Profile SCWMC BD

Md.
Altaf Hossain
Pro!iIe:5oiI ConservaIion
and WaIershed
ManagemenI CenIre
angIadesh
8ahgladesh is blessed wiIh Hills siIuaIed ih Ihe horIherh ahd easIerh parIs
which occupy abouI 12 per cehI o! iIs IerriIory. 1hese slopihg lahds are o!
greaI imporIahce !or Iheir cohIribuIioh Io ecology ahd !ood securiIy.
1hese lahds deserve much aIIehIioh regardihg Iheir mahagemehI !or
susIaihable use. 1he physical ahd chemical properIies o! soils o! such ah
area are ihvesIigaIed ahd documehIed which would ehable Iheir sciehIi!ic
use ahd susIaihable mahagemehI. 1his ih!ormaIioh will be o! greaI ihIeresI
!or academiciahs, researchers, agriculIural exIehsioh workers, !oresIers,
ahd Ihe more hill dwellers ahd !armers.
Md. AItaf Hossain
1he auIhor was borh oh 5 February 1963 ih Gazipur,
8ahgladesh. He was graduaIed !rom 8AU ahd
obIaihed his PhD degree ih 2004 !rom 8SMRAU. He
has published 15 papers ih repuIed |ourhals. He is
presehIly servihg as Prihcipal SciehIi!ic O!!icer ih Ihe
Soil Resource DevelopmehI lhsIiIuIe, MihisIry o!
AgriculIure, 8ahgladesh.
978-3-659-35761-9
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Md. AItaf Hossain
ProfiIe:SoiI Conservation and Watershed Management Centre
BangIadesh
Md. AItaf Hossain
ProfiIe:SoiI Conservation and
Watershed Management Centre
BangIadesh
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1
ABSTRACT
Bangladesh is blessed with Hills situated in the northern and eastern parts which
occupy about 12 per cent of its territory. These slopping lands are of great importance
for its contribution to ecology as well as food security. The hilly areas are populated
by tribal people and migrated plain landers. The Soil Conservation and Watershed
Management Center (SCWMC) situated in Meghla, Bandarban was established for
conducting research on soil-water conservation and watershed management. The
physical and chemical properties of soils of the area are characterized for scientific
and sustainable management of the slopping lands. This information will be of great
use for academicians, researchers, agricultural extension workers, foresters, and the
more hill dwellers and farmers.
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author humbly expresses his gratitude to the honourable members of the survey
team Mr Md. Mozammel Huq, Mr Mir Sahabuddin for their laborious efforts during
survey period. The cooperation provided by the then Officer-in-Charge Mr Abdul
Gafur, Field staff Sirajul Islam are of worthy mentioning. The laboratory officers and
staffs are also duly acknowledged for their contribution.
The author expresses his heartfelt gratefulness to the then Director, Soil Resource
Development Institute Mr Md. Monirul Huq for his direction and supervision during
survey and report writing.
The Author
January 2005
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
ABSTRACT 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
LIST OF FIGURES 5
LIST OF TABLES 6
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 7
Aims and Objectives of the Center
Objectives of the Study
Methods and Materials
Climate
Agro-climatic Zones (AEZ)
Drainage
Land Cover
Soil Fauna
Earthworms
Termites
Rats and Mice
Rainfall Erosivity
Soil Erodibility
Soil Erosion
CHAPTER 2 SOILS 26
General Nature of Soils
Soil Mapping Units
CHAPTER 3 SOIL FERTILITY 40
CHAPTER 4 LAND CAPABILITY 46
CHAPTER 5 CROP SUITABILITY 49
Definition of Classes 49
Crop suitability ratings 50
Selection of crops 51
CHAPTER 6 SOIL GENESIS & CLASSIFICATION 53
CHAPTER 7 SOIL CONSERVATION 55
Economic Analysis of Soil Conservation
Conservation and Extension Policy
OBSERVATION
4
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
REFERENCES 63
APPENDICES 67
Appendix 1: Soil Series Description 67
Appendix 2: Analytical Methods 83
Appendix 3: Transferable Technology Developed 85
In SCWMC
Appendix 4: Soil Analytical Data 90
5
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
Figure 1 Location Map of Bandarban 7
Figure 2 Monthly average rainfall 12
Figure 3 Monthly average maximum, average minimum
and mean temperature
12
Figure 4 Bandarban: Monthwise rainfall, temperature and
humidity
13
Figure 5 Soil Map of SCWMC, Bandarban 39
Figure 6 Chains of causes and effect linked to decline in
soil fertility
40
6
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
Table 1 Long term monthly absolute maximum, absolute
minimum, average maximum and minimum, mean
temperature and monthly rainfall of Rangamati
Weather Station
11
Table 2 Monthly average maximum, average minimum
and mean temperature
12
Table 3 Monthly total rainfall and average Pan evaporation 13
Table 4 Crop Growing Period 16
Table 5 Cool period-Winter/Rabi growing period and Hot
period-Summer/Pre-Kharif transition period
16
Table 6a Planted forest species on the gently sloping crest
of hills
17
Table 6b Planted horticultural species on the gently sloping
crest of hills
18
Table 7 Forest species on moderately steep slope of low
hills
19
Table 8 Soil erodibility factor (K), Bandarban 23
Table 9 Soil erodibility factor based on texture 23
Table 10 Soil loss measuredin SCWMC, Bandarban 24
Table 11 Soil Mapping Units: area and percentage 29
Table 12 Values used to interpret soil test results for soil
fertility status
41
Table 13 Average analytical data of topsoil composite
samples
43
Table 14 Land capability units: area, percentage and
components
47
Table 15 Classification of the soil series according to
USDA Soil Taxonomy
53
7
Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1Aims and objectives of the center
The Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Center (SCWMC) under Soil
Resource Development Institute was established in 1994 at Meghla, Bandarban
(Figure 1). This is a unique center established for conducting research on soil-water
conservation and watershed management in the hilly areas of Bangladesh. The centre
has an area of 27 hectare and average elevation is 176m above mean sea level.
Figure 1. Location map of Bandarban, Bangladesh
1.2 Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study were to generate detailed information on soil, land and
water resources, species diversity (both flora and fauna) within the area of the center
in order to help in developing a pragmatic program ensuring rational use of the
sloping land and sustainable agricultural development conducive to hill ecosystem.
This survey highlighted physical and chemical properties of soil, limitations and
hazards inherent in the soil and terrain improvements needed to surmount the
limitations and development possibilities. Moreover the study aimed at:
(a) Identification of soil series, types and phases in the farm;
(b) Description and classification of the soils identified;
8
(c) Mapping of the soils in terms of soil types and phases on different slope
gradients for adoption of effective soil conservation measures;
(d) Mapping of the area in detail keeping in view of the local situations for best
utilization of the sloping land;
(e) Classification of the soils identified in the farm;
(f) Evaluation of the soils in terms of land capability.

1.3 Methods and Materials
The method of study in the area was based on high intensity survey i.e. detailed soil
survey. This included detailed information on soils such as morphological and
chemical properties and also other environmental characteristics including slope
gradients.
The survey commenced on 25 April 2004 and ended on 3 May 2004. An aerial
photograph of 1983 of scale 1:50,000 was enlarged to a scale of 1:5,000 by the
survey of Bangladesh was used as the main base map for field observations.
Topographic map and a contour map were also used as reference base materials. In
general, free methods and descriptive terms used are in accordance with the FAO
Guidelines for Soil Description (1990) and USDA Soil Survey Manual (1951).
Modifications have been made where necessary in order to suit the local conditions.
A land capability classification based on the differences in slope gradient affecting
management and use of the hill soils adopted by the Forestal Forestry and
Engineering International Limited of Vancouver, Canada in the Reconnaissance Soil
and Land Use Survey of Chittagong Hill Tracts (1966) was followed and correlated
with the system used in the Reconnaissance Soil Survey reports of Soil Resource
Development Institute (SRDI) following the land capability classification system
developed by the U.S. Soil Conservation Services (1961).
Free method was followed for field observations. Soils were examined at an interval
of about 50m. The density of observations varied considerably from place to place
9
according to the complexity of the soils and slope and supplementary observations
were made wherever considered necessary. The soils were examined and described in
detail by opening mini pits and auger borings at every observation points.
Composite soil samples from each check and layerwise samples from representative
pits were collected for chemical analysis.
The profiles of the identified soil series were described thoroughly in the standard
size (1mX1mX1m) pits dug at their representative sites and soil samples were
collected for chemical analysis. Boundaries between soil mapping units were
checked. In all, 63 samples from different horizons/layers of the 13 pits; 29 topsoil
composite samples, and 8 subsoil samples from representative sites covering the
whole surveyed area were collected for chemical analysis. The parameters of
chemical analyses include texture, pH, EC, organic matter, macro and micro elements
like N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Na, Zn, B, Cu, Fe & Mn. Water samples from two lakes
were also collected for analyzing pH, EC, B, Fe & Na in the laboratory. Analytical
methods used in the laboratory are described in the Appendix 1.
1.4 Climate
There is no complete weather station in Bandarban, nearest district town of the
center, as such long-term temperature data of Rangamati weather station in Table 1.
These data are assumed to be approximately similar to the center. Recently, a
meteorological station in the farm area of the center has been established with
assistance of the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD).
Analysis of climatic data (Table 1, 2 and 3) reveals that like other places of
Bangladesh, the farm belongs to the tropical monsoon climate. Although, Bangladesh
is endowed with six seasons in a year, it is distinctly characterized by 3 main seasons.
These are the winter or dry season (rabi) prevailing from November to February,
which is dry and cool. It experiences the lowest temperature and humidity of the year
10
with a very little rainfall which occurs mostly as occasional drizzles due to
depression. The pre-monsoon or hot season (pre-kharif or early summer) prevails
from March to April. It has the highest temperature (42.2
o
C) and evaporation rate of
the year and receives about 17 percent of the total rainfall of the year in the form of
occasional thunder showers, popularly known as kal-baishaki (northwesters). The
monsoon or rainy (kharif or late summer) season starts in May and continues to
October during which about 79 percent of the total annual rainfall is received. This
season is rather warm and humid.
Analysis of temperature data reveals that hills have mean annual temperature of about
26.2
o
C; absolute maximum and minimum temperatures of 42.2
o
C and 6.7
o
C have
been recorded in the month of May and January, respectively. Mean monthly
temperature ranges from 20.6
o
C in January to 28.8
o
C in May. Rainfall data indicate
occurrence of 87 millimeter rainfall during winter (rabi) season which is far less than
the actual evaporation for that period. Long-term rainfall data show that 3-4 months
in rabi season remain dry. In some months of the rainy season, actual rainfall might
exceed average rainfall figure of the month (Table 1 and Figure 1). Average monthly
rainfall for the period from November to February is less than 75 mm. These months
may be regarded as dry period. On the basis of climatic data obtained from sub-
station and station of BMD, average monthly rainfall has been shown in bar diagram
(Figure 1) whereas monthly average maximum temperatures, monthly average of
mean temperatures and monthly average of minimum temperatures have been shown
in graph (Figure 2). Table 2 shows monthly average of maximum temperatures and
monthly average of minimum temperatures recorded at the centre. Table 3 shows
monthly total rainfall and average Epan for the period 2001 to 2004.
