RHEOLOGY OF SOILS

by S.S. Vyalov
RHEOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL MECHANICS
Obj ect i ves of r heol ogi cal s t udi es . Rheology i n gener al may be def i ned,
a f t e r Rei ner [1, 2] and academician Sedov [ 3] , a s t h e s ci ence deal i ng wi t h
t he deformed s t a t e of a medium and changes occur r i ng i n i t wi t h t i me, a s
we l l a s wi t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c behavi our of t h a t medium under l oads
exceedi ng t he limits pr edi ct ed by c l a s s i c a l t he or i e s of e l a s t i c i t y and
p l a s t i c i t y .
As i s wel l known, t r a d i t i o n a l s o i l mechanics i s based on t he f ol l owi ng
fundamental concept s:
1) s o i l i s s ubj ect t o l i n e a r deformat i on behavi our;
2) compaction ( cons ol i dat i on) of s o i l i s dependent on t h e movement of wat er
through voi ds i n t he s o i l ;
3) s o i l consi st ency is det ermi ned by t he f or ces of i n t e r p a r t i c l e cohesi on
and i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n ;
4 ) t h e pr ocess of deformat i on of s o i l s is descr i bed by t he e l a s t o- pl a s t i c
law: s o i l deforms l i n e a r l y up t o a c e r t a i n maximum s t r e s s val ue, a t
which t h e s t a t e of l i mi t i n g stress occur s t h a t i s char act er i zed by a
cont i nuous development of s t r a i n a t a cons t ant stress.
Theses pos t ul at es have pl ayed an i mport ant p a r t i n t h e format i on and
development of modern s o i l mechanics. They have gr e a t l y cont r i but ed t o
s ol vi ng many geot echni cal problems and w i l l probabl y cont i nue t o be used i n
engi neer i ng pr a c t i c e f o r a l ong t i me t o come. These l aws, however, a r e
somewhat i deal i zed and do not correspond t o t he a c t u a l deformat i on behavi our
of a s o i l under load. The di s cr epanci es between t h e i d e a l and r e a l
pr oper t i es of s o i l a r e na t ur a l l y r e f l e c t e d i n t he r e s u l t s of engi neer i ng
cal cul at i ons , and t h e i r e f f e c t s become i ncr eas i ngl y more per cept i bl e a s t he
problems i n p r a c t i c a l geot echni cal engi neer i ng grow pr ogr es s i vel y more
complex: e.g., i ncr eas i ng l oads on f oundat i ons of bui l di ngs and ot her
s t r uc t ur e s ; t h e us e of cons t r uct i on s i t e s on uns t abl e s o i l s , i ncl udi ng
l a nds l i de ar eas ; cons t r uct i on on weak s o i l s wi t h hi gh f l u i d i t y , i ncl udi ng
sea- f l oor sedi ment s; and s o on.
It i s t her ef or e i mper at i ve t o revi ew t h e t r a d i t i o n a l concept s of s o i l
mechanics, t o i nt r oduce new deformat i on laws r e f l e c t i n g more accur at el y t he
r e a l pr oper t i es of e a r t h mat er i al s , and t o devel op new schemes and models
t h a t would al l ow u s t o t ake i n t o account t he d i s t i n c t i v e deformat i on
pat t er ns of t hes e mat er i al s . Thi s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i mport ant f o r f r ozen
s o i l s , t he behaviour of which d i f f e r s even more markedly from t h e i d e a l
behavour descr i bed by c l a s s i c a l laws.
Hence, t h e obj ect i ves of f u r t h e r s t udi e s a r e a s fol l ows:
1. To i de nt i f y t h e s p e c i a l as pect s of deformat i on and f a i l u r e of s o i l s
( p a r t i c u l a r l y t hos e of f r ozen s o i l s ) compared t o c l a s s i c a l media.
2. To cons t r uct mat hemat i cal models des cr i bi ng t h e p a t t e r n of deformat i on
of s o i l s under l oad and t o work out fundamental equat i ons on t h e b a s i s
of t hes e models.
3. To t ake i n t o cons i der at i on any s p e c i a l pa t t e r ns of s o i l deformat i on i n
f or mul at i ng engi neer i ng problems, and t o devel op methods f o r s ol vi ng
t he s e problems, e s pe c i a l l y wi t h t he us e of computers.
4 . To as s es s t he r e l a t i v e i mport ance of t h e s pe c i a l as pect s of t h e
pr ope r t i e s of s o i l s , and t o i d e n t i f y t he condi t i ons under which each of
t hes e as pect s must be t aken i n t o account .
5. To devel op f i e l d and l abor at or y methods f o r det ermi ni ng t h e paramet ers
of t he c o n s t i t u t i v e equat i ons used i n engi neer i ng c a l c ul a t i ons , and t o
accumul at e exper i ment al d a t a on t h e val ues of t he s e paramet ers.
6 . To compare t h e r e s u l t s of t h e o r e t i c a l s ol ut i ons wi t h t he d a t a from f i e l d
obser vat i ons. Thi s shoul d be t he c r i t e r i o n det ermi ni ng t h e choi ce of
t he model and fl ow c ha r t f o r s ol vi ng engi neer i ng problems.
Speci al as pect s of deformat i on and f a i l u r e of s o i l s . The pr ocess of
deformat i on of s o i l s is accompanied by changes i n t h e s o i l s t r u c t u r e ,
namely, rearrangement of s o i l p a r t i c l e s , breaki ng o r r e s t o r a t i o n of
i n t e r p a r t i c l e bonds, development of s t r u c t u r a l de f e c t s ( di s r upt i on of
i n t e r p a r t i c l e bonds of t he s o i l s kel et on, format i on of mi cr of r act ur es , et c. )
and t h e i r heal i ng. Owing t o t h e vi scous nat ur e of i n t e r p a r t i c l e bonds,
t hes e pr ocesses a r e time-dependent and account f o r t h e cr eep pr ope r t i e s
i nher ent i n c l a y s o i l s and i n a l l t ypes of f r ozen s o i l s , which owe t h e i r
vi scous pr ope r t i e s l a r ge l y t o t h e presence of i c e a s t he bonding mat er i al .
