Physics Notes (Brief one):

Chapter 1: Measurement
Definitions:
Base unit: A base unit is one of seven base units of the SI system related to a base quantity. Its
magnitude is defined arbitrarily and not by combinations of other units.
Derived unit: A derived unit is a unit of derived quantities and is expressed as products and/or
quotients of base units.
Lecture Test 1 Qns: Explain why the unit of force is said to be a derived unit.
Ans: The unit of force is the Newton which has the base units

. Since the Newton is a

product and quotient of the base units kg, m and s, it is a derived unit.
Random error: A random error produce readings that scatter about a mean value. These errors have
an equal chance of being positive (making readings too large) and negative (making readings too
small). They can be reduced by taking more readings and averaging.
Systematic error: A systematic error will result in all the readings taken differing from the true value
by a fixed positive amount or negative amount. It can only be eliminated if the source of the error is
know and accounted for. It cannot be eliminated by averaging but by correct laboratory practices.
Precision: Precision is the degree of agreement of repeated measurements of the same quantity.
Accurary: Accuracy is the degree of closeness the measurements are to the true value.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity is defined as the change in the response to the change in the quantity
measured.
Reliability: Reliability is a measure of confidence that can be placed in a set of measurements.
Vector: A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a direction.
Scalar: A scalar quantity has a magnitude only.
Important concepts:
1) Homogenity of Equations - tells you how to find out the base units of a derived/arbitrary unit by
comparing base units on both sides of an equation
2) Prefixes and Standard form - don't mix up the prefixes and their numerical values (done it before
and not going to do it again -.-)
3) Estimation- not so important but make sure retain common sense during exams. may come out in
MCQ.
4) Errors and Uncertainties- remember how to calculate total uncertainty regardless of situations
involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. (add/subtract = add up absolute
uncertainty. multiplication/division = add up fractional uncertainty --> rmb to convert to absolute
uncertainty coz the question usually demands for it)
5) Scalars and Vectors - Resolution of vectors (nothing too new, just know when to sine and cosine.)

Chapter 2: Kinematics
Definitions:
Distance: The length of a path followed by an object. SI unit is metre (m).
Displacement: The distance moved by an object in a specified direction from some reference point
OR The distance of a point in a specified direction from some reference point. SI unit is metre (m).
Instantaneous Speed: The instantaneous speed of an object is defined as the rate of change of
distance travelled with respect to time. SI unit is metre per second (

)
Instantaneous Velocity: The instantaneous velocity of an object is defined as the rate of change of
displacement with respect to time. SI unit is metre per second (

)
Average Speed: Average speed refers to the distance travelled over time taken.
Average Velocity: Average velocity refers to the change in displacement over time taken.
Instantaneous Acceleration: The instantaneous acceleration of an object is defined as the rate of
change of velocity with respect to time. SI unit is metre per second squared (

)
Average Acceleration: Average acceleration refers to the change in velocity over time taken.
Trajectory: The path described by a projectile.
Range: The distance on the plane between the point of projection and the point of impact
Angle of Projection: The angle between the direction of projection and horizontal plane through the
point of projection.
Time of flight: The time taken from the point of projection to the point of impact.
Important concepts:
1) Graphical Representation of Motion: remember the significance of area/gradient of s-t, v-t and a-t
graphs. (once again nothing too new, the worse graphs are at the back...)
2) Equations of motion (the first two are the intuitive ones):

( )

Conditions for the above kinematic equations to be valid:
Object has to move in a straight line.
Acceleration is constant.
3) Object moving in a uniform gravitational field (without AND with air resistance)
Without: Nothing too new. Just rmb resolution of vectors, equations of motion, vertical acceleration
= g =

, horizontal component remains same throughout (in the absence of external forces).
With: Time taken to travel upwards < Time taken to travel downwards. Asymmetrical trajectory,
maximum reached height is lower, horizontal range is shorter. <--- Memorize how to explain each of
them in detail coz may come out for open-ended.

Chapter 3: Dynamics (okay life starts to get hard.)
Definitions:
Mass: Mass is a measure of a body's resistance to change in velocity. Mass is a scalar. Unless
travelling at speed close to the speed of light, mass is constant and does not depend on any
gravitational field.
Weight: Weight is the force acting on a mass due to a gravitational field. Weight is a vector and is
not constant; it depends on the gravitational field strength.
Newton's First Law: Newton's First Law states that a body continues its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line unless a resultant force acts on it.
Newton's Second Law (first in priority): Newton's Second Law states that the rate of change of
momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and takes place in the
direction of the force. (no longer just F=ma T.T)
Newton's Third Law: Newton's Third Law states that if body A exerts a force on body B, then body B
exerts a force of the same type (weight and normal force and not action-reaction pairs!) that is equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction on body A.
Linear momentum: Linear momentum is defined as the product of the mass of an object and its
velocity.
Impulse: Impulse is defined as the area under a force-time graph. (ACTUALLY useful for application)
Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum: The principle of conservation of linear momentum
states that when bodies in a system interact, the total momentum of a system remains constant
unless a resultant external force acts on the system.
Important concepts:
1) The First and Third Law of Newton, Free-Body Diagrams are nothing new. Just remember when
drawing free-body diagram, ONLY draw forces acting on the object and not forces due to the object.
2) Newton's Second Law***: Variable mass system where mass changes with time while velocity
gained is constant.

