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Leak/Level
A Dozen Ways to Measure Fluid Level and How They Work
December 1, 2004
By: Kevin Hambrice, K-TEK Corp., Henry Hopper, K-TEK Corp.
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The demands of sophisticated automated processing systems, the need for ever-tighter process control, and an increasingly stringent regulatory
environment drive process engineers to seek more precise and reliable level measurement systems. Improved level measurement accuracy
makes it possible to reduce chemical-process variability, resulting in higher product quality, reduced cost, and less waste. Regulations,
especially those governing electronic records, set stringent requirements for accuracy, reliability, and electronic reporting. The newer level
measurement technologies help meet these requirements.
Level Measurement Technology in Transition
The simplest and oldest industrial level measuring device is, of course, the sight glass. A manual approach to measurement, sight glasses have
always had a number of limitations. The material used for its transparency can suffer catastrophic failure, with ensuing environmental insult,
hazardous conditions for personnel, and/or fire and explosion. Seals are prone to leak, and buildup, if present, obscures the visible level. It can
be stated without reservation that conventional sight glasses are the weakest link of any installation. They are therefore being rapidly replaced
by more advanced technologies.
Other level-detection devices include those based on specific gravity, the physical property most commonly used to sense the level surface. A
simple float having a specific gravity between those of the process fluid and the headspace vapor will float at the surface, accurately following
its rises and falls. Hydrostatic head measurements have also been widely used to infer level.
When more complex physical principles are involved, emerging technologies often use computers to perform the calculations. This requires
sending data in a machine-readable format from the sensor to the control or monitoring system. Useful transducer output signal formats for
computer automation are current loops, analog voltages, and digital signals. Analog voltages are simple to set up and deal with, but may have
serious noise and interference issues. 4-20 mA current loops (where the loop current varies with the level measurement) are the most common
output mechanism today. Current loops can carry signals over longer distances with less degradation. Digital signals coded in any of a number
of protocols (e.g., Foundation Fieldbus, Hart, Honeywell DE, Profibus, and RS-232) are the most robust, but the older technologies such as RS-
232 can handle only limited distances. New wireless capabilities can be found in the latest transmitters' signals, allowing them to be sent over
tremendous distances with virtually no degradation.
As for the more advanced measurement technologies (e.g., ultrasonic, radar, and laser), the more sophisticated digital encoding formats require
digital computer intelligence to format the codes. Combining this requirement with the need for advanced communication capabilities and
digital calibration schemes explains the trend toward embedding microprocessor-based computers in virtually all level measurement products
(see Figure 1).
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Figure 2. Displacement level gauges
operate on Archimedes' principle. The
force needed to support a column of
material (displacer) decreases by the
weight of the process fluid displaced. A
force transducer measures the support
force and reports it as an analog signal.
Figure 3. Bubblers sense process fluid depth
by measuring the hydrostatic pressure near
the bottom of the storage vessel.
Figure 1. Level measurement determines the position of the
level relative to the top or bottom of the process fluid storage
vessel. A variety of technologies can be used, determined by
the characteristics of the fluid and its process conditions.
Established Level-Sensing Technologies
Throughout this article we will assume the density of the vapor in the headspace (typically air) to be negligible compared with that of the
process fluid. We will assume also that there is only one, uniform process fluid in the tank. Some of these technologies can be used for
multilevel applications where two or more immiscible fluids share a vessel.
Fl oats. Floats work on the simple principle of placing a buoyant object with a specific gravity intermediate between those of the process fluid
and the headspace vapor into the tank, then attaching a mechanical device to read out its position. The float sinks to the bottom of the
headspace vapor and floats on top of the process fluid. While the float itself is a basic solution to the problem of locating a liquid's surface,
reading a float's position (i.e., making an actual level measurement) is still problematic. Early float systems used mechanical components such as
cables, tapes, pulleys, and gears to communicate level. Magnet-equipped floats are popular today.
Early float level transmitters provided a simulated analog or discrete level measurement using a network of resistors and multiple reed switches,
meaning that the transmitter's output changes in discrete steps. Unlike continuous level-measuring devices, they cannot discriminate level
values between steps.
Hydrostati c Devi ces. Displacers, bubblers, and differential-pressure transmitters are all
hydrostatic measurement devices. Any change in temperature will therefore cause a shift in the
liquid's specific gravity, as will changes in pressure that affect the specific gravity of the vapor
over the liquid. Both result in reduced measurement accuracy.