The pr ocess of deformat i on i s t hus accompanied by s of t eni ng o r hardeni ng of
t he s o i l s t r uc t ur e . Hardening of t h e s t r u c t u r e r e s u l t s i n damping of
s t r a i n s , whi l e s of t eni ng l eads t o t h e i r undamped development, endi ng i n
f a i l u r e . Moreover, i t has been demonst rat ed by Maksimyak ( s ee Vyalov
e t a l . [ 4 1 ) t h a t f a i l u r e occur s when t he dens i t y of t h e de f e c t s r eaches a
c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l val ue. Si nce t he r a t e of format i on of de f e c t s i s a
f unct i on of s t r e s s , t he lower t h e s t r e s s , t he more t i m e i t t akes f o r t he
dens i t y of de f e c t s t o a t t a i n t h a t c r i t i c a l val ue, and t h e l onger t h e t i me t o
f a i l ur e . Thi s is where t he p a t t e r n of t h e l ong time s t r e n g t h of s o i l s
mani f est s i t s e l f .
Although from t he s t r u c t u r a l poi nt of view s o i l i s a d i s c r e t e
multicomponent medium, we appl y t he concept s of continuum mechanics and
t r e a t i t a s an e l a s t o- pl a s t i c vi scous body ( s i nce s o i l i s s ubj e c t t o a l l
t hes e t ypes of deformat i on). On t he ot he r hand t h e micro- and
macro-st ruct ural c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s oi l s a l s o a f f e c t t h e i r deformat i on
under l oad and account f o r t h e f a c t t h a t i t does not conform t o t he
c l a s s i c a l pat t er n. Never t hel ess, even t hes e s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s coul d
be descr i bed by equat i ons of continuum mechanics ( u n t i l a new branch of
mechanics, i.e. mechanics of d i s c r e t e media, was devel oped). I n r ecent
year s t h i s problem has a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n of many r es ear cher s bot h i n t he
U.S.S.R. and abroad. Noteworthy among t he works by Sovi et aut hor s a r e
monographs [5-201 and proceedi ngs of conferences and symposia on rheol ogy of
e a r t h mat er i al s , i ncl udi ng f r ozen s o i l s [21-251. Among t he f or ei gn works,
i n addi t i on t o t he works mentioned e a r l i e r [ 1, 2] , we shoul d mention
monographs [26-301, proceedi ngs from t he I nt e r na t i ona l Rheology and Soi l
Mechanics Symposium i n Grenoble [31] , symposium on rheol ogy of s o i l s [32] ,
etc. A g r e a t de a l of a t t e n t i o n i s focussed on t he problems pe r t a i ni ng t o
rheol ogy of s o i l s i n t h e revi ew paper s pr esent ed a t t h e 7t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Congress of Soi l Mechanics and Foundation Engi neeri ng (Mexico, 1969), and on
rheology of f r ozen s o i l s , i n t h e revi ew papers from t h e 2nd I nt e r na t i ona l
Conference on Permafrost (Yakutsk, 1973) [361.
Summarizing t h e r e s u l t s of experi ment al s t udi e s , w e can i d e n t i f y t h e
f ol l owi ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c as pect s of t h e behavi our of s o i l s under load.
I r r ecover abl e vol umet ri c s t r a i n s (due t o va r i a t i ons i n por os i t y) and
s hear s t r a i n s i n t h e s o i l s , devel opi ng r i g h t from t h e very begi nni ng of
l oadi ng. It shoul d be not ed t h a t t hes e pr oper t i es of s o i l s have been t aken
i n t o cons i der at i on from t h e e a r l i e s t days of t h e development of s o i l
mechanics.
The non-l i near char act er of t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i ons hi p wi t h t h e
f unct i on f f o r s hear s t r a i n s d i f f e r i n g from t h a t f o r volume s t r a i n s f*:
where zi and yi a r e t he s hear s t r e s s e s and t h e s hear s t r a i n s , r es pect i vel y,
whi l e am and E, a r e t he average normal s t r e s s ( conf i ni ng pr es s ur e) and t h e
average l i n e a r s t r a i n ( equal t o 113 vol umet r i c s t r a i n ) , r es pect i vel y.
The most wi del y used forms of r e l a t i ons hi p f o r s hear s t r a i n s a r e power
and l i n e a r f r a c t i o n a l f unct i ons :
The former i s very si mpl e, but t h e l a t t e r i ncl udes bot h t h e s hear modulers
(Go) and ul t i mat e s t r enght Ti(,).
Si mi l ar r e l a t i ons hi ps may be used f o r vol umet r i c s t r a i n s , but t h e
s t r e s s - s t r a i n cur ves descr i bed by them a r e concave towards t h e s t r e s s a x i s
r a t h e r t han towards t he s t r a i n a x i s ( 2) , s i n c e wi t h i ncr eas i ng s t r e s s volume
s t r a i n s t end towards a c e r t a i n l i m i t (maximum cons ol i dat i on) whi l e s hear
s t r a i n s devel op cont i nuousl y.
For engi neer i ng c a l c ul a t i ons t he non-l i near v a r i a t i o n of s t r a i n s wi t h
stress i s a very i mport ant consi der at i on. Thi s enabl es u s t o c a l c u l a t e
s t r a i n s over t h e whole range of stress up t o t h e l i mi t i ng s t r e s s , whereas i n
t he l i n e a r model t h e c a l c ul a t i ons a r e r e s t r i c t e d onl y t o t h a t segment of t h e
s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve f o r which a l i n e a r r e l a t i ons hi p can be assumed.
