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Social Research, Vol. 63, No.

3, 801-817 (Fall 1996)


Paul Eka!"s research is su##or$e% &' a Research Scie!$is$ ()ar% *ro
$he Na$io!al +!s$i$u$e o* ,e!$al -eal$h (,-0609.).
/h' 0o!"$ /e 1a$ch 2iars3
Paul Eka!
4ur research (Eka! a!% 4"Sulli5a!, 19906 Fra!k a!% Eka!, *or$hcoi!76 Eka!, Fra!k,
a!% 4"Sulli5a!, *or$hcoi!7) su77es$s $ha$ os$ #eo#le ca!!o$ $ell *ro %eea!or )he$her
soeo!e is l'i!7 or $elli!7 $he $ru$h. Such #oor #er*ora!ce is !o$ &ecause lies are $ol%
*la)lessl'. ,os$ liars ake is$akes )hich coul% &e %e$ec$e% &u$ usuall' are isse%. 8o$h
#er#e$ra$i!7 a lie a!% %e$ec$i!7 a lie, i! os$ #eo#le, see $o &e #oorl' %e5elo#e% skills. +! $his
ar$icle, + co!si%er si9 e9#la!a$io!s *or )h' os$ o* us %o !o$ ca$ch liars *ro %eea!or. + )ill
*irs$ e9#lai! ho) + %is$i!7uish l'i!7 *ro o$her *ors o* %ecei$, a!% $he! %iscuss $he e5i%e!ce
)hich su77es$s $ha$ #eo#le are such #oor lie ca$chers.
:he i!$e!$ o* $he liar is o!e o* $he $)o cri$eria + (Eka!, ;198<= 199.) use $o %is$i!7uish lies
*ro o$her ki!%s o* %ece#$io!. :he liar deliberately chooses $o islea% $he $ar7e$. 2iars a'
ac$uall' $ell $he $ru$h, &u$ $ha$ is !o$ $heir i!$e!$. (!% $ru$h*ul #eo#le a' #ro5i%e *alse
i!*ora$io!>&a% a%5ice *ro a s$ock &roker>&u$ $ha$ is !o$ $heir i!$e!$. :he? liar has a choice6
$he liar coul% chose !o$ $o lie. /e are all $e#$e% $o lie, &u$ )e %o !o$ al)a's %o so. 2'i!7 is !o$
irresis$i&le6 i$ is, &' ' %e*i!i$io!, a co!scious, co!si%ere% choice. + %o reco7!i@e $ha$ l'i!7 ca!
&ecoe a ha&i$ a!% $he! #er*ore% )i$h li$$le co!si%era$io!, &u$, a$ leas$ i!i$iall', all such ha&i$s
&e7a! as co!si%ere% choices a&ou$ )he$her or !o$ $o %o so. Presua&l', a #a$holo7ical liar is
co#elle% $o lie a!% &' ' %e*i!i$io!, $here*ore, is !o$ a liar.
:he seco!% cri$erio! *or %is$i!7uishi!7 lies *ro o$her %ece#$io!s is $ha$ $he $ar7e$ is !o$
!o$i*ie% a&ou$ $he liar"s i!$e!$io! $o islea%. ( a7icia! is !o$ a liar &' $his cri$erio!, &u$ Ari
Beller is a liar, si!ce Beller claie% his $ricks )ere !o$ a7ic. (! ac$or is !o$ a liar, &u$ a!
i#os$or is. 2e$ $he &u'er &e)are is o!e e9a#le o* a! e9#lici$ )ar!i!7 $ha$ #ro%uc$s or ser5ices
a' !o$ &e )ha$ $he' are #rese!$e% $o &e. (4* course, $ha$ )ar!i!7 %oes !o$ a##ear i!
a%5er$isee!$s, !earl' all o* )hich are %esi7!e% $o co!5e' $he o##osi$e essa7e.) Poker is s$ill
a!o$her si$ua$io! i! )hich $he rules o* $he 7ae sa!c$io! a!% !o$i*' $he #la'ers $ha$ %ece#$io!
)ill occur, a!%, $here*ore, o!e ca!!o$ co!si%er &lu**i!7 $o &e a lie.
Soe$ies !o$i*ica$io! o* a! i!$e!$io! $o islea% is i#lici$ i! $he *rai!7, $o use Bo**a!"s
(197C) $er, o* $he si$ua$io!. +! real es$a$e $ra!sac$io!s, $he #o$e!$ial &u'er is i#lici$l' !o$i*ie%
$ha$ $he seller"s aski!7 #rice is !o$ $he ac$ual #rice $he seller )oul% acce#$. Various *ors o*
#oli$e!ess are o$her i!s$a!ces i! )hich $he !a$ure o* $he si$ua$io! !o$i*ies $he $ar7e$ $ha$ $he $ru$h
a' !o$ &e s#oke!. :he hos$ )oul% !o$ #ro#erl'" scru$i!i@e $he %i!!er 7ues$ $o %e$eri!e i* $he
7ues$"s clai $o ha5e e!Do'e% $he e5e!i!7 is $rue a!'ore $ha! $he au!$ shoul% )orr' )he$her
$he !e#he) is l'i!7 )he! he sa's $ha$ he a##recia$e% &ei!7 7i5e! a $ie *or 1hris$as. 0ece#$io!
is e9#ec$e%6 e5e! i* $he $ar7e$ i7h$ sus#ec$ $ha$ $he $ru$h is !o$ &ei!7 $ol%, i$ is i#ro#er $o
Eues$io! i$. 4!l' cer$ai! $'#es o* %ece#$io! a' &e allo)a&leF $he #oker #la'er ca!!o$ use
arke% car%s6 $he hoe seller ca!!o$ co!ceal a k!o)! %e*ec$.
+! cour$shi#, i$ is a&i7uous )he$her $he #ar$ies shoul% e9#ec$ $ru$h*ul!ess. :he sa'i!7 Gall"s
*air i! lo5e a!% )arH )oul% see $o )ar! lo5ers !o$ $o &elie5e all $he' are $ol%. Rece!$ #u&lic
o#i!io! #olls su77es$ $ha$ lies $ha$ %o)!#la' $he !u&er o* #re5ious se9ual #ar$!ers are coo!
ao!7 colle7e-a7e% a%ul$s. Ie$ + e9#ec$ $ha$ lo5ers )a!$ $o &elie5e i! $he $ru$h*ul!ess o* $heir
lo5er. ,a!' #o#ular so!7s $es$i*' $o $he &e$ra'al *el$ )he! lies are %isco5ere% (al$hou7h soe %o
)ar! $ha$ lies a' &e e9#ec$e%). Roa!$ic lo5e reEuires collusi5e e**or$s $o %e5elo# a!%
ai!$ai! '$hs a&ou$ each o$her a!% $he !a$ure o* $he rela$io!shi#.
+ %i**er *ro 8ok (198.), )ho o!l' co!si%ers *alse s$a$ee!$s $o &e lies. + (Eka!, ;198<=
199.) ar7ue% $ha$ o!e ca! *alsi*' )i$hou$ )or%s, a!% o!e !ee% !o$ *alsi*', 5er&all' or
!o!5er&all', $o lie. 1o!ceale!$ is Dus$ as uch a lie as *alsi*ica$io!, i* $here is a! e9#ec$a$io!