( )

3) Tension (nothing new but may be quite confusing to some so if need be, CLARIFY coz it comes out
almost ALL the time)
4) Effective Weight - nothing much to say, just visualize yourself standing in an elevator.
5) Impulse and Momentum Change: REMEMBER that impulse is equals to change in momentum
EQUALS to the product of average force and time (may need to apply). And yeah remember the area
under force-time graph thing as well.
Average Force,

5) Collisions and Conservation of Momentum (oh god.): Distinguish between Elastic, Inelastic and
Completely Inelastic Collision.
Elastic Collision in which both total momentum and total kinetic energy are conserved.
Inelastic Collision in which total momentum is conserved by total kinetic energy is not
conserved.
Completely Inelastic Collision in which total momentum is conserved and the particles stick
together after collision so that their final velocities are the same. Total kinetic energy is not
conserved.
Two PRECIOUS equations (when using them in open-ended PLEASE WRITE the name of the law and
these down first, I think its marked.):

*
*(BEWARE of the order + ONLY APPLICABLE to elastic collisions + will be good to know the kinetic
energy version one as well)

*
*(So long as there's a collision between 2 things, it works (: )
Chapter 4: Forces (LOTS of principles)
Definitions:
Hooke's Law: Hooke's Law states that the extension of a spring (or wire) is proportional to the
applied load if the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
Friction: Friction is the force that exists between any two surfaces in contact and is parallel to the
surfaces.
Density: The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.
Pressure: Pressure is defined as the force per unit area, where the force is acting at right angles to
the area.
Upthrust: Upthrust is the vertical upward force exerted on a body by a fluid when it is fully or
partially submerged in the fluid, due to the difference in fluid pressure.
Archimedes Priniciple: Archimedes Principle states that the buoyant force (upthrust) on a
submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the object.
Principle of Floatation: Principle of Floatation states that if a body floats, the upthrust acting on it is
equal to its weight. (note: upthrust = weight of fluid DISPLACED by an object, so if not fully
submerged DO NOT take the entire volume of the object)
Two conditions necessary for an object to be in equilibrium (meaning both translational and
rotational equilibrium):
1) The resultant force on the object is zero.
2) The result moment (or torque) on the object about any point is zero.
Principle of Moments: The Principle of Moments states that for a body to be in equilibrium, the sum
of all the clockwise moments about any point must equal the sum of all the anticlockwise moment
about the same point.
Moment (or Torque): The moment (or torque) of a force is defined as the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force.
Couple: A couple consists of a pair of equal and opposite parallel forces whose lines of actions do not
coincide.
Torque of a couple: Torque of a couple is defined as the product of one force and the perpendicular
distance between the two forces. The resultant force is zero, as the two forces are equal and
opposite.
Centre of Gravity: The centre of gravity of a body is the point at which its weight or the resultant of
the distributed gravitational attraction on the body appears to act.

Important concepts:
1) Hooke's Law- remember the 2 equations
(

)
k= gradient of F-x graph

Energy= area under F-x graph

2) Fluid Statics- REMEMBER Upthrust= Weight of FLUID displaced by the object, not weight of the
object.
Note: Fluid INCLUDES AIR, so if there's ever a question about a balloon floating off into the air (2012
CTs), there exists an upward force known as upthrust which has to be labelled in whatever diagram
there is.
3) Equilibrium of Forces- Nothing new, just remember that if a system is in equilibrum, resultant
force AND moment are equals to zero.
4) Centre of Gravity- just remember for an object to stand, the centre of gravity has to be directly
above the normal force (or whatever force counteracting the weight of the object). VERY common
question for open-ended application.
*Concepts for this chapter are mostly in the definitions so remember them well !

Chapter 5: Work, Energy and Power (oh yay few definitions (:)
Definitions:
Work: Work done by a force is the product of the force and the displacement in the direction of the
force.
Law of Conservation of Energy: The law of conservation of energy states the energy cannot be
created nor destroyed, but it can be converted (transferred) from one form to another)
Important concepts (bleh I will just write down all the formulas):
Work done by a force:

*Caution: Depending on where the angle is it MAY be sine I think.

Work done by gas in displacing the piston through a small distance :
()

Work done by a varying force (force dependent on displacement s):

*Essentially area under the F - s graph. (the F here refers to the force in direction of work done)

Kinetic Energy:

Change in Kinetic Energy:

)

Gravitational potential energy (along with definition of work done by force):
(

Taking Earth's surface to be the zero of gravitational energy, a system of an object raised to a height
above the Earth's Surface has gravitational potential energy

*There was a question about this in 2012 CTs so I just included it here.

Relationship between force and potential energy in a uniform field (NEW):

()

*Essentially negative of the gradient of the graph of potential energy (U) against distance x = F.