11
Table1. Long term monthly absolute maximum, absolute minimum, average
maximum and minimum, mean temperature (
o
C) and monthly rainfall (mm) of
Rangamati Weather Station
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
t
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
A
n
n
u
a
l
Temperature
Absolute
high*
31.7 35.0 37.8 38.9 42.2 37.8 35.6 36.7 35.6 35.6 33.3 31.7 -
Average
max.**
26.1 29.0 32.4 33.5 33.1 33.1 30.5 31.7 31.7 31.3 29.1 26.5 -
Absolute
cool*
6.7 7.2 11.1 17.2 19.4 20.6 22.8 22.2 22.2 18.3 12.8 9.4 -
Average
min.**
15.0 16.6 20.6 23.5 24.5 25.1 25.1 25.1 25.3 24.2 21.0 17.0 -
Mean**
20.6 22.8 26.5 28.5 28.8 28.1 27.8 28.1 28.5 27.8 25.1 21.8 26.2
Rainfall**
4 12 33 132 259 516 627 426 262 171 57 14 2,513
Cropping Season Rainfall (mm)
1. Rabi (November- February) 87
2. Pre-Kharif (March- May) 424
3. Kharif (June- October) 2,002
* Agroclimatic Survey of Bangladesh, Manalo, IRRI/BRRI, 1975.
** Data of Rangamati Weather Station, Bangladesh Meteorological Department (Source- Computer Centre, Bangladesh
Agricultural Research Council, Dhaka)
12
Table 2. Monthly average maximum temperature and monthly average
minimum temperature in degree Celsius.
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004
Month max min max min max min Max min
Jan 28.1 18.5 28.3 21.5 27.7 20.7 21.1 14.8
Feb 31.9 22.1 31.2 24.1 29.8 22.9 23.6 15.2
Mar 35.0 26.8 35.1 29.1 32.5 26.3 28.3 18.6
Apr 36.8 29.3 34.1 27.5 35.5 29.8 30.1 21.4
May 33.0 26.5 33.1 26.5 35.2 28.9 31.1 22.9
Jun 30.5 26.2 32.6 27.0 29.8 25.1 29.2 20.1
Jul 31.6 26.1 31.3 27.1 29.5 24.0 28.9 20.7
Aug 32.6 26.6 32.0 26.6 30.3 24.4 29.2 21.0
Sept 33.2 27.0 32.8 27.3 31.3 23.9 28.5 21.9
Oct 32.9 26.2 32.5 28.0 31.7 23.8 26.3 18.3
Nov 30.1 23.1 29.7 25.2 28.6 18.9 26.0 18.2
Dec 28.8 22.8 28.2 20.2 24.5 17.7 25.7 15.7
Source: SCWMC, Bandarban (2005)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
J F M A M J J A S O N D
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
(
o
C
)
Figure 3. Monthly average maximum,
average minimumand mean
temperature
Average max. Average min. Mean
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
J F M A M J J A S O N D
R
a
i
n
f
a
l
l
(
m
m
)
Figure 2. Monthly average rainf all
13
Table 3. Monthly total rainfall (mm) and average Pan evaporation (mm/day)
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004
Rainfall Epan Rainfall Epan Rainfall Epan Rainfall Epan
January 0.0 3.0 3.6 2.3 0.0 3.7 0.0 5.6
February 9.6 4.3 0.0 4.1 0.0 5.5 0.0 5.0
March 4.6 4.7 52.0 6.0 104.5 6.0 0.0 5.2
April 15.0 5.5 43.4 5.2 102.9 5.6 140.1 3.7
May 195.5 - 527.8 3.6 70.6 2.8 193.5 3.1
June 153.9 1.5 236.6 3.3 109.2 6.8 504.8 3.5
July 134.8 1.3 473.2 2.6 459.2 5.0 687.5 2.7
August 128.5 1.6 428.8 6.9 263.5 2.7 230.0 3.4
September 224.9 3.6 305.8 2.7 273.5 3.4 314.0 3.0
October 0.0 3.6 154.6 2.7 277.8 3.3 145.0 2.6
November 0.0 2.6 82.8 2.5 172.0 2.9 0.0 2.9
December 51.1 1.8 0.0 2.7 27.0 4.6 0.0 4.5
Source: SCWMC, Bandarban (2005)
Fig.A: Monthwise Rainfall, Temperature. and Humidity
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Humidity %
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Month
R
a
i
n
f
a
l
l
Temp.Max Temp. Min Temp. Average Rainfall (mm) Humidity %
Figure 4. Bandarban: Monthwise Rainfall, Temperature and
Humidity
14
1.5 Agro-climatic zones (AEZ)
In Bangladesh, climatic factors such as, length of crop growing period, standard
deviation on the beginning and the end dates of crop growing period, number of dry
days, excess precipitation, occurrence (days) of maximum and minimum
temperatures and PET (potential evapo-transpiration) are considered for defining
different agro-climatic zones. So, different agro-climatic constraints must be
considered in order to ensure optimum crop production.
The following climatic regulatory factors have been considered for defining different
agro-climatic zones:
a) average length of the pre-kharif period when rainfed soil moisture supply is
intermittent and uncertain;
b) average length of the rainfed kharif and rabi growing periods;
c) average number of days in a year with minimum temperatures below 15
o
C and
certain other temperature limits that are important for major rabi crops;
d) average number of days in a year with maximum summer temperatures higher
than 40
o
C when evaporation reaches in damaging limit.
In Bangladesh, reference moisture zones are expressed by the code: K1-K12 for the
reference kharif length of growing period zone (days) and code: P1-P6 for the length
of pre-kharif transition period sub-zone (days). The SCWMC farm area lies in agro-
climatic code: K6 P4; where, pre-kharif transition period starts from 24 March and
ends on 8 May. The standard deviation of the starting date is 5-25 days and the end
date is 10-30 days. Mean duration of pre-kharif transition period is 40-50 days out of
which 24-32 are dry days.
Kharif growing period (K6) prevails from 3 May to 14 December and standard
deviation of the starting date is 10-30 days and the end date is 20-35 days. Average
kharif growing period is 220-230 days. Kharif humid period is from 17 May to 21
October and average length is 140-170 days. Excess moisture in the kharif-humid
period is 800-2,000 mm.
15
Rabi growing period is from 21 October to 2 March and standard deviation of the
starting date is 15-30 days and the end date is 20-35 days. Average length of rabi
growing period is 120-145 days.
Reference thermal zones are expressed by the code: T1-T5 for the reference thermal
zones of rabi temperatures and code: e1- e4 for the thermal sub-zones of pre-kharif
temperatures.
The farm lies in thermal zone: T3 e1. In rabi growing period, minimum temperatures
below 15
o
C occur from 6 December to 4 February (average 50-70 days) and
minimum temperatures below 17.5
o
C 24 November to 14 February (average 80-105
days). Minimum temperatures below 10
o
C occur in 5-15 days. In this zone, maximum
temperature of more than 40
o
C in summer/ pre-kharif transition period (February/
March- April/ May) may occur or may occur for 5 to 10 days in two years.
1.6 Drainage: Drainage pattern of an area refers to the design of the stream courses
and their tributaries. It is influenced by the slope of the land, lithology and structure
of the landform. The distribution and altitude of the rock systems and their
arrangement also control the drainage pattern. Drainage pattern can act as guidelines
to locate vulnerable areas that deserve special kinds and degree of conservation
measures. The drainage pattern of the centre is medium textured which is the
characteristics of fractures and jointed rock formation. Soils are shallow to
moderately deep, moderately permeable and susceptible to erosion when exposed to
raindrop splash.
1.7 Land cover: There is experimental evidence that soil loss can be greatly reduced
by maintenance of a good ground cover. A higher plant density and a better rate of
growth give more cover and increased protection (Hudson, 1981). There is much less
variation in land use in the hills than exists in most floodplain areas of Bangladesh.
Tertiary forest is not yet fully cleared in the area under SCWMC. Land cover in
SCWMC is shown in Tables 6a, 6b and 7.
16
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17
Table 6a. Planted forest species on the gently sloping crest of the hills
Position Species
Local name English name Botanical name
Crest of hills Sheel karai
Kala karai
Mehogoni
Segun
Neem
Ghora neem
Gamari
Shishu
Minziri
Arjun
Garjan
Kadam
Jarul
Lohakath
Chapalish
Akashmoni
Babla
Thuja
Tejpata
-
-
Mehogoni
Teak
Neem
-
-
-
-
Arjun
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Albizia procera
Albazia lebbek
Swietenia mahagoni,
S. macrophylla
Tectonia grandis
Azadirachta indica
Melia azedarach
Gemilia arborea
Dalbargia sissoo
Cassia siamea
Taminalia arjuna
Diptocarpus
turbinalus
Anthocephalus
chinensis
Lagerstroemia
speciosa
Xylia kerrii
Artocarpus chama
Acacia auriculiformis
Acacia nilotica
Sp.indica
Thysolaena maxima
Cinnamomum tamala
18
Table 6b. Planted horticultural species on the gently sloping crest of the hills
Position Species
Crest of hills Kathal
Aam
Kalajam
Litchu
Peyara
Jalpai
Barai
Golapjam
Kamala
Jambura
Amlaki
Dalim
Tetul
Ata
Bel
Kadbel
Safeda
Anarosh
Arbarai
Kajubadam
Lebu
Kamranga
Jamrul
Jackfruit
Mango
Blackberry
Litchi
Guava
Olive
Indian jujube
Roseberry
Orange
-
Indian
gooseberry
Pomegranate
Tamarind
Custard apple
Indian/Wood
apple
-
Sapodilla
Pineapple
-
Cashew nut
Lemon
Carmbola
Star apple
Artocarpus
heterophyllus Mangifera
indica
Syzygium cumini
Litchi chinensis
Psidium guajava
Elacocarpus robustus
Roxb.
Zigyphus mauritiana
Syzygium sp.
Citrus chrysocarpa
Citrus grandis
Phyllanthus embelica
Puncia granatum
Tamarindus indicus
Feronia limonia
Aegle marmelos
Feconia limonia
Manilkara achras
Anans cosmosus
Phyllanthus acidus
-
Citrus lemon
19
Sharifa
Sajina
Kala
-
-
Banana
Averrhoa carambola
Syzygium samarengense
Annona squamosa
Moringa olifera
Musa sapientum
Effort is going on to establish orange, guava, mango and mixed pineapple,
mango and jackfruit garden. The moderately steep middle slope of the hills
where undisturbed are still covered by natural plant species (Table 7).
Table 7. Forest species on moderately steep slope of low hills
Position Species
Moderately steep
middle slope of
hills
Udal
Gudgutia
Rongkath
Surta
Kafula
Bakful
Nageswar
Batna
Shimul
Muli bash
Kanta bash
Sheuri
Chhatim
Toon
Goda
Udal
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Sterculia villosa Roxb.