$ha$ i!*ora$io! )ill &e re5eale%. /he! *illi!7 ou$ a Do& a##lica$io! $ha$ asks *or a lis$i!7 o* all
#re5ious e#lo'e!$, oi$$i!7 $he o!e *ro )hich o!e )as *ire% )oul% &e a co!ceale!$ lie,
*or $here is a! o&li7a$io! $o re5eal. +! #erso!al rela$io!shi#s i$ is !o$ al)a's so clear cu$, a!% $he
liar, o!ce %isco5ere%, a!% $he $ar7e$ o* $he lie a' %isa7ree a&ou$ )he$her or !o$ a! o&li7a$io! $o
re5eal $he co!ceale% i!*ora$io! )as i! *orce.
1o!ceale!$ a!% *alsi*ica$io! are %i**ere!$ $ech!iEues *or acco#lishi!7 $he sae o&Dec$i5e.
:he issue is $he o$i5e, !o$ $he $ech!iEue e#lo'e% $o acco#lish i$. +* $he o$i5e is $o islea%,
$he! $he choice &e$)ee! *alsi*'i!7 or co!ceali!7 is si#l' a a$$er o* )hich $ech!iEue )ill )ork
&e$$er i! a 7i5e! i!s$a!ce. Else)here (Eka!, ;198<3199.) + ha5e e9#lai!e% )h' os$ liars
)oul% #re*er $o co!ceal ra$her $ha! *alsi*' i* $he si$ua$io! )ill allo) i$ a!% also %escri&e% soe
o$her $ech!iEues *or i#lee!$i!7 a lie.
No) le$ us co!si%er )ha$ )e k!o) a&ou$ ho) )ell #eo#le ca! %e$ec$ lies *ro %eea!or. :he
e5i%e!ce $ha$ os$ #eo#le %o #oorl' i! ca$chi!7 lies coes *ro $he *ollo)i!7 $'#e o*
e9#erie!$. S$u%e!$s are recrui$e% $o lie or $ell $he $ru$h a&ou$ soe$hi!7 )hich usuall' %oes !o$
a$$er uch $o $he. +$ has !o rele5a!ce $o $heir #as$ or $heir e9#ec$e% *u$ure li*e. Soe$ies i!
a )eak (i! ' Du%7e!$) a$$e#$ $o o$i5a$e $he, $he' are $ol% i$ is i#or$a!$ $o &e a&le $o lie,
or $ha$ sar$ or success*ul #eo#le succee% i! $his $ask. Vi%eo$a#es o* $heir &eha5ior are sho)! $o
o$her s$u%e!$s )ho are aske% $o i%e!$i*' )ho is l'i!7 a!% )ho is $elli!7 $he $ru$h. :'#icall', os$
o* $hose $r'i!7 $o ca$ch $he liars #er*or a$ cha!ce or Dus$ sli7h$l' &e$$er $ha! cha!ce. 4ur
(Eka! a!% Friese!, 197C6 Eka!, Fra!k, a!% 4"Sulli5a!, *or$hcoi!7) research has %i**ere% i!
a !u&er o* )a's.
/e ha5e $rie% $o ake $he lies rele5a!$ $o $heir li5es a!% $o se$ $he s$akes *or success or *ailure
as hi7h as )e coul%. /e a$$e#$e% $his *or $)o reaso!s. +$ is o!l' i! hi7h s$ake lies $ha$ eo$io!s
a&ou$ l'i!7 (*ear, 7uil$, e9ci$ee!$, or )ha$ + ha5e calle% %u#i!7 %eli7h$) are likel' $o &e arouse%
a!% &e$ra' $he lie. +$ is !o$ Dus$ $he leaka7e o* $hese s$ro!7 eo$io!s )hich #ro5i%e &eha5ioral
clues $o %ecei$, &u$ $hese s$ro!7 eo$io!s also a9" %isruP$ $he liar"s co7!i$i5e #rocessi!7 a!%
resul$ i! e5asi5e, i#lausi&le, a!% s$u&li!7 accou!$s. ( seco!% reaso! *or s$u%'i!7 hi7h s$ake
lies is $ha$ $hese are $he lies )i$h )hich socie$' is os$ co!cer!e%.
+! o!e o* our e9#erie!$al sce!arios, )e e9ai!e% ho) )ell !urses coul% co!ceal $he
!e7a$i5e emotions $he' *el$ )he! )i$!essi!7 *ils sho)i!7 a#u$a$io!s a!% &ur!s. :he' )ere
hi7hl' o$i5a$e% $o succee% i! $his lie, &ecause $he' $hou7h$ our e9#erie!$ o**ere% $he $he
o##or$u!i$' $o %e5elo# a skill $he' )oul% !ee% $o use )he! co!*ro!$i!7 Dus$ such u#se$$i!7
sce!es i! $heir *u$ure )ork. +! a!o$her o* our sce!arios, $he su&Dec$s ha% a cha!ce $o $ake a!%
kee# J<0 i* $he' coul% co!5i!ce $he i!$erro7a$or $he'" ha% !o$ $ake! $he money. :hose su&Dec$s
)ho %i% !o$ $ake $he o!e' coul% ear! J10 i* $he i!$erro7a$or &elie5e% $he )he! $he'" sai%
$he' ha% !o$ $ake! $he J<0. +! our las$ sce!ario, )e *irs$ i%e!$i*ie% $he social issues $he su&Dec$s
*el$ os$ s$ro!7l' a&ou$, a!% $he! aske% $he $o %escri&e $ha$ opinion ho!es$l' (a!% ear! J10 i*
&elie5e%) or clai $o ha5e $he o##osi$e o* $heir $rue o#i!io! (a!% ear! J<0 i* &elie5e%).
+! our os$ rece!$ )ork )e 7a5e soe o* our su&Dec$s $he choice as $o )he$her $o lie or $ell
$he $ru$h, as #eo#le ha5e i! real li*e. :here are a!' reaso!s )h' soe #eo#le choose !o$ $o lie,
o!e o* )hich is $heir o)! k!o)le%7e, &ase% o! #as$ e9#erie!ce, $ha$ $he' are alos$ al)a's
cau7h$. +!clu%i!7 i! $he sa#le o* liars such $erri&le liars, #eo#le )ho )oul% !o$ choose $o lie
u!less *orce% $o %o so &' $he e9#erie!$er, coul% i!*la$e $he %e$ec$io! ra$e. +! 5ir$uall' all
#re5ious research, o! ei$her i!$er#erso!al %ece#$io! or #ol'7ra#h lie %e$ec$io!, su&Dec$s )ere !o$
7i5e! $he choice as $o )he$her $o lie or &e $ru$h*ul. 4!e e9ce#$io! is $he s$u%' o* $he #ol'7ra#h
&' Bi!$o!, 0aie, Elaa%, a!% 8e!-Shakhar (198.), i! )hich $he' )ere a&le $o k!o) )hich
#olicee! ha% chea$e% o! a $es$ *or eli7i&ili$' *or #roo$io!6 S$i**, 1ora!, K!i@ek, a!% S!i%er
(199C) i! a siilar *ashio! k!e) )hich s$u%e!$s chea$e% o! a Eui@. 8ra%le' (1988) also allo)e%
su&Dec$s $o choose )he$her $o lie or $ell $he $ru$h i! a #ol'7ra#h s$u%'.
(!o$her u!iEue *ea$ure o* our rece!$ e9#erie!$s is $ha$ )e $ol% $he su&Dec$s $ha$ $he' )oul%
&e #u!ishe%, a!% i$ )as a co!si%era&le #u!ishe!$, i* $he i!$erro7a$or Du%7e% $he $o &e l'i!7.