Displacers work on Archimedes' principle. As shown in Figure 2, a column of solid material (the
displacer) is suspended in the vessel. The displacer's density is always greater than that of the
process fluid (it will sink in the process fluid), and it must extend from the lowest level required
to at least the highest level to be measured. As the process fluid level rises, the column
displaces a volume of fluid equal to the column's cross-sectional area multiplied by the process
fluid level on the displacer. A buoyant force equal to
this displaced volume multiplied by the
process fluid density pushes upward on
the displacer, reducing the force needed
to support it against the pull of gravity.
The transducer, which is linked to the
transmitter, monitors and relates this
change in force to level.
A bubbler-type level sensor is shown in
Figure 3. This technology is used in
vessels that operate under atmospheric
pressure. A dip tube having its open end
near the vessel bottom carries a purge
gas (typically air, although an inert gas
such as dry nitrogen may be used when
there is danger of contamination of or
an oxidative reaction with the process
fluid) into the tank. As gas flows down
to the dip tube's outlet, the pressure in
the tube rises until it overcomes the
hydrostatic pressure produced by the
liquid level at the outlet. That pressure
equals the process fluid's density multiplied by its depth from the end of the dip tube to the surface and is monitored by a pressure transducer
connected to the tube.
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Figure 4. Differential pressure sensors monitor
the process fluid level by measuring the total
pressure difference between the fluid at the
bottom of the tank and the vessel pressure.
Figure 5. Magnetic level gauges use a
magnetically coupled shuttle to locate a float's
position inside the chamber.
A differential pressure (DP) level sensor is shown in Figure 4. The essential measurement
is the difference between total pressure at the bottom of the tank (hydrostatic head
pressure of the fluid plus static pressure in the vessel) and the static or head pressure in
the vessel. As with the bubbler, the hydrostatic pressure difference equals the process
fluid density multiplied by the height of fluid in the vessel. The unit in Figure 4 uses
atmospheric pressure as a reference. A vent at the top keeps the headspace pressure
equal to atmospheric pressure.
In contrast to bubblers, DP sensors can be used in unvented (pressurized) vessels. All that
is required is to connect the reference port (the low-pressure side) to a port in the vessel
above the maximum fill level. Liquid purges or bubblers may still be required, depending
on the process's physical conditions and/or the transmitter's location relative to the
process connections.
Load Cel l s. A load cell or strain gauge device is essentially a mechanical support
member or bracket equipped with one or more sensors that detect small distortions in
the support member. As the force on the load cell changes, the bracket flexes slightly,
causing output signal changes. Calibrated load cells have been made with force
capacities ranging from fractional ounces to tons.
To measure level, the load cell must be incorporated into the vessel's support structure.
As process fluid fills the vessel, the force on the load cell increases. Knowing the vessel's
geometry (specifically, its cross-sectional area) and the fluid's specific gravity, it is a simple matter to convert the load cell's known output into
the fluid level.
While load cells are advantageous in many applications because of their noncontact nature, they are expensive and the vessel support structure
and connecting piping must be designed around the load cell's requirements of a floating substructure. The total weight of the vessel, piping,
and connecting structure supported by the vessel will be weighed by the load cell system in addition to the desired net or product weight. This
total weight often creates a very poor turndown to the net weight, meaning that the net weight is a very small percentage of the total weight.
Finally, the supporting structure's growth, caused by uneven heating (e.g., morning to evening sunshine) may be reflected as level, as can side
load, wind load, rigid piping, and binding from overturn-prevention hardware (for
bottom-mounted load cells). In short, load cell weighing system requirements must be a
paramount consideration throughout initial vessel support and piping design, or
performance is quickly degraded.
Magneti c Level Gauges. These gauges (see Figure 5) are the preferred replacement
for sight glasses. They are similar to float devices, but they communicate the liquid
surface location magnetically. The float, carrying a set of strong permanent magnets,
rides in an auxiliary column (float chamber) attached to the vessel by means of two
process connections. This column confines the float laterally so that it is always close to
the chamber's side wall. As the float rides up and down with the fluid level, a magnetized
shuttle or bar graph indication moves with it, showing the position of the float and
thereby providing the level indication. The system can work only if the auxiliary column
and chamber walls are made of nonmagnetic material.
Many manufacturers provide float designs optimized for the specific gravity of the fluid
being measured, whether butane, propane, oil, acid, water, or interfaces between two
fluids, as well as a large selection of float materials. This means the gauges can handle
high temperatures, high pressures, and corrosive fluids. Oversized float chambers and
high-buoyancy floats are available for applications where buildup is anticipated.
