INTRODUCTION TO THE EARTH

The Earth is the third planet from the

Sun in our Solar System. It is the
planet we evolved on and the only
planet in our Solar System that is
known to support life.
SIZE
The Earth is about 7,926
miles !2,7"6 km# in
diameter. The Earth is the fifth$ lar%est planet in our
Solar System after &upiter, Saturn, 'ranus, and (eptune#.
Eratosthenes 276$!9) *+# was a ,reek s-holar who was
the first person to determine the -ir-umferen-e of the Earth. .e -ompared the
midsummer/s noon shadow in deep wells in Syene now 0swan on the (ile in E%ypt#
and 0le1andria. .e properly assumed that the Sun/s rays are virtually parallel sin-e
the Sun is so far away#. 2nowin% the distan-e between the two lo-ations, he
-al-ulated the -ir-umferen-e of the Earth to be 2"3,333 stadia. E1a-tly how lon% a
stadia is is unknown, so his a--ura-y is un-ertain, but he was very -lose. .e also
a--urately measured the tilt of the Earth/s a1is and the distan-e to the sun and moon.
THE MOON
The Earth has one moon. The diameter of the moon is about one 4uarter of the
diameter of the Earth.
The moon may have on-e been a part of the Earth5 it may have been broken off the
Earth durin% a -atastrophi- -ollision of a hu%e body with the Earth billions of years
a%o.
The Earth and the moon.
6hoto taken by (0S0/s
,alileo mission in !993.
MASS, DENSITY, AND ESCAPE VELOCITY
The Earth/s mass is about ".97 1 !3
2)
k%.
The Earth has an avera%e density of ""23 k%8m
9
water has a
density of !327 k%8m
9
#. Earth is the densest planet in our Solar
System.
To es-ape the Earth/s %ravitational pull, an ob:e-t must rea-h a
velo-ity of 2),7)3 miles per hour !!,!73 m8se-#.
LENGTH OF A DAY AND YEAR ON EARTH
Ea-h day on Earth takes 29.99 hours that is, it takes
the Earth 29.99 hours to rotate around its a1is on-e $
this is a sidereal day#. Ea-h year on Earth takes
96".26 Earth days that is, it takes the Earth 96".26 days
to orbit the Sun on-e#.
The Earth/s rotation is slowin% down very sli%htly over
time, about one se-ond every !3 years.
THE EARTH'S ORBIT
;n avera%e, the Earth orbits 99 million miles !)9,633,333 km# from the Sun. This
distan-e is defined as one 0stronomi-al 'nit 0'#. The Earth
is -losest to the Sun this is -alled perihelion# around &anuary 2
ea-h year 9!.) million miles < !)7.! million km#5 it is farthest
away from the Sun this is -alled aphelion# around &uly 2 ea-h
year 9).7 million miles < !"2.6 million km#.
Earth risin% over the moon.
6hoto taken by (0S0/s
0pollo 7 mission.
6lanet$Sun
;rbital =ia%ram
>abel the aphelion
farthest point in
orbit# and perihelion
-losest point in orbit#
of a planet in orbit.
Answers
Orbi!" E##enri#i$
The Earth has an orbit that is -lose to bein% -ir-ular5 its orbital e--entri-ity is 3.3!7.
E--entri-ity is a measure of how an orbit deviates from -ir-ular. 0 perfe-tly -ir-ular
orbit has an e--entri-ity of ?ero5 an e--entri-ity between 3 and ! represents an
ellipti-al orbit.#
THE EARTH'S A%IS TILT AND THE SEASONS
The Earth/s a1is is tilted from perpendi-ular to the plane of the e-lipti- by
29.)"@. This tiltin% is what %ives us the four seasons of the yearA Summer,
Sprin%, Binter and 0utumn. Sin-e the a1is is tilted, different parts of the %lobe
are oriented towards the Sun at different times of the year. This affe-ts the amount of
sunli%ht ea-h re-eives. Cor more information on the seasons, -li-k here.
SPEED
0t the e4uator, the Earth/s surfa-e moves )3,333 kilometers in 2) hours. That is
a speed of about !3)3 miles8hr !673 km8hr#. This is -al-ulated by dividin% the
-ir-umferen-e of the Earth at the e4uator about 2),933 miles or )3,373 km# by
the number of hours in a day 2)#. 0s you move toward either pole, this speed
de-reases to almost ?ero sin-e the -ir-umferen-e at the e1treme latitudes approa-hes
?ero#.
The Earth revolves around the Sun at a speed of about 93 km8se-. This -ompares with
the Earth/s rotational speed of appro1imately 3." km8se- at middle latitudes $ near the
e4uator#.
Cor more information on the speed of the Earth, -li-k here.
TEMPERATURE ON EARTH
The temperature on Earth ran%es from between $!27@C to !96@C $77@+ to "7@+5
!7" 2 to 9!! 2#. The -oldest re-orded temperature was on the -ontinent of
0ntar-ti-a Dostok in &uly, !979#. The
hottest re-orded temperature was on the
-ontinent of 0fri-a >ibya in September,
!922#.
The %reenhouse effe-t traps heat in our
atmosphere. The atmosphere lets some
infrared radiation es-ape into spa-e5 some is
refle-ted ba-k to the planet.
Cor more information on the %reenhouse
effe-t, -li-k here.
ATMOSPHERE
The Earth/s atmosphere is a thin layer of
%ases that surrounds the Earth. It is
-omposed of 77E nitro%en, 2!E o1y%en, 3.9E ar%on, 3.39E
-arbon dio1ide, and tra-e amounts of other %ases.
The atmosphere was formed by planetary de%assin%, a pro-ess in whi-h %ases like
-arbon dio1ide, water vapor, sulphur dio1ide and nitro%en were released from the
interior of the Earth from vol-anoes and
other pro-esses. >ife forms on Earth have
modified the -omposition of the
atmosphere sin-e their evolution.
Cor more information on the atmosphere,
-li-k here.
E!r& A#i'iies
Earth -olorin% pa%e
The Earth and the Foon -olorin% pa%e
The si?e of the atmosphere in this
illustration is %reatly e1a%%erated in order
to show the %reenhouse effe-t. The Earth/s
atmosphere is about 933 miles )73 km#
thi-k, but most of the Earth/s atmosphere is
within !3 miles !6 km# of the Earth/s
surfa-e.
Cind ItG , a 4ui? on the Earth.
>abel the 6lanet$Sun ;rbital =ia%ram . 0nswers.
+ontinents 6rintoutA >abel the -ontinents, the poles, and the e4uator.
;-ean FapA >abel the ;-eans
Intera-tive Earth 6u??le
Fake a %lobe from papier$mH-hI
0 simple$to$make earth pendant
Earth day -rafts
E!r& C"()e Prin(* A 0 fill$in$the$blanks a-tivity on Earth. 0nswers
Brite Ten Thin%s 0bout the Earth plus one thin% you would like to -han%e
about it#.
.ow to write a report on a planet $ plus a rubri-.
Ineri(r Sr*#*re (+ &e E!r&

L!$ers (+ &e E!r&
The earth is divided into
three main layersA Inner
-ore, outer -ore, mantle
and -rust.
The -ore is -omposed
mostly of iron Ce# and is
so hot that the outer -ore is
molten, with about !3E sulphur S#. The inner -ore is under su-h e1treme pressure that it
remains solid.
Fost of the Earth/s mass is in the mantle, whi-h is -omposed of iron Ce#, ma%nesium F%#,
aluminum 0l#, sili-on Si#, and o1y%en ;# sili-ate -ompounds. 0t over !333 de%rees +, the
mantle is solid but -an deform slowly in a plasti- manner.
E!r& Cr*s,
THE CRUST
1. +ontinental -rust 2"$)3 km#
2. ;-eani- -rust J6 km#
9. Fantle
!. 'pper mantle 6"3 km#
2. >ower mantle 229" km#
). +ore
!. ;uter -oreA li4uid 2273 km#
2. Inner -oreA solid !2!6 km#
The -rust is mu-h thinner than any of the other layers, and is -omposed of the least dense
-al-ium +a# and sodium (a# aluminum$sili-ate minerals. *ein% relatively -old, the -rust is
ro-ky and brittle , so it -an fra-ture in earth4uakes .