8o$h $he $ru$h*ul #erso! is$ake!l' Du%7e% $o &e l'i!7 a!% $he liar )ho )as %e$ec$e% )oul%
recei5e $he sae #u!ishe!$. :hus, *or $he *irs$ $ie i! research o! l'i!7, &o$h $he $ru$h*ul
#erso! a!% $he liar i7h$ &e a*rai%>o* &ei!7 %is&elie5e% i* $elli!7 $he $ru$h, o* &ei!7 cau7h$ i*
l'i!7. +* i$ is o!l' $he liar )ho i7h$ &e a*rai% o* &ei!7 accuse% o* l'i!7, i$ is $oo eas'" *or $he lie
ca$cher a!% !o$ rele5a!$ $o os$ o* real li*e. (!% i* !ei$her liar !or $he $ru$h*ul #erso! *ear
#u!ishe!$, i$ shoul% ha5e li$$le rele5a!ce $o $he lies $ha$ occur i! $he crii!al Dus$ice )orl% or i!
!a$io!al securi$', le$ alo!e i! ari$al %is#u$es, #are!$-chil% co!*lic$s, a!% so o!.
(l$hou7h our rece!$ e9#erie!$s ca! clai $o ha5e ore ecolo7ical 5ali%i$' $ha! our ol%er
s$u%ies, or $ha! os$ o* $he li$era$ure o! ei$her i!$er#erso!al %ecei$ or #ol'7ra#h lie %e$ec$io!, $he
*i!%i!7s a&ou$ %e$ec$a&ili$' )ere !o$ uch %i**ere!$. ,os$ o* $hose )ho sa) $he 5i%eo$a#es a!%
a%e $heir Du%7e!$s o#era$e% a$ a cha!ce le5el or o!l' sli7h$l' &e$$er $ha! cha!ce. 8e*ore
#rocee%i!7 $o co!si%er )h' #eo#le %o so #oorl' as lie-ca$chers, le$ us co!si%er soe lii$a$io!s
o* our research )hich coul% ha5e le% us $o u!%eres$ia$e $he a&ili$' $o %e$ec$ lies *ro
%eea!or.
For $he os$ #ar$, $he o&ser5ers )ho Du%7e% )ho )as l'i!7 a!% )ho )as $elli!7 $he $ru$h
ha% !o 5i$al i!$eres$ a$ s$ake i! achie5i!7 accurac'. :he' )ere !o$ o**ere% hi7her #a' i* $he'
)ere ore accura$e. (!% ca$chi!7 liars )as !o$ i!$ri!sicall' re)ar%i!7, *or os$ o* $hese #eo#le
%i% !o$ ake a li5i!7 ca$chi!7 liars. :his lii$a$io! )as a%%resse% i! our (Eka! a!%
4"Sulli5a!, 1991) s$u%' a!% )ork &' o$her research 7rou#s (Krau$ a!% Poe, 19806 0ePaulo a!%
P*ei*er, 1986) )hich %i% s$u%' #ro*essio!als co!cer!e% )i$h ca$chi!7 liars. /e *ou!% $ha$
cus$os o**icials, #olicee!, $rial cour$ Du%7es, F.8.+., 1.+.(., 8.(.:.F., 0.E.(., *ore!sic
#s'chia$ris$s, a!% $rial la)'ers )ere !o$ uch &e$$er $ha! cha!ce.
Perha#s accurac' )oul% &e hi7her i* $hose aki!7 $he Du%7e!$s ha% &ee! a&le $o ask $he
Eues$io!s, ra$her $ha! &ei!7 #assi5e o&ser5ers. + ca!!o$ rule $his ou$, al$hou7h + %ou&$ i$ )oul% &e
so. :he reEuiree!$ $o *orula$e Eues$io!s i7h$ )ell %e$rac$ *ro $he a&ili$' $o #rocess $he
i!*ora$io! #ro5i%e% &' $he #erso! &ei!7 Du%7e%. +$ is *or $his reaso! $ha$ i! a!' i!$erro7a$io!s
o!e #erso! asks $he Eues$io!s )hile a!o$her si$s #assi5el' co!si%eri!7 $he sus#ec$s res#o!ses. +$
)oul% &e i!$eres$i!7 $o ha5e #ro*essio!al i!$erro7a$ors ask $he Eues$io!s i! our e9#erie!$s a!%
$he! %e$eri!e i* $hose )ho see $he 5i%eo$a#es 7e!era$e% )ere ore accura$e $ha! has &ee! so
*ar *ou!%.
4ur o&ser5ers )ere !o$ *ailiar )i$h $hose )ho $he' Du%7e%, a!% i$ i7h$ &e ar7ue% $ha$
such *ailiari$' )oul% &e!e*i$ accurac'. :here are, o* course, a!' si$ua$io!s i! )hich
Du%7e!$s a&ou$ l'i!7 are a%e )i$hou$ a!' #rior *ailiari$' )i$h $he #erso! &ei!7 e5alua$e%,
a!% our e9#erie!$s a$ leas$ are rele5a!$ $o $hose i!s$a!ces. 8u$ + %ou&$ $ha$ *ailiari$' al)a's
&e!e*i$s lie %e$ec$io!. /hile i$ shoul% #ro5i%e $he &asis *or %iscou!$i!7 i%ios'!cra$ic &eha5iors, i$
a' %o so a$ a cos$. /e $e!% $o &ecoe i!5es$e% i! our *rie!%shi#s a!% )ork rela$io!shi#s, a!%
$he )ish $o #reser5e $he a' lea% us $o %e5elo# &li!%!ess $o &eha5iors )hich coul% %isru#$
$he. :rus$ akes o!e 5ul!era&le $o &ei!7 isle%, as usual le5els o* )ari!ess are re%uce% a!%
$he &e!e*i$ o* $he %ou&$ is rou$i!el' 7i5e!.
+!5ol5ee!$ i! a rela$io!shi# ca! lea% also $o co!*i%e!ce i! o!e"s a&ili$' $o %e$ec$ %ece#$io!
(Sillars a!% Sco$$, 1983), a!% such co!*i%e!ce a' i$sel* ake o!e ore 5ul!era&le (2e5i!e a!%
,c1or!ack, 199.). Failiari$' shoul% &e a! u!i$i7a$e% &e!e*i$ o!l' )he! i$ is )i$h a #erso!
o!e has ha% reaso! $o %is$rus$, a!% a&ou$ )ho o!e has acEuire% k!o)le%7e o* ho) a!% )he!
$he' &e$ra' $he rela$io!shi#.
+! our e9#erie!$s, $he o&ser5ers )ere o!l' sho)! a *e) i!u$es o* each i!$er5ie) &e*ore
&ei!7 reEuire% $o ake $heir Du%7e!$. 8u$ lo!7er sa#les a' !o$ !ecessaril' &e!e*i$ lie %e$ec-
$io!. /e %i% %o o!e s$u%' i! )hich $he sa#les sho)! )ere $)ice as lo!7, a!% accurac' %i% !o$
i#ro5e. Fur$herore, )e k!o) *ro $he &eha5ioral easuree!$s )e ha5e %o!e $ha$ $here are
clues $o %ecei$ i! $hese shor$er sa#les. Ne5er$heless, )e ca!!o$ rule ou$ $his lii$a$io!. +*
#eo#le )ere 7i5e! uch lo!7er sa#les $o Du%7e, o* a! hour or $)o, accurac' i7h$ i#ro5e.