Mechanical pr ope r t i e s of s o i l s can t hen be u t i l i z e d more f u l l y , and des i gn
l oads on s o i l d s can be i ncreased. Once t he non-l i near r e l a t i ons hi p of t he
d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e a c t i on f or c e s underneat h t h e f oot i ng of t h e f oundat i on i s
t aken i n t o account , t he v a r i a t i o n of s t r e s s wi t h dept h of t h e f oot i ng and
t h e dept h of t h e p l a s t i c zone around t h e f oot i ng, approach val ues c l o s e r t o
t he r e a l s i t ua t i on. As a r e s u l t of t h a t t he des i gn val ues of s et t l ement s of
t h e f oot i ng a l s o approach c l o s e r t o t h e i r a c t u a l val ues.
Development of s t r a i n s wi t h t i me i s a d i s t i n c t i v e pr oper t y of c l a y
s o i l s and a l l t ypes of f r ozen s o i l s . I n t h e c a s e of s hear s t r a i n s i t
mani f est s i t s e l f i n t h e form of cr eep, which i s t r a n s i e n t a t smal l s t r e s s e s ,
but i s vi scous a t l a r g e s t r e s s e s and t er mi nat es i n vi scous o r b r i t t l e
failure. In the presence of volumetric strains the development of strains
with time manifests itself in the form of a consolidation process induced
both by drainage with redistribution of pore and effective pressures in the
soil, and by creep of the soil skeleton volumetric strains are invariably
damped.
The time-dependent equation of state can be written in one of the
following forms, based on the accepted hypothesis regarding the relationship
between strain or strain rate, stress and time:
where pi = dy/dt, and < = d~,/dt, are the strain rates.
In equation (3) and ( 4 ) (the theory of aging and the theory of flow,
respectively) time is considered in the explicit form, and in equation (5)
and (6) (the theory of hardening and the theory of inherited creep,
respectively) it is considered in the implicit form. At a constant stress
these equations give identical results, but under variable stress the
results are different. Equation ( 3) is the simplest and most widely used
relationship; it does not, however, take into account changes occurring in
the load with time. Equation ( 6 ) takes into consideration the variability
of the load and the loading history. The hereditary theory has therefore
gained wide recognition, but it makes no allowances for various distinctive
aspects of deformation of soils, which will be discussed later. Equations
(4) and, particularly, (5) are mre promising from that viewpoint.
Time is one of the most important factors to be considered in problems
pertaining to deformation of soils. This factor controls the settlements of
foundations, consolidation of earth structures (embankments, earth-fill
dams, etc.), landslide movements on slopes and scarps, redistribution of
reaction pressures of the soil under the foundation and on the thin bearing
walls, redistribution of the bending moment in the above structures, and
SO on.
Variability of the lateral strain ratio. Since Poisson's ratio can be
expressed through equations (3) as
where K = u,/f*(u,,t), G = ~~/f(~~,t), and since f* # f, the value of v is
not a cons t ant , but is a f unct i on of t he r a t i o of s hear s t r a i n t o volume
s t r a i n , and of t h e development of t hes e s t r a i n s wi t h time. It shoul d be
not ed, however, t h a t i n t he commonly used s i mpl i f i ed r el at i ons hi p:
- om/K, where K = cons t ant , but yi = f ( z i , t ) , v i s consi dered cons t ant .
'm -
However, t o accept t he condi t i on, v = cons t ant , i s t o assume t h a t volume and
s hear s t r a i n s a r e descr i bed by i d e n t i c a l r el at i ons hi ps . St r i c l y speaki ng
t h i s assumption i s not va l i d t o r epr es ent t he phys i cal pr ocesses of s hear
and volume deformat i ons, but i t s i g n i f i c a n t l y s i mpl i f i e s t he s ol ut i on of t he
problems i n s o i l mechanics, and of t e n does not s e r i ous l y d i s t o r t t he
r e s u l t s . For example, experi ment al da t a and computer cal cul at i ons have
shown t h a t t he pa t t e r n of development of s et t l ement s under p l a t e l oadi ng is
analogous t o t h e non-l i near law of s hear s t r a i n s , al t hough t h e r e l a t i ons hi p
of vol umet ri c s t r a i n s i s c l os e t o l i near .
The f a c t t h a t t he r e s i s t a nc e t o deformat i on under compression i s
d i f f e r e n t from t h a t under ext ens i on i s due t o t he i n t r i n s i c na t ur e of
i n t e r p a r t i c l e bonds i n s o i l . It account s f o r t he f a c t t h a t f or c e s of
i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n mani f est t hemsel ves not onl y i n t h e l i m i t * * s t a t e , but
a l s o i n t he pre-limit** s t a t e , hence s hear s t r a i n s a r e f unct i ons of
conf i ni ng pressure:
Volumetric s t r a i n i t s e l f is a f unct i on of s hear s t r e s s ( t he di l at ancy
phenomenon):
Moreover,
where E: i s t he vol umet ri c s t r a i n induced by t he s phe r i c a l ( d i l a t a t i o n a l ? )
D
s t r e s s t ens or ( conf i ni ng pr es s ur e am) , and em = Ayi i s t h e vol umet r i c s t r a i n
induced by t he a c t i on of t he s t r e s s devi at or ( shear s t r e s s yi ), and A i s t h e
di l at ancy coef f i ci ent .
The mutual e f f e c t of am and zi on shape deformat i on and vol umet r i c
s t r a i n pl ays a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e process of s o i l deformat i on, a s we l l
as i n t he process of f a i l u r e . The e f f e c t of om i s t o i n h i b i t t h e s hear i ng
process. The e f f e c t of zi on vol umet r i c deformat i on may, however, l ead t o
a ddi t i ona l cons ol i dat i on of t he s o i l ( pos i t i ve di l at ancy) or t o i t s
remolding ( negat i ve di l at ancy) . It i s pr eci s el y t h e l a t t e r t h a t causes s o i l
f a i l u r e , s i nc e i n cohesi ve s o i l s ( i ncl udi ng per maf r ost ) , f a i l u r e occur s a s a
r e s u l t of mi cr of r act ur i ng. Si nce mi cr of r act ur i ng i s caused by t he a c t i on of
de vi a t or i c s t r e s s e s , t he g r e a t e r i t s magnitude, t he sooner w i l l f a i l u r e
occur. I f conf i ni ng pr es s ur e pr e va i l s , t he s o i l becomes merely compressed
*Note form E i o Act ual val ue of v cal cul at ed from e l a s t i c i t y comes out
a s v = + ( K ~ G 5-5j 3
(K/G)+1/3
**The pr e- l i mi t and l i m i t s t a t e s appear t o correspond t o t h e e l a s t i c and
- -
plastic condi t i ons , r es pect i vel y.
or consolidated with healing of microcracks, and no failure of the soil
occurs.
