imported goods
The situation "as analogous in many "ays to the -hoenician culture "hich imported and duplicated
art from other cultures that they encountered
Archaeologists usually do not have a problem differentiating bet"een Mixtec and Aztec artifacts
2o"ever, the Mixtec made some products for "export" and that makes classification more problematic
#n addition, the production of craft "as an important part of the Mexica economy, and they also made
pieces for "export"
#e!acy
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Most modern*day Mexicans +and people of Mexican descent in other countries, are mestizos, of mixed
indigenous and <uropean ancestry Buring the /9th century the racial composition of Mexico began to
change from one that featured distinct indigenous +Mexicas and members of the many other Mexican
indigenous groups, and immigrant +mostly ?panish, populations, to the population composed primarily
of mestizos that is found in modern day Mexico
The Nahuatl language is today spoken by /' million people, mostly in mountainous areas in the
states of central Mexico (ocal dialects of ?panish, Mexican ?panish generally, and the ?panish
language "orld"ide have all been influenced, in varying degrees, by Nahuatl ?ome Nahuatl "ords
+most notably chocolate, derived from the Nahuatl "ord xocolatl, and tomato, have been borro"ed
through ?panish into other languages around the "orld
Mexico @ity "as built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, making it one of the oldest living cities of the
Americas Many of its districts and natural landmarks retain their original Nahuatl names Many other
cities and to"ns in Mexico and @entral America have also retained their Nahuatl names +"hether or
not they "ere originally Mexica or even Nahuatl*speaking to"ns, A number of to"n names are
hybrids of Nahuatl and ?panish
Mexican cuisine continues to be based on and flavored by agricultural products contributed by the
MexicasSAztecs and Mesoamerica, most of "hich retain some form of their original Nahuatl names
The cuisine has also become a popular part of the cuisine of the )nited ?tates and other countries
around the "orld, typically altered to suit various national tastes
The modern Mexican flag bears the emblem of the Mexica migration story
Historio!raphy
>efore the development of archaeology in Mexico in the /4th century, the historians mainly interpreted
the ancient "ritten sources to reconstitute Aztec history Archaeology allo"ed to reconsider and
criticize some of those interpretations and contradictions bet"een the primary sources No", the
scholar study of aztec civilization is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies
Aztec codices
There are fe" extant Aztec codices created before the con5uest and these are largely ritual texts
-ost*con5uest codices, like @odex Mendoza or @odex .Tos, "ere painted by Aztectlacuilos +codex
creators,, but under the control of ?panish authorities The possibility of ?panish influence poses
potential problems for those studying the post*con5uest codices#tzcoatl had the oldest hieroglyphics
destroyed for political*religious reasons and >ishop Uumarraga of Mexico +/':0G%0, had all available
texts burned for missionary reasons
$:4&
The con5uistadors
The accounts of the con5uistadors are those of men confronted "ith a ne" civilization, "hich they
tried to interpret according to their o"n culture @ortAs "as the most educated, and his letters
to @harles D are a valuable firsthand account )nfortunately, one of his letters is lost and replaced by
a posterior text and the others "ere censored prior to their publication #n any case, @ortAs "as not
"riting a dispassionate account, but letters 6ustifying his actions and to some extent exaggerating his
successes and do"nplaying his failures
>ernal BTaz del @astillo accompanied @ortes, and he later "rote a book namedM The -iscovery and
)on,uest o. *exico #n his book, @apitan >ernal BTaz del @astillo provides his account of the
@on5uest of Mexico, in "hich he describes the events leading up to the con5uest of Mexico, including
accounts of the human sacrifices and cannibalism that he "itnessed first hand 2o"ever, >ernal BTaz
"rote several decades after the fact, never learned the native languages, and did not take notes 2is
account is colorful, but his "ork is considered by historians to be erratic and exaggerated
Although 7rancisco (Npez de ;Nmara "as @ortesF chaplain, friend, and confidant, he never visited the
Ne" World so his account is based on hearsay
$riests and scholars
The accounts of the first priests and scholars, "hile reflecting their faith and their culture, are important
sources 7athers Biego BurCn,Motolinia, and Mendieta "rote "ith their o"n religion in mind, 7ather
Buran "rote trying to prove that the Aztec "ere one of the lost tribes of #srael >artolomA de las
@asas "rote apologetically about the #ndians, accusing the ?panish con5uistadors of committing
unspeakable atrocities in their sub6ugation of the Aztecs and other indigenous groups ?ome authors
tried to make a synthesis of the pre*2ispanic cultures, like "!viedo y 2errera", Kose de Acosta,
and -edro MCrtir de Anghiera
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The most significant source about the Aztec are doubtless the manuscripts of >ernardino de ?ahagVn,
"ho "orked "ith the surviving Aztec "ise men 2e taught Aztec tlacuilos to "rite the original Nahuatl
accounts using the (atin alphabet >ecause of fear of the ?panish authorities, he maintained the
anonymity of his informants, and "rote a heavily censored version in ?panish )nfortunately the
Nahuatl original "as not fully translated until the :1th century, thus realising the extent of the
censorship of the ?panish version The original Nahuatl manuscript is kno"n as the 7lorentine @odex
%ative authors
!ther important sources are the "ork of native and mestizo authors, descendants of the upper
classes These authors include Bon7ernando Alvarado TezozNmoc, @himalpahin
@uauhtlehuanitzin, Kuan >autista de -omar, and 7ernando de Alva @ortAs #xtlilxochitl #xtlixochitl, for
example, "rote a history of Texcoco from a @hristian point of vie" 2is account of Netzahualcoyotl, an
ancestor of #xtlilxochitlFs, has a strong resemblance to the story of Wing ?olomon and portrays
Netzahualcoyotl as a monotheist and a critic of human sacrifice
Biego MuXoz @amargo +/':/ G c /9/:,, a Tlaxcalan mestizo, "rote the History o. Tlaxcala six
decades after the ?panish con5uest ?ome parts of his "ork have a strong Tlaxcala bias
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10
A painting of Tlaloc, as sho"n on page :1. of @odex .ios
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