( cri$ic i7h$ also ha5e )o!%ere% i* accurac' )as so #oor &ecause $here )ere *e)
&eha5ioral clues $o %ecei$, &u$, as + ha5e Dus$ e!$io!e%, $ha$ is !o$ $he case i! our e9#erie!$s.
,easuree!$s )e a!% our colla&ora$ors ha5e %o!e o* $he *acial o5ee!$s, 5oice, a!% s#eech
sho) $ha$ hi7h le5els o* accurac' are #ossi&le>o5er 80 #erce!$ correc$ classi*ica$io!s o* )ho is
l'i!7 a!% )ho is $elli!7 $he $ru$h. /hile $hose easuree!$s reEuire% slo)e% o$io! re#la's, )e
also k!o) $ha$ accura$e Du%7e!$s are #ossi&le Dus$ &' 5ie)i!7 $he 5i%eo$a#es a$ real $ie. (
sall #erce!$ o* $hose )e ha5e s$u%ie% ha5e reache% 80 #erce!$ or &e$$er accurac', a!% $he' ha5e
%o!e so i! Du%7i!7 ore $ha! o!e sce!ario, so i$ is u!likel' $heir accurac' )as a *luke. (!% )e
ha5e *ou!% a *e) occu#a$io!al 7rou#s )hich as a 7rou# )ere hi7hl' accura$e. :he A!i$e% S$a$es
Secre$ Ser5ice )ere hi7hl' accura$e o! $he eo$io! lie6 !o!e o* $he score% a$ or &elo) cha!ce,
a!% a $hir% )ere a&o5e 80 #erce!$ accura$e. +!$erro7a$ors s#eciall' selec$e% *or $heir k!o)! skills
a!% 7i5e! a )eek o* $rai!i!7 sho)e% siilar accurac' o! $he o#i!io! lie.
(l$hou7h $he s$akes i! $he lies )e s$u%ie% )ere uch hi7her $ha! i! o$her research o! l'i!7,
cer$ai!l' $he' )ere !o$ as hi7h as $he' are i! a!' crii!al or !a$io!al securi$' cases. Perha#s i*
$he s$akes )ere uch hi7her, $he 5i%eo$a#es )oul% ha5e co!$ai!e% a!' o&5ious si7!s o* %ecei$,
resul$i!7 i! uch hi7her accurac'. + ca!!o$ ar7ue a7ai!s$ $ha$ #ossi&ili$' &u$, as + Dus$ %escri&e%,
$here )ere soe occu#a$io!al 7rou#s )ho )ere accura$e )he! Du%7i!7 our 5i%eo$a#es. :he
Eues$io! reai!s )h' )ere all $hese o$her 7rou#s !o$ accura$e.
:he i!*ora$io! is $here, a!% i$ ca! &e %e$ec$e% &' soe &u$ !o$ &' os$. 8e*ore co!si%eri!7
)h' $he o5er)heli!7 aDori$' o* #eo#le %o #oorl', co!si%er o!e ore *ea$ure o* our
e9#erie!$s )hich #ro&a&l' &e!e*i$e% accurac' a!% a' ha5e le% us $o o5er- ra$her $ha! u!%er-
es$ia$e accurac'. +! all o* our rece!$ s$u%ies )e ha5e $ol% our o&ser5ers $ha$ &e$)ee! C0 a!% 60
#erce!$ o* $he #eo#le $he' )ill see are l'i!7. +!i$iall' )e %i% !o$ 7i5e $his i!s$ruc$io!, a!% *ou!%
$ha$ a 7rou# o* #olicee! Du%7e% e5er'o!e $he' sa) o! $he 5i%eo$a#e as l'i!7, la$er e9#lai!i!7
$ha$ e5er'o!e lies, es#eciall' $o $he #olice. K!o)i!7 $he &ase ra$e o* lies is a! a%5a!$a7e #eo#le
%o !o$ al)a's ha5e, a!% shoul% e!ha!ce lie %e$ec$io!. + ha5e ore $o sa' a&ou$ $his la$er.
Bra!$i!7 $ha$ our e5i%e!ce is !o$ co!clusi5e, !e5er$heless, our 5i%eo$a#es %o co!$ai!
&eha5ioral clues $o %ecei$, )hich soe #eo#le ca! reco7!i@e accura$el' &u$ os$ %o !o$. For $he
#ur#ose o* $his %iscussio!, le$ us co!si%er $his e5i%e!ce as su77es$i!7 $ha$ i! ac$ual li*e os$
#eo#le, $he o5er)heli!7 aDori$' o* #eo#le, %o !o$ %e$ec$ hi7h s$ake lies *ro %eea!or. :he
Eues$io! + #ose is )h' !o$, )h' ca! )e !o$ all %o &e$$er a$ $his3 +$ is !o$ $ha$ )e %o !o$ care.
Pu&lic o#i!io! #olls $ie a!% a7ai! sho) $ha$ ho!es$' is ao!7 $he $o# *i5e charac$eris$ics
#eo#le )a!$ i! a lea%er, *rie!%, or lo5er. (!% $he )orl% o* e!$er$ai!e!$ is *ull o* s$ories, *ils,
a!% so!7s )hich %escri&e $he $ra7ic co!seEue!ces o* &e$ra'al.
,' *irs$ e9#la!a$io! o* )h' )e a' &e such #oor lie ca$chers is $ha$ )e are !o$ #re#are% &'
our e5olu$io!ar' his$or' $o &e ei$her 5er' 7oo% lie ca$chers or lie #er#e$ra$ors.
1
+ sus#ec$ $ha$
our a!ces$ral e!5iro!e!$ )as !o$ o!e i! )hich $here )ere a!' o##or$u!i$ies $o lie a!% 7e$
a)a' )i$h i$, a!% $he cos$s *or &ei!7 cau7h$ i! a lie i7h$ ha5e &ee! se5ere. +* $his s#ecula$io! is
correc$, $here )oul% !o$ ha5e &ee! a!' selec$io! *or $hose #eo#le )ho )ere u!usuall' a%e#$ i!
ca$chi!7 or #er#e$ra$i!7 lies. :he *ossil recor% %oes !o$ $ell us uch a&ou$ social li*e, so o!e
us$ s#ecula$e a&ou$ )ha$ li*e as hu!$er-7a$herers i7h$ ha5e &ee! like. + a%% $o $ha$ '
e9#erie!ce $hir$' 'ears a7o )orki!7 i! )ha$ )as $he! a s$o!e-a7e #reli$era$e cul$ure i! )ha$ is
!o) calle% Pa#ua Ne) Bui!ea.
:here )ere !o roos )i$h %oors, li$$le #ri5ac' i! $his 7rou# li5i!7, sall 5illa7e, i! )hich
e5er'o!e k!e) a!% sa) e5er'o!e else e5er' %a'. 2ies )oul% os$ o*$e! &e &e$ra'e% &' $he
$ar7e$ or soeo!e else o&ser5i!7 ac$io!s )hich co!$ra%ic$e% $he lie or &' o$her #h'sical
e5i%e!ce. (%ul$er' )as a! ac$i5i$' )hich l'i!7 o*$e! a$$e#$e% $o co!ceal i! $he 5illa7e )here +
li5e%. Such lies )ere u!co5ere% !o$ &' rea%i!7 $he &e$ra'er"s %eea!or )he! #roclaii!7
*i%eli$', &u$ &' s$u&li!7 o5er hi or her i! $he &ush.