Treatment of the deformation and failure processes becomes more
reliable by taking into consideration the mutual effect of a,,, and T~ on the
processes of shear and volume deformation, and the results of theoretical
calculations are brought closer to the actual data.
The effect of the type of stress. For conventional materials the
results of the tests represented in the form of the ~ ~ - y ~ (generalized
stress-strain) diagram do not depend on the type of stress. In other words
the experimental points obtained from testing that type of materials under
any type of load (compression, extension, shear, or combined stress), will
fall on the same general curve when plotted in the ~ ~ - y ~ diagram. For soils
with different resistances to compression and extension each type of test
will yield its own zi-yi curve. This means that the process of soil
deformation depends on the state of the stress defined by a certain
relationship between the principal stresses expressed by the Lode-Nadai
parameter pa:
(-1 < p < +I), or by a characteristic angle wa:
(n/3 > oa > O), which fs an invariant of magnitude y.
To account for the effect of the state of stress, the parameter p
(or w should be introduced into the rheological equations of state, f 8 )
and (81, i.e.
Experiemnts have shown that characteristics of soils (including the
angle of friction) may differ substantially, depending on the value of po at
which they are determined. Further studies are needed, however, to
determine when that factor must be considered and when it can be ignored.
If the parameter pa (or wa) is not introduced into the equation of state,
the design specifications should be determined from tests of soil specimens
under conditions close to natural. For example, to calculate the bearing
capacity of footings and circular or square foundations, the soils should be
tested under conditions of axi-symmetric loading (triaxial compression,
p, = -1)) whereas for strip loading the tests should be carried out under
conditions of plane shear.
The effect of the loading path. A particular state of stress may be
caused to occur at a point M ( u ~ ,ai,a$) by changing the components al, a2 and
63, according to some program. The representation of that program in the
form of a curve in the stress space (61-a2-a3) is known as the loading path.
For conventional materials the strain at point M depends only on the
ultimate value of the stresses o1 = = a' and a3 = a;, independent of
"1 f the loading path. But in the case of soi s wh ch possess distinctive
structural characteristics, the loading path may affect the pattern of
deformation. For example, if a specimen is first consolidated by a
confining pressure and then subjected to a shearing force, the resultant
deformation will be different from what it would be if the specimen had been
first sheared and then subjected to confining pressure.
The effect of the loading path is observable if the differences in the
loading conditions are sufficently sharp. This has been demonstrated by
Zaretskii et al. [37], who filled a reservoir during, as well as after, the
er ect i on of t he dam. Data i s a l s o avai l abl e, however, showing t h a t f o r a
f oot i ng, t h e di f f er ence i n t h e s t a t e of s t r a i n obt ai ned by si mul t aneous and
consecut i ve appl i cat i on of v e r t i c a l and s hear i ng l oads i s small. It i s
t her ef or e i mper at i ve t o car r y out s pe c i a l s t u d i e s t o det ermi ne t h e degree of
i nf l uence of t he l oadi ng pat h and t h e condi t i ons under which t h a t i nf l uence
must be t aken i n t o consi der at i on.
The e f f e c t of t he l oadi ng program. Rate of l oadi ng a l s o has a c e r t a i n
e f f e c t on t he deformed s t a t e of t h e s o i l . Thi s e f f e c t may mani fest i t s e l f
a s pr ogr essi ve accumulation of p l a s t i c s t r a i n s wi t h i ncr eas e i n t h e l oadi ng
r a t e , or a s t h e del ayed di s s i pa t i on of t h e pore pr es s ur e due t o such an
i ncr eas e, a s a r e s u l t of which t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , and hence t he s hear i ng
r e s i s t a nc e of t he s o i l , w i l l l a g behind t h e i ncr eas e i n t h e load.
The absence of s i mi l i t ude between t he s t a t e s of stress and s t r a i n . The
c l a s s i c a l t heory of p l a s t i c i t y is based on t he f ol l owi ng pos t ul at es :
a ) s i mi l a r i t y of t he s t r e s s e d and s t r a i ne d s t a t e s of t h e medium, which
corresponds t o t h e condi t i on of e qua l i t y of t h e Lode paramet ers f o r
s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s po = pE, and
b) c oa xi a l i t y of stress and s t r a i n vect or s , which corresponds t o t h e
equal i t y of t h e angl es of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e axes of pr i nc i pa l s t r e s s and
s t r a i n ( a b = aE) . Experiments show, however, t h a t t hes e condi t i ons a r e
not always observed f or s o i l s . The degree of depar t ur e from t h e
condi t i ons of s i mi l i t ude and c oa xi a l i t y, and t he case where t hes e
devi at i ons a r e per cept i bl e, shoul d be s t udi ed f ur t her . It can merely be
s t a t e d t h a t vi ol a t i on of t he condi t i ons of s i mi l i t ude and c oa xi a l i t y of
t h e s t r e s s e d and s t r a i n e d s t a t e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y compl i cat es s ol ut i on of
p r a c t i c a l problems and shoul d be r es or t ed t o onl y i n ext reme cases.