The shell of the earth, the -rust, -an be said to have two different thi-knesses.
'nder the o-eans, it is relatively thin. It varies in thi-kness from " to 7 km. 'nder the land
masses, it is relatively thi-k. The thi-kness of the -ontinental -rust varies from !3 to 6" km.
The e%%shell analo%y for the -rust is not an e1a%%eration. It is paper thin -ompared with the
radius of the earth whi-h is appro1imately 6)33 km.
The total wei%ht of the -ontinental -rust is less than 3.9E of the wei%ht of the earth.
Dariations in the -rust thi-kness are -ompensated by the wei%ht of the water and the differen-es
in the spe-ifi- %ravities of the -rust under the o-eans 9.3 to 9.!# and under the -ontinents2.7 to
2.7#.
If one thinks of the -rust as virtually floatin% on the mantle, one is less likely to wonder why the
earth does not wobble as it rotates about its a1is.
The wei%ht of the -rust plus the mantle has a reasonably uniform distribution over the %lobe.
THE MOHO
The Foho, or the Fohorovi-i- =is-ontinuity, refers to a ?one or a thin shell below the -rust of
the earth that varies in thi-kness from ! to 9 km.
In seis-("(.$, the term KdiscontinuityK is used in its %eneral sense. It refers to a -han%e over a
short distan-e of a material property. In this -ase, the Kshort distan-eK may be as lon% as 9 km, a
trifle -ompared with the radius of the earth.
In that ?one, the 6$wave velo-ity has been observed to in-rease from appro1imately 6 to
appro1imately 7 km8se-.
The Foho is -onsidered to be the boundary between the -rust and the mantle.
The in-rease in 6$wave velo-ity is as-ribed to -han%e in -omposition of the medium. Lo-ks of
the mantle are poorer in sili-on but ri-her in iron and ma%nesium
THE MANTLE
The mantle -an be thou%ht of havin% three different layers. The separation is made be-ause of
different deformational properties in the mantle inferred from seismi- wave measurements.
/01 T&e *22er "!$er is si++3
It is presumed that if the entire mantle had been as stiff, the outer shell of the earth would stay
put. This stiff layer of the mantle and the overlyin% -rust are referred to as the lithosphere. The
lithosphere is appro1imately 73$km thi-k
2# *eneath the lithosphere is a soft layer of mantle -alled the asthenosphere.
Its thi-kness is inferred to be several times that of the lithosphere.
;ne may think of this as a film of lubri-ant althou%h film is not e1a-tly the word for somethin%
so thi-k. It is assumed that the lithosphere, protrudin% meanin%A e1tendin% beyond# parts and all,
-an %lide over the asthenosphere with little distortion of the lithosphere
9# The mesosphere is the lowest layer of the mantle.
+onsiderin% the va%ueness in definin% the lower boundary of the asthenosphere it would be
e1pe-ted that the thi-kness and material properties of the mesosphere are not well known.
It is e1pe-ted to have a stiffness somewhere between those of the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere.
THE CORE
It is known that the pressure in-reases toward the -enter of the earth. So does the temperature.
The li4uid outer layer versus the solid inner layer is rationali?ed by re-o%ni?in% that the meltin%
point of the material in-reases with pressure# at a faster rate than the temperature as the -enter
of the earth is approa-hed.
Miner!"s !n4 R(#5
Finerals are naturally o--urrin% inor%ani- substan-es of more or less definite -hemi-al
-omposition, displayin% more or less definite physi-al properties.
R(#5s,
,eolo%ist define ro-k as a%%re%ates or mass -omposed of one or more -ommonly, several of
minerals. There are few e1-eptions to this ruleA not all ro-ks are -omposed of minerals$for
e1ample, -oal.
En%ineers or -ontra-tor# define ro-k to be a Mhard, durable material that -anNt be e1-avated
without blastin%N. The definition is based on stren%th and durability.
Finerals are naturally o--urrin% inor%ani- substan-es of more or less definite -hemi-al
-omposition, displayin% more or less definite physi-al properties.
0s the basi- -onstituent of ro-k, minerals -ontrol mu-h of ro-k behavior. Some minerals are very
stron% and resistant to deterioration and produ-e ro-k with similar properties, while others are
mu-h softer and produ-e weaker ro-k.
Fore than different 2333 minerals are present in the earthNs -rust. They -an be identified by their
physi-al and -hemi-al properties5 by standard tests5 or by e1amination under mi-ros-ope.
!. +olour
2. Streak
9. .ardnessA Fohs s-ale of hardness
). +leava%e
". Cra-ture
6. >uster
+olorA
!. Some minerals have -hara-teristi-s -olor due to -omposition of the minerals and the
arran%ement of the -onstituent atomsA for e1ample bla-k -olor of ma%netite, %reen of
-hlorite and brassy yellow of pyrite
2. Finerals like 4uart? and -al-ite have variable -olor
9. +olor -anNt be sole identifi-ation property
StreakA
!. +olor of mineral in powder form is -alled streak
2. 6owder is obtained by -rushin% the mineral.
9. +olor of the streak differs from -olor of mineralA for e1ample the -olor of pyrite is brass
yellow and its streak is dark %reen.
+leava%eA
!. The -leava%e of the minerals is its -apa-ity to split more readily in -ertain dire-tions than
in others, due to the arran%ement of the atoms.
2. Finerals break with ease produ-in% smooth surfa-es is -alled perfe-t -leava%e. It -an be
either %ood, distin-t, indistin-t and imperfe-t.
9. Some minerals su-h as mi-a have perfe-t -leava%e in one dire-tion. The feldspars, whi-h
is the most abundant of all minerals, have two -leava%es.
>usterA
!. 0ppearan-e of mineral in ordinary li%ht that is the appearan-e due to refle-ted li%ht#.
>uster may be metalli-, %lassy, earthy, pearly or silky
2. If the minerals looks metal as do %alena and pyrite, its luster is said to be metalli-. If the
minerals looks %lassy, like 4uart?, its luster is %lassy.
.ardnessA
!. The hardness of a mineral, as -ommonly determined on fresh material, is measured by its
ability to resist s-rat-hin%. If a mineral is s-rat-hed by a knife, it is softer than the knife.
If it -annot be s-rat-hed by a knife, the two are e4ual hardness or the mineral is the
harder.
2. In order to have a standard method of e1pressin% hardness of minerals, a simple s-ale,
known as the Fohs s-ale, has been universally adopted.
9. In se4uen-e of in-reasin% hardness from ! to !3, the followin% minerals are used as
standard of -omparisonA
). Tal-, ,ypsum, +al-ite, Cluorite, 0patite, ;rtho-lase feldspar#, Ouart?, Topa?,
+orundum and =iamond
;ther +hara-teristi-sA
Cr$s!" F(r-, Internal atomi- arran%ement in definite %eometri- patterns is sometimes
outwardly e1pressed in -rystal form.
S2e#i+i# Gr!'i$ is meant the wei%ht of a substan-e -ompared with the wei%ht of an e4ual
volume of water. The spe-ifi- %ravity of 4uart? is 2.6". Some minerals are heavy than the others.
The spe-ifi- %ravity of ma:ority minerals ran%e from 2."" to 9.2.
M!.neis-, 0 few minerals are attra-ted by a ma%net. ;f these minerals, ma%netite, and
pyrrhotite are the most -ommon e1amples.
R(#5 F(r-in. Miner!"s

!. CeldparsA
Celdspar is the most abundant minerals. There are two types. ;rtho-lase feldspars -ontain
potassim 2alSi9;7# and usually ran%e from white to pink. 6la%io-lase feldspars -ontain sodium
(a0lSi9;7#, -al-ium +a0l2Si2;7# or both, and ran%e from white to %ray to bla-k,. Celdspars
have moderate hardness.
