Scientific literacy plays an important role in human daily lives.

Promotion of
scientific literacy has been recognized as a major goal of science education in
the world (BouJaoude, 2002; National Research Council [NRC], 1996; Zembylas,
2002). Educators agree that scientific literacy should be nurtured as early as
possible (Barton, 1994; Bybee, 1997). Miller (2002), who has been involved in
assessing scientific literacy for over three decades, emphasizes the importance
of civic scientific literacy in a modern society that relies heavily on technology.
He believes that 21st century society requires a public with knowledge about
scientific and technological issues for the democratic process to function
properly.
Although recently the concept of scientific literacy appears to be the main
goal of science education curricular in many countries, there is no consensus
on its meaning and content. To define the scientific literacy, many science
educators as well as organizations such as National Research Council (NRC,
1996) and American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), draw
frameworks, and tried to describe the characteristics of a scientifically literate
individuals. NRC (1996) defined scientific literacy as the knowledge and
understanding of scientific concepts and processes required for personal
decision making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic
productivity (p.22). AAAS (1991) stated in Project 2061 documents that science
literacy broadly covers the connections among ideas in the natural and social
sciences, mathematics, and technology.
When it comes to actually defining scientific literacy, the discussion
becomes more complex. Some metrics focus on facts, concepts, and
vocabulary, while other definitions emphasize the scientific process and
reasoning skills (SEI, 2006 and Miller, 2006). The science education literature
demonstrates that scientific literacy is generally valued and acknowledged
among educators as a desirable student learning outcome. Furthermore, what
scientific literacy really means in terms of classroom practice and student
learning is debatable due to the inherent complexity of the term and varying
expectations of what it means for learning outcomes (Veronica et al, 2012).
Besides, Pella et al. (1966) in zdem et al. (2010) in their studies searched for
almost hundreds of publications in order to describe characteristics of
scientifically literate individual and as a result they stated that an individual who
is scientifically literate should have an understanding in ... (a) basic concepts of
science, (b) nature of science, (c) ethics that control the scientist in his [sic]
work, (d) interrelationships of science and society, (e) interrelationships of
science and the humanities, and, (f ) differences between science and
technology. (p. 206).
According to DeBoer (1991), the term science literacy was first put
forward by Paul De Hart Hurd, a member of the famous science education, in
1958 in an article titled "Science Literacy: Its meaning for American Schools". In
the article, Hurd used the term science literacy to clarify the understanding of
science and its application to social experience. Meanwhile, Hazen (2002)
makes a distinction between being able to do science and being able to use
science. He states that "scientific literacy, quite simply, is a mix of concepts,
history, and philosophy that help you understand the scientific issues of our
times. Norris and Phillips (2003), however, illustrates about science literacy
based on a classic analysis of language and philosophy in which science literacy
embodies two essential senses: the fundamental sense, and the derived sense.
The fundamental sense involves the traditions of being a learned person and
the abilities to speak, read, and write in and about science. The derived sense
involves knowing the corpus of knowledge in science. The fundamental sense
subsumes the abilities, emotional dispositions, and communications of the
current standards-based definition of science literacy, while the derived sense
subsumes the understanding and application of the big ideas of science in the
standards-based definition of science literacy including the unifying concepts
of science, the nature of science, the relationships among science, technology,
society and environment, the procedures of science, and the social relevance of
science.
Based on scientific literacy, as a general definition, should be thought as
the combination of both insights related to science and scientific knowledge, as
well as skills such as inquiry, critical thinking, problem solving and decision
making. This definition requires a scientifically literate person to be able to
understand science, the nature of scientific knowledge and the relationship of
science with society and environment, to know basic scientific concepts, laws,
theories and principles, and to use science process skills. zdem et al., (2010)
& Kyunghee Choi et al., (2011) framework stresses the importance of
communication and collaboration, systematic thinking including non routine
problem solving, the use of evidence to support claims, and information
management within the habits of mind dimension. Students need to learn how
to put ideas together and work with others to come up with novel solutions to
challenging problems.