Perha#s lies a&ou$ &elie*s, eo$io!s, a!% #la!s coul% ha5e &e$$er a5oi%e% %e$ec$io! i! such
a! e!5iro!e!$.
.
8u$ soe o* $hose lies )oul% e5e!$uall' lea% $o o!e or a!o$her ac$io!, a!% $he!
' ar7ue!$ a&ou$ ho) har% i$ is $o co!ceal or *alsi*' ac$io!s i! a se$$i!7 i! )hich $here is !o
#ri5ac' )oul% a##l'.
+! a socie$' i! )hich a! i!%i5i%ual"s sur5i5al %e#e!%e% o! coo#era$i5e e**or$s )i$h o$her
e&ers o* $heir 5illa7e, $he re#u$a$io!al loss *or &ei!7 cau7h$ i! a hi7h s$ake lie i7h$ )ell &e
%ea%l'. No o!e i7h$ coo#era$e )i$h soeo!e k!o)! $o ha5e e!7a7e% i! serious lies. 4!e coul%
!o$ cha!7e s#ouses, Do&s, or 5illa7es )i$h a!' ease.
1he!e' a!% Se'*ar$h (1990), i! $heir cha#$er o! a!ial %ece#$io!, ake 5er' siilar #oi!$s.
(! i#or$a!$ co!s$rai!$ a7ai!s$ l'i!7
. . . arises *ro a s#ecies social s$ruc$ure. (!ials $ha$ li5e i! s$a&le social 7rou#s *ace s#ecial
#ro&les i! a!' a$$e#$ a$ %ece#$i5e cou!ica$io!. . . . (o!7 sociall' li5i!7 a!ials %ece#$i5e
si7!als )ill #ro&a&l' ha5e $o &e ore su&$le a!% occur a$ lo)er *reEue!cies i* $he' are $o 7o
u!%e$ec$e%. EEuall' i#or$a!$, i* a!ials li5e i! social 7rou#s i! )hich soe %e7ree o* coo#era$io!
is esse!$ial *or sur5i5al, $he !ee% *or coo#era$io! ca! re%uce $he ra$e a$ )hich u!relia&le si7!als are
7i5e! (1990, #. 189).
:o ha5e ha% soe s#ecial skill i! %e$ec$i!7 (or #er#e$ra$i!7 *or $ha$ a$$er) lies )oul% !o$
ha5e ha% uch a%a#$i5e 5alue i! such circus$a!ces. Serious, hi7h s$ake lies #ro&a&l' %i% !o$
occur $ha$ o*$e! &ecause o* lii$e% o##or$u!i$' a!% hi7h cos$s. /he! lies )ere sus#ec$e% or
u!co5ere%, i$ )as #ro&a&l' !o$ &' Du%7e!$s o* %eea!or. (No$e + ha5e *ocuse% Dus$ o! i!$ra-
7rou# lies6 cer$ai!l' lies i7h$ &e$)ee! 7rou#s, a!% $heir cos$s a!% %e$ec$io! coul% &e Eui$e
%i**ere!$).
3
/hile $here are al$ruis$ic lies, ' %iscussio! has %eal$ )i$h less *rie!%l' lies, lies $ha$ occur
)he! o!e #erso! 7ai!s a! a%5a!$a7e, o*$e! a$ $he cos$ o* $he $ar7e$ o* $he lie. /he! $he
a%5a!$a7e is 7ai!e% &' 5iola$i!7 a rule or e9#ec$a$io!, )e call $ha$ chea$i!7. 2ies soe$ies a'
&e reEuire% $o acco#lish $he chea$i!7 ac$i5i$', a!% lies are al)a's reEuire% $o co!ceal ha5i!7
chea$e%. :hose chea$e% %o !o$ $'#icall' a##recia$e &ei!7 chea$e% a!% are o$i5a$e% $o u!co5er
a!' lies i!5ol5e%. 8u$ chea$i!7 is !o$ likel' $o ha5e occurre% o*$e! e!ou7h i! our a!ces$ral
e!5iro!e!$ $o co!*er soe a%5a!$a7e o! $hose )ho i7h$ ha5e &ee! u!usuall' a%e#$ a$ s#o$$i!7
)he! i$ %i% occur. (!% as + ar7ue% earlier, $here )as #ro&a&l' so li$$le #ri5ac' $ha$ chea$s )oul%
&e cau7h$ &' ea!s o$her $ha! %iscer!i!7 $heir is%ee%s *ro $heir %eea!or. :he &iolo7is$
(la! Bra*e! )ro$eF
:he i!ci%e!ce o* chea$i!7 us$ &e lo) e!ou7h $ha$ si7!ali!7 reai!s o! a5era7e ho!es$. (s
si7!alers a9ii@e $heir *i$!ess, $his i#lies $ha$ $he occasio!s o! )hich chea$i!7 is
a%5a!$a7eous us$ &e lii$e%. Perha#s $he si7!alers *or )ho chea$i!7 is a%5a!$a7eous are i! a
i!ori$', or $ha$ o!l' o! a i!ori$' o* occasio!s %oes i$ #a' a si7!aler $o chea$. . . . 1hea$i!7 is
e9#ec$e% i! e5olu$io!aril' s$a&le si7!al s's$es, &u$ $he s's$e ca! &e s$a&le o!l' i* $here is soe
reaso! )h' o! os$ occasio!s chea$i!7 %oes !o$ #a'. 1hea$s i#ose a ki!% o* $a9 o! $he ea!i!7
o* $he si7!al. :he ce!$ral *ac$ a&ou$ s$a&le si7!ali!7 s's$es is ho!es$', a!% $he %e&asee!$ o*
$he ea!i!7 o* $he si7!al &' chea$s us$ &e lii$e% i* s$a&ili$' is $o &e ai!$ai!e% (1990, #. <33).
8' $his reaso!i!7, si7!als $ha$ chea$, )hich + )oul% call lies, shoul% ha5e a lo) i!ci%e!ce.
1osi%es a!% :oo&'"s (199.) *i!%i!7s su77es$ $ha$ )e ha5e e5ol5e% a se!si$i5i$' $o rule
i!*rac$io!s a!% %o !o$ re)ar% chea$ers, a!% $his a' e9#lai! )h' chea$i!7 %oes !o$ occur o*$e!.
-o)e5er, our *i!%i!7s su77es$ $ha$ )e are !o$ likel' $o ca$ch chea$ers &ase% o! our a&ili$' $o s#o$
$heir lies *ro $heir %eea!or &u$ &' o$her ea!s.
:o suari@e ' ar7ue!$, our a!ces$ral e!5iro!e!$ %i% !o$ #re#are us $o &e as$u$e lie
ca$chers. :hose )ho i7h$ ha5e &ee! os$ a%e#$ i! i%e!$i*'i!7 a liar *ro %eea!or )oul% ha5e
ha% i!ial a%5a!$a7e i! $he circus$a!ces i! )hich our a!ces$ors #ro&a&l' li5e%. Serious lies
#ro&a&l' %i% !o$ occur o*$e!, &ecause a lack o* #ri5ac' )oul% ha5e a%e $he cha!ces o* &ei!7
cau7h$ hi7h. Such a lack o* #ri5ac' )oul% also ea! $ha$ lies )oul% $'#icall' &e %isco5ere% &'
%irec$ o&ser5a$io! or o$her #h'sical e5i%e!ce, ra$her $ha! ha5i!7 $o rel' u#o! Du%7e!$s o*
%eea!or. Fi!all', i! a coo#era$i5e, close%, sall socie$', )he! lies are u!co5ere% $he
re#u$a$io!al cos$s $o $he i!%i5i%ual )oul% &e hi7h a!% i!esca#a&le.