63 7*!r) is also very -ommon in%redient in many kinds of ro-k. It is sili-ate Si;2#, and
usually has a translu-ent to milky white -olor. The luster is vitreous. Ouart? is harder than most
minerals hardness 7#, and thus is very resistant to weatherin%. +hert is a type of 4uart?
sometimes found in sedimentary ro-ks. It -an -ause problem when used as -on-rete a%%re%ate.
83 Mi#!, Translu-ent thin sheets or flakes. There are two -ommon varieties. Fus-ovite is
potassium aluminium sili-ate of -olorless or silvery tint, pearly luster and espe-ially one very
perfe-t -leava%e whi-h permits the mineral to be split into thin elasti- sheets that when bent
sprin% ba-k to shape. *iotite, the other -ommon variety, is a -omple1 sili-ate of potassium,
ma%nesium and iron and aluminum.
Fi-aA *iotite and mus-ovite are similar in physi-al properties. *oth are soft, 2."$9, with one
perfe-t -leava%e. The sheets of mi-a have very low -oeffi-ient of fri-tion, whi-h -an produ-e
shear failure in -ertain ro-ks, su-h as s-hist.
93 Ferr(-!.nesi!n -iner!"s, 0 -lass of minerals, all of whi-h -ontain both iron and
ma%nesium. This -lass in-ludes pyro1ene, amphibole, hornblende and olivine. These minerals
are dark -olor and a moderate hardness.
:3 C!"#ie, 0 mineral made of -al-ium -arbonate +a+;9#. It is usually white, pink or %ray. It is
soluable in water, and thus -an be transported by %round water into -ra-ks in ro-k where it
pre-ipitate out of solution. It also -an pre-ipitate in soil, be-omin% a -ementin% a%ent. +al-ite is
mu-h softer then 4uart? or feldspar. The hardness is 9. .ave vi%orous rea-tion to hydro-hlori-
a-id.
;3 D("(-ie, Similar to -al-ite with ma%nesium added. >ess vi%orous rea-tion to dilute
hydro-hlori- a-id.
<3 Ir(n O=i4es, 0nother -lass of minerals, all of whi-h -ontain iron Ce;9#. The most -ommon
iron o1ides are hematite, Ce2;9 5 hydrous iron o1ide that are often -alled limonite and
ma%netite. 0lthou%h less -ommon, these minerals %ive a distin-tive rusty -olor to some ro-ks
and soils and -an a-t as -ementin% a%ents. The -ompa-t varieties have a hardness of "."$6, but
earthy form are soft. The luster is sub$metalli-.
>3 G$2s*-, 0 soft minerals often o--urin% as a pre-ipitate in sedimentary ro-ks. It is -olorless
to white and has e-onomi- value when found in thi-k deposits. Cor e1ample, it is used to make
drywall. ,ypsum is water soluble and thus -an dissolve under the a-tion of %round water, whi-h
-an lead to other problems.
A "((5 A T&e Inner E!r&
Studyin% the earth/s interior -an help us to understand
earth4uakes, vol-anoes, plate te-toni-s and more about
the inner earths natural pro-esses.
In %eneral the e!r&'s ineri(r has been sorted by Gr!'i$. .eavier elements like iron tend to
sink toward the -enter or -ore of the earth. >i%hter materials, the sili-ates, o1y%en -ompounds
and water have risen to be-ome part of the -rust. This a-tion has -reated distin-t layers within the
earth and is still in pro-ess today.
T&e Inner E!r& is #(-2(se4 (+ &ree -!in 2!rs? &e #r*s, &e -!n"e, !n4 &e #(re !s
s&(wn in &e 4i!.r!- (+ &e e!r&'s ineri(r be"(w,
T&e Cr*s $ sili-ate ro-ks, primarily %ranite and basalt
o O#e!ni# Cr*s $ mostly basalt
o C(ninen!" Cr*s $ i%neous, metamorphi-, and sedimentary ro-ks
T&e M!n"e $ iron and ma%nesium ri-h sili-ate ro-ks
o U22er M!n"e
o L(wer -!n"e
T&e C(re $ iron ni-kel alloy
o O*er #(re
o Inner #(re
T&e Cr*s
The -rust of the earth is very slowly %rowin% thi-ker. Dol-ani- a-tivity is -ontinually addin%
mass to the -rust. Thou%h the -rust is solid it is made up of about !2 plates. They are -alled
Te#(ni# P"!es. These plates are in -onstant motion. The movement is -aused by -onve-tion
-urrents in the mantle. The movement is very slow, avera%in% about 2 in-hes a year. This is
about like the %rowth of your fin%ernails.
The -rust is about 3." E of the earthNs total
mass.
The -rust is made up of sili-ate ro-ks su-h as
%ranite and basalt.
The -ontinental -rust is mu-h thi-ker than the o-eani- -rust as shown here in the dia%ram
of the earth/s -rust.
O#e!ni# #r*s $ The -rust under the o-eans is about !3 km thi-k and is %enerally made
up of ro-k ri-h in iron and ma%nesium. These are primarily basalt formed by vol-ani-
a-tion at the mid o-ean rid%es. The o-eani- -rust is denser than -ontinental -rust.
C(ninen!" #r*s /#(ninen!" #r!(ns1 $ Bhere there are -ontinents the -rust is about
93 to "3 km thi-k. It is made up of i%neous, metamorphi-, and sedimentary ro-ks. The
-ontinental -rust is less dense than the o-eani- -rust. Bhen the -ontinental -rust -ollides
with o-eani- -rust throu%h plate movement the -ontinental -rust rides over the top of the
o-eani- -rust while the o-eani- -rust is pushed ba-k down towards the mantle.
E!r&'s Ineri(r @ T&e M!n"e
Fu-h less is known about the mantle than the -rust. The -rust we -an see, measure, di% and drill.
The mantle is different. Be have little dire-t -onta-t with the inner earth. Be -an tell some
thin%s about the mantle by studyin% vol-anoes and what -omes out of them.
Fu-h of what we believe is true about the earth/s interior -omes from studyin% Seis-("(.$.
Seismolo%y be%an as the study of earth4uakes and the seismi- waves they produ-ed. These
waves travel throu%h the earth and move at different speeds in different materials. *y studyin%
these waves and how they move throu%h the inner earth we -an learn about the its stru-ture.
T&e *22er -!n"e
Is made up of ro-ks ri-h in ma%nesium and iron, and poor in sili-a5 mostly peridotites.
It is about )33 km thi-k and is mu-h denser than the -rust.
It -omprise !3E of the earthNs mass
T&e L(wer -!n"e
It is more dense and -ontains a %reater amount of iron than the upper mantle
It is about !933 km thi-k
It makes up )!E of the earthNs mass
E!r&'s Ineri(r @ T&e #(re
The -ore is -omposed primarily of a ni-kel$iron alloy. There is an outer -ore that is li4uid and an
inner -ore that is solid.
O*er #(re
o Is about 2!33 km thi-k.
o It makes up about 93 E of the Earth/s total mass.
Inner #(re
o Is about !933 km thi-k.
o It makes up about 2 E of the Earth/s total mass.
S(-e 2(ins ( re-e-ber in s*4$in. &e e!r&As ineri(r,
There are distin-t layers to the earthNs interior.
.eavier elements tend to sink to the -ore
>i%hter elements rise toward the surfa-e
Fu-h more is known about the -rust than the mantle and -ore.
Bhat we believe is true about the mantle and -ore -omes from studyin% seismolo%y.

Inr(4*#i(n
Three -enturies a%o, the En%lish s-ientist
Isaa- (ewton -al-ulated, from his studies
of planets and the for-e of %ravity, that the
avera%e density of the Earth is twi-e that
of surfa-e ro-ks and therefore that the
Earth/s interior must be -omposed of mu-h
denser material. ;ur knowled%e of what/s
inside the Earth has improved immensely
sin-e (ewton/s time, but his estimate of
the density remains essentially un-han%ed.