Geomet ri cal non- l i near i t y. I n addi t i on t o t h e phys i cal non- l i near i t y
of t he laws of deformat i on di scussed above, i t i s sometimes necessary t o
t ake i n t o cons i der at i on t he geomet ri cal non- l i near i t y of t he fundamental
equat i ons. Normally onl y i nf i n i t e s t i ma l s t r a i n s a r e consi dered, and
t her ef or e, non-l i near terms i n t he c o n s t i t u t i v e equat i ons of s t r a i n s and
di spl acement s and i n t h e equat i ons of equi l i br i um can be removed, t hereby
t ransformi ng them i n t o l i n e a r equat i ons. I n s o i l s , owing t o t h e i r gr e a t
compr es s i bi l i t y, t he s t r a i n s i n t h e r egi ons of s t r e s s concent r at i ons may be
q u i t e l ar ge, and s t r i c t l y speaki ng, shoul d be regarded a s f i n i t e . Thi s
makes t h e equat i ons geomet r i cal l y non-l i near, which i n t ur n l ead t o c e r t a i n
changes i n t he r e s u l t s of cal cul at i ons of t he deformed s t a t e of t h e s o i l
[39].
The degree of such changes and t h e need t o t ake them i n t o account a r e
s ubj ect t o f ur t he r s t udi es .
Long-term s t r engt h. A s was mentioned e a r l i e r , one of t h e
manif-ogical pr oper t i es i s t he decr easi ng s t r e ngt h of s o i l
a s a r e s u l t of cr eep, and t he f a c t t h a t t he r e s i s t a nc e of s o i l is a f unct i on
of t h e time of a c t i on of t h e l oad [40, 41]. Equat i ons of long-term s t r e ngt h
can be obt ai ned from t he cr eep equat i on by i nt r oduci ng i n t o i t one of t h e
fol l owi ng condi t i ons of f a i l u r e :
( a ) a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l val ue of p l a s t i c s t r a i n gi ven by:
yf = yics) = cons t ant
t
( b) c e r t a i n cons t ant s of magnitude: l P ~ ( t ) d t = cons t ant , where A = aij rpj
0
i s t h e u n i t work of vi s c opl a s t i c s t r a i n , and t i s t h e t i me t o f a i l u r e ,
P
( c ) i n t h e gener al cFse ( i f t h e thermodynamic approach i s used) cont ant s of
t he magnitude: j pS( t ) dt = ASkp = cons t ant , where S i s ent ropy and AS
0 kp
i s t h e c r i t i c a l val ue of i t s increment.
Proceedi ng from t h e f i r s t of t h e above condi t i ons , t h e f ol l owi ng
l o n g t i me s t r e ngt h equat i on i s obt ai ned, i n which t h e va r i a bl e l oad i s
account ed f or :
o r i n a s p e c i a l cas e [ 401
where zi (s, O) i s t h e i nst ant aneous s t r engt h.
The l i m i t s t a t e of s o i l wi t h cons i der at i on of i t s r heol ogi cal
pr ope r t i e s . The l i m i t s t a t e of t h e s o i l s possessi ng cr eep pr oper t i es
corresponds t o t h e development of pr ogr es s i ve fl ow s t r a i n s t er mi nat i ng i n
b r i t t l e o r vi scous f a i l u r e ( o r i n t h e development of unl i mi t ed s hear
s t r a i n s ) . Si nce t h e r e s i s t a nc e t o f a i l u r e va r i e s i n t i me, t h e equat i on of
t h e l i m i t s t a t e shoul d i ncl ude t h e t i me f a c t o r a s i n equat i on (11).
Accordingly t h e equat i on of t h e l i m i t s t a t e i s der i ved from equat i on (10) by
assuming t h a t t r a n s i t i o n t o t h a t t h e s t a t e i s achi eved when t h e s t r a i n
a t t a i n s t he maximum val ue ye = yi (s) = const ant . Hence
where t h e r e l a t i ons hi p between ri and t i s det ermi ned by equat i on (12).
The gener al form of t h e equat i on of s t a t e . The q u a n t i t i e s am, em, ri,
po ( or woj a r e def i ned i n t e r m s of t h e r a t i o between t h e pr i nc i pa l normal
s t r e s s e s and t h e p r i n c i p a l l i n e a r s t r a i n s , and a r e f unct i ons of t h r e e
i nva r i a nt s of t h e s t r e s s and s t r a i n t ens or , o r more accur at el y, of t h e i r
d i l a t a t i o n a l and de vi a t or i c segments. The equat i ons of s t a t e can t he r e f or e
be wr i t t e n i n a gener al form:
where J1,2 a r e t h e f i r s t and second i nva r i a nt s of t h e s t r a i n t ens or , and
' 1,2,3
a r e t h e f i r s t , second and t h i r d i nva r i a nt s of t h e stress t ensor . A
similar notation can be made for the invariants of the strain rate tensor jl
and j2.
The equation of the limit state (13) can be written in the following
form:
Soil temperature 8, which is an extremely important factor for frozen
soils, is included in these equations.
The possible forms of equations of the pre-limit and limit states of
soil. The equations of state (14) and (15) or (8) and (13) proposed by
-
different researchers, are only phenomenological and vary fairly widely in
form [42]. To clarify this two equations are considered in which the effect
of the three invariants of stresses and of the time factor is accounted for.
One of these equations is derived from the exponential function of zi and yi
and has the following form:
The equation of limit equilibrium is derived from (16) by assuming that
yi = ys = constant and, accordingly, that ~ ~ ~ t ( ~ ) = T ,(,), where 7
the instantaneous (t = 0) ultimate strength in simple shear. Then
s(0) is
When am = A = t = 0, equation (16) changes to an ordinary exponential
function yT = zi/Ao, and equation (17) at A = t = 0 to the
von Mises-Shleikher*-Botkin condition
' m
T = i s (1 + -) = (Hs + a,,,) tgY .