Bursera serrata Wall
Woodfordia fruticosa
Chinogyne dichotoma
Lannea coromandelica
Sesbania grandiflora
Musa nagessarium
Duercus spicata
Bombax ciba
Bambusa tulda
Bambusa arumdinaceae
Angoeisusus
accuminata
Alstonia scholaris
Toona cileata
20
Mandar
Jagdumur
Bat
Chikrashi
Hoyera
Lali
Pahari kola
Ura bash
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Vitex peduncularis
Erythina soberosa
E. variegota
Ficus glomerata
Ficus bangalensis
Chukrassia tubularis
Terminalia citrine
Amoora wallichii
Musa textiles
Dendrocalamus
longispathus
The steep to very steep lower slope (south and south-east facing) of the hills are
covered with forest species, thickets, grasses and creepers.
The under storey i.e. soil surface is covered by Asamlata (Mikania cordata
(Burn) Roxb, Asharilata (Caparis zeylanica), Tulshi (Ocimum americanum),
Bashak (Adhartoda vasica), Bagamedula (Tephorsia candida), Ipil Ipil
(Leucaena leucocephala), Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium), Neel (Indigofera
arecta), Crotalaria juncea, Jhum alu (Dioscornea pentaphylla), Durba
(Cynodon dactylon), Premkata (Chrysopogon aciculatus), Lazzabati (Mimosa
pudica, M. invisa ), Broom grass (Thysanoclaena maxima), Kash (Saccharum
spontaneum), Nishinda (Vitex nogundo), Sharpagandha (Rauwolfia serpentina),
Tulaghash (Eriophorum comosum), Ulat kambal (Abroma augustea Linn),
Bichuti (Tragia involuerata), Ban Ada (Zinzinber spectabile), Chhon
(Saccharum oficinarum), Shon (Imperata cylindrica), Chutra (Laportea
interupta), Shialkata (Argimore mexica), Lantena (Lantena camera) etc.
21
1.8 Soil fauna
Animals play an important role in soil formation as well as affect various soil
physical properties. These include earthworms, termites, millipedes; and rats
and mice.
1.8.1 Earthworms
Earthworm activity is important in well drained hill soils, especially under
forest vegetation. The earthworms in these soils include larger species which
make turret like casts up to about 15 cm high on the soil surface. Other species
cover the whole ground surface with smaller casts. Under forest broken down
worm casts form a vesicular crust 5-7 cm thick on the soil surface. This
probably plays an important role in protecting soil from erosion. Inside the soil,
holes made by worms permeate the whole of the subsoil, many of them infilled
with more organic materials from the topsoil.
1.8.2 Termites
Termites are most conspicuous in imperfectly to well drained soils. They are
especially important in soils under forest. Several species are involved only in
breaking organic matter. Termites make tunnels up to 2.5 to 5 cm in diameter
which penetrate both laterally and vertically through the soil, often to depths of
meters. They thus help in soil mixing and also in providing soil permeability.
1.8.3 Rats and mice
These rodents burrow tunnels and chambers within the subsoil, both for refuse
and to store grains. This results in considerable but local soil mixing.
22
1.9 Rainfall erosivity
Raindrop energy is not substantially reduced by a high tree canopy. Raindrops
reach over 90% of their terminal velocity in a free-fall distance of 8m, whilst
drop size may be increased through accumulation on leaf surfaces and fall from
their tips. High erosivities have been recorded under forestry plantations. A
dense canopy of low trees or shrubs, such as provided by coffee or tea bushes,
reduces erosivity, although the shade trees in plantations increase it (Weirsum,
1984). In spatial-mixed agroforestry systems, therefore any such effect will
depend on the height of the canopy. In spatial-mixed systems, including
hedgerow intercropping, the canopy is usually low but it is not vertically above
the cropped land. Thus the tree canopy cannot be expected to reduce rainfall
erosivity to any substantial degree. For erosion control purposes alone, there is
no purpose served in attempting to maximize canopy cover in agroforestry
design. Maintenance of ground surface cover of 60% or more, formed by any
combination of living herbaceous plants with plant litter, has a high potential to
reduce erosion (Young, 1991). In SCWMC, Bandarban rainfall erosivity is yet
to be determined.
1.9 Soil erodibility
Soil erodibility is initially an inherent property of the soil, but can change
through response of the soil to management. Main cause is changes in soil
organic matter, together with effects on soil structure and permeability. It is
widely observed that soil structure is of higher grade and more stable, with
lower detachability and higher infiltration capacity, under forest than under
cultivation. Under shifting cultivation, organic matter decreases and erodibility
increases during the cropping period. In monograph employed in the universal
soil loss equation it is stated that a rise of 1% in topsoil organic matter decreases
the value of K factor by 0.04, or possibly 0.05 if the independently rated effect
23
on permeability is added. In SCWMC, Bandarban soil erodibility factor (K) has
been determined under different slopes which are as follows (Table 8).
Table 8. Soil erodibilty factor (K), Bandarban
Condition and Slope Land use K value
Cultivated land
a) Steep slope Jhum 0.35
Jhum + hedgerow 0.34
b) Moderate steep slope Jhum 0.42
c) Gentle slope Jhum 0.43
Under Natural Vegetation
a) Steep slope - 0.45
b) Moderate steep slope - 0.39
c) Gentle slope - 0.41
*SCWMC, Bandarban
Table 9. Soil erodibility factor based on texture
Erodibility class Low Moderate High
Textural class
Coarse
Medium
Fine
0.1
0.15
0.05
0.2
0.3
0.05
0.4
0.6
0.2
* FAO/UNESCO, 1974
24
1.10 Soil erosion
Soil erosion in SCWMC, Bandarban was calculated from the USLE equation
(Wischmeier and Smith, 1978) - A (t/ha/yr) = RXKXLXSXCXP where, R=
Rainfall factor; K= soil erodibility factor; L= slope length factor; S= slope
steepness factor; C= cover factor; P= support practice factor
Soil erosion has been measured by using multislot divisor on three different
slope class viz. very steep to steep, moderate and gentle slope under Jhum and
Jhum with with vegetative barriers using Tephrosia candida. It has been
observed that soil loss from Jhum on steep slope, moderately steep and gentle
slope are 40.0, 33.0 and 35.0 ton/ha/year. On the other hand, Jhum with
vegetative barrier are 9, 10 and 17 ton/ ha/ year, respectively (Shoaib, 2000).
Table 10. Soil loss measured in SCWMC, Bandarban
Slope Land use Soil loss
(t/ha/year)
Steep slope Jhum 39.70
Local jhum paddy 13.54
BR26 12.50
BR27 11.60
Moderate steep slope Jhum 32.48
Local jhum paddy 13.72
BR26 11.63
BR27 11.95
Gentle slope Jhum 35.05
25
Rill and gully erosion in severe forms occur in the hill areas due to
indiscriminate denudation. Over 17% of the growing stock was depleted
between 1964 and 1985 in the inaccessible state forest of Chittagong Hill Tracts
(IUCN, 1991), while there is no data available for the unclassed state forests
occupying 10,085 sq km. They are open to shifting cultivation, pienapple
plantation and many other forms of disturbances.
A study shows that sediment loss from well-stocked slopes ranged from 2.7 to
7.2 t/ha/year; while that from the cleaned felled slope was 102t/ha/year (Dept.
of Botany and Institute of Forestry, Chittagong University). Studies on erosion
correlating soil loss against slope made by Bangladesh Forest Research Institute
(BFRI) and Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) revealed a more
alarming picture.
More severe forms of soil erosion are being occurring in different parts of hill
due to irrational cultivation practices in the pineapple and rubber plantation
(Layzell, 1982). It was estimated that the annual soil loss under pineapple was
in excess of 200 tons per hectare year. Runoff plot studies at Hazaribagh (India)
showed that there was a significant increase in runoff, soil sediments and
nutrient losses increased with increase in slope from 1- 3.5%. About 23-90%
annual crop yield may be lost when soils are eroded. Soil from eroded sites at
Chittagong Hill Tracts showed more acidity (pH 3.5-3.8) than partially eroded
or less eroded ones (pH 4.2-4.5). The trend was same everywhere and in respect
of organic carbon, percent total nitrogen, available P, Ca and Mg (Farid and
Ullah, 1991).
26
Chapter 2
SOILS
2.1 General nature of soils
The soils of SCWMC have been broadly placed under two groups i.e. hill soils
and valley soils on the basis of landforms and other pedogenic characteristics.
Valley soil occurs in a single site. In Bangladesh hills are Mio-Pliocene hills
(Saheed, 1992).
Hill Soils
The soils are developed in the residuum derived from the semi-consolidated and
consolidated siltstones and shales of Surma- Tipam formation of Tertiary age.
They are usually strong brown in colour, acidic in reaction and well to
excessively drained having variable textures ranging from clay loam to silty
clay. Soils are variable due to changes in lithology from shale to siltstone, slope
and aspects. During the survey of the farm, 7 soil series namely Ghagra,
Kuhalong, Barkal, Sajidhala, Jaldi, Sitakunda and Mirsarai were recognized in
the area, which are briefly described below. The detailed descriptions of the soil
series are given in chapter 7.
Ghagra series generally occurs on the crest and gently sloping to moderately
steep slopes of the hills. The soil is deep and well drained. Topsoil texture is
generally ranges from clay loam to clay and colour is usually brown to dark
brown. Subsoil texture varies from clay loam to clay with strong blocky
structure and colour ranges from strong brown to red. Substratum is moderately
fine to fine textured with semi-consolidated siltstones and shale fragments with
pale brown or red color. The soil is slightly acidic in reaction throughout the
profile.
27
Barkal series generally occurs on the moderately steep to steep slopes of the
hills. The soil is moderately deep to deep and well drained. Topsoil texture is
generally clay loam and colour is usually pale brown to dark brown. Subsoil
texture is generally clay loam with strong angular blocky structure and colour
ranges from light yellowish brown to pale brown. Substratum is medium to
moderately fine textured with semi-consolidated siltstone and shale fragments.
The soil slightly acidic in reaction throughout the profile.
Jaldi series generally occurs on the crest and gently sloping to very steep slopes
of the hills. The soil is shallow to moderately deep and well drained. Topsoil
texture usually varies from gravelly clay loam to clay and the colour ranges
from greyish brown to dark brown. Subsoil texture varies from clay loam to
clay and the colour ranges from pale brown to dark brown. Substratum is
moderately fine to fine textured and the colour is pale brown. The soil is slightly
acid throughout the profile.
Kuhalong series generally occur on the moderately steep to steep slopes of the
hills. The soil is moderately deep to deep and excessively drained. Topsoil
texture is generally clay loam to clay and colour is usually dark brown. Subsoil
texture is silty clay to clay with strong blocky structure and the colour is dark
yellowish brown to dark brown. Substartum is fine textured with abundant
semi-consolidated siltstones and shale fragments and the colour is pale to strong
brown brown. The soil is slightly acidic in reaction throughout the profile.
Sajidhala series generally occurs on the steep to very steep slopes of high hills.