;ur -urrent information -omes from
studies of the paths and -hara-teristi-s of
earth4uake waves travellin% throu%h the
Earth, as well as from laboratory
e1periments on surfa-e minerals and ro-ks
at hi%h pressure and temperature. ;ther
important data on the Earth/s interior -ome
from %eolo%i-al observation of surfa-e
ro-ks and studies of the Earth/s motions in
the Solar System, its %ravity and ma%neti-
fields, and the flow of heat from inside the
Earth.
The planet Earth is made up of three main
shellsA the very thin, brittle -rust, the
mantle, and the -ore5 the mantle and -ore
are ea-h divided into two parts. 0ll parts
are drawn to s-ale on the -over of this
publi-ation, and a table at the end lists the
thi-knesses of the parts. 0lthou%h the -ore
and mantle are about e4ual in thi-kness,
the -ore a-tually forms only !" per-ent of
the Earth/s volume, whereas the mantle
o--upies 7) per-ent. The -rust makes up
the remainin% ! per-ent. ;ur knowled%e of
the layerin% and -hemi-al -omposition of
the Earth is steadily bein% improved by
earth s-ientists doin% laboratory
e1periments on ro-ks at hi%h pressure and
analy?in% earth4uake re-ords on
-omputers.

T&e Cr*s
Because the crust is accessible to us, its geology has been extensively studied, and
therefore much more information is known about its structure and composition than
about the structure and composition of the mantle and core. Within the crust, intricate
patterns are created when rocks are redistributed and deposited in layers through the
geologic processes of eruption and intrusion of lava, erosion, and consolidation of rock
particles, and solidification and recrystallization of porous rock.
Figure 1. The oceanic crust at the island of Hawaii is about 5 kilometers thick. The thickness of
the continental crust under eastern California ranges from 25 kilometers under the Great Valley
to 60 kilometers under the ierra !e"ada.
*y the lar%e$s-ale pro-ess of plate te-toni-s, about twelve plates, whi-h -ontain
-ombinations of -ontinents and o-ean basins, have moved around on the Earth/s surfa-e
throu%h mu-h of %eolo%i- time. The ed%es of the plates are marked by -on-entrations of
earth4uakes and vol-anoes. +ollisions of plates -an produ-e mountains like the
.imalayas, the tallest ran%e in the world. The plates in-lude the -rust and part of the
upper mantle, and they move over a hot, yieldin% upper mantle ?one at very slow rates of
a few -entimeters per year, slower than the rate at whi-h fin%ernails %row. The -rust is
mu-h thinner under the o-eans than under -ontinents see fi%ure above#.
The boundary between the -rust and mantle is -alled the Fohorovi-i- dis-ontinuity or
Foho#5 it is named in honor of the man who dis-overed it, the +roatian s-ientist 0ndri:a
Fohorovi-i-. (o one has ever seen this boundary, but it -an be dete-ted by a sharp
in-rease downward in the speed of earth4uake waves there. The e1planation for the
in-rease at the Foho is presumed to be a -han%e in ro-k types. =rill holes to penetrate the
Foho have been proposed, and a Soviet hole on the 2ola 6eninsula has been drilled to a
depth of !2 kilometers, but drillin% e1pense in-reases enormously with depth, and Foho
penetration is not likely very soon.
T&e M!n"e
Our knowledge of the upper mantle, including the tectonic plates, is derived from
analyses of earthuake waves !see figure for paths"# heat flow, magnetic, and gravity
studies# and laboratory experiments on rocks and minerals. Between 1$$ and %$$
kilometers below the &arth's surface, the temperature of the rock is near the melting
point# molten rock erupted by some volcanoes originates in this region of the mantle.
(his zone of extremely yielding rock has a slightly lower velocity of earthuake waves
and is presumed to be the layer on which the tectonic plates ride. Below this low)velocity
zone is a transition zone in the upper mantle# it contains two discontinuities caused by
changes from less dense to more dense minerals. (he chemical composition and crystal
forms of these minerals have been identified by laboratory experiments at high pressure
and temperature. (he lower mantle, below the transition zone, is made up of relatively
simple iron and magnesium silicate minerals, which change gradually with depth to very
dense forms. *oing from mantle to core, there is a marked decrease !about +$ percent"
in earthuake wave velocity and a marked increase !about +$ percent" in density.
T&e C(re
Figure 2. Cross section of the whole #arth$
showing the com%le&ity of %aths of earth'uake
wa"es. The %aths cur"e because the different rock
ty%es found at different de%ths change the s%eed at
which the wa"es tra"el. olid lines marked P are
com%ressional wa"es( dashed lines marked S are
shear wa"es. S wa"es do not tra"el through the
core but may be con"erted to com%ressional wa"es
)marked K* on entering the core )PKP$ SKS*.
+a"es may be reflected at the surface )PP$ PPP$
SS*.
(he core was the first internal structural
element to be identified. ,t was discovered in
1-$. by /.0. Oldham, from his study of
earthuake records, and it helped to explain
1ewton's calculation of the &arth's density. (he
outer core is presumed to be liuid because it
does not transmit shear !2" waves and because
the velocity of compressional !3" waves that
pass through it is sharply reduced. (he inner
core is considered to be solid because of the
behavior of 3 and 2 waves passing through it.
+ross se-tion of the whole Earth, showin% the
-omple1ity of paths of earth4uake waves. The
paths -urve be-ause the different ro-k types
found at different depths -han%e the speed at
whi-h the waves travel. Solid lines marked 6 are
-ompressional waves5 dashed lines marked S are
shear waves. S waves do not travel throu%h the
-ore but may be -onverted to -ompressional
waves marked 2# on enterin% the -ore 626,
S2S#. Baves may be refle-ted at the surfa-e
66, 666, SS#.
=ata from earth4uake waves, rotations and
inertia of the whole Earth, ma%neti-$field
dynamo theory, and laboratory e1periments on
meltin% and alloyin% of iron all -ontribute to the
identifi-ation of the -omposition of the inner
and outer -ore. The -ore is presumed to be
-omposed prin-ipally of iron, with about !3
per-ent alloy of o1y%en or sulfur or ni-kel, or
perhaps some -ombination of these three
elements.

This table of de%ths$ densities$ and com%osition is deri"ed mostly from information in a
te&tbook by ,on -. .nderson )see uggested /eading*. cientists are continuing to
refine the chemical and mineral com%osition of the #arth0s interior by laboratory
e&%eriments$ by using %ressures 2 million times the %ressure of the atmos%here at the
surface and tem%eratures as high as 20000C.
PLATE TECTONICS
Continental Drift
.lfred +egener first %ro%oses Continental ,rift in his book %ublished in 1215. uggests
that 200 million years ago there e&isted one large su%ercontinent which he called
Pangaea ).ll -and*)Figure*. This was not really a new idea$ but +egener offered
se"eral lines of e"idence in su%%ort of his %ro%osal.
1. 3it of the Continents 4 !oted the similarity in the coastlines of !orth and outh
.merica and #uro%e and .frica. Today the fit is done at the continental shelf and
it is nearly a %erfect match.
2. 3ossil imilarities 4 5esosaurus$ )Figure* re%tile similar to modern alligator which
li"ed in shallow waters of outh .merica and .frica.
6. /ock imilarities
a. /ocks of same age 7u&ta%osed across ocean basins. (Figure)
b. Termination of mountain chains. (Figure)
8. 9aleoclimatic #"idence
a. Glacial de%osits at e'uator
b. Coral reefs in .ntarctica
:dea was re7ected by !orth .merican geologists because +egener couldn0t come u%
with a mechanism for continental drift. uggested tidal forces$ but %hysicists showed
this to be im%ossible. +egener dies in 1260 and his idea dies with him.
Magnetism and Paleomagnetism
#arth is a bar magnet with a magnetic north and south. .t %oles a com%ass needle di%s
"ertically. ,ownward at the north %ole$ u%ward at the south %ole and hori;ontal at the
e'uator. 5agnetic %oles do not corres%ond with geogra%hic %oles. Variation is termed
the magnetic declination. :t is 16 degrees east in California. Howe"er$ it has been found
that e"en though the magnetic and geogra%hic %oles do not corres%ond today when the
location of the magnetic north %ole is a"eraged o"er a 5$000 year %eriod it does
corres%ond with geogra%hic north. 5agnetic %ole mo"es as much as 25 km %er year.