Chambers, flanges, and process connections can be made from engineered plastics such
as Kynar or exotic alloys such as Hastelloy C-276. Special chamber configurations can
handle extreme conditions such as steam jacketing for liquid asphalt, oversized
chambers for flashing applications, and cryogenic temperature designs for liquid
nitrogen and refrigerants. Numerous metals and alloys such as titanium, Incoloy, and
Monel are available for varying combinations of high-temperature, high-pressure, low-
specific-gravity, and corrosive-fluid applications. Today's magnetic level gauges can also
be outfitted with magnetostrictive and guided-wave radar transmitters to allow the
gauge's local indication to be converted into 4-20 mA outputs that can be sent to a controller or control system.
Capaci tance Transmi tters. These devices (see Figure 6) operate on the fact that process fluids generally have dielectric constants, ,
significantly different from that of air, which is very close to 1.0.
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Figure 6. Capacitive level sensors measure the change in
capacitance between two plates produced by changes in level. Two
versions are available, one for fluids with high dielectric constants (A)
and another for those with low dielectric constants (B).
Oils have dielectric constants from 1.8 to 5. Pure glycol is 37; aqueous solutions are between 50 and 80. This technology requires a change in
capacitance that varies with the liquid level, created by either an insulated rod attached to the transmitter and the process fluid, or an
uninsulated rod attached to the transmitter and either the vessel wall or a reference probe. As the fluid level rises and fills more of the space
between the plates, the overall capacitance rises proportionately. An electronic circuit called a capacitance bridge measures the overall
capacitance and provides a continuous level measurement.
Emerging Technologies
Perhaps the most significant difference between earlier continuous liquid-level measuring technologies and those now gaining favor is the use
of time-of-flight (TOF) measurements to transduce the liquid level into a conventional output. These new devices typically operate by
measuring the distance between the liquid level and a reference point at a sensor or transmitter near the top of the vessel. The systems
typically generate a pulse wave at the reference point, which travels through either the vapor space or a conductor, reflects off the liquid
surface, and returns to a pickup at the reference point. An electronic timing circuit measures the total travel time. Dividing the travel time by
twice the wave's speed gives the distance to the surface of the fluid. The technologies differ mainly in the kind of pulse used to make the
measurement. Ultrasound, microwaves (radar), and light all have proven useful.
Magnetostri cti ve Level Transmi tters. The advantages of using a magnet containing a float to determine liquid level have already been
established, and magnetostriction is a proven technology for very precisely reading the float's location. Instead of mechanical links,
magnetostrictive transmitters use the speed of a torsional wave along a wire to find the float and report its position.
In a magnetostrictive system (see Figure 7), the float carries a series of permanent magnets.
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Figure 8. Ultrasonic level transmitters use
the speed of sound to calculate level.
Figure 7. Magnetostrictive level transmitters use the
speed of a torsional wave in a wire to produce a
level measurement.
A sensor wire is connected to a piezoceramic sensor at the transmitter and a tension fixture is attached to the opposite end of the sensor tube.
The tube either runs through a hole in the center of the float or is adjacent to the float outside of a nonmagnetic float chamber.
To locate the float, the transmitter sends a short current pulse down the sensor wire, setting up a magnetic field along its entire length.
Simultaneously, a timing circuit is triggered ON. The field interacts immediately with the field generated by the magnets in the float. The overall
effect is that during the brief time the current flows, a torsional force is produced in the wire, much like an ultrasonic vibration or wave. This
force travels back to the piezoceramic sensor at a characteristic speed. When the sensor detects the torsional wave, it produces an electrical
signal that notifies the timing circuit that the wave has arrived and stops the timing circuit. The timing circuit measures the time interval (TOF)
between the start of the current pulse and the wave's arrival. From this information, the float's location is very precisely determined and
presented as a level signal by the transmitter. Key advantages of this technology are that the signal speed is known and constant with process
variables such as temperature and pressure, and the signal
is not affected by foam, beam divergence, or false echoes. Another benefit is that the only
moving part is the float that rides up and down with the fluid's surface.
Ul trasoni c Level Transmi tters. Ultrasonic level sensors (see Figure 8) measure the
distance between the transducer and the surface using the time required for an ultrasound
pulse to travel from a transducer to the fluid surface and back (TOF). These sensors use
frequencies in the tens of kilohertz range; transit times are ~6 ms/m. The speed of sound (340
m/s in air at 15C (1115 fps at 60F) depends on the mixture of gases in the headspace and their
temperature. While the sensor temperature is compensated for (assuming that the sensor is at
the same temperature as the air in the headspace), this technology is limited to atmospheric
pressure measurements in air or nitrogen.
