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Circuit Analysis:

A Systems Approach
Russell M. Mersereau
Georgia Institute of Technology
Joel R. Jackson
Georgia Institute of Technology
PEARSON
Prentice
Mall
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
Contents
FOREWORD xiii
PREFACE
xv
1 Circuit Elements and Models 1
1 -1 Introduction 1
1 -2 Network Elements 2
-2-1 Sign Conventions for Defining Element Variables 4
-2-2 Resistors 5
-2-3 Inductors 8
-2-4 Capacitors 9
-2-5 Short Circuits 10
-2-6 Open Circuits 11
-2-7 Switches 11
1-3 Independent Sources 11
1-4 Kirchhoff s Laws 12
1 -4-1 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) 13
1-4-2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) 17
1-4-3 Solving for the Element Variables in a Circuit 21
A Confusing Issue: Selecting Reference Directions 22
1-4-4 Elements Connected in Series and Parallel 25
1-4-5 Circuits with Inductors and/or Capacitors 28
1-5 Dependent Sources 29
1-6 The Role of Models 33
1-7 Chapter Summary 34
1-7-1 Important Points Introduced 34
VI
1-7-2 New Abilities Acquired 35
1-7-3 Links 35
1-8 Problems 36
1-8-1 Drill Problems 36
1-8-2 Basic Problems 39
1-8-3 Advanced Problems 45
1-8-4 Design Problems 50
2 Writing Circuit Equations 52
2-1 The Exhaustive Method for Writing a Sufficient Set of Circuit Equations 53
2-1-1 Proof of Sufficiency of the Method* 53
2-1-2 Examples of the Method 55
2-2 Supernodes and Supermeshes 58
2-2-1 Supernodes 58
2-2-2 Supermeshes 59
2-2-3 Dependent Sources 62
2-3 Solving Circuit Equations 64
2-3-1 Matrices 64
2-3-2 Matrix Operations 64
2-3-3 Representing Linear Equations in MATLAB* 66
2-3-4 Matrix Descriptions of Resistive Circuits 67
2-3-5 Superposition of Independent Sources 69
2-4 The Node Method 72
2-5 The Mesh Method 78
2-6 Conservation of Power 83
A Confusing Issue: Proper Treatment of Sources 83
2-7 Chapter Summary 87
2-7-1 Important Points Introduced 87
2-7-2 New Abilities Acquired 87
2-8 Problems 88
2-8-1 Drill Problems 88
2-8-2 Basic Problems 92
2-8-3 Advanced Problems 102
2-8-4 Design Problems 104
3 Subnetworks 106
3-1 Resistor-Only Subnetworks 107
3-1-1 Resistors in Series 107
Co n t e n t s
Contents
3-1-2 Resistors in Parallel 109
A Confusing Issue: Identifying Series and Parallel Elements 110
3-2 The Vi Characteristics of Two-Terminal Networks 116
3-3 Thevenin Equivalent Networks 120
3-3-1 Thevenin's Theorem for Resistive Networks 120
3-3-2 Norton's Theorem for Resistive Networks 125
3-3-3 Other Equivalence Relations 127
3-4 Selecting an Analysis Method 128
3-5 Graphical Analysis* 133
3-6 Chapter Summary 135
3-6-1 Important Points Introduced 135
3-6-2 New Abilities Acquired 136
3-7 Problems 136
3-7-1 Drill Problems 136
3-7-2 Basic Problems 138
3-7-3 Advanced Problems 144
3-7-4 Design Problems 149
4 Operational Amplifiers 150
4-1 The Ideal Opamp 150
4-2 The Node Method for Opamp Circuits 154
A Confusing Issue: Writing KCL Equations at the Input Nodes 155
4-3 Additional Examples of Operational-Amplifier Circuits 156
4-3-1 Noninverting Amplifier 156
4-3-2 Difference Amplifier 157
4-3-3 Summing Amplifier 158
A Confusing Issue: Opamp Output Current 159