Causes of Earth's Magnetism
3irst thought to be the result of a %ermanently magneti;ed core. Howe"er$ it has
been shown that when any substance is heated abo"e 500 degrees C it looses
its %ermanent magnetism.
#arth is a ,ynamo 4 <uter core is a fluid consisting largely of iron$ so it is an
e&cellent conductor. #lectromagnetic currents are generated and am%lified by
motion within the li'uid caused by con"ection. /otation of the #arth unifies the
random con"ecti"e mo"ements generating the magnetic field.
Paleomagnetism
:n the 12500s scientists disco"er how to measure %aleomagnetism )magnetism fro;en in
the rock at the time it formed*. +ith this knowledge scientists could tell the direction and
latitude of geomagnetic %ole at the time the rock formed. #uro%eans were the first to
e&tensi"ely study %aleomagnetic %ole locations and found that by 500 5= ago magnetic
north was located near Hawaii. .t first it was assumed the %oles were free to wander
)Apparent Polar Wandering*. !orth .merican geologists attem%ted similar studies
largely to dis%ro"e the #uro%eans and found that 500 my ago !orth .merican rocks
showed the magnetic north %ole to be in the #ast 9acific$ 6000 miles to the west of the
#uro%ean magnetic north at that time. )Figure*
.t the same time a series of bathymetric sur"eys of the ocean basins re"ealed a system
of ridges and trenches with high heat flow o"er the ridges. H. Hess )1262* rushes to
%rint with the idea of ea 3loor %reading. 9ostulates con"ection cells beneath ocean
basins to dri"e the s%reading.)Figure*
3red Vines su%%orts Hess with his e&%lanation of symmetrical magnetic stri%es on either
side of the .tlantic 5id4ocean ridge )Figure*.
Plate Tectonics
Theory of 9late Tectonics is born. Plate 4 is a rigid %iece of lithos%here floating on a
%artially %lastic substrate )asthenos%here*.
Seven Major Plates )See Figure in your Text*
1. 9acific
2. !orth .merican
6. outh .merican
8. .frican
5. #urasian
6. .ntarctic
>. :ndo4.ustralian
Types of Plate Boundaries (Figure)
.. ,i"ergent )Figure*4 %reading Center 4 Constructi"e 5argin. Characteri;ed by
ocean ridges and sea floor s%reading.
?. Con"ergent 4 )Figure* Characteri;ed by trenches and island arcs
1. <cean 4 <cean )@a%anese :slands*
2. <cean 4 Continental )Cascade 5ountains*
6. Continent 4 Continent )Himalayas*
C. Transform 4 9lates mo"ing %ast one another along strike4 sli% faults. )Figure*
dditional Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics
,istribution of earth'uakes along %late margins
-ocation of earth'uake foci along stee%ly4di%%ing subduction ;ones
.ge dating sediments on either side of the ridge indicates the sediments get
%rogressi"ely older away from the mid4ocean ridge a&is
Thickness of sediments also increases away from ridge
Driving !orce "Figure#
1. Con"ection Cells
2. Hot %ots
The Earth's Atmosphere
omposition !ayers

Atmosphere...
The #arth is surrounded by a blanket of air called the atmosphere. The
atmos%here is made u% of "arious gases that act as a %rotecti"e shield for
the #arth and allow life to e&ist. +ithout it$ we would be burned by the
intense heat of the sun during the day or fro;en by the "ery low tem%eratures
at night.
omposition...
5ore than three
'uarters of the
atmos%here is
made u% of
nitrogen and
most of the rest
is o&ygen.
Howe"er it is the
remaining 1A$ a
mi&ture of
carbon dio&ide$
water "a%our
and o;one$ that
not only
%roduces
im%ortant
weather features
such as cloud
and rain$ but
also has
considerable
influence on the
o"erall climate of
the
#arth$through
mechanisms
such as the
greenhouse
effect and global
warming. )tay
with us and we0ll
learn more about
the changing
climate in a later
sectionB*
Pressure...
The atmos%here consists of "i#e layers$ held around the %lanet by the force
of gra"ity. .s you mo"e u%wards through the layers$ atmospheric pressure
decreases ra%idly with height and the air tem%erature also changes. :t is
these$ more com%licated$ changes in tem%erature which are used to di"ide
the atmos%here into the layers described below.
Exosphere
.bo"e a height of about 500km is the e$osphere$ a layer
where the atmos%here merges into s%ace. atellites are
stationed in this area$ 500km to 1000km from #arth.
Thermosphere
The thermosphere is the fourth layer in the atmos%here$
between C0km and 110km abo"e the #arth. %ace shuttles
fly in this area and it is also where the aurora lights are
found. .uroras are wis%y curtains of light caused when the
sun strikes gases in the atmos%here abo"e the 9oles.
$esosphere
?eyond the stratos%here the air is "ery thin and cold. This
area is known as the mesosphere$ and is found between
50km and C0km abo"e the #arthDs surface.
Stratosphere
The stratosphere is the second layer of air abo"e the
#arthDs surface and e&tends to a height of 50km. :t is here
that we find the o%one layer. The o;one layer absorbs much
of the sunDs harmful radiation that would otherwise be
dangerous to %lant and animal life.
Troposphere
The troposphere is the layer closest to the #arth$
a%%ro&imately 11km high. +eather occurs only in the
tro%os%here because it is this layer that contains most of the
water "a%our. +eather is the way water changes in the air$
and so without water there would be no clouds$ rain$ snow or
other weather features.
The tro%os%here is an unstable layer where the air is constantly mo"ing. .s a
result$ aircraft flying through the tro%os%here may ha"e a "ery bum%y ride E
what we know as tur&ulence. =ou may ha"e e&%erienced this when flying
beforeB ?ecause of this turbulence$ most 7et airlines fly higher abo"e the #arth
in the stratos%here. Here the air is more still and clear as they can fly abo"e
the clouds.

.lthough the atmos%here e&tends to a height of 1000km$ it is
ne"ertheless still "ery im%ortant for life on the surface of the #arth.
This is because of something known as air %ressure$ which we will
learn more about on the ne&t %age.
What %s the &i""eren'e (et)een Weather and limate*
't(s a s)eltering midsummer day* +'t must &e glo&al )arming,- mutters someone* But is
it the Earth(s changing climate that has made the day so )arm. /r, is it just the
)eather that is so un&eara&le.
Weather is the mi& of e"ents that ha%%en each day in our
atmos%here including tem%erature$ rainfall and humidity.
+eather is not the same e"erywhere. 9erha%s it is hot$ dry and
sunny today where you li"e$ but in other %arts of the world it is
cloudy$ raining or e"en snowing. #"eryday$ weather e"ents are
recorded and %redicted by meteorologists worldwide.
limate in your %lace on the globe
controls the weather where you
li"e. Climate is the a"erage
weather %attern in a %lace o"er many years. o$ the
climate of .ntarctica is 'uite different than the climate of a
tro%ical island. Hot summer days are 'uite ty%ical of
climates in many regions of the world$ e"en without the
affects of global warming.
limates are 'hanging because our #arth is warming$
according to the research of scientists. ,oes this
contribute to a warm summer dayF :t may$ howe"er global
climate change is actually much more com%licated than
that because a change in the tem%erature can cause
changes in other weather elements such as clouds or
%reci%itation.
limate and Beather
Some =efinitions of +limate and Beather
Bhat is the differen-e between weather and -limateP It is a matter of time s-ale. Beather is the day$to$day
stuffA on Thursday it mi%ht be Q%ood,R on Saturday it mi%ht be Qbad.R The -limate -annot be harsh on
Thursday and mild on Saturday, be-ause it is not measured in terms of days, but in terms of many years. The
weather -an -han%e in an hour, say, when a -old front moves in, brin%in% 0r-ti- air on a +hristmas day,
suddenly makin% it is free?in% -old. ;r, on a summer day, the barometer falls announ-in% the arrival of a
low$pressure -enter and a rainstorm that is not far behind. In -ontrast, when we say Qthe -limate has
-han%ed,R we make a statement about a lon%$term shift from -old to warm, or from dry to wet, or vi-e versa.