The soil is moderately deep to deep and well drained. Topsoil texture generally
varies from clay loam to clay and the colour ranges from pale brown to dark
brown. Subsoil texture is usually clay and the colour is pale brown. The soil is
slightly acidic throughout the profile.
28
Sitakunda series generally occur on very steep slopes of the high hills. The soil
is shallow and well drained. Topsoil texture is usually loam and the colour is
dark brown. Substratum is semi-consolidated shale layer. The soil is slightly
acidic in reaction.
Valley soils
Valley soil comprises of only one series namely Mirsarai series occurring in a
single site of the narrow valley. This soil series is developed in the colluvial
deposits eroded from the surrounding hills. The soil is imperfectly drained.
Topsoil is grey, silt loam and subsoil is olive grey, silty clay loam. Substratum
is grey, clay loam. The soil is acidic in reaction and intermittently flooded
mostly by run-off water for short periods following the monsoon or depressional
rainfalls.
2.2 Soil Mapping Unit
In the surveyed area, 7 soil series have been recognized which have been
mapped into 4 soil mapping units (Table 6). The soil mapping units are based on
soil series, soil types and phases. Subdivisions of soil type into phases are made
on the basis of slope gradient as it affects soil drainage, runoff and soil erosion
in the hilly areas, which in turn determine the land use and management
practices. Soil depth phases have not been considered in the surveyed area as
the soils do not contain cemented or indurated layers of siltstones, shales or any
other hard rock within the rooting depth of crops or trees except Sitakunda
series. However, depth to the substratum has been given in subsoil
characteristics described in mapping unit descriptions.
The soil mapping units have been described and arranged in a tabular form so as
to simplify the presentation of the information in terms of topographic
29
position/landform, soils series, types and phases; approximate percent of
individual soils occurring in the unit; drainage; subsoil characteristics; present
land use; factors limiting agricultural use or development; land capability
ratings and the possibilities for improved land utilization. Then a summary Note
on the mapping unit is followed by the Land capability classification of the unit.
30
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34
L
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:
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35
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39
Figure 5. Soil Map of SCWMC, Bandarban
40
Chapter 3
SOIL FERTLITY
Soil fertility is the quality of a soil to provide all the essential plant nutrients in
available form, in adequate amount and in proper balance for healthy growth
when other growth factors such as light, moisture, temperature and soil physical
properties are favorable. Thus, soil fertility is an interpretation of a number of
physical and chemical properties, particularly soil texture, cation exchange
capacity, base saturation percentage, organic matter content, pH and other
available nutrients such as N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Na, Zn, B, Cu, Fe & Mn. The
combined effect of lowering of soil organic matte, deterioration of physical
properties, lowering of nutrient content and (in some cases) acidification that is
commonly referred to as decline in soil fertility (Figure 6).
Population Shortening of Topsoil loss/ Low crop Shortage of
increase food/fallow period Decline in yields income
fertility
Shortage of
land
Sloping land Soil erosion Decline Low crop Shortage of food/
in fertility yields income
Intensive Lack of
land use conservation
Figure 6. Chains of causes and effect linked to decline in soil fertility

In the SCWMC farm, 63 samples from different horizons/layers of the 13 pits;
29 topsoil composite samples and 8 subsoil samples from 7 soil series namely
Ghagra, Kuhalong, Barkal, Sajidhala, Jaldi, Sitakunda and Mirsarai representing
the whole surveyed area were taken for chemical analysis in order to interpret
41
the soil fertility status. The parameters of chemical analyses include texture, pH,
EC, organic matter, elements like N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Na, Zn, B, Cu, Fe & Mn.
Water samples from two lakes were also collected for analyzing pH, EC, B, Fe
& Na in the laboratory. Analytical methods used in the laboratory are described
in the Appendix. Location specific analytical data on layer wise soil samples of
different series are given in Appendix 1. Average analytical data on topsoil
composite samples of the soils series, type and phases (Table 8) have been
interpreted interms of approximate values used to interpret soil test results for
soil fertility status (Table 7).
Ghagra series, Sajidhala series and Sitakunda series is highly acidic (pH 4.7-
5.2), Barkal series and Kuhalong series is highly acidic to slightly acidic, Jaldi
series is extremely acidic to slightly acidic. Ghagra series has low organic
matter content. It is low to high in Barkal series, medium in Kuhalong series,
medium to high in Jaldi series and low to high in Sitakunda series. In soil
mapping unit (mu) 1, Ghagra, Barkal, Kuhalong and Jaldi series is low in N. In
mu 2, N content in Barkal series is very low to low, Kuhalong is low, Sajidhala
is medium, Jaldi is medium to high and Sitakunda is low to very high. In
mapping unit 3, N content in Kuhalong is medium, Jaldi is very high and
Sitakunda is low to medium. P content in all the soils is very low except Jaldi
(mu 3) which is medium. In Ghagra (mu 3) and Barkal (mu 2) K content is
medium. K content in Barkal (mu 2) and Sitakunda (mu 3) is low to very high.
In Kuhalong and Sajidhala K content is very high, it is low/ medium to very
high in Jaldi and in Sitakunda it is low to very high. In Jaldi series K content is
optimum to very high, medium to very high, and very high in mu1, 2 and 3
respectively. S content is low to medium in all the soils.
The water sample of two lakes was analyzed. ECw very between 0.07-0.13
(ds/cm), pH varies from 7.0 to 7.2, Na content varies from 0.027- 0.032
42
soil), Ca content varies from 0.008- 0.027 (meq/100g soil) and Mg content
varies from 0.025- 0.051 (meq/100g soil).
Table 12. Values used to interpret soil test results for soil fertility status
(for upland crops on loam to clay soils)
Element Critical
limit
Very
low
Low Medium Optimum High Very
high
Total N (%) 0.12 up to 0.09 0.091-
0.18
0.181- 0.27 0.271- 0.36 0.361-
0.45
>0.451

soil)
7.0 7.5 7.51-
15.0
15.1- 22.5 22.51- 30.0 30.1-
37.5
>37.5

soil)
12.0 7.5 7.51-
15.0
15.1- 22.5 22.51- 30.0 30.1-
37.5
>37.5
K
(meq/100g
soil)
0.10 0.09 0.091-
0.18
0.181- 0.27 0.271- 0.36 0.361-
0.45
>0.45
Ca
(meq/100g
soil)
2.0 1.5 1.51- 3.0 3.1- 4.5 4.51- 6.0 6.1- 7.5 >0.75
Mg
(meq/100g
soil)
0.5 0.375 0.376-
0.75
0.751-
1.125
1.126- 1.5 1.51-
1.875
>1.875
Cu
(meq/100g
soil)
0.2 0.15 0.151-0.3 0.31- 0.45 0.451- 0.6 0.61-
0.75
>0.75
Zn
(meq/100g
soil)
0.6 0.45 0.451-0.9 0.91- 1.35 1.351- 1.8 1.81-
2.25
>2.25
Fe
(meq/100g
soil)
4.0 3.0 3.1-6.0 6.1- 9.0 9.1- 12.0 12.1-
15.0
>15.0
Mn
(meq/100g
soil)
1.0 0.75 0.76-1.5 1.51- 2.25 2.26- 3.0 3.1- 3.75 >3.75
B
(meq/100g
soil)
0.2 0.15 0.151-
0.3
0.31- 0.45 0.451- 0.6 0.61-
0.75
>0.75
43
Measures which can be taken to increase fertilizer efficiency under hill
conditions include:
a) applying small doses of nitrogen (and perhaps potash) at frequent
intervals;
b) using granular/super granular fertilizers rather than powdered fertilizers;
c) placing phosphate fertilizers in concentrated bands or holes alongside
plants;
d) taking steps to increase the content of organic matter in the topsoil viz. by
mulching or growing cover crops which are not grazed or cut for fodder.
44
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46
Chapter 4
LAND CAPABILITY
Land is classified according to the degree of its limitations for sustainable use
and the soil conservation measures necessary to maintain it in productive use.
As such, land capability classification is a method of grouping the soils of an
area to show their relative suitability for the sustained production of common
agricultural crops adapted to the environment. Land capability classification
originated in the United States of America, and has since been adapted and
widely applied to land use planning in developing countries including
Bangladesh. Land is graded into a number of capability classes, usually I-VIII,
on the basis of its inherent limitations of erosion, wetness, soil and climate.
Capability classes I-IV are arable`, that is, are assessed as suitable for rainfed
arable use, class V is applied to special situations, such as wet valley floors,
whilst classes VI-VIII are non-arable`, and considered suitable Ior grazing,
forestry or conservation (Klingebiel and Montogomery, 1961; Shaxson et al.,
1977 and Dent and Young, 1981).
OI the limitations which determine these capability classes, the e` or erosion
hazard limitation is usually dominant in practice. This is an outcome of the fact
that the system was primarily designed for soil conservation purposes. In the
conservation tables through which the limitations are converted into capability
classes, erosion hazard is assessed by combinations of slope angle with
properties representing the soil`s resistance to erosion. The arable classes, I-IV,
are distinguished from each other on two grounds, choice of crops and need for
conservation practices, but that of choice of crops is in turn partly dictated by
whether crops with high erosion risk (low ground cover) can or can not be
grown. By far the most common reason why areas of land are assigned to the
non-arable classes is that of slope angle and consequent erosion risk.
47
Most versions of this scheme reach non-arable classification on only moderate
slopes. An adaptation specially Ior hilly, marginal lands` (based on Taiwan and
Jamaica) permits cultivation on slopes up to 25
o
provided soils are deep, but
calls for bench terracing or other labour-intensive structures above 15
o
(Sheng,
1986).
The outcome of using land capability classification as a basis for land use
planning is therefore that all moderately to steeply sloping land is mapped as
available only for non-arable uses. For many areas in developing countries, this
result is in conflict with current land use, and to attempt to apply it would be
completely unrealistic. Areas of sloping land are already being used to grow
subsistence food crops and families and sometimes whole communities are
dependent upon this produce; large areas in Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia and
Malawi are examples. It would be socially undesirable and impractical to
attempt to change this situation.
In Asia, this problem has been commonly solved by terracing, as for example in
North Yemen, Java, the Philippines and the Himalayan foothills of India and
Nepal. By this means, what would be capability class VI and VII land is put to
arable use, rainfed or irrigated; provided that terracing is maintained, soil and
water conservation are achieved (although fertility decline may still be a
problem). However, this solution requires a large amount of labour, spread over
many years to build one extra terrace per year, and it is unlikely that it can be
introduced to regions where it is not already customary.
48
Table14. Land capability units: area, percentages and components
Land
capability
class
Unit Mapping unit description Land
capability
subclass
Area
(ha)
Per-
centage
Included
soil
mapping
unit
Moderate
agricultural
land
1 Well drained, gently sloping to sloping with
moderate erosion hazard, moderately fine
textured soils overlying semi-consolidated
interbedded siltstone and shale fragments at
moderate to deep depth.
IIIDe/B 6.63 24.55 1
2 Imperfectly drained narrow valley, medium
textured soils with risk of flash floods and
burial by sediments.