+! o%er! i!%us$rial socie$ies, $he si$ua$io! is !earl' $he re5erse. :he o##or$u!i$ies *or l'i!7
are #le!$i*ul6 #ri5ac' is eas' $o achie5e, $here are a!' close% %oors. /he! cau7h$, $he social
co!seEue!ces !ee% !o$ &e %isas$rous, *or o!e ca! cha!7e Do&s, cha!7e s#ouses, cha!7e 5illa7es.
( %aa7e% re#u$a$io! !ee% !o$ *ollo) 'ou. 8' $his reaso!i!7 )e li5e !o) i! circus$a!ces
)hich e!coura7e ra$her $ha! %iscoura7e l'i!7, )he! e5i%e!ce a!% ac$i5i$' are ore easil'
co!ceale% a!% $he !ee% $o rel' u#o! %eea!or $o ake our Du%7e!$s )oul% &e 7rea$er. (!% )e
ha5e !o$ &ee! #re#are% &' our e5olu$io!ar' his$or' $o &e 5er' se!si$i5e $o $he &eha5ioral clues
rele5a!$ $o l'i!7.
+* )e 7ra!$ $ha$ our e5olu$io!ar' his$or' %i% !o$ #re#are us $o %e$ec$ lies *ro %eea!or,
)h' %o )e !o$ lear! ho) $o %o so i! $he course o* 7ro)i!7 u#3 4!e #ossi&ili$' is $ha$ our #are!$s
$each us not $o i%e!$i*' $heir lies. :heir #ri5ac' a' o*$e! reEuire $ha$ $he' islea% $heir chil%re!
a&ou$ Dus$ )ha$ $he' are %oi!7, )he! $he' are %oi!7 i$, a!% )h' $he' are %oi!7 i$. /hile se9ual
ac$i5i$' is o!e o&5ious *ocus o* such lies, $here i7h$ )ell &e o$her ac$i5i$ies )hich #are!$s )a!$
$o co!ceal *ro $heir chil%re!.
C
( $hir% e9#la!a$io! is $ha$ )e 7e!erall' #re*er !o$ $o ca$ch liars, &ecause a $rus$i!7 ra$her
$ha! a sus#icious s$a!ce e!riches li*e, %es#i$e $he #ossi&le cos$s. :o al)a's %ou&$, $o ake *alse
accusa$io!s, is !o$ o!l' u!#leasa!$ *or $he %ou&$er, &u$ u!%eri!es uch cha!ce o* es$a&lishi!7
i!$iac' i! a$i!7, *rie!%shi#s, or o!-7oi!7 )ork rela$io!shi#s. /e ca!!o$ a**or% $o %is&elie5e a
*rie!%, our chil%, or our s#ouse )he! $he' are ac$uall' $elli!7 $he $ru$h, a!% so )e err o! $he si%e
o* &elie5i!7 $he liar. :rus$i!7 o$hers is !o$ o!l' reEuire%, &u$ i$ akes li*e easier $o li5e. /ha$
a$$er i* $he cos$ is !o$ %e$ec$i!7 soe )ho $ake a%5a!$a7e o* $ha$ $rus$, *or o!e i7h$ !e5er
k!o) a&ou$ i$. +$ is o!l' $he #ara!oi% )ho *ore7oes such #eace o* i!%, a!% $hose )hose li5es
are ac$uall' a$ soe risk i* $he' are !o$ co!s$a!$l' aler$ $o &e$ra'al. 1o!sis$e!$ )i$h $his
*orula$io! )e (Eka!, 8u7e!$al, a!% Fra!k, u!#u&lishe% %a$a) o&$ai!e% #relii!ar' e5i%e!ce
$ha$ a&use% chil%re! li5i!7 i! a! i!s$i$u$io!al se$$i!7 )ere ore accura$e $ha! o$her chil%re! i!
%e$ec$i!7 lies *ro %eea!or.
,' *our$h e9#la!a$io! is $ha$ )e o*$e! )a!$ $o &e isle%, )e collu%e i! $he lie u!)i$$i!7l'
&ecause )e ha5e a s$ake i! !o$ k!o)i!7 $he $ru$h.
<
1o!si%er $)o e9a#les *ro s#ousal
rela$io!shi#s. +$ a' !o$ &e i! $he i!$eres$ o* a o$her )i$h a !u&er o* 5er' 'ou!7 chil%re! $o
ca$ch her a$e"s lie )hich co!ceals his i!*i%eli$', #ar$icularl' i* he is ha5i!7 a *li!7 i! )hich he
is !o$ %i5er$i!7 resources )hich )oul% o$her)ise 7o $o her a!% her chil%re!. :he #hila!%erer
%oes !o$ )a!$ $o &e cau7h$, so $he' &o$h ha5e a! i!$eres$ i! $he lie !o$ &ei!7 u!co5ere%. (
siilar lo7ic is a$ )ork i! $his !e9$, ore al$ruis$ic lie a!% collusi5e &elie*. ( )i*e asks her
hus&a!%, G/as $here a!' o$her )oa! a$ $he #ar$' )ho 'ou $hou7h$ )as ore a$$rac$i5e $ha!
e3H -e lies &' claii!7 she )as $he os$ a$$rac$i5e )he! she )as !o$. -e %oes !o$ )a!$ $o
ake her Dealous, a!% he %oes !o$ )a!$ $o %eal )i$h her ha5i!7 such *eeli!7s, a!% she a' )a!$
$o &elie5e she )as $he os$ a$$rac$i5e.
+! soe collusio!s $he $ar7e$ )ho )a!$s $o &elie5e $he liar a' !o$ &e!e*i$ *ro $he lie or
&e!e*i$ o!l' i! $he shor$ ru!. 1o!si%er )ha$ )as #erha#s $he os$ i!*aous e9a#le i! $his
ce!$ur' o* a $ar7e$ &elie5i!7 a liar )ho ea!$ hi har. + re*er $o $he ee$i!7 &e$)ee! $he
8ri$ish Prie ,i!is$er, Ne5elle 1ha&erlai!, a!% (%ol#h -i$ler, $he 1ha!cellor o* Bera!', o!
Se#$e&er 1<, 1938.