Introduction
Our world is increasingly shaped and directed by science. We only need to read
the daily newspaper or look around our environment to see the growing
demands that are being placed on
individuals and communities to understand, engage with and take up, science
research and applications of science in the form of rapidly developing
technologies. In contemporary times it seems increasingly important to achieve
scientific literacy as an educational outcome. It may now even stand alongside
language literacy and numeracy as an essential tool for living in the twenty first
century. Scientifically literate citizens would have a general, broad and useful
understanding of science that contributes to their competence and disposition
to use science to meet the personal and social demands of their life at home, at
work and in the community (Murcia 2005). This perspective of scientifically
literate person is consistent with the definition used by the Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2006) in their Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA). It states, scientific literacy refers to an
individual's:
Scientific knowledge and use of that knowledge to identify questions,
acquire new knowledge, explain scientific phenomena and draw
evidence-based conclusions about science-related issues
Understanding of the characteristic features of science as a form of
human knowledge and enquiry
Awareness of how science and technology shape our material,
intellectual, and cultural environments
Willingness to engage in science related issues and with the Ideas of
science, as a reflective citizen, (p. 23)
PISA has contributed to our understanding and assessment of scientific literacy
in Australia. In particular, it informed the approach taken in 2003 by the
Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs
(MCEETYA) in the national sample assessment of year 6 primary science
students. All states and territories participated in the testing which involved
over 14,000 students from more than 6.50 government and non-government
schools. The test ideas used in this national program assessed outcomes that
contributed to scientific literacy rather than solely focussing on science 'facts'
and also gave children the opportunity to demonstrated their ability to carry out
Investigations in realistic situations (MCEETYA, 2004). A proficiency standard
for year 6 science students was established within a continuum of developing
scientific literacy. The proficient standard represented a critical level of
understanding without which students would be at risk of not progressing. The
proficient standard was to be the point of reference for future evaluation of
primary science In Australian schools (MCEETYA, 2003). Analyses of the 2003
year 6 science assessment suggest that approximately 58% of the students
tested nationally were at or above the proficient standard. Clearly there is a
need to consider how the science learning needs of all primary school children,
and in particular the 42% below a proficient standard, could best be met. The
priority in science education, assigned internationally and nationally by PISA
and MCEETYA is to the attainment of scientific literacy. This paper aims to
clarify what it means to be scientifically literate and suggests how we can
effectively engage primary school students in teaching and learning for
scientific literacy.

What does it mean to be scientifically literate?
As educators we need to be clear on what it means to be scientifically literate
and then what science outcomes we want our children to attain. Educational
research and classroom practice over the last 50 years have shown scientific
literacy to be more than disconnected knowledge of science terms and
procedures. It is a broader construct that includes an understanding of the
nature of science and the way science interacts with society. Contributing to
this is an understanding of the more important and enduring science concepts
(Bybee 1997, Eensham 2002, Laugksch, 2000, Miller 1983, Norris & Philips
1999, Solomon 2001).

Enduring scientific terms and concepts
Science is a rapidly developing discipline with an ever-increasing body of
knowledge. However, being scientifically literate in contemporary times may
only require an understanding of the more important and enduring science
ideas. These are the ideas and concepts that will endure rapid change and
continue to have relevance throughout at least the next decade. Eor example
the field of genetic research is progressing rapidly with events such as mapping
the human genome, stem cell research, cloning and genetically modified food.
Perhaps the more important ideas and concepts with continuing relevance in
this field would be cell structure, cell division, chromosomes, genes and DNA.
We should then question, how could we most effectively engage students with
these key ideas and concepts so that our teaching and learning practices
contribute to the development of scientific literacy?

Nature of science
An understanding of the nature of science is an integral part of scientific
literacy as it incorporates into our way of thinking, the values and assumptions
inherent in the development of scientific knowledge. The following set of
themes represents one possible view of the nature of science, which is
consistent with contemporary science practice and philosophy (Murcia
&Schibeci 1999).
Volume 53 \ Number 2 \ June 2007
1. Scientific knowledge has a temporary status and should not be accepted as
unquestionable truth.
2. Scientists study a world in which they are a part and as such their work is not
objective or value free.
3. New scientific knowledge is produced as a result of creativity and
imagination coupled with methods of scientific inquiry.
4. Science progresses through continuing research and critical questioning.
5. Science is dynamic and ongoing, not a static accumulation of information.
6. Observations of the world are made through 'coloured lenses' built up by
prior knowledge, beliefs and theories.
7. Scientists and the scientific community generally display the professional
standards of openness of mind and honesty. They are moral and ethical in their
approach to their profession. These themes emphasis that science is essentially
a dynamic, human activity that progresses through critical questioning and
continuous research coupled with imagination. This suggests that scientific
results and knowledge should be considered critically and not accepted as the
unchanging foundation of science. We should then question, how could we
most effectively engage students with the nature of science so that our teaching
and learning practices contribute to the development of scientific literacy?

