Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

PHYSICS Unit 2
2.3. Waves
Wavefront: A line or surface, in the path of a wave motion, where all the
displacements at any point have the same phase.
Coherent: Constant phase difference, same frequency, same wavelength
Wavelength:
Distance travelled during one complete oscillation
Distance between two adjacent troughs/crests
Frequency: Number of oscillations per second
Critical angle:
Angle of incidence that has angle of refraction of 90
To find the critical angle of a material, you have to go from the
denser medium. So you can either swap them around or do
sin(r)/sin(i) = sin(c)
Plane polarised light: Oscillations of electric and magnetic fields in one
plane only, which includes the direction of travel of the wave
Reflected light is polarised!!
Polaroid filter: Only allows oscillations in one plane to pass through
Polarisation:
Blocks the unaligned part of the radiation
Process where oscillations in many planes are reduced to
oscillations in one plane

Diffraction: The spreading out of the wave as it passes through a
gap/around an aperture




Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

Superposition: The (total) displacement at a point is the sum of the
individual displacements

Light
Travels fastest in a vacuum
Slows down in other materials because it interacts with the
particles in them
The more optically dense a material is, the more light slows down
when it enters it

Standing wave:
Waves are travelling in both directions // Reflection
Superposition of two progressive waves with the same
wavelength, moving in opposite directions
Same frequency and wavelength
When they meet they superpose
No net transfer of energy
Patterns of nodes and antinodes
Points of maximum displacement and zero displacement

Explain how the amount of detail in a scan may be limited by the
wavelength of the radiation or by the duration of pulses:
Pulse reflected at boundary where density changes
Shorter wavelengths produce clearer images
Shorter wavelengths diffract much less than longer wavelengths
They spread out less as they travel, so the local of the interfaces
between tissues can be mapped more precisely

Shorter pulses produce clearer images (However, shorter pulses
mean that only shorter distances can be measured)
Ultrasound transducers cant transmit and receive pulses at the
same time
If reflected waves reach the transducer whilst it is transmitting,
the information they contain will be long and image quality will
be reduced
Therefore:
o Pulses of ultrasound transmitted must be very short so that
the reflections from nearby interfaces dont reach the
transducer before the pulse has ended
Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

o The gap between pulses must be long enough so that all the
reflected waves from one pulse return to the transducer
before the next pulse is transmitted

Investigate and explain how to measure refractive index:
Use a ray box with a glass block in darkness
Measure angles of incidence and refraction
Plot sin i vs sin r
Gradient = Refractive index
However:
o Protractors can only measure to 1
o Ray is thick, line drawn might not be accurate
o Pencil line is thick as well
Improvement:
o Use a large angle to reduce percentage uncertainty
o Use a laser with a narrower beam
o Use a range of angles
o Determine mean value of refractive index by drawing a
graph

Investigate and explain how to measure the rotation of the plane of
polarisation:
Mention of polarising filter/Polaroid/polariser
Rotation (of filter) until minimum/ maximum intensity (not
rotation of solution)
Rotation done with and without the sugar solution
Identifies correct difference in angles
Use of protractor/polarimeter

Double slit experiment:
Diffraction
occurs at the
double slits
The waves
superpose
To get
interference
patterns Two
Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

sources must be coherent
Where they are in phase, i. e. path difference is a whole number of
wavelengths: Constructive interference Bright bands
Where they are antiphase, i. e. path difference is an odd number
of half wavelengths: Destructive interference Dark bands

Refraction through prism:
Colors of the visible light spectrum that have shorter wavelengths (BIV)
will be deviated more from their original path than the colors with
longer wavelengths (ROY). The emergence of different colors of light
from a triangular prism at different angles leads an observer to see the
component colors of visible light separated from each other.
Violet is refracted the most, and red is refracted the least.













Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

How to visualise wave moving:

EM Spectrum:


Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

2.4. DC Electricity
Resistance:
Comes from the electrons colliding with atoms and losing energy
Internal resistance is caused by collision with the atoms inside
the battery

Negative temperature coefficient:
Resistance/resistivity changes with temperature
As temperature increases, resistance/resistivity decreases

PD vs. EMF:
Potential difference:
o Electrical energy transferred between two points
EMF:
o Energy supplied to a circuit / Energy output of the cell

Ohms law:
Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it providing the temperature of conductor remains
constant OR external conditions remain constant.

Ammeter placed in series and with low resistance:
Current is different if not in series
To ensure total resistance of circuit isnt increased Emf/R =
Current, so that would alter the current of the circuit

Voltmeter placed in parallel and with high resistance:
V=IR, for same voltage and high resistance, current drawn =
negligible
Reciprocal of a very large value = Negligible, so total Resistance of
circuit isnt largely affected

Experimental precautions to ensure accurate results:
Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

Ensure good contact (e. g. tight croc clips); so pd across contact
resistance doesnt make V results i naccurate
Avoid pressing too hard on wire; as a deformation would affect
cross sectional area and therefore resistance
Ensure wire is straight so length measurement is accurate
Ensure eyes perpendicular to scale to avoid parallax errors

Graphs:
Filament lamp:



Filament in a lamp is just a coiled up length of metal wire. It doesnt
behave as an ohmic conductor because it gets hot. Current flowing
through the lamp increases its temperature.

Ohmic conductor:




Effects of heating most metallic conductors:
Increased lattice vibrations
Increased electron collisions with atoms
Resistance increases
Drift velocity decreases

Thermistor:


Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

Warming the thermistor gives more electrons enough energy to
escape from their atoms
More charge carriers are available
Resistance is lower

LDR:





Light provides the energy that releases more electrons. More
charge carriers means a lower resistance.

Diode:




Forward bias is the direction in which current is allowed to flow
In reverse bias, the resistance of the diode is very high and the
current that flows is tiny
Most diodes require a threshold voltage in the forward direction
before they will conduct


Chanchal Lalwani Revision Notes Edexcel Physics Unit 2

2.5. Nature of light
Energy level:
An allowed/discrete quantity of energy for an electron in the atom
One of the discrete energies an electron in an atom can have
Ground state is the lowest energy level electrons can occupy

How spectral line is produced by a hot gas:
Electrons move to higher energy levels (get excited)
They then move to lower energy levels
The energy from the move is given out in the form of a photon
Only certain energy levels are possible: They re discrete
Photons have a specific energy: Difference in energy levels E =
hf = E2 E1
There are only a limited number of energy differences, and
corresponding number of frequencies

Photoelectric effect:
Electron emission starts immediately
Photons from incident light cause emission of electrons from the
surface of the metal
Photon has energy hf
Increased frequency means more energy of photon, since E= hf
Emission only occurs if photon energy is greater than or equal to
work function
One photon releases one electron One to one interaction
Greater energy of photon means greater KE of electrons, since E =
hf = work function + KEmax
KE has a maximum value because some energy may be transferred
to the metal
More intense light means more photons, therefore more electrons
emitted per second
Wave theory:
Wave energy depends on intensity
More intense li ght should give greater K. E of electrons
Energy is spread over the whole wave
If exposed for long enough photons eventually released, doesnt
happen