INFORMAL FALLACIES

FALLACIES IN GENERAL
A fallacy is a defect in an argument that consists in something other than the false premises alone. Fallacies are usually
divided into two groups: formal and informal. A formal fallacy is one that may be identified by merely examining the form or
structure of an argument. Informal fallaciesare those that can be detected only by examining the content of the argument.
Informal fallacies can be further classified as Fallacies of Ambiguities, Relevance, and Insufficient Evidence.

FALLACY OF AMBIGUITY
An ambiguous word, phrase, or sentence is one that has two or more distinct meanings. The inferential relationship between the
propositions included in a single argument will be sure to hold only if we are careful to employ exactly the same meaning in each
of them. The fallacies of ambiguity all involve a confusion of two or more different senses
(http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e06c.htm).

1. EQUIVOCATION
using a term in its different sense/meaning and making it appear to have only one meaning
Example:Congressmen can create or abolish laws. The law of supply and demand is a law. Therefore, congressmen can
abolish the law of supply and demand.

2. AMPHIBOLY
using a phrase whose meaning is ambiguous due to its grammatical construction
Example:To be repaired: the rocking chair of an old lady with two broken legs

3. IMPROPER ACCENT
misleading people by placing improper emphasis on a word, phrase or a particular aspect of an issue or claim
Example:To be repaired: the rocking chair of an old lady with two broken legs.

FALLACY OF INSUFFICIENT EVIDENCE
Fallacies of insufficient evidence are mistakes in reasoning that occur because the premises, though logically relevant to the
conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence to support the conclusion.

4. ACCIDENT
applying a general rule to a particular case when circumstances suggest that an exception to the rule should apply
Example:We have to be generous to others. Therefore, during examination we have to share our answers with our seatmate
to show that we are generous.

5. HASTY GENERALIZATION
Drawing a general conclusion from insufficient particular cases
Example:Singapore, Japan, and Great Britain adopted a parliamentary government and became politically and economically
stable. Therefore, any country that adopts a parliamentary government will be politically and economically
stable.

6. APPEAL TO IGNORANCE
asserting a claim on the basis that it has not been proven false, or false on the basis that it has not been proven to be true
Example:I believe that there are living creatures in Mars called Martians. Nobody can furnish evidence to disprove my
contention, so it must be true.

FALLACY OF RELEVANCE`
Fallacies of relevance are mistakes in reasoning that occur because the premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion.

7. BEGGING THE QUESTION (PETITIO PRINCIPII)
fails to prove anything because it somehow takes for granted what it is supposed to prove
premise of the original argument is simply a restatement of the conclusion
Example:Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, the defendant is obviously guilty of murder because he is a killer, as several
witnesses testified, the attorney said.

8. ATTACKING THE PERSON(ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM)
Abusive
discrediting the authority of the speaker while deviating from the real issue
Example:You should not listen to her opinion. She has been a drug-addict and has also been arrested due to theft.

Circumstantial
ignoring the issue by citing the circumstances of another person
Example:We should ignore the opposition of the bishops regarding the use of contraceptives. They neither marry nor give
birth!

9. APPEAL TO POPULARITY(ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM)
assuming that the conclusion is proven because people in general believe it to be true.
Example:It is believed by a lot of people, especially those from the provinces that mananangal do exist. Therefore,
manananggal exists!

10. APPEAL TO PITY(ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM)
persuading people by evoking feelings of compassion and sympathy when such feelings, however understandable, are not
logically relevant to the arguers conclusion
Example:It is just right to give this student a passing mark. You see, she is troubled by serious family problems at present. Her
family cant afford her education; its her aunt who pays her tuition fee. If she fails in this subject, she might not
be supported anymore by her aunt.

11. FALSE CAUSE(POST HOC ERGO, PROPTER HOC)
literally means after this, therefore because of this
falsely assuming that because events happened after another event, therefore, the former event must have been caused by
the latter event
Example:Carol fitted her gown the night before her wedding; thats why the wedding was called of.

12. APPEAL TO IMPROPER AUTHORITY(ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM)
improper appeal made to alleged expert advice
Example:Karen Davila, the well-known news anchor, says that Critical Thinking as a subject should be removed from the
CHED curriculum. I believe her since the word of such a great person shouldnt be disputed.

13. APPEAL TO FORCE(ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM)
pursuing ones point of issue using a threat
Example:A teacher to the student: You should agree with what I am saying, otherwise I will certainly give you a failing
grade.

14. COMPLEX QUESTION
Asking question in which some presuppositions are buried in that question
Example:Have you already stopped gambling?

15. FALSE DILEMMA
arises when the premise of an argument presents us with choice between two alternatives and assumes that they are
exhaustive when in fact they are not
Example:Either you use Rexona deodorant or you risk the chance of perspiration odor. Surely you dont want to risk the
chance of perspiration odor. Therefore, you have to use Rexona deodorant.

16. FALSE ANALOGY
drawing a comparison between two or more things where a significant difference exists between them
Example:We allow physicians to look up a difficult case in medical books. We agree that lawyers can consult law books when
dealing with a legal problem. Students, therefore, who are taking a difficult examination should also be allowed
to use their textbooks.