Science and society
This dimension of scientific literacy refers to the application of science in daily
life, the way it is implemented and its effect on social and natural
environments. Citizens need to have the knowledge, skills and disposition to
make decisions and solve problems at the interface of science and society
(Bingle & Gaskell 1994, Kolsto 2000). This requires the ability to meaningfully
engage and critically reflect on science as it applies to social issues and public
debate. Some examples of current topical issues are sustainable energy
sources, pesticides and fertiliser use, managing water resources, increasing
green house effect, ozone depletion, logging forests, increasing soil salinity
and cloning to name just a few. Science could also be used as a resource for
making informed personal decisions on health and lifestyle issues. Examples
could include childhood immunisation, the use of antibiotics, hormone
replacement therapy, exercise and healthy eating. Engaging with science at the
interface of society requires an integrated or multidisciplinary awareness of
science as one part of the whole complexity of human social contexts that
includes political, economic, moral, ethical and religious aspects. We should
then question, how could we most effectively engage students with the
interaction of science with society so that our teaching and learning practices
contribute to the development of scientific literacy?

A framework of scientific literacy
Scientific literacy is a way of understanding or thinking about science that
influences our actions and decisions. Understanding the dimensions of
scientific literacy and the way they interact, informs our teaching and learning
practices for scientific literacy.
Figure 1, 'A Contemporary Framework', presents a concise view of scientific
literacy and should inform and help direct effective science teaching and
learning.

Scientific literacy can be thought of as a blend of these three knowledge
dimensions:
Nature of science;
Interaction of science and society and:
Enduring and important scientific terms and concepts.
Scientific literacy is clearly about KNOWING but it is also about A WAY OF
THINKING and ACTING.
Being scientifically literate requires the confidence, interest and or disposition
to use or put into action a blend of these knowledge dimensions for engaging
with science in context. As such, it requires the ability to:
Use science as a tooi for inquiry or discovery;
Use science for learning, informing or contributing to problem solving;
and.
Critically reflect on the use or role of science in context.
Figure 1. A Contemporary Framework for scientific literacy

How can we teach for scientific literacy in the primary years?
This framework should assist in clarifying the construct of scientific literacy and
support the laying down of strong foundations in the compulsory years of
science education. It demonstrates the interaction of knowledge dimensions
when thinking and acting scientifically. In particular, when focussed on the
primary years, it can highlight opportunities for building onto children's innate
curiosity about their natural environment and the world around them. Natural
curiosity could be a
motivation for learning important foundational habits such as investigating,
observing, measuring, reasoning from evidence, using scientific language to
describe experiences and making informed decisions based on scientific ideas.
Making informed decisions requires children to build foundational
understandings of the dynamic, creative and ultimately tentative nature of
scientific research findings and knowledge. They would need to develop critical
thinking and questioning skills in order to appreciate the role science can take
in the solution of social or personal problems or dilemmas. One possible
answer to the question, 'how could we most effectively engage students with
the various dimensions of this framework so that our teaching and learning
practices contribute to the development of scientific literacy', could be found in
student-centered inquiry driven by real world contexts. This approach would
require the blending of knowledge types from within the discipline and from
across disciplines as students think and act in a scientific way.

Modelling the dynamic nature of scientific knowledge
An understanding of the three dimensions of scientific literacy and the way they
interact and inform our thinking and acting; would support our facilitation of
student-centered learning. Clearly as teachers, we need to be robust in our
handling of the science curricula and its associated materials. This does not
mean, however, that we can or need to recall all the 'facts' but that we are open
to acknowledging the need to learn and then demonstrate the confidence to
find out. Given the dynamic nature of science we may at times find ourselves at
the same level of initial knowledge as the children in our classrooms. As a
result we may work through the learning experience with the children, and at
times, at an even slower pace. Science is not a collection of static facts and as
such we should be confident to model for students an interest in learning; and
then the process of finding out, critically evaluating and taking meaning back to
the original context, question or problem. These abilities and understandings
are integral to scientific literacy.