IIIDz/A 0.01 31.63 4
Poor
agricultural
land
3 Somewhat excessively drained moderately
steep to steep land with moderate to severe
erosion hazard, moderately fine textured
soils overlying semi-consolidated
interbedded siltstone and shale fragments at
moderate depths.
IVDe/C 8.54 43.70 2
Non-
agricultural
land
4 Somewhat excessively drained very steep
land with very severe erosion hazard,
moderately fine textured soils overlying
semi-consolidated interbedded siltstone and
shale fragments at moderate to shallow
depths.
VDe/D 11.80 0.04 3
Miscellane-
ous land
type
- Building, Metalled road, Unmettaled
(Kancha) road, Weather station, Lakes
0.02 0.08 -
Grand
total
27.0 100 -

49
Chapter 5
CROP SUITABILITY
Crop suitability classification is a method of rating soils in terms of their
relative suitability for the production of specific crops. These ratings are crop
suitability classes- Suitable (1), Moderately suitable (2), Poorly suitable (3),
Very poorly suitable (4) and Not suitable (N). These ratings are similar to
Land capability Classes, but two important differences should be noted. A rating
of crop suitability is a grading for overall crop production. Moreover, crop
suitability takes into account only most favourable season of the year for the
soil-crop combination under consideration, whereas a land capability rating is
based on the limitations of a soil for crop production throughout the year.
The soils are graded according to their present condition or that expected to
exist for the next ten years or so under traditional or modern management.
Definitions of classes
Suitability class S1: Suitable. The soil has no significant limitations for the
cultivation of the crop under consideration. With traditional management, the
crop grows well and would produce moderate to high yields. For the crop under
consideration, the soil has favourable physical and hydrological characteristics
during at least one cropping period per year, has a moderate or high fertility
level and is responsive to good management. With modern management, the
crop would produce high or very high yields.
Suitability class S2: Moderately suitable. The soil has a number of slight,
moderate or severe limitations for the production of the crop under
consideration. However, it is considered practical to reduce these constraints by
appropriate management in order to obtain moderate or high yields, but this will
increase the costs of production.
Suitability class S3: Poorly suitable. Under traditional management, little, if
any, production may be expected from the crop. The soil has severe physical,
50
chemical and/or hydrological limitations for the crop under consideration and
response to management is very low.
Suitability class S4: Very poorly suitable. The soil has a number of slight,
moderate or severe limitations for the production of the crop under
consideration, and these constraints are difficult to reduce. Productivity is low
and is difficult to improve.
Suitability class N: Not suitable. The soil has a large number of limitations,
generally including one or more very severe limitations. Either the crop can not
be grown, or productivity is very low and risky. Within the limits of the
specified management, the productivity of the crop can not be improved
significantly.
Crop suitability ratings
The crop suitability ratings for a number of crops adapted to the hill tracts. The
soils are rated under their present condition, except that, hill soils have also been
rated for level slope class so as to indicate crop suitability on soils which might
be terraced at some future time.
These ratings are based entirely on an assessment of physical factors. They do
not take into account economic or social factors, which may also determine
whether it is feasible, or not to grow particular crops in particular crops in
particular areas. This reservation is particularly important in the Hill Tracts,
where poor communications presently restrict the production of commercial
crops to easily accessible areas, and where some tribal people are not
accustomed to settled forms of crop production.
51
Selection of crops
The Forestal report (1966) reviewed the suitability of some 60 crops for
cultivation in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Three categories were recognized, viz.
A: Crops, which are ecologically adapted to the area and which, should be
economically profitable if developed immediately on a major scale. The
following crops were placed in this category:
Field crops (mainly suitable for terraced hill soils):
Ginger, linseed, mustard (and rape), peas (and beans), pineapple, rice, sesame,
squash (and gourds), tomato, turmeric and yams.
Plantation crops (mainly suitable for hill soils, with appropriate soil
conservation measures):
Bamboo, banana, cashew nut, citrus (especially lemon, lime), coffee, jackfruit,
kapok, lichee, mango, papaya, rubber.
B. Crops considered probably suitable and which are recommended for
early intensive study, experimental planting and economic investigation
(SRDI, 1986).
Field crops Cover crops and forage
crops
Plantation crops
Cassava, Castor, Cotton
(high and medium
staple), Groundnut,
Manila hemp
Caopogonium
mucunoides
Centrosema pubescense
Pueraria phaseoloides
Stylosanthes gracilis
Tephrosia candida
Avocado, pear, Coconut,
Oil palm, Tung (mu)
52
C. Crops considered possibly suitable and which are listed for later study
and experimentation (SRDI, 1986).
Field crops Plantation crops
Cape gooseberry, Cardamom, Jute,
Roselle hemp, Sisal, Straw berry,
Sugarcane, Sun hemp, Tuber root
Bay leaf, Cinnamon, Cocoa, Holly
(Acanthus), Khejur palm, Banana,
Macadamia nut, Mulberry, Peach,
Pepper, Plum, Rauwolfia serpentina,
sapodilla, Tea
53
Chapter 6
SOIL GENESIS &CLASSIFICATION
The soils of the SCWMC farm are developed in residuum derived from semi-
consolidated to consolidated folded siltstones and shales of Tertiary sedimentary
rocks, probably of Tipam-Surma group of middle and lower miocene age. They
occupy very steep to steep high hills with conical shaped tops/crests which are
the remnants of closely and very steeply dissected interior of higher anticlines.
The soils of the farm have been classified according to Soil Taxonomy, 5th
edition, 1992 (SMSS Technical Monograph No, 17) by USDA soil survey staff.
This classification system is a multi-categorical system with one or more
differentiating characteristics at each categorical level grouping soils into
mutually exclusive classes. The classification system has six categories which
are broadly classified into higher categories and lower categories. The higher
categories are order, sub-order and sub-group which give a general
understanding of the soils over large areas indicating their worldwide
relationship. The lower categories are family and series. They indicate the local
differences of the soils and help in assessing the productive capacities of the
soils for utilization purpose.
In total 7 (seven) soil series were recognized in the farm. The soil series
recognized in the hills of the surveyed area have an ochric epipedon and
presumably argillic B horizon. All these soils belong to udic moisture regime
and hyperthermic temperature regime. The soil series namely Barkal, Ghagra,
Kuhalong, Sajidhala having more than 35 base saturation are classified Alfisols
in order level and Ultic Haplaqualfs in suborder level. Jaldi series having less
than 35 percent base saturation belongs to Ultisols inorder level and Typic
Hapludults in subgroup level.
Sitakunda series having ochric epipedon and lithic contact just below topsoil
with ustic characteristics is classified as Inceptisols in order level and Lithic
54
Ustochrepts in subgroup level. Mirsarai series in narrow valley having ochric
epipedon and cambic B horizon with aquic characteristics is classifed as
Inceptisols in order level and Typic Endoaquepts in subgroup level.
All these soils have been classified in family level shown in Table 15.
However, this classification should be considered as tentative and subject to
change since soil classification is essentially dynamic in nature and keeps on
changing and adjusting as the knowledge and understanding of the soil
increases. Moreover, the soils classified here have not been supported by
adequate physical and chemical data.
Table 15. Classification of the soil series according to USDA Soil Taxonomy
Seri
al
No.
Order Sub-
order
Great
group
Sub-group Soil family Soil
series
1 Inceptisols Aquepts Endoaquepts Typic
Endoaquepts
Fine, loamy,
mixed, acid,
Hyperthermic,
Typic
Endoaquepts
Mirsarai
Ochrepts Ustochrepts Lithic
Ustochrepts
Fine, loamy,
mixed, acid,
Hyperthermic,
Lithic
Ustochrepts
Sitakunda
2 Alfisols Udalfs Haludalfs Ultic
Hapludalfs
Fine loamy,
mixed, acid,
Hyperthermic,
Ultic Hapludalfs
Barkal,
Ghagra,
Kuhalong,
Sajidhala
3 Ultisols Udalts Hapludults Typic
Hapludults
Fine clayey,
mixed, acid,
Hyperthermic,
Typic Hapludalts
Jaldi,
Sitakunda
55
Chapter 7
SOIL CONSERVATION
Until recent times, land use in the hill areas was appropriate for the ecological
balance of the area. Most of the land was covered and protected by natural
forest. Such cultivation practices in which only small patches of land were
cleared at a time, mixed cropping was practiced, cultivation was continued for
only one or two years, and the land was then left fallow for periods of 10-20
years before being cleared for cultivation again. During the fallow period, the
land again became covered by natural vegetation which shaded out weeds and
built up fertility in the topsoil again.

The natural system of soil conservation broke down as the population density
increased. The overriding development need in the Hill Tracts is to bring the hill
soils under forms of management which will prevent further degradation and
erosion. That is needed not only so as to increase and maintain economic
production from the hill land itself, with consequent employment and income
benefits for the hill dwellers. It is needed also in order to reduce damage to
crops and soils on adjoining plain land by flash floods and sedimentation. There
are two main principles of soil conservation. One is to keep the soil surface
protected against the direct impact of heavy rainfall i.e. cover approach. The
other is to prevent water from moving over the soil surface i.e. barrier approach.
However, under hill environmental conditions, these principles are more easily
stated than applied. That is because there has been little scientific study
anywhere in the world of appropriate soil conservation techniques for use on
sloping tropical soils under heavy monsoon rainfall. Similarly the economic
costs and benefits of applying soil conservation techniques are yet to be studied
on different soils and slopes in Bangladesh. In general the absence of hard rocks
or stones with which to build retaining walls severely restricts the possibility of
56
making terraces, one of the techniques generally used to control run-off on steep
slopes.
For these reasons, the most appropriate conservation measures for Bangladesh
hill soils is to put them under tree crops of one kind or another. On gently and
moderately sloping land, appropriate tree crops include: fruit trees (jackfruit,
citrus, guava); quick growing fuel wood, fodder and pulpwood trees; and
perhaps rubber, tea and coffee. On slopes steeper than 60%, on shallow soils
and all slopes in areas remote from communications with outside markets,
aforestation and improved management of existing forests is the appropriate
land use.
In establishing tree crops, bare soil should be exposed for the minimum
possible time. Preferably, cover crops should be grown during the planting and
establishment phases, or weed growth should be slashed and left as a mulch to
cover the soil surface. Step terraces or bench terraces should be made, where
appropriate. Roads and paths should follow hill tops or the contour wherever
practical and adequate soak-ways should be provided so that roadside ditches do
not develop into gulley.

Field crops should be grown only under three conditions, viz.
a) On level or very gently sloping plain land;
b) On very gentle hill slopes, where crops can be grown in narrow strips
along the contour, bordered by fallow strips/ hedgerows/ tree crops which
can absorb any run-off which might occur from the cultivated strip.
Easily eroded silty soils should be avoided.
c) On gently or moderately sloping soils during the establishment of tree
crops or Iorest plantations: agro-Iorestry` or the taungya` system oI
57
forest establishment. This system should not be used on steep slopes i.e.
on slopes steeper than about 30%.
