Arctic - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Location of the Arctic
Artificially coloured topographical

map of the Arctic region
MODIS image of the Arctic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Arctic (/rktk/ or /rtk/) is a polar region located at the
northernmost part of the Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean
and parts of Canada, Russia, the United States (Alaska), Denmark
(Greenland), Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. The Arctic region
consists of a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded by treeless permafrost.
The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (66 33'N), the
approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Alternatively,
it can be defined as the region where the average temperature for the
warmest month (July) is below 10 C (50 F); the northernmost tree line
roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.
[1][2]
Socially and politically, the Arctic region includes the northern
territories of the eight Arctic states, although by natural science
definitions much of this territory is considered subarctic. The Arctic
region is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the
region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and
extreme conditions. In recent years the extent of the sea ice has declined.
[3][4]
Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice,
[5]
zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land
animals, plants and human societies.
1 Etymology
2 Climate
3 Flora and fauna
3.1 Plants
3.2 Animals
4 Natural resources
5 Paleo-history
6 Indigenous population
7 International cooperation and politics
7.1 Territorial claims
7.2 Exploration
7.3 Pollution
7.4 Preservation
8 Climate change
9 Arctic waters
Arctic - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic
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10 Arctic lands
11 See also
12 References
13 Bibliography
14 Further reading
15 External links
The word Arctic comes from the Greek (arktikos), "near the Bear, northern"
[6]
and that from the word
(arktos), meaning bear.
[7]
The name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear",
which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little
Bear", which contains Polaris, the Pole Star, also known as the North Star.
[8]
The Arctic's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation mostly comes in the form
of snow. The Arctic's annual precipitation is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High
winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can be as
low as 40 C (40 F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately 68 C (90 F). Coastal Arctic
climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls
than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea
ice shrinkage and Arctic methane release.
Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 35 mi (56 km) per decade during the past 30
years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is
currently shrinking.
[9]
Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss. There is a large
variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in
September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near-complete
to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100.
[3]
Plants
Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all
grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available
for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and
small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy
available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance,
productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs
are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the
coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses
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Muskox
Marine fossils in Canadian Arctic
predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the arctic poppy).
Animals
Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and
caribou. They are preyed on by the Snowy owl, Arctic fox and wolf. The
polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life
from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to
the colder regions. Other land animals include wolverines, ermines, and
Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walrus, and
several species of cetaceanbaleen whales and also narwhals, killer
whales and belugas.
The Arctic includes sizable natural resources (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and if the subarctic is
included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant
new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on the increase.
The Arctic is one of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in
preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital
habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare
reproduction places of the animals that are characteristic to the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's
water supply.
During the Cretaceous, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only
a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth.
Animals such as Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and
Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the
summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when the
winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst
dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as Muttaburrasaurus of
Australia.
The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool
tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BC. AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the
Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture.
[10][11]
The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the
next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and
economic changes during the period of 1050550 BC. With the exception of the Quebec/Labrador peninsula,
the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 AD.
[12]
Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that Dorset
culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of
the 20th century.
[13]
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Polar bears on the sea ice of the
Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole.
USS Honolulu pictured.
Dorset/Thule culture transition dates around the 9th10th centuries. Scientists theorize that there may have been
cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule
may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture.
[14]
Others believe the
Thule displaced the Dorset. By 1300, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture,
had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century. Over time, the Inuit
have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, Russia and the United States.
[15]
Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Buryat, Chukchi, Evenks, Inupiat, Khanty, Koryaks,
Nenets, Sami, Yukaghir, and Yupik, who still refer to themselves as Eskimo which means "snowshoe netters",
not "raw meat eaters" as it is sometimes mistakenly translated.
[16]
The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Denmark (Greenland & The Faroe
Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA) are all
members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six
indigenous populations. The Council operates on consensus basis,
mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary
or resource disputes.
Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned
about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and
environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements
regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.
Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort,
evidenced perhaps most notably by the International Polar Year. The
International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the
Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.
Territorial claims
No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding
Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and
the United States are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) economic zone around their coasts.
Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make
claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone.
[17]
Due to this, Norway (which
ratified the convention in 1996),
[18]
Russia (ratified in 1997),
[18]
Canada (ratified in 2003)
[18]
and Denmark
(ratified in 2004)
[18]
launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should
belong to their territories.
On August 2, 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the
Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The
mission was a scientific expedition, but the flag-placing during Arktika 2007, raised concerns of a race for
control of the Arctic's vast petroleum resources.
[19]
Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met
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Long-range pollution pathways to the
Arctic
in Ilulissat, Greenland on May 28, 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat
Declaration,
[20][21]
blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean,"
and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."
[22]
As of 2012, Denmark is claiming the continental shelf between Greenland and the North Pole.
[23]
The Russian
Federation is claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but confined to its sector of the
Arctic.
Exploration
Since 1937, the whole Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice
stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements
on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.
[24]
Pollution
The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain
ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious
threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the
prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout
region for long-range transport pollutants, and in some places the
concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An
example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly
blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the
bioaccumulation of PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife
and people.
Preservation
There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at the Rio
Earth Summit, on June 21, 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic protection. The initial
focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil
drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.
[25]
The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of global warming, as has become apparent in the melting sea
ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average,
[28]
resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic
shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial
rise in sea levels worldwide.
[29]
The climate models on which the IPCC report Nr.4 is based give a range of
predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, showing near-complete to complete loss in September anywhere from 2040 to
some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in
September by the year 2100.
[3]
More recently, the Catlin Arctic Survey concluded that summer ice loss would
occur around 2029.
[30][31]
It has been apparent though since 2007, that those models grossly underestimate sea
ice loss.
[32]
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Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007
compared to 2005 and compared to
19792000 average
The development of Arctic sea ice
area as measured with satellites.
[26]
The development of Arctic sea ice
volume as estimated by measurement
corrected numerical simulation shows
probability of total sea ice loss in
summer for the near future.
[27]
As can be seen in the two plot at the right, since about 1995 to 2000, all
three size numbers of the Arctic sea ice shield (extent, area and volume)
are decreasing in an accelerated way. This downward movement is
modulated by statistical variations, which lead to considerable media
attention, when a new record has been reached.
Concerning melting records, 2012 was a productive year, thus
corroborating the tendency of the past decade. This may have been
furthered by a strong summer storm cyclone, a rare event in the Arctic,
which spread the already very thin ice and caused mixing of the cold
surface waters with deeper warmer water layers. According to the
University of Bremen, in September 2011 the Arctic ice cap was smaller
than ever recorded (the satellite measurements started in the 1970s).
[33][34]
Arctic ice is declining in area and thinning. Arctic temperatures
have risen more than twice as fast as the global average over the past
half century. The speed of change has shocked scientists. If current
trends continue, a largely ice-free Arctic in the summer is likely within
30 years up to 40 years earlier than was anticipated by the IPCC
Fourth Assessment Report.
[35]
As the volume of sea ice until recently could not be measured by remote
sensing as easy as its extent, numerical models have been made to
estimate the ice thickness field between known points, which then is
summed up to yield ice volume. The resulting volume over time reveals
a much stronger loss of ice than ice extent studies suggest.
[27]
The current Arctic shrinkage is leading to fears of Arctic methane
release.
[36]
Release of methane stored in permafrost could cause abrupt
and severe global warming,
[37]
as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.
On millennial time-scales, decomposition of methane hydrates in the
Arctic seabed could also amplify global warming. Previous methane
release events have been linked to the great dying, a mass extinction
event at the boundary of the Permian and Triassic, and the Paleocene
Eocene Thermal Maximum, in which temperatures abruptly increased.
Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the
Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting
of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping routes through
the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that
the Arctic region will become a prime trade route.
[38]
In addition, it is
believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which
may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.
[39]
These factors
have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters
of the Arctic.
[40][41][42][43]
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Arctic Report Card
[44]
presents annually updated,
peer-reviewed information on recent observations of environmental conditions in the Arctic relative to historical
records.