Hs
The equation that follows from the linear-fractional functions of zi
and yi, has the form
-1
=i t a
~i = - [l + ] (18)
Go
The equation of the limit state is derived from the condition yi + a, and is
written in the form
where E . . = E; + EP . and a a r e components of s t r a i n and s t r e s s t ens or s
i j
( i , j = t i 2 , 3 ) , 6
$4 t he Kronecker d e l t a , and y and y* a r e t h e f unct i on
c ha r a c t e r i z i ng s i &a r and volume ( i ncl udi ng di l at ancy) s t r a i n s and a r e equal
t o:
I n gener al y # y*, consequent l y v f const . When t he t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e l i m i t
s t a t e occur s, equat i on (20) becomes equat i on ( 13) .
Equat i ons of t he t heor y of p l a s t i c fl ow a r e wr i t t e n i n t h e form of
r e l a t i ons hi ps between t h e i ncrement s of s t r a i n and s t r e s s e s . In doi ng s o i t
i s assumed t h a t t h e i ncrement of t o t a l s t r a i n i s composed of t he i ncrement s
of i t s e l a s t i c ( e ) and p l a s t i c ( p) components:
The r e l a t i ons hi p between a and ee i s det ermi ned by equat i ons of t he
i j
t heory of e l a s t i c i t y , and idat between a and cPj , by t h e equat i ons:
i j
dcPj = ( a i j + dijam)/dh + 6ijamdc , where
The l i m i t s t a t e i s descr i bed by equat i on ( 13) , which i s a l s o t r u e f o r t h e
s t r a i n t heor y, but wi t h t h e a ddi t i on of t h e condi t i on of di l at ancy.
According t o t h a t condi t i on, when l i m i t s t a t e * occur s i ncrement s i n s hear
s t r a i n a r e as s oci at ed wi t h i r r e v e r s i b l e changes i n volume
where A i s t he di l at ancy r a t e c oe f f i c i e nt .
As s oci at i ve and non-associ at i ve laws. The r e l a t i ons hi p between p l a s t i c
s t r a i n and s t r e s s can be depi ct ed by t h e s t r e s s f unct i on F known a s t h e
p l a s t i c p o t e n t i a l
Di s t i nct i on i s made between t he a s s oc i a t i ve law ( accor di ng t o
von Mises) and non-associ at i ve law. I n t h e a s s oc i a t i ve law t h e p l a s t i c
*Pl a s t i c deformat i on
p o t e n t i a l coi nci des wi t h t h e l oadi ng f unct i on ( 13) , i.e. F = $. I n t he
non-associ at i ve law, t h e val ue of t h e f unct i on F i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t
of 4.
The a s s oc i a t i ve law and t h e Drucker-Prager model based on t h a t law have
a number of l i mi t a t i o n as gi ven below: t h e vect or s d ~ 4 . of t he l oadi ng
s ur f ace shoul d be ort hogonal ; t h e condi t i on A = t g I Jhoul d be met, where
A and Y a r e paramet ers of equat i on (23) and I 1 I '1; and t h e condi t i on h < 0
shoul d be m e t , which s ays t h a t di l at ancy occurs onl y i n t h e form of
remolding, whi l e di l at ancy due t o a ddi t i ona l cons ol i dat i on does not occur.
Sever al assumpt i ons a r e made t o remedy t hes e l i mi t at i ons . For example, t o
meet t h e condi t i on A = t g Y, cor r ect i on are proposed [44] f o r t h e val ues
of Y ( or 4, i f t h e MohrCoulomb condi t i on and t h e condi t i on ] A ) = s i n4 t h a t
folows from i t , a r e used). On t he ot her hand Bugrov [381 has demonst rat ed
t h a t from t h e vi ewpoi nt of t h e f i n a l r e s u l t s t he use of t h e a s s oc i a t i ve law
i s accept abl e even f o r cas es where I A ) # s i n4 ( or 111# t g I ) . As f o r t he
f a c t t h a t t h e Drucker-Prager a s s oc i a t i ve model f a i l s t o account f o r
a ddi t i ona l di l at ancy cons ol i dat i on of t he s o i l , accordi ng t o
Gibson-Drucker-Henkel, it can be remedied by assuming t h e condi t i on of
cl os ed y i e l d s ur f ace ( l i mi t state). Za r e t s ki i , Lombardo e t al . , [37, 45]
have proposed a model wi t h a s i ngul a r y i e l d sur f ace. I n t he well-known
"Canrclay" model of Roscoe e t a l . [461, t h e l oadi ng s ur f ace i s assumed t o be
i n t h e form of an e l l i ps oi d.
These and ot her adj ust ment s make t he a s s oc i a t i ve law q u i t e accept abl e
f o r us e i n engi neer i ng pr act i ce.
On t he ot her t h e non-associ at i ve law of p l a s t i c f l ow i s f r e e from t h e
l i mi t a t i ons l i s t e d above, and i s more accur at e and more gener al , a l b e i t more
compl i cat ed, s i nc e i t r equi r es t h e i ncor por at i on of a ddi t i ona l paramet ers,
det er mi nat i on of which i s f a r from si mpl e.
I n appl yi ng t he non-associ at i ve law e i t h e r a val ue d i f f e r e n t from t h e
val ue of t h e l oadi ng f unct i on 4 i n (13) i s s pe c i f i e d f o r p o t e n t i a l F 1241,
o r two mut ual l y uncoupled ( 1 # t g I ) condi t i ons [ t h e condi t i on of t h e l i m i t
state (13) and t h e condi t i on of di l at ancy ( 23) ) a r e used i n a ddi t i on t o
equat i ons ( 21) and (22). The models cons t r uct ed wi t h t h e us e of t h e non-
a s s oc i a t i ve law have been anal ysed by Ni kol aevski i 144, 471. However, most
r es ear cher s pr e f e r t h e a s s oc i a t i ve law ( wi t h cor r ect i ons ) .
Sol ut i on of non-l i near problems wi t h t h e us e of t h e s t r a i n t heory.
Experi ment al s t u d i e s on t h e b a s i s of which s o i l models were developed wi t hi n
t he framework of t he s t r a i n t heor y, have been c a r r i e d out a t t h e NII* by
Gor odet ski i and ot he r s , wi t h t h e main f ocus on t h e t i m e f a c t o r [ 7, 41] , and
a t t he MISI** by Lomise, Kryzhanovskii and ot her s ( s ee Refs. 48, 49) , who
performed l ar ge- s cal e exper i ment al s t u d i e s under condi t i ons of si mpl e and
composite l oadi ng.