Where field crops are grown on sloping soils, every effort should be made to
keep ground surface covered with vegetation or mulch, as in the traditional
jhum cultivation. Preferably crop mixtures should be grown, including one or
more broad-leaved crops; and weeds should be left on the ground as mulch after
hoeing or slashing. Pure stands of widely spaced crops such as maize, cotton,
cassava, etc., are not appropriate on hill soils unless soil conservation structures
are provided and the soil surface is protected by mulch or a suitable cover crop.
Economic analysis of soil conservation
Cost-benefit analysis of soil conservation, whether on a private (farmer) or
social (community) basis, is essentially a matter of comparing discounted net
revenue with and without conservation measures. Both costs and benefits are
likely to be affected. For a soil conservation project of the conventional kind,
such as bunds and waterways with mechanical construction, there will be a high
initial capital cost, together with limited annual maintenance costs (zero if this is
assumed to be done by Iarmer`s labour in oII-peak periods). This must be set
against the difference in benefits, represented as crop yields at farm-gate prices;
the simplest assumption is a constant yield with soil conservation, to be
compared with a declining yield without. Specification of the expected crop
yields, for the number of years taken as the basis of economic analysis, is
essential.
A more direct approach is to estimate the losses of nutrients by erosion and to
calculate the cost of replacing these as fertilizer. For arable lands of Zimbabwe,
and considering nitrogen and phosphorus losses only, cost was estimated at
58
$150 million a year (1984/85), which is three times the amount actually spent
on fertilizers (Stocking, 1986).
Costs of soil conservation increase in the order prevention< control <
reclamation. Least costly is to prevent serious erosion commencing on land
initially in good condition; to control and reduce erosion where it is already
occurring requires greater inputs and investment; most expensive is to reclaim
and rehabilitate severely degraded land.
On land already degraded, however, it may become possible to justify
reclamation forestry in economic terms by combining it with production. After
an initial period of soil improvement under forest, the tree cover can be thinned
and grass beneath cut for sale as fodder; positive benefit: cost ratios have been
achieved for such a practice in India (Mathur et al., 1979).
With respect to economic analysis of conservation, conclusions of particular
relevance to agroforestry are:
1. The initial cost of establishing erosion control works based on
agroforestry, whether in terms of capital or labour, is frequently lower
than that of terracing or bunds. The infrastructure costs of agroforestry,
such as tree nurseries, are on a modest scale.
2. In addition to the benefit from maintenance of crop yields through control
of soil loss, some agroforestry practices may have the potential to lead to
an increase in crop yields, above present levels. In addition these effects,
there can be an increase not only in actual benefits, but in those perceived
by the farmer.
3. On land already degraded, the cost of reclamation can be reduced be
reduced if soil improving trees are combined with controlled production.
59
Conservation and extension policy
There has been a policy change in the way in which soil conservation is applied
in the field: the earlier approach of compulsion has given place to one of
persuasion and cooperation. The policy of applying conservation by prohibitive
or compulsory means is not effective now. There were always difficulties,
particularly in that agricultural staff whose job was to help the farmer, did not
wish to be associated with enforcement. In Africa, the policy was associated
with colonial rule and thus became anathema to newly independent
governments. Many of the rules are still on the statute books, but are no longer
in practice.
The present policy is to apply soil conservation measures through persuading
farmers that it is in their interests to do so, and securing their cooperation. This
is not simply a method of prevalent attitude of mind: it is, in fact, a more
effective approach. Unless a land use practice has the support of the farming
community, it will never be applied. Where a few individuals act contrary to the
interests of the majority, some measure of enforcement will still be necessary,
but this itself must come from within the local community (Blake, 1985;
Shaxson et al., 1989). Another change in policy is from soil conservation treated
in isolation to its integration into farming systems as a whole. This is part of the
growth of the farming systems approach to development. Such systems of
improved agriculture have been called conservation Iarming` or integrated
land use`. These points are summarized in a recent review oI soil-conservation
strategies as follows (Stocking, 1985):
de-emphasize conservation as an isolated measure; it should be part of
integrated methods of land use improvement;
use simple methods of land use improvement;
use simple methods, within the capacity of farmers to establish and
maintain;
60
provide external support for sound traditional farming practices;
train local extension services; this is vital and in many countries needs
to be greatly improved;
Conservation requires that Iarmers respect and support the measures
(which) must be evaluated for their overall impact on farming and on
the livelihood oI the people`.
The system oI conservation Iarming` in Sri Lanka includes three Ieatures oI
agroforestry (hedgerow, intercropping, fuel wood trees and fodder trees)
together with management of pests and diseases (in part by tree litter), mulching
and minimum tillage. Integrated land use` as applied in Malawi places
emphasis on planting trees along contour barrier strips and marker ridges
(Weerakoon, 1983; Commonwealth Secretariat, 1983; Wijewardene and
Waidyanatha, 1984; Douglas, 1988).
The experience of the Central Visayas Project, the Philippines, illustrates both
the approach to conservation through active cooperation with farmers and the
use of agroforestry as a conservation technique. The project has been successful
in getting farmers to adopt conservation measures, a success attributed to the
following factors (Queblatin, 1985):
farmers were involved in defining their own problems and identifying
solutions; they were made to understand the value of conservation for
their own interest.
the solution adopted, such as Luecaena barrier hedges, are simple and
can easily be implemented by farmers themselves; use is made of local
resources, e.g. indigenous trees in areas of acid soils where Luecaena
does not grow well.
soil conservation is linked to other farming concerns; for example,
using napier grass together with Luecaena in hedgerows where this is
attractive to farmers raising livestock. Agroforestry is more acceptable
61
to farmers than systems of erosion control by earth structures as it
combines erosion control with soil fertility maintenance and
production. At the same time the techniques are relatively
inexpensive, and lie within the capacity of small farmers to
implement. These aspects of agroforestry render it highly appropriate
in the light of recent trends in conservation policy.
62
Conclusion
Rill and gully erosion in severe forms occur in the hill areas due to
indiscriminate denudation. Over 17% of the growing stock was depleted
between 1964 and 1985 in the inaccessible state forest of Chittagong Hill Tracts
(IUCN, 1991), while there is no data available for the unclassed state forests
occupying 10,085 sq km. They are open to shifting cultivation, pienapple
plantation and many other forms of disturbances. Shifting cultivation is a
dominant agricultural system in tropical forests. Shifting cultivators transform
nutrients stored in standing forests to soils by slashing, felling, and burning
forests (i.e., slash-and-burn). Not only is shifting cultivation one of the major
causes of deforestation and forest degradation, but also, the associated forest-
cover change results in other environmental problems, such as soil degradation,
biodiversity loss, and reduced carbon sequestration.
Almost all hill soils are strongly to extremely acid, moderate to rapidly
permeable and low in moisture holding capacity. Organic matter contents are
moderate (locally high) under old forest, but generally are low in soils that have
been repeatedly under shifting cultivation. The agricultural potential of most hill
soils is severely limited by the steep slopes on which they occur, aggravated by
heavy monsoon rainfall and depleted soil fertility resulting accelerated soil
erosion due to repeated shifting cultivation.
Adoption of micro-watershed based sloping land management would provide a
solution for such moderation process.
63
References
1. Blaikie, P. 1985. The political economy of soil erosion in developing
countries, London, Longman. 188p
2. Brammer, H. 1965. A land capability classification for use in East Pakistan
(Revised in 1971). Project Technical Guide No. 6 (mimeo). Soil
Survey Project of Pakistan.
3. Commonwealth Secretariat, 1983. Conservation farming in the
Commonwealth. London: Commonwealth Secretariat and
Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka, 140 pp.
4. Dent, D. and A. Young. 1981. Soil survey and land evaluation. London:
allen and Unwin, 278p.
5. Douglas, M.G. 1988. Integrating conservation into farming systems:
experiences from Malawi. In W.C. Moldenhauer and N.W.
Hudson, eds. Conservation farming on steep lands. Ankeny,
Iowa, USA: Soil and Water Conservation Society, 215-27.
6. FAO/ISRIC. 1990. Guidelines for soil description, 3rd edition (revised). Soil
Resources management and Conservation Service, Land and
Water Development Division. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1990.
64
7. FAO/UNESCO. 1974. FAO/UNESCO soil map of the world 1: 5000,000.
Legend. Volume 1. Paris: UNESCO, 59p.
8. Foretal. 1966. Chittagong Hill Tracts Soil and Land Use Survey, 1964-1966
(9 Volumes), Vol.2: Geomorphology and Geology, Soils and
Land Capability. Forestry and Engineering International Limited
(Forestal), Vancouver, Canada.
9. Khan, M.R. and Muminullah, M. -. Startigraphy of Bangladesh, Geological
Survey of Bangladesh, Dhaka.
10.Krishnan, M.S. 1956. Geology of India and Burma. Higginbothans Ltd.,
Madras, India.
11.Manalo, E.B. 1975. Agro-climatic Survey of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Rice
Research Institute (BRRI) & International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI).
12.MDKIC. 1992. Munsell Soil Colour Charts, 1992 (Revised edition),
Macbeth division of Kollmorgen Instruments Corp. P.O. Box
230, Newburgh, New York 12551-1230, USA.
13.Moldenhauer, W.C. and A. Lo, eds. Soil erosion and conservation.Ankeny,
Iowa, USA: Soil Conservation Society of North America, 79-89.
14.Morgan, J.P. and McIntire, W.G. 1959. Quarternary geology of the Bengal
Basin, East Pakistan and India, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 70 P329.
15.Queblatin, E. 1985. Upland agriculture development : the Central Visayas
Regional Project-1 experience. In E.T. Craswell, J.V. Remenyi
and L.G. Nallana, eds. Soil erosion management. ACIAR
Proceedings Series-6Canberra:ACIAR, 71-76.
16.Shaxson, T.F., N.D. Hunter, T.R. Jackson and J.R. Alder. 1977. A land
husbandry manual. Zomba, Malawi: Government Printer, 338p.
17.Shaxson, T. F., N. W. Hudson, D. W. Sanders, E. Roose and W. C.
Moldenhauer. 1989. Land husbandry. A framework of for soil
65
water conservation. Ankeny, Iowa, USA: Soil and Water
Conservation Society. 64pp
18.Sheng, T. C. 1986. Watershed conservation: a collection of papers for
developing countries. Fort Collins, Colorado, USA: Colorado
State University, 92p.
19.Shoaib, J. U. 2000. Development of Sustainable Cultivation Practices for
Minimizing Soil Erosion on Hill Slopes, BARC, Dhaka.
20.Soil Survey Staff. 1951. Soil Survey Manual, US Soil Conservation
Services, USDA Washington DC.
21.Stocking, M. 1985. Development projects for the small farmers: lessons
from eastern and central Africa in adapting conservation. In S.A.
El-Swaify, W.C. Moldenhauer and A. Lo, eds. Soil erosion and
conservation. Ankey, Iowa, USA: Soil Conservation Society of
America, 747-58.
