1.

0 INTRODUCTION
A granular soil particle within the fluvial environment is subject to forces that
tend to dislodge it from the river bed or bank due to the motive force of the
water. The matter is further complicated by the construction of a bridge across
the river. The construction of a bridge tends to contract the flow (abutment
constriction and pier constriction). Due to the headloss imposed on the flow by
the structure the water backs up to compensate for the energy loss and as it
passes in between the piers and or the pier abutment constriction its
velocity increases. The increased velocity further enhances erosion (due to
increase bed shear stresses) of soil around and within the vicinity of the
structure, thus a bridge constructed across a watercourse tends to affect the
fluvial environment. The total scour at a bridge is composed of

a) Local scour at the piers and abutments
b) Contraction scour at the bridge and
c) Long term degradation of the river

Furthermore the fluvial environment tends to be dynamic. This temporal
variation in the stability of the fluvial environment tends to result in lateral
stream migration as the stream or river alternates between different equilibria
which are again disturbed due to changes in the geomorphic characteristics of
the river (sinuosity, stream size, meandering etc), hydraulic characteristics
(flood flows and stages, flood frequencies etc) and catchment land use
characteristics (deforestation, dam construction etc). The assessments of the
parameters contributing to total scour are made individually.

2.0 LOCAL SCOUR
As the flow is contracted between the bridge piers and or embankments local
acceleration of the flow occurs and vortices are formed on the upstream and
downstream end of the obstruction. This local acceleration and the formation
of vortices tend to result in a scour termed local scour which occurs within the
immediate locale of the abutment and piers.


2.1 Local Scour Bridge Piers

The magnitude and development of local scour is a function of the relative
configuration of the of the piers to the direction of flow. Furthermore the shape
of the piers tends to affect the magnitude and development of local scour.
Hydro-dynamically shaped piers tend to reduce or eliminate the magnitude of
local scour. The size and relative spacing of the piers further enhances or
eliminates the magnitude of pier and abutment local scour. The ratio of the
relevant flow depth to the pier width determines where scour is typically
deepest, that is at the face of the pier or at the flank of the pier.

2.1.1 Bridge Pier Size
Piers are classified as either narrow piers, transition piers or wide piers
depending on the ratio of the relevant flow depth to the pier width.

Narrow Piers
When the ratio of the relevant flow depth to the pier width is greater than 1.4
the piers are classified as narrow (Department of Transport and Main Roads,
2013). The evolution of scour at a narrow pier is given as follows.
(Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013)

flow impact against the pier face, producing a down-flow and an up-
flow with roller;
flow converging, contracting, then diverging;
the generation, transport and dissipation of large-scale turbulence
structures (macro-turbulence) at the base of the pier-foundation
junction (commonly termed the horseshoe vortex); and
Detaching shear layer at each pier flank; with wake vortices convected
through the pier's wake.





Transition Piers
When the ratio of the relevant flow depth to the pier width varies with in 0.2
and 1.4 the piers are classified as transition piers (Department of Transport
and Main Roads, 2013).

Wide Piers
When the ratio of the relevant flow depth to the pier width is less than 0.2 1.4
the piers are classified as wide piers (Department of Transport and Main
Roads, 2013). For wide piers, the flow approaching the pier decelerates,
turns, and flows laterally along the pier face before contracting and passing
around the sides of the pier. The down-flow at the pier face is weakly
developed, and only slightly erodes the foundation at the piers centre.
Erosive turbulence structures now principally comprise wake vortices. Scour
is deepest along the pier flanks. (Department of Transport and Main Roads,
2013).
For a given flow depth, greater pier width increases flow blockage and
therefore causes more of the approach flow to be swept laterally along the
pier face than around the pier's flanks. Increased blockage modifies the lateral
distribution of approach flow over a longer distance upstream of a pier. The
flow field around each side of a wide pier is essentially the same as those at
some types of abutment. (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013).

2.1 Local Scour Bridge Abutments
When the abutments are placed within the flow they are vulnerable to scour
due to the contraction of the flow around the abutments. Local scour on bridge
abutments is also attributed to the lateral migration of the river overtopping of
the abutments during abnormal flooding conditions.

3.0 CONTRACTION SCOUR
The presents of a structure induces the vertical contraction of the flow. The
velocity of the flow subsequently increases in accordance with the low of
continuity. The increase velocity increases the bed shear stress such that
more materials is eroded. Thus considering a flow carrying a given sediment
concentration as it enters the zone of contraction the increased erosion
results in the concentration of the load increasing with a net effect that the bed
is lowered and a subsequent increase in flow area results. An equilibrium
state is then reached such that the velocity returns to equilibrium and the bed
shear stresses are reduced. Contraction scour is further divided into
Clearwater scour and live bed scour.

3.1 Contraction Scour Clearwater Scour
When the velocity of the water is less than the critical scour velocity of the
sediment it can be considered that there is no sediment within the flow
available for deposition with the river bed. Thus considering the concentration
differential the water tends to take up material into suspension thus a net
movement of material occurs from the river bed to the water with a
subsequent lowering of the river bed.
Put equation here

3.2 Contraction Scour Live Bed Scour
Live-bed contraction scour occurs at a bridge when there is transport of bed
material in the upstream reach into the bridge cross section. Therefore the
stream velocity is greater than the critical velocity of the bed material With
live-bed contraction scour the area of the contracted section increases until
sediment transport out of the contracted section equals the sediment
transported in. (Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2013).
Live-bed contraction scour is typically cyclical and due to the high suspended
sediment load, more abrasive. For example, the bed scours away during the
rising stage of a runoff event and fills on the falling stage. The cyclic nature of
contraction scour causes difficulties in determining contraction scour depths
after a flood. As such, this is why scour depths need to be calculated and why
post flood inspections are necessary. (Department of Transport and Main
Roads, 2013).
Put equation here
3.3 LONG TERM BED DEGRADATION

Factors affecting Scour

2.0 METHODS OF SCOUR ASSESMENT
3.0 BRIDGE SCOUR COUNTERMESURES
4.0 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
5.0 CONCLUSIONS