4-3-4 Buffer Amplifiers and Loading 160
4-3-5 Voltage-Controlled Current Source 161
4-3-6 A "Negative Resistor" 162
4-3-7 Integrator 163
4-3-8 Differentiator 164
4-4 Chapter Summary 164
4-4-1 Important Points Introduced 164
4-4-2 New Abilities Acquired 165
4-5 Problems 165
4-5-1 Drill Problem 165
4-5-2 Basic Problems 165
viii Contents
4-5-3 Advanced Problems 170
4-5-4 Design Problems 175
5 Laplace Transforms 176
5-1 Some Basic Signals 178
5-1-1 Sinusoids 178
5-1-2 Exponentially Weighted Sinusoids 180
5-1-3 Switched-Exponential Signals 182
5-2 Definition of the Laplace Transform 183
5-3 Some Properties of the Laplace Transform 185
5-4 Inverse Laplace Transforms 188
5-4-1 Case 1: More Poles than Zeros 189
5-4-2 Case 2: Fewer Poles than Zeros (m > n) 192
A Confusing Issue: Using Limits to Compute Residues 197
5-4-3 Case 3: Repeated Roots 198
5-5 Chapter Summary 199
5-5-1 Important Points Introduced 199
5-5-2 New Abilities Acquired 199
5-6 Problems 199
5-6-1 Drill Problems 199
5-6-2 Basic Problems 200
5-6-3 Advanced Problems 202
6 Circuits in the Laplace Domain 204
6-1 Circuits with One Reactive Element 205
6-1-1 Differential-Equation Descriptions 205
6-1 -2 Solving Differential Equations with Exponential Inputs 208
6-1-3 Solving Differential Equations by Using Laplace Transforms 211
6-2 Circuits in the Laplace Domain 213
6-2-1 KCL in the Laplace Domain 214
6-2-2 KVL in the Laplace Domain 215
6-2-3 Element Relations in the Laplace Domain 215
A Confusing Issue: Modelling Initial Capacitor Voltages and Inductor Currents 223
6-3 Inspection Methods for First-Order Circuits with Constant Inputs 225
6-3-1 Circuit Behavior at / = oo 225
6-3-2 Circuit Behavior at t = 0 226
6-3-3 Calculating the Time Constant x 227
6-4 Impedances and Admittances 229
Contents
6-4-1 Impedances Connected in Series and Parallel 230
6-4-2 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits* 232
6-5 Systematic Analysis Methods 234
6-5-1 A Set of Sufficient Equations for Analyzing a Circuit* 234
6-5-2 Node and Mesh Methods in the Laplace Domain 237
6-5-3 Operational Amplifiers in the Laplace Domain 239
6-6 Chapter Summary 240
6-6-1 Important Points Introduced 240
6-6-2 New Abilities Acquired 241
6-7 Problems 241
6-7-1 Drill Problems 241
6-7-2 Basic Problems 244
6-7-3 Advanced Problems 249
6-7-4 Design Problems 252
7 System Functions 253
7-1 Circuits as Systems 254
7-1-1 The Input-Output Point of View 254
7-1-2 The Complete Solution of a Circuit 255
7-1-3 Circuits at Initial Rest 259
7-1-4 Impulse Responses, Poles, and Zeros 260
7-1-5 The Unit-Step Response 264
7-2 Linearity and Time Invariance 266
7-2-1 Circuits at Initial Rest as Linear Systems 266
7-2-2 Circuits at Initial Rest as Time-Invariant Systems 267
7-2-3 Exploiting Linearity and Time Invariance 268
7-3 Responses to Switched-Exponential Inputs 272
7-3-1 The General Case 273
7-3-2 Impulse Responses of First- and Second-Order Systems 274
7-4 Two Additional Circuit Descriptions* 277
7-4_ i Differential-Equation Characterization at Initial Rest 277
7-4-2 Impulse-Response Characterization 281
7-5 Chapter Summary 284
7-5-1 Important Points Introduced 284
7-5-2 New Abilities Acquired 285