:he )orl% )a$ches, a)are $ha$ $his a' &e $he las$ ho#e o* a5oi%i!7 a!o$her )orl% )ar. (Lus$ si9
o!$hs earlier -i$ler"s $roo#s ha% arche% i!$o (us$ria, a!!e9i!7 i$ $o Bera!'. E!7la!% a!%
Fra!ce ha% #ro$es$e% &u$ %o!e !o$hi!7 *ur$her.) 4! Se#$e&er 1., $hree %a's &e*ore he is $o ee$
1ha&erlai!, -i$ler %ea!%s $o ha5e #ar$ o* 1@echoslo5akia a!!e9e% $o Bera!s" a!% i!ci$es
rio$i!7 i! $ha$ cou!$r'. -i$ler has alrea%' secre$l' o&ili@e% $he Bera! (r' $o a$$ack
1@echoslo5akia, &u$ his ar' )o!"$ &e rea%' u!$il $he e!% o* Se#$e&er. +* he ca! kee# $he
1@echs *ro o&ili@i!7 $heir ar' *or a *e) ore )eeks, -i$ler )ill ha5e $he a%5a!$a7e o* a
sur#rise a$$ack. S$alli!7 *or $ie, -i$ler co!ceals his )ar #la!s *ro 1ha&erlai!, 7i5i!7 his
)or% $ha$ #eace ca! &e #reser5e% i* $he 1@echs )ill ee$ his %ea!%s. 1ha&erlai! is *oole%6 he
$ries $o #ersua%e $he 1@echs !o$ $o o&ili@e $heir ar' )hile $here is s$ill a cha!ce $o !e7o$ia$e
)i$h -i$ler. (*$er his ee$i!7 )i$h -i$ler, 1ha&erlai! )ri$es $o his sis$er, M. . . i! s#i$e o* $he
har%!ess a!% ru$hless!ess + $hou7h$ 1 sa) i! his *ace, + 7o$ $he i#ressio! $ha$ here )as a a!
)ho coul% &e relie% u#o! )he! he ha% 7i5e! his )or% . . . 0e*e!%i!7 his #olicies a7ai!s$ $hose
)ho %ou&$ -i$ler"s )or%, 1ha&erlai! *i5e %a's la$er i! a s#eech $o Parliae!$ e9#lai!s $ha$ his
#erso!al co!$ac$ )i$h -i$ler allo)s hi $o sa' $ha$ -i$ler Mea!s )ha$ he sa's" (Eka!, ;198<=
199., ##. 1<, 16).
-i$ler re#or$e%l' )ro$e, G:he 5ic$or )ill !o$ &e aske% a*$er)ar% )he$her he $ol% $he $ru$h. +!
s$ar$i!7 a!% )a7i!7 )ar i$ is !o$ Dus$ice $ha$ a$$ers &u$ 5ic$or'.H /h' %i% 1ha&erlai! &elie5e
-i$ler3 No$ e5er'o!e %i%, $here )ere a!' i! $he o##osi$io! #ar$' i! 8ri$ai! a!% else)here )ho
reco7!i@e% $ha$ -i$ler )as !o$ a a! o* his )or%. 1ha&erlai! u!)i$$i!7l', + &elie5e, collu%e% i!
-i$ler"s lie &ecause he ha% $o &elie5e -i$ler. +* 1ha&erlai! )ere $o ha5e reco7!i@e% -i$ler"s lie,
he )oul% ha5e $o co!*ro!$ $he *ac$ $ha$ his #olic' o* a##easee!$ ha% #u$ his cou!$r' a$ 7ra5e
risk. Si!ce he ha% $o *ace $ha$ *ac$ Dus$ a *e) )eeks la$er, o!e i7h$ ask )h' %i% he !o$ reco7!i@e
i$ %uri!7 $his ee$i!7 )i$h -i$ler3 :ha$ )oul% &e ra$io!al &u$ !o$ #s'cholo7ical. ,os$ o* us
o#era$e o! $he u!)ri$$e! #ri!ci#le o* #os$#o!i!7 ha5i!7 $o co!*ro!$ a!'$hi!7 )hich is 5er'
u!#leasa!$. a!% )e a' %o so &' collusi5el' o5erlooki!7 a liar"s is$akes.
1ha&erlai! )as !o$ u!iEue. :he $ar7e$s o* lies, o*$e! u!)i$$i!7l', collusi5el' )a!$ $o
&elie5e $he liar. :he sae o$i5e>!o$ )a!$i!7 $o reco7!i@e i#e!%i!7 %isas$er>e9#lai!s )h'
$he &usi!essa! )ho is$ake!l' hire% a! e&e@@ler co!$i!ues $o iss $he si7!s o* $he
e&e@@lee!$. Ra$io!all' s#eaki!7, $he soo!er he %isco5ers $he e&e@@lee!$ $he &e$$er, &u$
#s'cholo7icall' $ha$ %isco5er' )ill ea! he us$ *ace !o$ o!l' his co#a!'"s losses, &u$ his
o)! is$ake i! ha5i!7 hire% such a rascal. +! a siilar *ashio!, e5er'o!e &u$ $he cuckol%e%
s#ouse a' k!o) )ha$ is ha##e!i!7. 4r $he #re-a%olesce!$ usi!7 har% %ru7s a' &e co!5i!ce%
$ha$ her #are!$s surel' us$ k!o) )ha$ she is %oi!7, )hile $he' u!)i$$i!7l' s$ri5e $o a5oi%
s#o$$i!7 $he lies )hich )oul% *orce $he $o %eal )i$h $he #ossi&ili$' $ha$ $he' ha5e *aile% as
#are!$s a!% !o) ha5e a $erri&le s$ru77le o! $heir ha!%s. 4!e is !earl' al)a's &e$$er o** i! $he
shor$ ru! $o coo#era$e )i$h $he lie, e5e! i* $ha$ ea!s $ha$ $he co!seEue!ces $oorro) )ill &e
e5e! )orse.
( *i*$h e9#la!a$io! is &ase% o! Er5i!7 Bo**a!"s )ri$i!7s (197C). /e are &rou7h$ u# $o &e
#oli$e i! our i!$erac$io!s, !o$ $o s$eal i!*ora$io! )hich is !o$ 7i5e! $o us. ( ra$her rearka&le
e9a#le o* $his is ho) )e u!)i$$i!7l' a5er$ our 7a@e )he! soeo!e )e are $alki!7 $o clea!s
$heir ears or #icks $heir !ose. Bo**a! )oul% also ar7ue $ha$ $he *alse essa7e soe$ies a'
&e $he ore sociall' i#or$a!$ essa7e $ha! $he $ru$h. +$ is $he ack!o)le%7e% i!*ora$io!, $he
i!*ora$io! *or )hich $he #erso! )ho s$a$es i$ is )illi!7 $o $ake res#o!si&ili$'. /he! $he
secre$ar' )ho is isera&le a&ou$ a *i7h$ )i$h her hus&a!% $he #re5ious !i7h$ a!s)ers, GLus$
*i!e,H )he! her &oss asks, G-o) are 'ou $his or!i!73H $ha$ *alse essa7e a' &e $he o!e
rele5a!$ $o $he &oss" i!$erac$io!s )i$h her. +$ $ells hi $ha$ she is 7oi!7 $o %o her Do&. :he $rue
essa7e>$ha$ she is isera&le>he a' !o$ care $o k!o) a&ou$ a$ all as lo!7 as she %oes !o$
i!$e!% $o le$ i$ i#air her Do& #er*ora!ce.
No!e o* $he e9#la!a$io!s + ha5e o**ere% so *ar ca! e9#lai! )h' os$ e&ers o* $he
crii!al Dus$ice a!% i!$elli7e!ce cou!i$ies %o so #oorl' i! i%e!$i*'i!7 liars *ro %eea!or.