The scope of t he non-l i near problems of s o i l mechanics t h a t a r e sol ved
by a n a l y t i c a l methods, i s ver y l i mi t ed even wi t hi n t h e framework of t h e
si mpl er s t r a i n t heory. For example, l i n e a r problems of t h e deformed s t a t e
* N I I = Research I n s t i t u t e of Foundat i ons (Tr. )
**MIS1 = t h e Moscow Ci vi l Engi neeri ng I n s t i t u t e (Tr.)
of t h e f oot i ng ( pl ane and axio-symmetric problems) can be sol ved onl y f or
t h e exponent i al s t r a i n l a w and onl y wi t h c e r t a i n l i mi t a t i ons [61, [50].
Only s pe c i a l problems were sol ved f o r t he p a r t i a l l i n e a r f unct i on, such
a s t h e fl ow of s o i l down t h e s l ope, t h e axi-symmetric problem of vi scous
fl ow i n c y l i n d r i c a l pr ot ect i ve i ce- s oi l b a r r i e r s , e t c . Straganov [51] used
i n t hes e s ol ut i ons h i s own non-l i near vi scous model r epr es ent i ng a
combination of t h e p a r t i a l l i n e a r law of s hear s t r a i n and Newtonian law of
vi scous flow. The phenomenon of di l at ancy was a l s o t aken i n t o account .
A gener al s ol ut i on t o non-l i near problems can be obt ai ned wi t h t h e hel p
of a computer accordi ng t o t h e method of f i n i t e di f f er ences (MFD) o r t h e
method of f i n i t e el ement s (MFE). Vinokurov [52] was one of t h e f i r s t
r es ear cher s t o appl y t h e method of f i n i t e di f f e r e nc e s i n s ol vi ng non-l i near
problems of s o i l mechanics. He worked out an i t e r a t i v e s ol ut i on based on
I l yus hi n' s method of e l a s t i c s ol ut i ons us i ng t h e s t r a i n t heor y of
p l a s t i c i t y . By usi ng a s i mi l a r method Shirokov et a l . [53] and Malyshev
et al . [54] obt ai ned a s ol ut i on t o t h e problem of t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n st at e of
a f oot i ng wi t h pr oper t i es descr i bed by equat i ons (18) and ( 19) ; moreover,
t he s e equat i ons var i ed i n form. Sol ut i ons of s i mi l a a r problems wi t h t h e us e
of t h e method of f i n i t e di f f er ences , but wi t h fundamental equat i ons of a
somewhat d i f f e r e n t form, a r e gi ven i n [ 55] , [56], and i n ot her works, and
t hos e wi t h t h e us e of t h e method of f i n i t e el ement s, i n [ 42] , where
s ol ut i ons based on t h e s t r a i n t heor y are compared wi t h t h e s ol ut i ons based
on t he t heory of p l a s t i c flow.
Sol ut i on of non-l i near problems wi t h t he use of t he t heor y of p l a s t i c
flow. The bes t known model based on t h e t heor y of p l a s t i c flow i s t h e
-
"Cam-clay" model developed a t Cambridge by Roscoe, Burl and, Shof i el d and
ot he r s ( s e e Refs. 46, 58). In t h a t model s o i l i s regarded a s an
e l a s t o- pl a s t i c hardeni ng medium, t h e p l a s t i c hardeni ng o r s of t eni ng of which
i s induced by p o s i t i v e or negat i ve di l at ancy. The s t r e s s - s t r a i n state of
t h e s o i l i s f u l l y def i ned by t h e t hr e e paramet ers am, T~ and e (where e i s
t he voi d r a t i o ) ; moreover, t h e i ncrement s of s t r a i n s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e
stress by t h e a s s oc i a t i ve l a w of p l a s t i c flow. The pa t t e r n of deformat i on
i n t he pr e- l i mi t state i s descr i bed by t h e l ogar i t hmi c equat i on of
compression accordi ng t o Terzaghi e = eo - hIno. The l i m i t s t a t e i s def i ned
a s t he state a t t a i ne d when por os i t y ' e' r eaches t he c r i t i c a l val ue ekr, a t
which increment of p l a s t i c s hear s t r a i n occur a t cons t ant s t r e s s and volume.
That s t a t e i s achi eved when t h e r a t i o zi/am r eaches a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l
val ue: z /am = M. The equat i on of cons ol i dat i on t hen assumes t h e form:
V = r - hf"cm, where V i s t he s p e c i f i c volume and r i s t he s o i l cons t ant .
The "Cam-clay" model was subsequent l y modified.
I os el evi ch e t a l . [59] developed t h e i r own var i ant of a non-l i near
model wi t h p l a s t i c hardeni ng, which, similar t o t h e "Caurclay" model, i s
a l s o based on t h e pos t ul at e of t h e exi s t ence of a cl os ed l oadi ng s ur f ace F
( wi t h bot h pos i t i ve and negat i ve di l at ancy bei ng account ed f o r ) and i s
dependent on t he l oadi ng path. Proceedi ng from t he a s s oc i a t i ve law, i t i s
assumed t h a t t h e l oadi ng s ur f ace F coi nci des wi t h t h e p l a s t i c
p o t e n t i a l (24).
