Elements of Electro-Mechanical Energy Conversion

*Energy
-neither created nor be destroyed
-can change its forms


* Electrical Form
-neither available directly from nature nor required to be finally consumed
in that form

Most Popular Form of Energy
-can be transported at remote load locations
-electrical-power modulation systems
- flexible and controllable modern systems
-auxiliary components to avoid possible overstrain


Energy Conversion Systems higher importance
Electrical Energy is Being Used
-quality of the production improves
*plant- maintenance is minimal

Types of Energy Conversion System
Electrical <-> Chemical
Electrical <-> Thermal
Electrical <-> Optical
Electrical<->Sound
Electrical <-> Mechanical


Applications of Electro-Mechanical Energy Conversion
a. Transducers
- devices for obtaining signals for measurement/control
-Force-Producing Devices
b. solenoid- ac actuators, relays, electromagnets
c. Device for Continuous Energy Conversion
-motors / generators
Salient Aspects of Conversions
*Electro-Mechanical Conversion Device change the form of energy
a. generating
b. motoring
Simple Aspects of an Electrical Machine
1. Electrical machine has a stator, a rotor, and an air-gap in between the
two.
2. Magnetic effects of the following types can be categorized:
a. Electromagnetic due to currents passed through the windings
on stator and/or motor, producing certain numbers of poles on these
members
b. Permanent Magnet one side (stator or rotor) can have
permanent magnets
c. Reluctance Variations surface of rotor near the air-gap can be
suitably shaped to have a particular pattern of reluctance variation so as
to control the machine behaviour as per requirements



3. Basic Conditions which must be satisfied by such devices are:
*equal number of poles must be created on the two sides
* in some cases, reluctance-variation is primarily used for machine
action
* the stator side must accommodate a winding carrying current for
the electro-magnetic effect, when rotor surface is shaped so as to
have the desired patterns of reluctance variation
*non-cylindrical rotor cannot have the current-carrying winding for
machine action


4. Out of stator, rotor and air-gap, maximum energy-storage at any
angular position takes place in the air-gap, since its reluctance is highest
out of the three members.
5. Stored energy must depend on rotor position and the device tends to
occupy that angular position which corresponds to maximum stored
energy. If this position varies as a function of time, device produces
continuous torque.
6. Ideal output of a motor is a constant unidirectional torque with given
currents through its windings. In some cases, the output torque is an
average value of a cyclically varying torque.
7. When current-switching is done for motor control, as in modern
controllers, instantaneous effect has to be understood to conclude on
any of the points mentioned.
8. A device can work as either a generator or as a motor, provided
pertinent conditions are satisfied for the concerned mode of operation.



Energy Balance
Important terms for an Electro-Mechanical System:
* Electrical Port
- armature terminals
- receiving/delivering electrical energy
* Mechanical port
- shaft
- delivery/receiving mechanical energy
* Coupling Field
- magnetic or electric field
* magnetic field voltage levels required are not very high, devices of
given power rating are smaller in size and are economical



Losses in an Electro-Mechanical System
*i2r losses in the winding of the machines
*fraction and windage loses
*core losses


Change in Electrical Energy = Change in mechanical Energy + Change in Field
Energy

dWelec = dWmech + dW fld

















DC GENERATORS
*Generator Principle
-an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy
- based on the principle of dynamically (or motionally) induced emf


* Faradays Law on Electromagnetic Induction
-Whenever a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is
produced.
- This induced emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is
closed.




Essential Parts of an Electrical Generator
-Magnetic Field
-Conductor/s which can move and cut the flux


* Simple Loop Generator
-Single turn rectangular copper coil ABCD rotating about its own axis in
the magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet or
electromagnets.
-The two ends of the coil are joined to two slip rings a and b which are
insulated from each other and from the central shaft.
- Two collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) pressed against the slip
rings.
a. Rotating Coil armature
b. Magnets field magnets



*Working
-as the coil assumes successive positions in the field, the flux linked with it
changes
- an emf is induced in it which is proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkages ( e = Nd(phi)dt)


* @ position 1 : flux linked with the coil is maximum but the rate of change of flux
linkages is minimum no induced emf in the coil
*as the coil continuous to rotate, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence
induced emf) increases
* @ position 3: flux linked with the coil is minimum but the rate of change of flux
linkages is maximum maximum emf is induced in the coil in this position
* @ 90 to 180 : flux linked with the coil gradually increases but the rate of flux
linkages decreases
* @ position 5: emf is reduced to zero value

*@ first half revolution:
- direction of induced emf can be found by applying Flemings Right
hand rule which gives the directions from A to B and C to D
- current flow direction: ABMLCD
*
-same but direction is D to C and B to A
- reverse direction : DCLMBA


Therefore:

* the current obtained for such single generator reverses its direction after
every half revolution
* AC
* not only changing in direction but also doesnt keep its magnitude
constant while flowing in any one direction
* (+) and (-) half cycles
*For unidirectional current in the external circuit:
- slip rings are replaced by split rings
-split rings made up of conducting cylinder which is cut into two halves
or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some
other insulating materials

1
ST
HALF REVO 2
ND
HALF



Therefore:
*Current is unidirectional but not continuous like pure direct current.
*Current in the coil side is AC
*Split rings (Commutator) - rectifying action that it becomes unidirectional
in the external circuit
*Armature of a dc generator induced voltage is alternating













*Magnetic Frame or Yoke
- Provide mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover
for the whole machine
- It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles
*Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
-spread out the flux in the air-gap and also, being of larger cross-section
reduce reluctance of the magnetic flux
-support the exciting coils (or field coils)

Types of Pole Construction
*Pole core may be a solid piece made of either cast iron or cast steel but
the pole shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means of
counter sunk screws
Complete pole cores and pole shoes are built of thin laminations of
*annealed steel which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure

*Two Ways to Secure the Laminated Poles to the Yoke
*by means of screws bolted through the yoke and into the pole body
* holding screws are bolted into a steel bar which passes through the pole
across the plane of laminations

* Pole Coils
- field coils
-consists of copper wire or strip
-when current is passed through these coils, they electromagnetise the
poles which produce the necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature
conductors


*Armature Core
-it houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and
hence cut the magnetic flux of the field magnets
- provide path of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature
from a N-pole to a S-pole
- cylindrical or drum-shaped coil and is usually built-up of circular discs or
laminations approximately 0.5mm
- keyed to s shaft

* Air-ducts permits axial flow of air through the armature for cooling
purposes
*Complete Circular Laminations
-made up of 4, 6 or 8 segmental laminations
-to reduce loss due to eddy currents
- thinner laminations

*Armature Windings
- flat rectangular coils and then pulled into their proper shape in a coil
puller
- conductor of the coils are insulated from each other
- placed in armature slots lined with tough insulating material

* Commutator
-facilitate collection of current from the armature conductors
- cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge-shaped segments of high-
conductivity hard-drawn or drop forged copper
-number of segments = number of armature coils
- each segment connected to armature conductor by means of copper
lug or strap

Brushes and Bearings
* Brushes collect current from commutator and are usually made of
carbon or graphite and are in a shape of a rectangular block
* Ball Bearings frequently employed for reliability
* Roller Bearings heavy duties

*Pole-Pitch
-the periphery of the armature divided by the no. of poles of the
generator
- equal to the number of armature conductors (or armature slots) per pole

*Conductor
-the length of wire lying in the magnetic field and in which an emf is
induced

*Coil and Winding Element
* Coil two conductors AB and CD along with their end connections
* group of wires or conductors wrapped with a tape as a unit and
placed in the armature slot
*beginning and end of each coil connected to a commutator bar
*Winding Element side of a coil

*Coil Span or Coil-Pitch (YS)
-distance measured in terms of armature slots (or armature conductors)
between two sides of a coil
-periphery of the armature spanned by the two sides of the coil

*Full-pitched
- coil pitch = pole pitch
-coil span is 180 electrical degrees
- coil sides lie under opposite poles
-sum of the emfs induced in the two coil sides

*Fractioned-pitch
- if coil is less than the pole pitch
-there is a difference between the emf in the two sides of the coil
-total emf around the coil is the vector sum of emfs in the two coil sides

* Pitch of a Winding (Y)
-distance around the armature between two successive conductors
which are directly connected together
-distance between the beginning of two consecutive turns
Y = YB YF ( lap winding)
Y = YB + YF ( wave winding

*Back Pitch (YB)
-the distance measured in terms of the armature conductors, which a coil
advances on the back of the armature

*Front Pitch (YF)
- the number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a coil on
the front (commutator end of an armature)
-distance (in terms of armature conductors) between the second
conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil which are
connected together at the front

*Resultant Pitch (YR)
-distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the
next coil to which it is connected

*Commutator Pitch (YC)
- distance (measured in commutator bars or segments) between the
segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected
-equal to the number of bars between coil leads

*Single Layer Winding
- one conductor or one coil side is placed in each armature slot

*Two-Layer Winding
-two conductors or coil sides per slot arranged in two layers
-one side lies in the upper half of one slot and other side lies in the lower
half of some other slot at a distance of approximately 1 pitch away

*Degree of Re-entrant of an Armature Winding
* Single re-entrant all armature conductors are included on returning to
the starting point
*Double re-entrant only half the conductors are included in tracing
through the winding once

*Multiplex winding
- there are several sets of completely closed and independent windings