Police a!% cou!$er-i!$elli7e!ce i!$erro7a$ors are !o$ $aki!7 a $rus$i!7 s$a!ce )i$h $heir sus#ec$s,
$he' are !o$ collu%i!7 i! &ei!7 isle%, a!% $he' are )illi!7 $o s$eal i!*ora$io! !o$ 7i5e! $o
$he. /h' %o $he'" !o$ %o &e$$er i! i%e!$i*'i!7 liars *ro %eea!or3 + &elie5e $he' are
ha!%ica##e% &' a hi7h &ase-ra$e a!% i!a%eEua$e *ee%&ack. ,os$ o* $he #eo#le $he' %eal )i$h
#ro&a&l' are l'i!7 $o $he. :hose )i$h )ho + ha5e s#oke! es$ia$e $he &ase ra$e o* l'i!7 as
ore $ha! $hree-*our$hs. Such a hi7h &ase ra$e is !o$ o#$ial *or lear!i!7 $o &e aler$ $o $he su&$le
&eha5ioral clues $o %ecei$. :heir orie!$a$io! all $oo o*$e! is !o$ ho) $o s#o$ $he liar, &u$ ho) $o
7e$ $he e5i%e!ce $o !ail $he liar. (!% )he! $he' ake a is$ake a!% lear! $ha$ soeo!e )as
)ro!7*ull' #u!ishe%, $ha$ *ee%&ack coes $oo la$e, $oo *ar reo5e% *ro $he is$ake! Du%7e!$
$o &e correc$i5e.
:his su77es$s $ha$ i* 'ou e9#ose #eo#le $o a lo)er &ase-ra$e o* l'i!7, arou!% <0 #erce!$, a!%
7i5e $he correc$i5e *ee%&ack a*$er each Du%7e!$ $he' ake, $he' i7h$ )ell lear! ho) $o
accura$el' i%e!$i*' lies *ro %eea!or. :his is a! e9#erie!$ )e are !o) #la!!i!7. + %o !o$
e9#ec$ $ha$ accurac' )ill reach o!e hu!%re% #erce!$, a!% *or $ha$ reaso! + %o !o$ &elie5e $ha$
Du%7e!$s a&ou$ )ho is l'i!7 shoul% &e allo)a&le e5i%e!ce i! cour$. Such Du%7e!$s, ho)e5er,
a' #ro5i%e a sou!%er &asis *or %eci%i!7, a$ leas$ i!i$iall', )ho $o i!5es$i7a$e *ur$her, a!%
)he! $o ask ore Eues$io!s $o clari*' )h' soe$hi!7 u!usual has &ee! !o$ice%.
No$es
1
+ a 7ra$e*ul $o -ele!a 1ro!i!, 2o!%o! School o* Eco!oics, *or aski!7 e )h' e5olu$io!
ha% !o$ #re#are% us $o &e &e$$er lie ca$chers, also $o ,ark Fra!k. Ru$7ers A!i5ersi$', a!% Richar%
Schus$er, A!i5ersi$' o* -ai*a, *or $heir a!' hel#*ul coe!$s o! $his a!uscri#$.
.
-ele!a 1ro!i! raise% $his #ossi&ili$'.
3
+ a 7ra$e*ul $o 2e%a 1osi%es a!% Loh! :oo&', A!i5ersi$' o* 1ali*or!ia, 8erkele', a!% $o
Richar% Schus$er, A!i5ersi$' o* -ai*a, *or #oi!$i!7 $his ou$.
C
+ a 7ra$e*ul $o (liso! Bo#!ik, A!i5ersi$' o* 1ali*or!ia, 8erkele', *or su77es$i!7 $his
e9#la!a$io!.
<
For e5i%e!ce co!sis$e!$ )i$h ' reaso!i!7 see :oo&' a!% 1osi%es, 1989.
Re*ere!ces
8ok, 1., Secrets (Ne) IorkF Pa!$heo!, 198.).
8ra%le', ,.:., G1hoice a!% $he 0e$ec$io! o* 0ece#$io!,H Perceptual and Motor Skills, 66
(1988)F C3-8.
1he!e', 0.2. a!% Se'*ar$h, How Monkeys See the World (1hica7oF A!i5ersi$' o* 1hica7o Press,
1990).
1osi%es, 2. a!% :oo&', L., G1o7!i$i5e (%a#$a$io!s *or Social E9cha!7e,H i! L. 8arko), 2.
1osi%es, a!% L. :oo&', e%s., The Adapted Mind (Ne) IorkF 49*or% A!i5ersi$' Press,
199.).
0ePaulo, 8.,. a!% P*ei*er, R.2., G4!-$he-Do& E9#erie!ce a!% Skill a$ 0e$ec$i!7 0ece#$io!H
Journal of Applied Social Psycholo!, 16 (1986)F .C9-67.
Eka!, P., Tellin "ies# $lues to deceit in the marketplace marriae and politics, %&e (;l98<=
Ne) IorkF /./. Nor$o!. 199.).
Eka!, P., Fra!k, ,., a!% 4"Sulli5a!, ,., G0e$ec$i!7 0ecei$ *ro 0eea!or,H *or$hcoi!7.
Eka!, P. a!% Friese!, /.V., G0e$ec$i!7 0ece#$io! Fro 8o%' or Face,H Journal of Personality
and Social Ps!choloy, .9 (197C)F
.88-98.
Eka!, P. a!% 4"Sul=i5a!, N+., G/ho 1a! 1a$ch a 2iar,H American Psycholoist, C6 (1991)F
913-9.0.
Fra!k ,. a!% Eka!, P., G:he (&ili$' $o 0e$ec$ 0ecei$ Be!erali@es (cross 0ece#$io!
Si$ua$io!s,H Journal of Personality and Social Psycholoy, *or$hcoi!7.
Bi!$o!, (., 0aie, N., Elaa%, E., a!% 8e!-Shakhar. B., G( ,e$ho% *or E5alua$i!7 $he Ase o* $he
Pol'7ra#h i! a Real-2i*e Si$ua$io!H Journal of Applied Psycholoy, 67 (198.)F 13 1-37.
Bo**a!, E., 'rame Analysis (Ne) IorkF -ar#er a!% Ro). 197C).
Bra*e!, (., G8iolo7ical Si7!als as -a!%ica#s,H Journal of Theoretical (ioloy, 1CC (1990)F <17-
C6.
Krau$, R.E. a!% Poe, 0., G4! $he 2i!eF :he 0ece#$io! Lu%7e!$s o* 1us$os +!s#ec$ors a!%
2a5e!,H Journal of Personality and Social Psycholoy. 39 (1980)F 78C-98.
2e5i!e, :.R. a!% ,c1or!ack, S.(., G2i!ki!7 2o5e a!% 2iesF ( Foral :es$ o* $he ,c1or!ack
a!% Parks ,o%el o* 0ece#$io! 0e$ec$io!,H Journal of Social and Personal )elationships, 9
(199.)F 1C3-<C.
Sillars, (.2. a!% Sco$$, ,.0., G+!$er#erso!al Perce#$io! 8e$)ee! +!$ia$esF (! +!$e7ra$i5e
Re5ie),H Human $ommunication )esearch, 10 (1983)F 1<3-<6.
S$i**, L., 1ora!, S., Kri@ek, 8., a!% S!i%er, E., G+!%i5i%ual 0i**ere!ces a!% 1ha!7es i!
No!5er&al 8eha5ior,H $ommunication )esearch, .1(199C)F <<<-<81.
:oo&5, L. a!% 1osi%es, 2., G:he lo7ic o* $hrea$,H (!!ual ee$i!7 o* $he -ua! 8eha5ior a!%
E5olu$io! Socie$', E5a!s$o!, +lli!ois. 1989.

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