Beather is typi-ally des-ribed by a weather map, showin% lines of e4ual pressure -alled isobars#,
boundaries between air masses -alled fronts#, and dire-tion of motion. +limate is des-ribed in terms of
overall temperature distributions, air pressure distributions, pre-ipitation and -loud -over, and by seasons.
0lso, -limate is des-ribed in terms of its variability between years -alled the Kinterannual variabilityK#.
0 well$known -limate -han%e was the arrival of the Q>ittle I-e 0%eR in Europe, sometime in the !)th
-entury. Binters be-ame more severe and many summers were -ool and wet in northwestern Europe. In the
-enturies followin%, the Thames Liver fro?e re%ularly, and the i-e -over provided a pla-e for a winter fair for
the people of >ondon. In .olland, the -anals fro?e over, and the =ut-h painter 6ieter *rue%el !"23$69#
made his famous pi-tures showin% i-e skaters within winter lands-apes. In the se-ond half of the !9th
-entury the -limate warmed a%ain, and the K>ittle I-e 0%eK ended.
Beather and Beather Faps
Binter >ands-ape with
Skaters and *ird Trap.
*L'E,E>, 6ieter the Elder
b. --a. !"2", *reu%hel, d.
!"69, *ru1elles#. This is the
most -opied and imitated
paintin% of the artist. The
moral -ontent of the sub:e-tA
life is full with dan%ers both
for the youn% skaters and the
birds.
0 -ommonly seen weather map in mid$latitudes des-ribes a lar%e
-y-loni- eddy, whi-h forms when a ton%ue of warm, moist tropi-al
air invades -old, dry polar air masses. The -enter of the -y-lone is
a re%ion of low pressure indi-ated by the letter >#. There are two
frontsA a warm front and a -old front. 0n observer on the %round
sees first the warm front, as the -y-lone moves north $ eastward.
0ir pressure drops, temperature rises with the arrival of the
tropi-al air, and so does humidity. +loudiness in-reases and a
rainstorm may follow. The reason for rain alon% fronts is that
warm air surrounded by -old air must rise, and as it rises, it -ools
and loses its ability to hold water. The -ondensation of the water
vapor within the risin% air releases heat, so that the air warms and
keeps risin% till -ondensation stops. 0 few days later the -old front
arrives, restorin% -ooler, drier weather. +y-lones are separated by
hi%h pressure -enters marked by an . on weather maps#. 0ir
moves -lo-kwise around these . -enters anti-y-loni- -ir-ulation#,
on the northern hemisphere. The reason that the air moves in
eddies, rather than in strai%ht paths, be-ause of the rotation of the
Earth.
+limate and Le%ional 6attern Faps
+limate is typi-ally des-ribed by the re%ional patterns of seasonal temperature and pre-ipitation over 93
years. 0vera%e annual temperature, avera%e rainfall, avera%e -loud -over, and avera%e depth of frost
penetration are all typi-al -limate$related statisti-s. The main e1pression of -limate on land is in the
ve%etation and the soil type produ-ed in ea-h -limati- re%ion. The idea to -lassify -limate by temperature,
rainfall and ve%etation was introdu-ed by Bladimir 2Sppen in !933. This -lassifi-ation of -limates was later
modified by Ludolph ,ei%er and is now %enerally a--epted as followsA
.umid Tropi-s 0#A 2nown for their hi%h temperatures year$round and for their lar%e amounts of
perennial pre-ipitation. These re%ions are found near the e4uator.
0rid +limates *#A +hara-teri?ed by little pre-ipitation and hu%e daily temperature ran%e.
.umid Fiddle >atitudes +limates +#A =ominated by land8water differen-es. The eastern seaboard
of the '.S. would be an e1ample of this -lass, with -ool winters and mild summers.
0n ideali?ed model of
-y-loni- eddy -ir-ulation in
(orth 0meri-a. ;n weather
maps, warm fronts are
depi-ted by a red solid line
with semi$-ir-les that point
towards the -ooler air. +old
fronts are depi-ted by a solid
blue line with trian%les that
point towards the -ooler air.
+y-lones are an area of low
pressure marked by the >#
around whi-h airflows
-ounter-lo-kwise on the
northern hemisphere. The
warm front is pushin%
northward and a -old front is
pullin% southward.
0dvan-in% -old fronts often
brin% rain.
+ontinental +limate =#A Cound in the interior re%ions of land masses of e1-eptional si?e i.e.
;maha, in the middle of the '.S.0.#. Total pre-ipitation is not very hi%h in amount, and seasonal
temperatures vary %reatly.
+old 6olar +limates E# 0reas -overed by permanent i-e and tundra. .ere, avera%e temperatures
rea-h above free?in% only about one third of the year.
0s the pi-ture illustrates, the o-ean has a hu%e influen-e on the
-limate. +limates -an be -lassified as KmarineK or K-ontinentalK
dependin% on distan-e to the o-ean. *oth the hi%hest and the
lowest temperatures appear in the interior, far from the moderatin%
influen-e of the o-ean. (ote how the lines of -limate ?ones tend to
run parallel to the -oast, espe-ially in western (orth and South
0meri-a, or from interior to e1terior of the -ontinent, as in
0ustralia. 6re-ipitation is hi%hest where warm marine air has
a--ess to -oastal mountain ran%es, as for e1ample in the -oastal
re%ions of ;re%on and Bashin%ton.
Consequences of Rotation
for Weather
T&e E!r& is ! s2innin. ."(be w&ere ! 2(in ! &e eB*!(r is r!'e""in. ! !r(*n4 00CC
5-D&(*r, b* ! 2(in ! &e 2("es is n( -('e4 b$ &e r(!i(n3 T&is +!# -e!ns &!
2r(Ee#i"es -('in. !#r(ss &e E!r&'s s*r+!#e !re s*bEe# ( Coriolis forces &! #!*se
!22!ren 4e+"e#i(n (+ &e -(i(n3
C(ri("is F(r#es
The following diagram illustrates the effect of Coriolis forces in the Northern and
Southern hemispheres.
0 world map of 2Sppen
-limate types. See te1t for
des-riptions. Smaller -ase
letters refer to
sub-lassifi-ations that are not
dis-ussed here.
The Coriolis force deflects to the right in the Northern
hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere when
viewed along the line of motion.
S("!r He!in. !n4 C(ri("is F(r#es
Since winds are just molecules of air, they
are also subject to Coriolis forces. Winds
are basically drien by Solar heating. !s
the adjacent "highly ideali#ed$ image
indicates, Solar heating on the %arth has
the effect of producing three major
conection #ones in each hemisphere.
I+ s("!r &e!in. were &e (n"$ &in.
in+"*en#in. &e we!&er, we w(*"4 &en
e=2e# &e 2re'!i"in. win4s !"(n. &e
E!r&'s s*r+!#e ( ei&er be +r(- &e N(r&
(r &e S(*&, 4e2en4in. (n &e "!i*4e3
H(we'er, &e C(ri("is +(r#e 4e+"e#s &ese
win4 +"(ws ( &e ri.& in &e N(r&ern
&e-is2&ere !n4 ( &e "e+ in &e S(*&ern
&e-is2&ere3 T&is 2r(4*#es &e 2re'!i"in. s*r+!#e win4s i""*sr!e4 in &e !4E!#en +i.*re3
F(r e=!-2"e, beween 8C 4e.rees !n4 ;C 4e.rees N(r& "!i*4e &e s("!r #(n'e#i(n
2!ern w(*"4 2r(4*#e ! 2re'!i"in. s*r+!#e win4 +r(- &e S(*&3 H(we'er, &e C(ri("is
+(r#e 4e+"e#s &is +"(w ( &e ri.& !n4 &e 2re'!i"in. win4s ! &ese "!i*4es !re -(re
+r(- &e Fes !n4 S(*&wes3 T&e$ !re #!""e4 &e 2re'!i"in. Feser"ies3
Re!"isi# Fe!&er P!erns
The adjacent animation shows &'%S() weather satellite images
oer a *+(hour period from ,ec. +-, .--/, through 0an. ., .--*.