22.Stocking, M. 1986. The cost of soil erosion in Zimbabwe in terms of the loss
of three major nutrients. Consultants working paper 3. Rome:
FAO, Soil Conservation Program, 164 pp.
23.----------------. 1961. Land Capability Classification. Agriculture Handbook
No. 210, US Soil Conservation Service, USDA, Washington DC.
24.UNDP/FAO. 1988. Land Resources Appraisal of Bangladesh for
Agricultural Development, Report 2: Agroecological Regions of
Bangladesh, UNDP/FAO, Rome, Italy.
25.UNDP/FAO. 1988. Land Resources Appraisal of Bangladesh for
Agricultural Development, Report 5: Land Resources, Volume
II-15, Land Resources Map and Legend, UNDP/FAO, Rome,
Italy.
26.UNDP/FAO. 1971. Technical Report 3: Soil Survey Project, Bangladesh-
Soil Resources. UNDP/FAO, Rome, Italy.
66
27.Young, A. 1991. Agroforestry for Soil Conservation. C.A.B. International.
International Council for Research in Agroforestry. p55
28.Wieschmeier, W.H. and D.D. Smith. 1978. Predicting rainfall erosion losses-
a guide to conservation palnning. US Agriculture and
Horticulture. 3: 251-67.
29.Wiersum, K.F. 1985. Effects of various vegetation layers in an Acacia
auriculiformis forest plantation on surface erosion in Java,
Indonesia. In S.A. El-Swaifi,
30.Weerakoon, W.L. 1983. Conservation farming research program at Maha
Illuppallama. In Symposium on effects of forest land use on
erosion and slope stability. London: Commonwealth Secretariat,
65-77.
Wijewardene, R. and P. Waidyanatha. 1984. Conservation farming. Peredniya,
Sri Lanka: Department of Agriculture; London: Commonwealth
Secretariat, 38 pp.
67
Appendix 1
SOIL SERIES DESCRIPTIONS
The following technical descriptions of soil series contain an introductory
statement on the major differentiating characteristics of the soils, followed by
detailed descriptions of a typical profile, description on range of profile and
environmental characteristics, distribution and extent and land use and
management practices.
Analytical data on the typical profile of soil series (described and not described)
are given in the Appendix.
The nomenclature as described in the booklet 'Guidelines for soil description' of
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and
International Soil Reference Information Center (ISRIC) has been followed.
In describing soil drainage the term- excessively drained, well drained and
imperfectly drained as described in the soil survey manual of USDA have been
followed. In describing soil colours, the Munsel Soil Colour charts of Mecbeth
division of Kollmorgen Instruments Corporation have been followed.
68
The horizon designation of the typical profiles must be regarded as tentative
because of inadequate data on soil morphological and other characteristics
required for horizon designation.
Soil reactions given in the profile descriptions have been determined in field by
soil test kit and on dried samples in the laboratory with a glass electrode.
In the introductory paragraph and in the statement on range of profile
characteristics, profiles have been sub-divided in three layers i.e. topsoil, subsoil
and substratum. Topsoil refers to the layer of ploughing or spading or hoeing or
scraping for crop cultivation. Subsoil indicates the B horizon, also when this
horizon is only very weekly developed. Substratum refers to the relatively
undeveloped layer underlying the subsoil or layer with semi-consolidated
interbedded siltstone and shale fragments.
Soil series have been subdivided at soil type and phase level. Soil type is a
subdivision of soil series based on the texture of the surface soil. It is named by
adding the textural class name of the surface horizon to the series name, i.e.
Barkal, clay loam.
Soil depth phase has not been considered due to absence of hard rock or
indurated gravelly layers within the auger depth up to 150 cm except Jaldi and
Barkal series.
Subdivision of soil series and type to phase level have been made on the basis of
slope gradient as it affects soil drainage, run off and soil erosion hazard which
inturn reflects the land use and management practices.
Phase relevant to slope gradients
Slope class phase Slope percent
69
Nearly level phase
Gently sloping phase
Sloping phase
Moderately steep phase
Steep phase
Very steep phase
0-2
2-5
5-15
15-30
30-60
> 60
Note: The nomenclature used in 'Guidelines for Soil Description' in respect to slope gradient as flat: 0-0.2%,
level: 0.2-0.5%, nearly level: 0.5-1.0% and very gently sloping: 1.0-2.0% have been merged together and named
as nearly level and sloping: 5-10% and strongly sloping: 10-15% have been merged together and named as
sloping for practical applicability.
A stop number and the name of the area where the farm is located indicates
location of the profiles described.
Barkal series, moderately steep phase
The Barkal series comprises moderately steep sloping, well drained, moderately
fine textured soils developed in the residuum derived from the semi-
consolidated siltstone and shale of the Surma formations of Tertiary age. They
have a dark yellowish brown, occasionally yellowish brown, silty clay
loam/clay loam subsoil with moderate to strong subangular blocky structure
overlying a relatively less weathered medium to moderately fine textured
substratum mixed with abundant grey shale and siltstone fragments.
Typical profile : Barkal clay loam, moderately steep phase
Location : Stop# 10, SCWMC, Meghla, Bandarban
Topography : Crest of low hill
Land use : Forest and horticultural species
Drainage : Well drained
Horizon Depth (cm) Descriptions
A 0-14 Yellowish brown (10YR5/4, moist), clay loam, hard
70
(dry), friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet,
many medium to fine roots, pH 5.5 (4.9), massive,
abrupt smooth boundary to;
B1 14-48 Yellowish brown (10YR5/6, moist), clay loam, hard
moderate to strong subangular blocky structures, few
fine tubular pores, common medium to fine roots,
few irregular shaped krotovina, pH 5.0 (4.8), abrupt
smooth boundary to;
B2 48-75 Yellowish brown (10YR5/6, moist) with few fine
distinct light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) mottles,
clay loam, friable (moist), sticky and plastic when
wet, few fine tubular pores, krotovina, few fine
roots, moderate coarse to medium angular blocky
structure, pH 5.0 (4.8), abrupt smooth boundary to;
C 75-140
+
Yellowish brown (10YR5/6, moist), silty clay,
friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet, few fine
tubular pores, few fine roots, pH 5.0 (4.9).
Note: Figures in parentheses indicates pH value as measured in laboratory.
Typical profile : Barkal clay loam, moderately steep phase
Topography : Middle slope of low hill
Land use : Experimental field
A 0-8 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4, moist), clay loam,
friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet,
71
massive, many tubular pores, many fine and few
medium roots, pH 5.0 (4.7), abrupt smooth boundary
to;
B2
1
8-24 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6, moist), clay loam,
moderate to strong coarse to medium subangular
blocky structure, few tubular pores, patchy clay
cutans along ped faces, many fine and few medium
roots, pH 4.5 (4.6), clear smooth boundary to;
B2
2
24-45 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/8, moist), clay loam,
moderate coarse subangular blocky structure, few
tubular pores, common medium roots, pH 4.5 (4.7),
C1 45-65 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6, moist), clay loam,
friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet, few
yellowish brown shale fragments, few fine roots, pH
4.5 (4.9), abrupt smooth boundary to;

C2 65-110+ Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6, moist), clay loam,
friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet, many
shale fragments, pH 4.5 (4.7).

Barkal series, gently sloping phase
72
The Barkal series comprises gently sloping, well drained, moderately fine
textured soils developed in the residuum derived from the semi-consolidated
siltstone and shales of the Surma formations of Tertiary age. They have a dark
yellowish brown, occasionally yellowish brown, silty clay loam/clay loam
subsoil with moderate to strong subangular blocky structure overlying a
relatively less weathered medium to moderately fine textured substratum mixed
with abundant grey shale and siltstone fragments.
Typical profile : Barkal clay loam, gently sloping phase
Topography : Upper slope of low hill
Land use : Forest and horticultural species
A 0-13 Yellowish brown (10YR5/6, moist), clay loam,
fine to medium roots, massive, pH 5.5 (5.0), abrupt
smooth boundary to;
B1 13-56 Yellowish brown (10YR5/6. moist), clay loam,
moderate to strong medium subangular blocky
structure, many fine to medium roots, pH 5.0 (4.7),
B2 56-90 Yellowish brown (10YR5/6, moist), clay loam,
moderate to strong angular blocky structure, few
fine roots, few fragments of shale and Fe-Mg
concretions, pH 5.0 (4.7), abrupt smooth boundary
73
to;
C 90-110
+
Yellowish brown (10YR5/8, moist), clay loam,
weak to moderate angular blocky structure, few
fragments of shale and Fe-Mg concretions, pH (4.8).
Ghagra series, steep phase
The Ghagra series occupies the crest of low hills. They are well drained,
moderately fine to fine textured, rather deep soils developed in the residuum
derived from the semi-consolidated to consolidated shales of the Surma
formations of Tertiary age. They have a strong brown silty clay loam moderate
to strong subangular blocky structure overlying a medium to moderately fine
textured substratum.
Typical profile : Ghagra clay loam, steep phase
Location : Stop#26, SCWMC, Meghla, Bandarban
Land use : Bamboo, sungrass and khagra
A 0-13 Brown (7.5YR4/4, moist), clay loam, hard (dry),
friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet, massive,
many medium to fine roots, pH 5.0 (4.8), abrupt
smooth boundary to;
B1 13-40 Strong brown (7.5YR4/6, moist), silty clay loam,
friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet, moderate
74
to strong coarse to medium subangular blocky
structure, many fine roots, pH 4.5 (4.7), clear smooth
boundary to;
B2 40-60 Strong brown (7.5YR4/6, moist), silty clay loam,
coarse to medium subangular blocky structure, many
fine roots, pH 4.5 (4.5), clear smooth boundary to;
B3 60-72 Yellowish red (5YR4/6, moist), silty clay loam,
coarse subangular blocky structure, few fine roots,
pH 4.5 (4.6), abrupt smooth boundary to;
C1 72-110 Yellowish red (5YR4/6, moist), silty clay loam,
fragments of shale and few Fe-Mg concretions, pH
(4.6);
C2 110-125+ Yellowish red (5YR4/6, moist), friable (moist),
sticky and plastic when wet, few Fe-Mg concretions,
pH (4.9).
Jaldi series, gently sloping phase
The Jaldi series occupies the crest and upper slopes of high hills. They are well
drained, moderately fine textured, shallow to moderately deep soils developed
in the residuum derived from the semi-consolidated to consolidated shales of the
Surma formations of Tertiary age. They have a yellowish brown to dark
75
yellowish brown, sometimes light yellowish brown silty clay loam to clay loam
subsoil with strong blocky structure, often containing abundant shale fragments.
Typical profile : Jaldi clay loam, gently sloping phase
Location : Stop#32, SCWMC, Meghla, Bandarban
Land use : Mixed horticultural (mango, jackfruit) and forest species
(shil karai, gamari) and thickets and grasses.