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Eidsfjord in Vesterlen, Norway is
250 km (160 mi) inside the Arctic
Circle, but the comparatively
temperate Norwegian sea gives a
mean annual temperature of 4 C
(39 F) and a three-month summer
above 10C.
[45]
Arctic Ocean
Baffin Bay
Beaufort Sea
Barents Sea
Bering Sea
Bering Strait
Chukchi Sea
Davis Strait
Denmark Strait
East Siberian
Sea
Greenland Sea
Hudson Bay
Kara Sea
Laptev Sea
Nares Strait
Norwegian Sea
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Geographic Designation National Affiliation Designation
Alaska United States State
Aleutian Islands United States Alaskan Archipelago
Arkhangelsk Oblast Russia Federal subject
Canadian Arctic Archipelago Canada Canadian Archipelago
Diomede Island (Big) Russia Island
Diomede Island (Little) United States Island
Finnmark Norway County
Franz Josef Land Russia Federal subject archipelago
Greenland Denmark Autonomous country
Grmsey Iceland Island
Jan Mayen Norway Island
Lapland Finland Region
Lapland Sweden Province
New Siberian Islands Russia Archipelago
Nordland Norway County
Norrbotten Sweden Province
Northwest Territories Canada Territory
Novaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago
Nunavik Canada Northern part of Quebec
Nunavut Canada Territory
Russian Arctic islands Russia Islands
Spmi Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia Fennoscandia region
Sakha Republic Russia Federal subject
Severnaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago
Siberia Russia Region
Svalbard Norway Governor of Svalbard archipelago
Troms Norway County
Yukon Canada Territory
Wrangel Island Russia Zapovednik (nature reserve)
Poverty in the Arctic
List of countries by northernmost point
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^ Halpin, Tony. "Russia stakes its claim on North Pole in underwater search for oil". (http://www.timesonline.co.uk
/tol/news/world/europe/article2155477.ece) Times Online. July 28, 2007.
41.
^ "Arctic melt stuns scientists" (http://www.webcastr.com/videos/news/arctic-melt-stuns-scientists.html). CBS News.
2007-10-09.
42.
^ "Conference could mark start of Arctic power struggle" (http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world
/story.html?id=d0135cd8-c15a-48a3-9579-0df5f8e185c1). Canada.com. 2008-05-28.
43.
^ Arctic Report Card (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/reportcard/). Arctic.noaa.gov. Retrieved on 2011-10-18. 44.
^ Stokmarknes in Vesterlen 19611990 average (http://retro.met.no/observasjoner/nordland
/normaler_for_kommune_1866.html?kommuner). Retro.met.no (2008-01-28). Retrieved on 2011-10-18.
45.
Gibbon, Guy E.; Kenneth M. Ames (1998). Archaeology of prehistoric native America: an encyclopedia
(http://books.google.com/?id=_0u2y_SVnmoC&pg=PA29). Volume 1537 of Garland reference library of
the humanities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8153-0725-X.
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Sperry, Armstrong (1957). All About the Arctic and Antarctic. Random House. LCCN 57-7518
(http://lccn.loc.gov/57-7518) Check | l ccn=value (help).
"Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic" (http://acdis.illinois.edu/publications/207/publication-
globalsecurityclimatechangeandthearctic.html) 24-page special journal issue (fall 2009), Swords and
Ploughshares, Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University
of Illinois
The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic
Hydrocarbons (http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Aug2007-
TheBattleforthenextenergyfrontier-ShamilYenikeyeff-and-TimothyFentonKrysiek.pdf), by Shamil
Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek, Oxford Energy Comment, Oxford Institute for
Energy Studies, August 2007
GLOBIO Human Impact maps (http://www.globio.info/region/polar/#arctic) Report on human impacts on
the Arctic
Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, eds. Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to
International Polar Year Science. (http://www.sil.si.edu/smithsoniancontributions/proceedings
/sc_RecordSingle.cfm?series=IPY&toplevel=1) Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly
Press, 2009.