This is a geosynchrous satellite, which means that it orbits the
%arth with the same period as the %arth1s rotation and therefore
appears to be essentially motionless oer a fi2ed position on
the %arth1s surface. 3or &'%S() this fi2ed position loo4s down
on North and South !merica.
In &ese #(-2(sie i-!.es re4 in4i#!es 'isib"e "i.& /re+"e#e4
s*n"i.&1, .reen in4i#!es &e 00 -i#r(n IR #&!nne" /&er-!" e-issi(n1, !n4 b"*e in4i#!es
&e 83G -i#r(n #&!nne" /&er-!" H s*n"i.&13 A ni.& &e i-!.es !re b"*e !n4 .reen3 T&e
&ree 2eri(4s (+ 4!$"i.& in &is <6 &(*r seB*en#e !re #"e!r"$ 'isib"e !s re4@(r!n.e re.i(ns
-('in. +r(- E!s ( Fes /ri.& ( "e+13 In &e IR #&!nne"s, &e n!*r!" inensi$ 2!ern
&!s been in'ere4, w!r-er is 4!r5er, s( &! #((" #"(*4(2s s!n4 (* bri.&"$3
One #!n see #"e!r"$ &e 2r(n(*n#e4 #"(*4 +"(ws !ss(#i!e4 wi& &e sr(n. weser"ies !
-i4@"!i*4es in e!#& &e-is2&ere3 /T&is is !5en in N(r&ern &e-is2&ere Finer, s( &e
&e!'ier #"(*4 #('er in &! &e-is2&ere is n( s*r2risin.31 Less (b'i(*s !re &e e!ser"$
r!4e win4s !n4 &e 2("!r e!ser"ies, &(*.& (ne #!n see 'esi.es (+ e!#& i+ (ne "((5s
#!re+*""$3 A"s( !22!ren !re &e swir"in. -(i(ns !ss(#i!e4 wi& +r(n!" s$se-s3 T&ese !re
2!ri#*"!r"$ 2r(n(*n#e4 ! &e b(*n4!ries beween &e -i4@"!i*4e weser"$ !n4 2("!r
win4 +"(ws in e!#& &e-is2&ere3
C$#"(nes I Ani#$#"(nes
The swirling motions eident in the preceding animations are consequences of frontal
systems anchored to high and low pressure systems, which are also called anticyclones
and cyclones, respectiely. The wind flow around high pressure "anticyclonic$ systems is
cloc4wise in the Northern hemisphere and countercloc4wise in the Southern
hemisphere. The corresponding flow around low pressure "cyclonic$ systems is
countercloc4wise in the Northern hemisphere and cloc4wise in the Southern
hemisphere. This is a consequence of the Coriolis force, as illustrated for the Northern
hemisphere in the following figure.
Low pressure systems (left) and high pressure systems (right) in the Northern
hemisphere
M!.nei# Fie"4 (+ &e E!r&
The Earth/s ma%neti- field is similar to that of a bar ma%net tilted !! de%rees from the spin a1is
of the Earth. The problem with that pi-ture is that the +urie temperature of iron is about 773 + .
The Earth/s -ore is hotter than that and therefore not ma%neti-. So how did the Earth %et its
ma%neti- fieldP
Fa%neti- fields surround ele-tri- -urrents, so we surmise
that -ir-ulatin% ele-ti- -urrents in the Earth/s molten
metali- -ore are the ori%in of the ma%neti- field. 0 -urrent
loop %ives a field similar to that of the earth. The ma%neti-
field ma%nitude measured at the surfa-e of the Earth is
about half a ,auss and dips toward the Earth in the
northern hemisphere. The ma%nitude varies over the
surfa-e of the Earth in the ran%e 3.9 to 3.6 ,auss.
The Earth/s ma%neti- field is attributed to a dynamo effe-t of -ir-ulatin% ele-tri- -urrent, but it is
not -onstant in dire-tion. Lo-k spe-imens of different a%e in similar lo-ations have different
dire-tions of permanent ma%neti?ation. Eviden-e for !7! ma%neti- field reversals durin% the past
7! million years has been reported.
0lthou%h the details of the dynamo effe-t are not known in detail, the rotation of the Earth plays
a part in %eneratin% the -urrents whi-h are presumed to be the sour-e of the ma%neti- field.
Fariner 2 found that Denus does not have su-h a ma%neti- field althou%h its -ore iron -ontent
must be similar to that of the Earth. Denus/s rotation period of 2)9 Earth days is :ust too slow to
produ-e the dynamo effe-t.
Intera-tion of the terrestrial ma%neti- field with parti-les from the solar wind sets up the
-onditions for the aurora phenomena near the poles.
The north pole of a -ompass needle is a ma%neti- north pole. It is attra-ted to the %eo%raphi-
(orth 6ole, whi-h is a ma%neti- south pole opposite ma%neti- poles attra-t#.
THE AURORA
N(r&ern !n4 S(*&ern Li.&s
I""*sr!e4
The aurora $$ the northern and southern lights $$ is a produ-t of ma%neti- fields of the Earth and
Sun and of the solar wind. The Sun/s %ases are in -onstant motion. The Sun rotates differentially
with a period of 2" days at the e4uator a velo-ity of 2 kilometers per se-ond#, but lon%er $$ up to
93 days $$ -loser to the rotation poles. 0s a result the solar %ases Kshear,K or slide, a%ainst
themselves. The outer third of the Sun is also in a state of convection, in whi-h hot %ases rise,
radiate their heat at the surfa-e whi-h shines at temperature of "773 2elvin#, and thereby -ool
and des-end. 0s a result of -onve-tion, the solar surfa-e the photosphere# takes on a finely
%ranulated appearan-e.
The interior solar %ases are ioni?ed, ele-trons stripped from atoms. Fotion of an ioni?ed %as will
produ-e a ma%neti- field. Solar rotation and -onve-tion thus -ombine to produ-e a dynamo that
%enerates a solar ma%neti- field, whi-h be-ause of the differential rotation be-omes -on-entrated
into thi-k ma%neti- Kropes.K The ma%neti- fields float upward, and where the KropesK loop
outward throu%h the solar surfa-e they inhibit the -onve-tion and thereby -ool the lo-al %ases.
The result is a pair of sunspots.
The field loops are unstable and are in a -ontinuous state of formation, -onne-tion with ea-h
other, and -ollapse. The steady release of ma%neti- ener%y heats an outer solar corona visible
durin% e-lipses of the Sun# to a temperature of two million or so de%rees 2elvin. The ma%neti-
fields in turn -onfine the -orona into vast ar-$like stru-tures. Bhere the loops do not hold the
-orona ba-k, it e1pands to -reate the solar wind, a flow of atomi- parti-les protons and
ele-trons, basi-ally ioni?ed hydro%en# that impa-ts the planets and -auses the %as tails of -omets
to be pushed away from the Sun.
4omets are 5dirty snowballs,5 made of ices into which are embedded rocks and dust.
When a comet nears the 2un, the ices sublime away to gas, which is ionized by
sunlight and pushed away from the 2un by the solar wind to create the blue self)
luminous gas tail. (he released dust is pushed away by the pressure of sunlight, which
is reflected from the tiny grains to create the white dust tail. (hat comet tails point
away from the 2un was the first indication of the existence of the solar wind. !6. B.
7aler"
The Earth has a ma%neti- field that is produ-ed by the rotation and -onve-tion of its deep, li4uid
iron -ore whi-h o--upies about half the terrestrial radius and about a third of the Earth/s mass#.
Bhen the wind hits the Earth, it flattens our ma%neti- field on the sunward side, and stret-hes it
out on the opposin% side into a lon% magnetotail. 6arti-les trapped by the Earth/s field also form
donut$shaped prote-tive radiation belts that en-ompass us. Bhere the parti-les leak into the
Earth/s atmosphere around our ma%neti- poles, they e1-ite the atoms of the Earth/s upper air,
-ausin% it to %low as the northern lights in a rin% around the ma%neti- a1is whi-h is tilted by
about !3 de%rees relative to the rotation a1is#. The rin%/s radius of about 23 de%rees -arries it
a-ross 0laska and northern +anada, where aurorae are -ommon si%hts.