A 0-8 Brown (10YR5/2, moist), clay loam, massive;
friable (moist), hard (dry), sticky and plastic when
wet, many fine tubular pores, many medium to fine
roots, pH 5.0 (), abrupt smooth boundary to;
B 8-21 Dark yellowish brown (10YR4/6, moist) with
common fine yellowish brown mottles, clay loam,
shale fragments, pH 4.5 (), abrupt smooth boundary
to;
C1 21-40 Strong brown (7.5YR5/6, moist), clay loam, friable
(moist), sticky and plastic when wet, common
yellowish brown shale fragments, pH 4.5 (), abrupt
smooth boundary to;
C2 40-75+ Strong brown (7.5YR5/6, moist), clay loam, friable
(moist), sticky and plastic when wet, many
yellowish brown shale fragments, pH 4.5 ().
Note: Figure in parenthesis indicates pH measured in laboratory.
Typical profile : Jaldi clay loam, gently sloping phase
76
Location : Stop #36, SCWMC, Meghla, Bandarban
Land use : Forest species (gamari, shiuri, crug), thickets and grasses
A 0-10 Brown (10YR 4/3, moist), clay loam, friable
(moist), sticky and plastic when wet, massive, many
fine to medium and few coarse roots, pH 5.0 (4.9),
B 10-28 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4, moist), clay
loam, friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet,
moderate to strong medium subangular blocky
structure, common fine to medium and few coarse
roots, pH 4.5 (5.0), clear smooth boundary to;
C1 28-45 Strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6, moist), clay loam,
fine roots, few shale fragments, pH 4.5 (5.2), clear
smooth boundary to;
C2 45-60+ Strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6, moist), clay loam,
shale fragments, pH (5.3).
Kuhalong series
The Kuhalong series occupies the steep to very steep slopes of high hills. They
are well drained to somewhat excessively drained, moderately fine textured,
rather deep soils developed in the residuum derived from the semi-consolidated
77
to consolidated shales of the Surma formations of Tertiary age. They have a
dark yellowish brown, sometimes light yellowish brown silty clay loam to clay
loam subsoil with strong blocky structure.
Typical profile : Kuhalong, clay loam, steep phase
Topography : Lower slope of low hill
Land use : Mixed forest (mehogani, shil karai, gamari) and
horticultural species (guava, kul, coconut, pine apple,
amlaki) with thickets and grasses
Drainage : Excessively drained
A 0-12 Brown (10YR4/3, moist), silt loam, massive, hard
(dry), sticky and plastic when wet, many medium to
fine roots, pH (5.0), abrupt smooth boundary to;
B2
1
12-40 Dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4, moist), clay loam,
to strong subangular blocky structure, many medium
to fine roots, presence of krotovina, pH (4.8), clear
smooth boundary to;
B2
2
40-60 Strong brown (7.5YR 5/6, moist), clay loam, friable
(moist), sticky and plastic when wet, moderate
subangular blocky structure, many fine roots,
presence of krotovina, few to common shale
fragments, pH (4.9), abrupt smooth boundary to;
C 60-80
+
Strong brown (7.5YR 5/6, moist), clay loam, friable
(moist), sticky and plastic when wet, many shale
fragments, pH (4.8).
78
Typical profile : Kuhalong, clay loam, moderately steep phase
Land use : Mixed forest (mehogani, shil karai, gamari) and
horticultural species (jackfruit, cashionut, amlaki) with
thickets and grasses
A 0-12 Brown (10YR 4/3, moist), silt loam, hard (dry),
friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet, massive,
pH 5.0 (5.3), abrupt smooth boundary to;
B2 12-31 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/4, moist), silty clay
loam, friable (moist), very sticky and very plastic
when wet, moderate to strong medium subangular
blocky structure, many medium to fine roots, pH 4.5
(5.2), clear smooth boundary to;
B3 31-50 Strong brown (7.5YR 4/6, moist), clay loam, friable
(moist), verysticky and very plastic when wet,
moderate coarse to medium subangular blocky
structure, many shale fragments, common medium to
fine roots, pH 4.5 (5.2), clear smooth boundary to;
common shale fragments, pH 4.5 (5.8).
Sajidhala series, steep phase
The Sajidhala series occupies the steep slopes of high hills. They are well
drained, moderately fine textured rather deep soils developed on residuum
79
derived from the semi-consolidated to consolidated shales of the Surma
formations of Tertiary age They have a yellowish brown, silty clay loam to clay
loam subsoil with strong blocky structure.
Typical profile : Sajidhala clay loam, steep phase
Land use : Thickets and grasses
Drainage : Excessively drained
Horizon Depth
(cm)
Descriptions
A 0-8 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4, moist), clay loam,
hard (dry), friable (moist), sticky and plastic when wet,
massive, many medium roots, pH 5.0 (4.8), abrupt
smooth boundary to;
B2
1
8-29 Yellowish brown (10YR5/6, moist), clay loam, hard
moderate coarse to medium subangular blocky
structure, common medium roots, pH (4.8), clear
smooth boundary to;
B2
2
29-50 Brownish yellow (10YR 6/6, moist), clay loam, friable
(moist), sticky and plastic when wet, strong medium
subangular blocky structure, common medium roots,
pH (4.7), clear smooth boundary to;
C1 50-70 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6, moist), clay loam, friable
(moist), sticky and plastic when wet, medium coarse
subangular blocky structure, very few shale fragments,
pH (5.0), clear smooth boundary to;
C2 70-100 Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6, moist), clay loam, friable
80
(moist), sticky and plastic when wet, many shale
fragments, pH (4.9), abrupt smooth boundary to;
presence of thin unweathered shale layers, pH (4.9).
Sitakunda series, steep phase
The Sitakunda series occupies steep to very steep slopes of high hills. They well
drained moderately fine textured rather shallow soils developed in the residuum
derived from semi-consolidated to consolidated shales of the Surma formations
of Tertiary age. They have yellowish brown, clay loam subsoil with strong
blocky structure and contain abudant shale fragments.
Typical profile : Sitakunda loam, very steep phase
Land use : Thickets, bamboo
A 0-11 Brown (10YR5/3) dry; loam, dry hard, many
medium to coarse tubular pores; presence of many
shale fragments; pH 5.5 (4.9); abrupt smooth
boundary to
C1 11-24 Yellowish brown (10YR5/6) dry; loam; dry hard;
many medium to coarse tubular pores; presence of
abundant shale fragments; pH 5.0 (4.8); abrupt
smooth boundary to
C2 24-120
+
Bedded shale, pH 4.4.
81
Typical profile : Sitakunda, clay loam, gently sloping phase
Land use : Thickets, bamboo
A 0-6 Dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) dry; clay loam,
moist friable, dry hard, many fine to medium
fascicular pores; presence of few shale fragments;
pH 5.5 (); abrupt smooth boundary to
C1 6-12 Dark yellowish brown (10YR5/6) dry; clay loam;
dry hard; moist friable; many fine to very fine
tubular pores; presence of many shale fragments;
pH 5.0 (); abrupt smooth boundary to
C2 12-30 Yellowish brown (10YR5/6) dry; clay loam, moist
friable; dry hard; presence of abundant semi-
consolidated shale fragments; pH 5.0 (); abrupt
smooth boundary to
C3 30-50
+
Bedded rock
Mirsarai series
The Mirsarai series comprises of intermittently flooded, imperfectly drained,
medium textured soils developed in recent colluvial sediments derived from the
surrounding hills. They occur on gently sloping narrow valley. They have a grey
to olive-grey mottled strong brown and dark yellowish brown, silty clay loam to
clay loam subsoil with moderate and angular blocky structure.
Typical profile : Mirsarai silt loam, gently sloping phase
82
Topography : Narrow valley
Land use : Grasses
Drainage : Imperfectly drained
A 0-15 Dark yellowish brown (10YR4/2, moist), silt loam,
massive, friable (moist), slightly sticky and slightly
plastic when wet, presence of pebbles and stone
fractions, pH 5.0 (4.3),
C1 15-75 Olive grey (5Y5/2, moist) with strong brown
(7.5YR5/6, moist) mottles along root channels, silty
clay loam, friable (moist) sticky and plastic when
wet, pH (4.6),
C2 75-100+ Grey (5Y5/1, moist) with many fine distinct
yellowish brown mottles, clay loam, friable (moist),
sticky and plastic when wet.
83
Appendix 2
Analytical methods
Texture : Particle size analysis was carried out by Bouyucos
hydrometer method after dispersing the soil with
calgon solutions. the soil texture was then determined
by following the 'Marshall's Triangle' of USDA soil
classification system.
pH : pH was measured in 1:2.5 soil-water paste using
Metohm pH meter with glass electrode.
Organic Carbon : Organic Carbon was determined by Walkley & Black
wet oxidation method (Jackson, 1962) using 1N
K
2
Cr
2
O
7
in conc. H
2
SO
4
as oxidizer.
OM : Organic matter was determined by multiplying the
percent of organic carbon by the factor 1.724.
84
CEC : Initially all the soils were extracted with o.4N BaCl
2
solution (buffered with 0.4N triethanol amine solution)
for replacing exchangeable cations from exchange
sites. After replacing all cations by three repeated
extractions with same buffered o.4N BaCl
2
solution,
the samples were then washed three times with
distilled water. The Ba-ions in the exchange sites then
replaced by 0.05N MgSO
4
. 7H
2
O by successive three
repetition. Mg content was then estimated
titrimatrically by EDTA as described by SRDI (1986)
for determining CEC.
Exchangeable
cations (Ca, Mg,
Na, K & H)
: Exchangeable cations were extracted by 1N NH
4
OAC
(pH 7). The concentrations of Ca, Mg and K from soil
filtrate were determined by the atomic absorption
spectrophotometer. Na was determined by flame
photometer and H
+
concentration by pH meter.
BSP : Base saturation percentage was calculated as 100 X
Total exchangeable bases (TEB/Total exchangeable
cations (TEC).
Total N : Total N was determined by micro-Kjeldahl distillation
method.
Available P : As the soils are acidic P was determined by Bray &
Kurtz method using extraction with 0.03M NH
4
F &
0.025M HCl.
Available S : Sulfur was extracted by calcium hydrogen phosphate.
Concentration of S was determined by barium chloride
turbidity method and developed turbidity intensity was
measured by spectrophotometer at 535nm wave length.
85
Available B : Boron was extracted by calcium hydrogen phosphate.
Then B concentration was determined by spectrometer
at 535nm wave length after developing the colour with
curcumin.
Available Cu, Fe,
Mn &Zn
: Cu & Zn were extracted using DTPA soil extractants.
Fe was measured by AAS on soil extracts diluted to
1:10 or more with water. Mn was measured by AAS on
undiluted or 1:10 diluted soil extracts as required to
keep the measurements within the range of the
standard solution.
Appendix 3
Transferable Technology developed in SCWMC, Bandarban
1. Vegetative barriers (hedgerows) for hill slope management
86
2. Multi slot divisor for estimating soil loss and run off from small
watersheds
An experimental site for determining soil loss and run-off under HYV aus and
Jhum rice at moderate slope of the low hills.
4. Transformation of Jhum cultivation system
87
4. Hedgerow maintenance
88
5. Stabilization of potential landslide area using Geo-jute.

89
6. Water conservation through micro-watershed management for sloping
areas.
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3
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1
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1
2
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