7-6 Problems 285
7-6-1 Drill Problems 285
7-6-2 Basic Problems 286
Contents
7-6-3 Advanced Problems 291
7-6-4 Design Problems 294
8 Sinusoidal Input Signals 297
8-1 The Sinusoidal Steady State 298
8-1-1 Sinusoidal Signals 298
8-1-2 Physical Circuits and Mathematical Models 298
8-1-3 Responses to Real Sinusoidal Inputs 299
8-1-4 Responses to Unswitched Signals 303
8-2 Analyzing Circuits by Using Phasors 304
8-2-1 A Simple Circuit with a Complex Exponential Input 304
8-2-2 The General Case 308
8-2-3 Networks with Multiple Sources 316
8-3 Frequency-Domain Circuit Simplifications 319
8-3-1 Series and Parallel Connections 319
8-3-2 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits 321
8-3-3 The Node and Mesh Methods in the Phasor Domain 323
8-3-4 Operational-Amplifier Circuits 329
8-4 Power in the Phasor Domain 330
8-4-1 Average Power 330
8-4-2 RMS Values 331
8-4-3 Power in Circuits with Sinusoidal Excitations 332
8-5 Maximum Power Transfer 336
8-5-1 Resistive Circuits 336
8-5-2 General Circuits 337
8-6 Chapter Summary 339
8-6-1 Important Points Introduced 339
8-6-2 New Abilities Acquired 340
8-7 Problems 340
8-7-1 Drill Problems 340
8-7-2 Basic Problems 342
8-7-3 Advanced Problems 347
8-7-4 Design Problems 349
9 Frequency Responses of Circuits 351
9-1 Spectrum Representations of Periodic Signals 352
9-1-1 Spectrum of a Sum of Sinusoids 352
9-1-2 Periodic Waveforms 354
Contents
x
j
9-1-3 Fourier-Series Representations 355
9-1-4 Response of a Circuit to a Periodic Input 358
9-2 Spectrum Representations for Aperiodic Signals 362
9-2-1 The Fourier Transform 362
9-2-2 Circuit Analysis by Using Fourier Transforms 363
9-3 The System Function and the Frequency Response 366
9-3-1 Graphical Interpretation of Frequency Response 366
9-3-2 Resonance 371
9-4 Bode Plots 375
9-4-1 First-Order Systems 376
9-4-2 Second-Order Systems 378
9-4-3 Multifactor Bode Plots 379
A Confusing Issue: Normalized Forms for System Functions 382
9-5 Chapter Summary 385
9-5-1 Important Points Introduced 385
9-5-2 New Abilities Acquired 386
9-6 Problems 386
9-6-1 Drill Problems 386
9-6-2 Basic Problems 387
9-6-3 Advanced Problems 393
9-6-4 Design Problems 396
10 Filter Circuits 398
10-1 Lowpass Filters 399
10-1-1 Ideal vs. Buildable Filters 400
10-1-2 Butterworth and Chebyshev Lowpass Filters 401
10-1-3 Realizations of Lowpass Second-Order Sections That Use Operational Amplifiers 406
10-2 Transforming Basic Filters 408
10-2-1 Frequency Scaling 409
10-2-2 Lowpass-to-Highpass Transformations 410
10-2-3 Lowpass-to-Bandpass Transformations 412
10-2-4 Impedance Scaling 414
10-3 Chapter Summary 415
10-3-1 Important Points Introduced 415
10-3-2 New Abilities Acquired 415
10-4 Problems 415
10-4-1 Drill Problems 415
10-4-2 Basic Problems 416
xii Contents
10-4-3 Advanced Problems 419
10-4-4 Design Problems 421
A Review of Complex Numbers 423
A-l Definitions 423
A-2 Graphical Interpretation of Complex Numbers 424
A-3 Complex Exponentials 426
A-4 The Complex Conjugate 429
A-5 Drill Problems 429
A-6 Basic Problems 431
B Answers to Selected Basic Problems 433
INDEX 439

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