Kpyl, Juha & Mikkola, Harri: The Global Arctic: The Growing Arctic Interests of Russia, China, the
United States and the European Union (http://www.fiia.fi/en/publication/347/the_global_arctic/) FIIA
Briefing Paper 133, August 2013, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs (http://www.fiia.fi/en/).
Arctic Report Card (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov)
International Arctic Research Center (http://www.iarc.uaf.edu)
Arctic Theme Page (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov) Comprehensive Arctic Resource from NOAA.
WWF International Arctic Programme (http://www.panda.org/arctic) Arctic environment and
conservation information
Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem (http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov) Current state of the Bering Sea
Climate and Ecosystem. Comprehensive resource on the Bering Sea with viewable oceanographic,
atmospheric, climatic, biological and fisheries data with ecosystem relevance, recent trends, essays on
key Bering Sea issues, maps, photos, animals and more. From NOAA.
Toxoplasma gondii in the Subarctic and Arctic (http://www.actavetscand.com/content/pdf/1751-0147-52-
S1-S7.pdf)
Protecting U.S. Sovereignty: Coast Guard Operations in the Arctic: Hearing before the Subcommittee on
Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, House
of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, First Session, December 1, 2011 (http://purl.fdlp.gov
12 of 14 6/20/2014 2:56 AM
/GPO/gpo23245)
Maps
Arctic Environmental Atlas (http://maps.grida.no/arctic) Circum-Arctic interactive map, with multiple
layers of information
Interactive Satellite Map (http://www.arctic.io/observations/) with daily update (true color/infrared)
Media
The Emerging Arctic (http://www.cfr.org/arctic/emerging-arctic/p32620#!/) An Infoguide from the
Council on Foreign Relations
"Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic" (http://acdis.illinois.edu/newsarchive/newsitem-
VideoGlobalSecurityClimateChangeandtheArctic.html) streaming video of November 2009 symposium
at the University of Illinois
Implications of an Ice-Free Arctic for Global Security (http://acdis.illinois.edu/newsarchive/newsitem-
ImplicationsofanIceFreeArcticforGlobalSecurity.html) November 2009 radio interview with Professor
Klaus Dodds (Royal Holloway, University of London)
The Canadian Museum of Civilization The Story of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 19131918
(http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/cae/indexe.shtml)
UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics library (http://maps.grida.no/go/searchRegion/regionid
/geoarctic) Information resources from the UN Environment programme
Arctic Institute of North America Digital Library (http://contentdm.ucalgary.ca
/cdm4/browse.php?CISOROOT=/aina3) Over 8000 photographs dating from the late 19th century
through the 20th century.
euroarctic.com (http://www.euroarctic.com/) News service from the Barents region provided by
Norwegian Broadcasting Corp (NRK), Swedish Radio (SR) and STBC Murman.
arcticfocus.com (http://www.arcticfocus.com/) Independent News service covering Arctic region with
daily updates on environment, Arctic disputes and business
Vital Arctic Graphics (http://www.vitalgraphics.net/arctic.cfm) Overview and case studies of the Arctic
environment and the Arctic Indigenous Peoples.
Arctic and Taiga Canadian Atlas (http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=artic&
lang=En)
Scientific Facts on Arctic Climate Change (http://www.greenfacts.org/en/arctic-climate-change
/index.htm)
PolarTREC (http://www.polartrec.com) PolarTREC-Teachers and Researchers Exploring and
Collaborating
Arctic Change (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/): Information on the present state of Arctic ecosystems
and climate, presented in historical context (from NOAA, updated regularly)
13 of 14 6/20/2014 2:56 AM
Monthly Sea Ice Outlook (http://www.arcus.org/search/seaiceoutlook/)
UN Environment Programme Key Polar Centre at UNEP/GRID-Arendal (http://polar.grida.no/)
Arctic Geobotanical Atlas, University of Alaska Fairbanks (http://www.arcticatlas.org)
Polar Discovery (http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/)
Arctic Transform (http://www.arctic-transform.eu/) Transatlantic Policy Options for Supporting
Adaptation in the Marine Arctic
ArcticStat Circumpolar Database (http://www.arcticstat.org/)
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Categories: Arctic Polar regions of the Earth
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Location of the Arctic

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