I n t he model wi t h a s i ngul ar l oadi ng s ur f ace t h a t wa s mentioned e a r l i e r
( Za r e t s ki i [45, 5011, t h e s o i l i s t r e a t e d a s a non-l i near p l a s t i c hardeni ng
medium wi t h p l a s t i c s hear and volume s t r a i n s a c t i ng a s t h e hardeni ng
paramet ers. An unl i mi t ed accumul at i on of t hes e s t r a i n s produces t h e l i m i t
s t a t e . The l i m i t s ur f ace i s descr i bed by a s i ngul ar (pi ecewi se smooth)
curve making i t pos s i bl e t o t a ke i n t o account t he negat i ve and pos i t i ve
di l at ancy and t h e i nf l uence of t he l oadi ng path. Sol ut i ons t o a number of
problems pe r t a i ni ng t o t h e s t a b i l i t y of l a r g e e a r t h dams and t h e i r f oot i ngs
have been obt ai ned wi t h t h e hel p of t h a t mode, us i ng f i n i t e el ement method.
Problems concerned wi t h t h e pr ocess of cons ol i dat i on of s o i l s have a l s o been
sol ved.
Another noteworthy model i s t he e l a s t o- pl a s t i c model (Bugrov [38, 611).
I n t h a t model t h e s o i l i s regarded a s an e l a s t wp l a s t i c medium, e l a s t i c
deformat i ons of which f ol l ow Hooke's law, and p l a s t i c deformat i ons f ol l ow
t h e law of p l a s t i c fl ow ( i n t h e form of p l a s t i c i t y wi t h hardeni ng o r pe r f e c t
p l a s t i c i t y ) . The r e l a t i ons hi p between t he s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s was
consi dered i n t h e i ncr ement al form, i. e. i n t h e form of s t r a i n i ncrement s.
The condi t i ons of t he l i m i t s t a t e accept ed f o r t h e gener al cas e was i n t h e
form gi ven by Mises-Botkin, and f o r pl ane problems i n t h e form of t h e
Mohr-Coulomb c r i t e r i o n . Problems of t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n s t a t e of t h e f oot i ng
wi t h di ver s e i n i t i a l condi t i ons were sol ved by t h e f i n i t e element method.
The i n i t i a l condi t i ons , desi gn paramet ers, etc., were var i ed i n a l l t h e
aforement i oned s ol ut i ons obt ai ned wi t h t h e he l p of t h e method of f i n i t e
di f f er ences o r f i n i t e el ement s. With t h i s d i f f e r e n t as pect s of s o i l
deformat i on coul d be t aken i n t o account i n t h e models used, and t h e e f f e c t
of s p e c i f i c paramet ers on t he r e s u l t i n g s ol ut i ons , a s w e l l a s t he ext ent t o
which t he s e s ol ut i ons d i f f e r e d from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s ol ut i ons , p a r t i c u l a r l y
from t h e s ol ut i ons us i ng t h e e l a s t i c i t y t heor y, coul d be det ermi ned.
It shoul d be not ed t h a t i n r ecent year s a gr e a t number of r es ear cher s
have focussed on devel opi ng non-l i near models. Noteworthy works i n t h a t
ar ea, i n addi t i on t o t hos e mentioned e a r l i e r , a r e as fol l ows: a ) t h e model
of hardeni ng e l a s t i o - p l a s t i c s o i l proposed by Matsuoko e t a l . [ 62] , based on
t he hypot hesi s of s o i l f a i l u r e on a s p e c i a l s ur f a c e desi gnat ed a s t he
" s p a t i a l mobi l i zat i on pl ane", obt ai ni ng a new condi t i on of f a i l u r e i n t h e
form of a c or r e l a t i on of t hr e e i nva r i a nt s of t h e stress t ens or (and
devi at or ) , b) t h e model of Lode* et a l . [631, who proposed t h e i r own
condi t i on of f a i l u r e i n t h e form of t h e maximum val ue of t he r a t i o of t he
f i r s t and t h i r d i nvar i ant s ; c ) and t h e model of Huang Wen-Ki et a l . [641, i n
which t h e fundamental equat i on i ncl udes t h e l oadi ng f unct i on, hardeni ng
modulus and p l a s t i c f unct i on; and d) t h e model of Akai and Ni s hi [651, who
examined p l a s t i c fl ow and s o i l f a i l u r e wi t hi n t he framework of t he
a s s oc i a t i ve law consi der i ng t i m e and ot her f a c t or s .
As may be s een from t h e above revi ew, many d i f f e r e n t models have
al r eady been developed f o r s o i l s , t aki ng i n t o account var i ous
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i t s behaviour: t h e phys i cal and geomet ri c non- l i near i t y,
cr eep and cons ol i dat i on, mutual e f f e c t of t h e t hr e e i nva r i a nt s of t h e s t r e s s
t ens or (which r e f l e c t s t h e e f f e c t of conf i ni ng pr es s ur e on s hear s t r a i n and
t h e e f f e c t of s hear stress on volume deformat i on ( di l a t a nc y) , and t h e e f f e c t
of t h e l oadi ng pat h and t h e depar t ur e from t he condi t i ons of s i mi l i t ude of
t h e s t a t e s of stress and s t r a i n , and of c oa xi a l i t y of t h e stress and s t r a i n
t ens or . It may be s t aed t h a t a l l t he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l i s t e d above can be
t aken i n t o cons i der at i on i n d i f f e r e n t s o i l models (perhaps even i n a u n i f i e d
model), as w e l l a s i n t he s ol ut i ons of var i ous geot echni cal problems, and
that all these characteristics affect the results of the solutions obtained
to varying degrees, bringing them closer to the real situation. Further
development of non-linear soil mechanics, however, may not be worthwhile,
since increasing the number of factors considered in a model increases the
number of initial parameters and hence the characteristics to be determined
experimentally. Overall, the accuracy of solutions obtained with the large
number of the factors considered may be lost due to the spread and
inaccuracy in the determinations of the initial characteristics of soils,
because of the heterogeneity of soils on the one hand and inadequacy of
geotechnical methods of investigation on the other. The main objective
should therefore be to identify the role of different factors on the
occurrence and development of the stress-strain state in soils, and to
evaluate the conditions under which these factors can be ignored, or else,
must be taken into account. Lastly it is also imperative to keep improving
the methods of laboratory and field determinations of the properties of
soils, bearing in mind that the reliability of these methods is a function
of the dependability of theoretical solutions.
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