Inquiring about science in every day life
Reading and interpreting non-fiction science texts would be an integral part of
context driven learning for scientific literacy that could also support the
curriculum priorities of literacy and numeracy. For example, children could be
given opportunities to read simple newspaper articles about advances in
science or applications of science in everyday life. Science in the media can
provide a valuable stimulus for inquiry as it often demonstrates the dynamic
nature of scientific knowledge and the need for critical questioning. The issues
presented in newspaper reports of science are current and can provide a
relevant and meaningful context in which students can explore science ideas;
it's nature, methods and interaction with society. In these contexts students
could build an awareness of the role of critical questioning in evaluating
information and any claims made by the author. This is an important aspect
children would develop and use their scientific literacy skills and
understandings as they questioned the collection and interpretation of data and
the way in which it is used to support the researchers' conclusion. Engaging
students with science in the news could also provide the stimulus for classroom
discussion about the ethical and moral dilemmas that often arise at the
interface of science with society (Murcia 2005). In these social contexts, critical
thinking skills are a component of scientific literacy that requires students to
engage with not only the content of science but also the values and
assumptions at its foundation.

Integrating learning
Engaging students' attention, interest and desire to know more about every day
examples of science interacting with society, is an important step to developing
scientific literacy. Real world investigations and learning driven by contexts of
interest to students provide opportunities for developing scientific literacy, as
they encourage children to see the various forms of knowledge from different
disciplines relating and coming together to form an understanding of the
whole. A student-centered approach could be a catalyst for the integration of
science, mathematics and literacy content and skills. Through connected and
interrelated learning activities we can be explicit about the values and
assumptions underlying the development of scientific knowledge and the way
science interacts with society. Providing opportunities for students to undertake
extended science projects motivated by their interest in real world contexts
would give students experience in scientific inquiry and provide natural
opportunities for integrated learning. Extended projects
could require students to collect and interpret information, learn key science
content, evaluate evidence and then use evidence to support their own
argument or conclusion. Clearly this would not happen in a single science
lesson and as such requires us to think beyond content driven curriculum
and/or a plethora of hands on activities. An integrated approach to teaching for
scientific literacy takes time. Time is needed for reading, exploring, asking
questions, talking to clarify thinking, testing ideas, making errors and trying
again. When grappling with new contexts and unfamiliar ideas, time is needed
for learning the science and in some situations the mathematics required to
deal with any given question or problem.

Focussing on the quality of the understanding
Clearly it does not make sense to keep adding more science content to our
already full science curriculum and the relevance of doing so is questionable.
Reducing the emphasis traditionally given in classrooms to the teaching of
science terms and concepts may be a solution to handling this dynamic body of
knowledge. At the foundation of science there is a set of major ideas and
concepts about the world in which we live, for example the particle model of
matter, structure of the solar system, interconnected nature of ecosystems,
cells, genes and inheritance, energy and energy conservation, life, diversity and
evolution, natural and processes materials, physical and chemical changes and
so on (Western Australian Curriculum Framework, 1998). These ideas and
concepts should be prominent within our science classrooms but focussing on
in-depth detail or the 'facts' could be overwhelming, intimidating and even
detracting from the development of a real understanding of the scientific
enterprise. This view is well captured in the metaphor it is impossible
to see the whole building if we focus too closely on the individual bricks. To
develop children's scientific literacy we should be concentrating on the quality
of understanding rather than the quantity of information presented. The
relevant content could come out of children's inquiry into a context. This places
children at the center of the learning and provides opportunities facilitated by
teachers, for children to construct ideas and shape prior knowledge and
understandings.

How is this approach to teaching science different?
Critical reflection on our prior experiences of science teaching and learning
would, for many educators, highlight shifts in our thinking about the purpose
and practice of science education. Historically, compulsory science education
had been focused on preparing students for future study and work in science
based disciplines. However, with the growing scientific demands of life in this
century our purpose has increasingly become the attainment of scientific
literacy for all citizens. Reflecting on our science teaching and learning, Table 1
compares a traditional view of science teaching with the contemporary view
presented through this paper This comparison is not intended to suggest that
there are only two views of science teaching but rather, it aims to provoke
reflection amongst educators on the emphasis that should be given to various
practices if our goal is to teach for scientific literacy.

Conclusion
The framework proposed in this paper should contribute clarity to the concept
of scientific literacy and as such increase its utility. It suggests that to be
scientifically literate a child requires knowledge of important and enduring
science concepts coupled with an understanding of the nature of science and
an awareness of the relationship of science with society. With shared
understanding educators can reflect on the scientific demands of life in the
21st century and explore the effectiveness of strategies such as modelling the
dynamic nature of science and context driven integrated learning for
developing scientific literacy in the Primary classroom.