Laser Level Transmi tters. Designed for bulk solids, slurries, and opaque liquids such as
dirty sumps, milk, and liquid styrene, lasers operate on a principle very similar to that of
ultrasonic level sensors. Instead of using the speed of sound to find the level, however, they
use the speed of light (see Figure 9).
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Figure 9. A laser transmitter uses a short burst of
laser energy to measure level.
A laser transmitter at the top of a vessel fires a short pulse of light down to the process liquid surface, which reflects it back to the detector. A
timing circuit measures the elapsed time (TOF) and calculates the distance. The key is that lasers have virtually no beam spread (0.2 beam
divergence) and no false echoes, and can be directed through spaces as small as 2 in.
2
Lasers are precise, even in vapor and foam. They are ideal
for use in vessels with numerous obstructions and can measure distances up to 1500 ft. For high-temperature or high-pressure applications,
such as in reactor vessels, lasers must be used in conjunction with specialized sight windows to isolate the transmitter from the process. These
glass windows must pass the laser beam with minimal diffusion and attenuation and must contain the process conditions.
Radar Level Transmi tters. Through-air radar systems beam microwaves downward from either a horn or a rod antenna at the top of a
vessel. The signal reflects off the fluid surface back to the antenna, and a timing circuit calculates the distance to the fluid level by measuring
the round-trip time (TOF). The fluid's dielectric constant, if low, can present measurement problems. The reason is that the amount of reflected
energy at microwave (radar) frequencies is dependent on the dielectric constant of the fluid, and if
r
is low, most of the radar's energy enters
or passes through. Water (
r
= 80) produces an excellent reflection at the change or discontinuity in
r
.
In through-air radar systems, the radar waves suffer from the same beam divergence that afflicts ultrasonic transmitters. Internal piping,
deposits on the antenna, and multiple reflections from tank buildup and obstructions can cause erroneous readings. To overcome these
problems, complex algorithms using fuzzy logic must be incorporated into the transmitter. Transmitter setup can be tedious and
Figure 10. Guided-wave radar uses a wave-
guide to conduct microwave energy to and
from the fluid surface.
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changes in the process environment (buildup, etc.) can be problematic.
Guided wave radar (GWR) systems (see Figure 10) can be the answer. A rigid probe or flexible cable antenna system guides the microwave down
from the top of the tank to the liquid level and back to the transmitter. As with through-air radar, a change from a lower to a higher
r
causes
the reflection. Guided wave radar is 20 more efficient than through-air radar because the guide provides a more focused energy path.
Different antenna configurations allow measurement down to
r
= 1.4 and lower. Moreover, these sytems can be installed either vertically, or in
some cases horizontally with the guide being bent up to 90 or angled, and provide a clear measurement signal.
GWR exhibits most of the advantages and few of the liabilities of ultrasound, laser, and open-air radar systems. Radar's wave speed is largely
unaffected by vapor space gas composition, temperature, or pressure. It works in a vacuum with no recalibration needed, and can measure
through most foam layers. Confining the wave to follow a probe or cable eliminates beam-spread problems and false echoes from tank walls
and structures.
Summary
General trends across different measurement technologies reflect market drivers. Refined digital electronics are making level sensors and other
measurement devices more user-friendly, more reliable, easier to set up, and less expensive. Improved communication interfaces feed level
measurement data into a company's existing control and/or information system.
Today's level sensors incorporate an increasing variety of materials and alloys to combat harsh environments such as oils, acids, and extremes
of temperature and pressure. New materials help process instruments fulfill specialized requirements as well, such as assemblies made of PTFE-
jacketed material for corrosive applications and electro-polished 316 stainless steel for cleanliness requirements. Probes made of these new
materials allow contact transmitters to be used in virtually any application.
The trend today is to replace mechanical and pressure-based measurement tools with systems that measure the distance to the fluid surface by
a timing measurement. Magnetostrictive, ultrasonic, guided-wave radar, and laser transmitters are among the most versatile technologies
available. Such systems use the sharp change of some physical parameter (density, dielectric constant, and sonic or light reflection) at the
process-fluid surface to identify the level.
These emerging technologies make use of the latest electronic techniques and incorporate embedded microprocessor-based digital computers
for control, analysis, and communication functions.