THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy,

which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. The energy of a
system undergoing change (processed) can be increased or decreased by
exchange with the surroundings and converted from one to another within that
system.
A system is a specified region, not necessarily of constant volume or fixed
boundaries, where transfers conversions of energy and mass are to be studied.
An open system is one where energy and mass cross the boundaries of that
system.
Internal energy is a sole function of temperature for perfect gases and
strong function of temperature and weak function of pressure for non perfect
gases, vapor, and liquids.
Flow energy, or flow work, is the work done by the flowing fluid to push the
quantity represented by mass into, and out of the system.

The Enthalpy
The sums U + PV and u + Pv appear together very frequently in
thermodynamics. The combination, therefore, has been given the name enthalpy
and the symbol H and h, where h = specific enthalpy = H/m. thus
H = U + PV
and h = u + Pv

THE CYLE

Process – begins at one state of the working fluid and ends at another.
Cycle – is a processes that begins and ends at the same state and thus can
indefinitely, or as long as needed.

PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS

Perfect (or Ideal) Gases – is one which, at any state, obeys the equation of
state for perfect gases.

PV = mRT
Pv = RT
pV = nRoT
where:
R = specific gas constant. Different gases have different values of R; for air
ft .lb
R = 53.3 lbm ° Rf ' 286.8 kgJ− K
 m
n = number of moles = M , where M is molecular mass of the gas = 28.97
for air
Ro = universal gas constant = RM, the same for all perfect gases
ft .lb
= 1545.33 lb.mol .f° R
= 8314.34 kg .mol
J
.K
T = absolute temperature in degrees Rankine or Kelvin

Vapor
Quality of x – is the ratio of mass of vapor to mass of vapor and liquid in a two
phase mixture.

Thus the specific enthalpy of a two phase mixture is given by

h = hf + xhfg

where hf is the enthalpy of the saturated liquid and hfg is the difference between
the enthalpy of the saturated vapor, hg, and hf; that is, hfg = hg - hf, all obtain at the
pressure of the system. For specific volume and entropy as

v = vf + xvfg
and
s = sf + xsfg
Subcooled Liquid
Subcooled liquid – is one at a temperature below the saturation temperature at
the given pressure.
Compressed liquid – is synonyms with subcooled liquid.

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Reversible process, also called an ideal process, is one can reverse itself
exactly by following the same path it undertook in the first place thus restore to
the system or the surroundings the same heat and work previously exchanged.
Mechanical friction is one in which mechanical work is dissipated into a
heating effect, such as in the case of shaft rotating in a bearing.
Fluid friction is similar to mechanical. A fluid expanding behind a piston or
through a turbine undergoes internal friction, resulting in the dissipation of part of
its energy into heating itself at the expense of useful work.
Heat transfer in any of its forms, conduction, convection, or radiation,
occurs from a higher temperature to a lower temperature. Heat transfer causes a
loss of availability because no work is done between the high and low-
temperature.
 Throttling is an uncontrolled expansion process of a liquid from a high
pressure region to a low-pressure region.
External irreversibilities are those that occur across the boundaries of the
system. The primary source of external irreversibility in power system is heat
transfer, both at the high-temperature end, the heat source, and the low-
temperature end, the heat sink.
Internal irreversibilities are those that occur within the boundaries of the
system. The primary source of internal irreversibility in power system is fluid
friction in rotary machine such as turbine, compressors, and pumps and in pipes
and valves.

THE CONCEPT OF ENTROPY

Entropy, first introduced by Clausius in 1865, is a property, as are
pressure, temperature, internal energy, and enthalpy. It is given the symbol S
and has the units Btu per degree Rankine (Btu/oR) or the units joule per Kelvin
(J/K). Specific entropy s has the units Btu/(lbm.oR) or J/(kg.K). entropy is the
property that remains constant in an adiabatic reversible process.

THE CARNOT CYCLE

Sadi Carnot laid the foundation of the second law of thermodynamics,

introduced the concepts of reversibility and cycles, and introduced the principle
that the temperature of the heat source and heat sink determined the thermal
efficiency of a reversible cycle.η

Carnot cycle on the P-V and T-S diagram

1. 1-2: reversible adiabatic compression

2. 2-3: reversible constant-temperature heat addition
3. 3-4: reversible adiabatic expansion
4. 4-1: reversible heat rejection

The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle nc can now be easily obtained, noting
that the change in entropy during heat addition and rejection are equal in
magnitude. Thus

TH
QA =
S3 − S 2

TL
QR =
S1 − S 4
 QR = TL ( S 4 − S1 )
= TL ( S 3 − S 2 )

where TH and TL are the heat source and heat sink absolute temperature,
respectively. Hence TH = T2. Similarly TL = T1.
For all power cycles the net work and the thermal efficiency are defined by

∆Wnet =Q A − QR
and

∆Wnet
ηth =
QA
Thus, the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle ηc is given by

TH − TL
ηc =
TL

THE IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE

Schematic flow diagram of a Rankine Cycle

PV & TS diagram of a Rankine Cycle

Processes:
1-2 or 1’-2’: adiabatic reversible expansion through the turbine. The exhaust
vapor at 2 or 2’ is usually in the two-phase region.
2-3 or 2’-3: constant temperature and being a two-phase mixture process,
constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser.
3-4 adiabatic reversible compression by the pump of saturated liquid at
the condenser pressure, 3, to subcooled liquid at the steam
generator pressure, 4. Line 3-4 is vertical on both the P-V and T-S
diagrams because the liquid is essentially in compressible and the
pump is adiabatic reversible.
4-1 or 4-4’ constant pressure heat addition in the steam generator. Line 4-B-1-
1’ is a constant pressure line on both diagrams. The portion 4-B
represents bringing the subcolled liquid, 4, to saturated liquid at B.
the section 4-B represents in the steam generator is called an
economizer. The portion B-1 represents heating the saturated liquid
to saturated vapor at constant pressure and temperature (being a
two-phase mixture), and section B-1 in the steam generator is
called the boiler or evaporator. Portion 1-1’, in the superheat cycle,
 represents heating the saturated vapor at 1-1’. Section 1-1’ in the
steam generator is called a super-heater.

Heat added qA = h1 – h4
Btu
lb or kgJ

Turbine work wT = h1 – h4
B tu
lb
or kJg

Heat rejected q R = h2 − h3
Btu
lb or kgJ

Pump work W p = h4 −h3

B tu
lb or kJg

Net work ΔWnet = ( h1 − h2 ) − ( h4 − h3 ) or kgJ

B tu
lb

ΔW net
Thermal efficiency ηth =
qa
( h − h ) − ( h4 − h3 )
= 1 2
h1 − h4

REHEAT

An additional improvement in cycle efficiency with gaseous primary fluids as

in fossil-fueled and gas-cooled powerplants achieved by the use of reheat.