8s the speeding solar wind hits the &arth's magnetic field, it creates a shock wave,
compresses the forward side of the field, and stretches the far side into a long
magnetotail. (he field traps particles into the donut)shaped Van Allen radiation belts,
which then protect the &arth against the wind. (he interaction of the wind and the
&arth's field generate two rings of electrical current that flow around the magnetic
poles !which are offset relative to the rotation axis" and that in turn create the aurora.
!9rom Stars, 6. B. 7aler, 2cientific 8merican :ibrary, 9reeman, 1;, 1--%."
Bhen lar%e$s-ale unstable ma%neti- loops re-onne-t and -ollapse, %reat balls of -oronal %as are
released from the Sun at hi%h speed. If su-h a coronal mass ejection hits the Earth the :ourney
takin% a -ouple days#, it %reatly disturbs our ma%neti- field and -auses the auroral rin% to e1pand
to lower latitudes, allowin% mu-h of the more southerly population to see one nature/s %reat
displays. The northern li%hts are mirrored by the southern li%hts that -enter on the south
ma%neti- pole, and e1pand northward durin% impa-ts of -oronal mass e:e-tions.
5maging the
%arth
As we "!*n#& (*r e=2"(r!i(n (+ &e res (+ &e S("!r S$se-, i is *se+*" ( re#!"" w&! &e
E!r& "((5s "i5e *sin. &e '!ri(*s i-!.in. e#&niB*es &! we -!$ wis& ( !22"$ ( 4is!n
2"!nes !n4 -((ns3
T&e E!r& in Visib"e Li.&
We hae seen a number of images of %arth in isible light, but mostly at large scale from
a great distance. 6ere are two images from space of smaller objects on the %arth that we
will be interested in loo4ing for on other planets and moons7 a canyon system, and an
actie olcano.
The Grand Canyon from space (Source) Mt. Etna from space (Source)
Fe s&!"" +in4 #!n$(n s$se-s !n4 !#i'e '("#!n(es (n (&er (bEe#s in &e S("!r S$se- (
!re n( (( 4i++eren +r(- &ese i-!.es3 Here is ! se (+ "in5s ( s!e""ie i-!.in. (+ &e
E!r&3
T&e E!r& ! Ni.&
There is one aspect of the %arth1s appearance that we do not e2pect to be repeated in the
near future for other objects in the Solar System7 at night the artificial light associated
with human ciili#ation is ery isible from space. The following image shows the
appearance of the 8nited States at night as obsered from a composite of many satellite
passes.
The USA at night
T&e -!E(r s(*r#e (+ "i.& is +r(- #iies, b* b$ "((5in. #!re+*""$ $(* #!n e'en see &in.s
"i5e "i.&s s#!ere4 in &e G*"+ (+ Me=i#( s(*& (+ L(*isi!n! &! !re +r(- (i" 2"!+(r-s
/Re+13 T&e 2&((.r!2& is +r(- De+ense Mee(r("(.i#!" S!e""ie Pr(.r!- /DMSP1 i-!.es3
I-!.in. in F!$s (&er &!n Visib"e Li.&
9ecause our eyes are sensitie to isible light, our prejudice is to iew things at those
waelengths. 6oweer, we now hae instruments at our disposal that permit
obserations in many wasy other than the isible light region of the electromagnetic
spectrum. These often offer considerable adantage: for e2ample radar cuts through the
eer(present thic4 cloud coer to gie us images the surface of ;enus that we could not
obtain at isible waelengths.
R!4!r I-!.in. (+ &e E!r&'s S*r+!#e
The adjacent images show a comparison of the <t.
%erest region "border of Nepal and Tibet$. The top
image was ta4en through thic4 cloud coer with
synthetic aperture radar on the space shuttle
%ndeaor: The bottom figure is an optical image of
the same region ta4en from %ndeaor "Ref$. 'ne
can see many of the same features in the two
photographs "the photographs were ta4en at
different times of the year, so they hae different
snow coers$.
T&e #*r'in. !n4 br!n#&in. +e!*res !re ."!#iers3
T&e r!4!r e#&niB*e *se4 is sensii'e (
#&!r!#erisi#s (+ &e ."!#ier s*r+!#es s*#& !s &e i#e
r(*.&ness !n4 w!er #(nen3 T&*s &e ."!#iers
s&(w ! '!rie$ (+ #("(rs in &e r!4!r i-!.e b* !re
! r!&er +e!*re"ess .r!$ (r w&ie in &e (2i#!"
2&((.r!2&3
Radar (upper) and visual (lower)
images of Mount Everest
In+r!re4 !n4 -(re E=(i# I-!.in.
We hae seen in the preceding sections e2amples of imaging the %arth in the infrared,
ultraiolet, and =(ray regions of the spectrum. 6ere we show additional e2amples of 5R
images, and a more e2otic technique combining magnetic and graitational data that can
een locate objects beneath the surface of the planet.
San Francisco Bay
imaged in IR from space
Fossil crater imaged with
representation of gravity and
magnetic field data
GOES-8 IR satellite image
of water vapor in Earth's
atmosphere
T&e "e+ +i.*re s&(ws &e S!n Fr!n#is#( B!$ !re! i-!.e4 +r(- s2!#e in &e in+r!re4 /IR13
C"i#5 (n &e i-!.e +(r ! "!r.er 'ersi(n re'e!"in. B*ie +ine 4e!i"s s*#& !s bri4.es !n4
&i.&w!$s /S(*r#e13
T&e -i44"e +i.*re s&(ws ! #(-2(sie (+ "(#!" .r!'i$ !n4 -!.nei# +ie"4 '!ri!i(n 4!! (
i-!.e ! 006@-i"e wi4e re"i# -ee(r #r!er in Y*#!!n &! 2resen"$ "ies be"(w se'er!"
&*n4re4 -eers (+ se4i-en!r$ r(#53 T&is #r!er, #!""e4 Chicxulub, is +!-(*s be#!*se i is
&e "e!4in. #!n4i4!e +(r &e sie (+ &e !ser(i4 i-2!# &! is &(*.& ( &!'e 5i""e4 &e
4in(s!*rs ;: -i""i(n $e!rs !.( in &e K-T extinction /Re+13
T&e ri.& i-!.e s&(ws ! GOES@> we!&er s!e""ie i-!.e in &e ;3< -i#r(n IR #&!nne" &!
is sensii'e ( &e 4isrib*i(n (+ w!er '!2(r in E!r&'s !-(s2&ere /Re+13 T&e i-!.er (n
&is s!e""ie re#(r4s r!4i!i(n e-ie4 b$ w!er '!2(r in &e *22er r(2(s2&ere3 Re.i(ns
wi& &i.& #(n#enr!i(ns (+ w!er '!2(r !re bri.&, w&i"e 4!r5 s2(s si.n!" "(wer w!er
'!2(r #(n#enr!i(ns3
S*r+!#e Te-2er!*re M!2s
5nfrared radiation is basically radiant heat. Therefore, 5R detected from satellites can be
used to determine the temperature of objects. The following image shows a color(coded
map constructed from a composite of satellite data and surface obserations giing
surface temperatures on the %arth "Ref$.
Surface temperatures on Earth for January 30, 1997
Here is ! "in5 ( &e #*rren e-2er!*re -!2 /*24!e4 (n ! ; &(*r #$#"e1, !n4 &ere is !
-('ie /6MB MPEG@@@s"(w 4(wn"(!41 (+ &e e-2er!*re '!r!i(n ('er &e 2!s wee53
Se! S*r+!#e Te-2er!*re M!2s
Similar methods as described aboe may be used to construct color coded maps of
surface seawater temperatures. 6ere is an e2ample "Ref$7
Sea surface temperatures on Earth for January 29, 1997