Law of Conversation of Energy (when using it in open-ended PLEASE WRITE the name of the law and
this down first, I think its marked.):
(

if it is a non-isolated system where an external force F is acting on the system:
(

Efficiency:









Average power:

Instantaneous power:

* P= Fv is more commonly used.

Chapter 9: Thermal Physics (I will just write both tgt)
Definitions:
Temperature: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a body.
Thermal Equilibrium: Thermal equilibrium refers to the state in which an object gains thermal energy
from its surrounding objects at the same rate as it loses thermal energy to them, therefore having no
net thermal energy transfer between the object and its surrounding objects.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if objects A and B
are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium
with each other if placed in thermal contact.
Kelvin: The Kelvin is defined as

of the temperature difference between absolute zero and the

triple point of water.

Absolute Zero: Absolute zero is the zero of the thermodynamic scale of temperature. It is the
theoretical temperature at which the molecules of all substances have the lowest energy, i.e. all
substances have a minimum internal energy at absolute zero.
Evaporation: Evaporation is a change of state from liquid to gas that takes place at the surface of a
liquid at any temperature.
Heat Capacity: The heat capacity of a body is the quantity of thermal energy required to produce
unit rise in its temperature.
Specific Heat Capacity: The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of thermal energy
required per unit mass of the substance to produce unit rise in its temperature.
Specific latent heat of fusion (or vaporisation): The specific latent heat of fusion (or vaporization) is
the amount of thermal energy required to change the state of unit mass of the substance from solid
to liquid (or liquid to gas) without change of temperature.
Internal Energy: The internal energy U of a system is determined by the state of the system. It can be
expressed as the sum of all the microscopic kinetic (translational, rotational and vibrational) and
potential energies of the molecules within the system.
Ideal Gas : An ideal gas is a gas which obeys the equation of state pV=nRT where p is the pressure of
the gas, V is the volume of the gas, and T is the thermodynamic temperature (NOTE: this means
KELVIN). It obeys this relationship for all values of pressure, volume and temperature.
Mole: A mole is defined as the amount containing a number of particles (atoms, ions, molecules)
equal to the Avogadro's constant. <--- why are we doing chem here? ._.
First Law of Thermodynamics: The First Law of Thermodynamics states that increase in the internal
energy of a system is equal to the sum of the heat supplied to the system and the work done on the
system and that the internal energy of the system depends only on its state.
Heat: Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to a
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
Important concepts:
1) Heat Capacity, Specific Heat Capacity, Specific Latent Heat are nothing new. Just remember the
formulas and how to apply them in actual question. But memorise the reason why melting and
boiling take place without change in temperature, and the reason why specific latent heat of
vaporisation is higher than that of fusion for the same substance. (that LONGGG explanation in the
notes yeah.)




2) Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of Solids - Nothing complicated for this. Basically
electrical energy supplied by heater = thermal energy received by block =
Final Formula (if need derivation go read notes):

)


3) Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of Liquids/Gases - Okay things get a bit complicated. But
basically heat loss has to be factored in so the experiment is done twice, then subtract both readings
to remove the factor of heat loss. (I will assume everyone knows what I am talking about since
Maths RA)
What is changed from Experiment 1 to Experiment 2:
1) Power of Heater
2) Mass of Liquid/ Gas collected at the outlet
What remains the same:
1) Starting Temperature and Final Temperature
2) Surface Area of Apparatus (okay unless you change apparatus no way this will change)
Final Formula (if need derivation go read notes):


(

)
(

)(

)


4) Determination of Specific Latent Heat by Electrical Methods - Concept similar to Determination of
Specific Heat Capacity of Liquids/Gases.
Final Formula (if need derivation go read notes):


(

)
(

)





5) Boyle's Law (chem..) and its variant:


where N equals to exact no. of molecules instead of n which is in moles. k = R/Avogadro's Constant =

.

6) Kinetic Energy of an Ideal Gas Molecule (ONLY ONE molecule):

Refer to notes for derivation. Though this one is legitly hell.

7) Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas (ALL the molecules)- since ideal gas molecules has negligible
intermolecular forces (chem again), the internal energy of an ideal gas is purely kinetic energy.

8) First Law of Thermodynamics- REMEMBER the sign conventions for internal energy, heat supplied
and work done ON the system. Also if internal energy increase/ decrease, there MUST be an
increase or decrease in temperature. If temperature is constant, change in internal energy is zero. If
volume remains constant, work done on the system is zero as well. Most of the time, one of these
two will apply so use them to your advantage. (:
Also, know how to read that WEIRDDDD p-V graph with 4 curved T lines in the middle. The position
of a point on the graph determines its internal energy. So if two points share the same coordinates,
they represent the same internal energy. And assuming there are two separate points with different
paths joining them from one SPECIFIC point to the other (direction matters), the change in internal
energy is the same. But the work done on the gas is different as that is proportional (actually just
negative) of the area below the graph. Bleh it's hard to write it out comprehensively so just try a few
questions and it will be easy. (:
Formulas:

where U= internal energy, Q= heat supplied and W= work done ON the gas


Work done on the gas:

where v
1
is the starting volume and v
2
is the final volume. This is applied for the graph thing written
up there.