Arctic cooperation and politics

1
Arctic cooperation and politics
Aurora Borealis -- Frederic Church, 1865.
Arctic Population Map.
Arctic cooperation and politics are
partially coordinated via the Arctic
Council, composed of the eight Arctic
nations: the United States of America,
Canada, Iceland, Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Russia, and Denmark with
Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The
dominant governmental power in
Arctic policy resides within the
executive offices, legislative bodies,
and implementing agencies of the eight
Arctic nations, and to a lesser extent
other nations, such as United Kingdom,
Germany, European Union and China.
NGOs and Academia play a large part
in Arctic policy. Also important are
intergovernmental bodies such as the
United Nations (especially as relates to
the Law of the Sea Treaty) and NATO.
Though Arctic policy priorities differ,
every Arctic nation is concerned about
sovereignty and defense, resource
development, shipping routes, and
environmental protection. Though
several boundary and resource disputes
in the Arctic remain unsolved, there is
remarkable conformity of stated policy
directives among Arctic nations and a
broad consensus toward peace and
cooperation in the region.
[1]
Obstacles
that remain include United States
non-ratification of the UNCLOS and
the harmonizing of all UNCLOS
territorial claims (most notably
extended continental shelf claims along
the Lomonosov Ridge); the dispute
over the Northwest Passage; and
securing agreements on regulations regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.
The Arctic Council membership includes the eight Arctic nations and organizations representing six indigenous
populations. It operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary
or resource disputes. (Although the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement was signed in May2011, the Council's first
binding document). A more robust Arctic Council with decision-making power on pan-Arctic resource and other
issues has been proposed.
Arctic cooperation and politics
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Circum-Arctic Cooperative Organizations
The Arctic Council
Main article: Arctic Council
Members include the eight Arctic Nations: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and United
States. Permanent participants are these six indigenous groups:
Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) The ICC is a multinational NGO representing the 160,000 Inuit people living in
the United States, Canada, Greenland, and Russia.
Gwichin Council International (GCI)
[2]
Aleut International Association (AIA)
[3]
Saami Council
Arctic Athabascan Council (AAC)
[4]
Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON)
Arctic Council Working Groups: Arctic Monitoring & Assessment Programme (AMAP) http:/ / amap. no
Conservation of Arctic Flora & Fauna (CAFF) Emergency Prevention, Preparedness & Response (EPPR)
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) Arctic
Contaminants Action Program (ACAP)
In Troms, Norway on April 29, 2009, Arctic Council ministers approved a task force to create an international
Search & Rescue (SAR) instrument for the Arctic by the next meeting in 2011.
[5]
In Nuuk, Greenland on May 12,
2011, ministers signed a Search & Rescue agreement, the Arctic Council's first law-bound treaty.
Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region (CPAR)
CPAR is a parliamentary body comprising delegations appointed by the national parliaments of the Arctic states
(Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States) and the European Parliament.
The conference also includes Indigenous peoples groups as Permanent Participants, and observers. The conference
meets every two years, last in Oslo June 7, 2010. Between conferences the Arctic parliamentary cooperation is
carried on by a Standing Committee of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region, which started its activities in 1994.
The Five Arctic Ocean Coastal States (informal group)
Main article: Arctic Ocean Conference
Foreign ministers of the five Arctic Ocean coastal states (Russia, US, Canada, Norway, and Denmark (Greenland))
met:
May 27 29, 2008 in Greenland: Ilulissat Declaration
[6]
. (This meeting is known as the Arctic Ocean
Conference.)
March 29, 2010 in Quebec: Chair Summary
[7]
International Maritime Organization
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) was established in 1948 to develop and maintain a comprehensive
regulatory framework for shipping. The IMO spent years negotiating an Arctic Code for shipping, but ultimately
downgraded the Code to a set of voluntary Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-Covered Waters (adopted in
2002). The Guidelines provide uniform safety, pollution prevention, and security standards for ocean carriers.
[8]
Arctic cooperation and politics
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The World Winter Cities Association for Mayors
The World Winter Cities Association for Mayors
[9]
(WWCAM) is a network of international winter cities that gets
together to discuss winter technologies, experiences, and implications for city planning under the guiding philosophy
of Winter is a Resource and an Asset. The Association, formerly known as the Northern Intercity Conference of
Mayors, was founded in 1981 by the city of Sapporo. As of April2012, 19cities from 9countries participate as
members.
Country City
China
Changchun
China
Harbin
China
Jiamusi
China
Jilin
China
Jixi
China
Qiqihar
China
Shenyang
Estonia
Maardu
Estonia
Viimsi
Japan
Sapporo
Lithuania Kaunas
Mongolia Ulaanbaatar
Norway
Troms
South Korea
Hwacheon
South Korea
Taebaek
Russia
Magadan
Russia
Novosibirsk
Russia
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk
United States Anchorage
The host city of a conference is selected from among candidate cities by vote at the General Assembly. The
15thWorld Winter Cities Conference for Mayors was held in January2012 in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; the theme was
"Energy Supply and Efficient Consumption of Heat Supply in Winter Cities". The 16thConference will take place in
Hwacheon, South Korea in January 2014; the 17thConference will take place in founding city Sapporo, Japan. In
principle, participation in the conference is restricted to mayors of member cities; however, non-member cities may
also participate as observers.
Arctic cooperation and politics
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Regional Arctic Cooperative Organizations
The Nordic Council
Main article: Nordic Council
The Nordic Council is the Nordic inter-parliamentary body, while the Nordic Council of Ministers is the
inter-governmental body. Members include: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the autonomous
territories of land Islands (Finland), Faroe Islands (Denmark) and Greenland (Denmark).
Barents Euro-Arctic Council
Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC) is the forum for intergovernmental cooperation in the Barents Region
established in 1993 to "provide impetus to existing cooperation and consider new initiatives and proposals".
[10]
Pacific Northwest Economic Region: Arctic Caucus
The Pacific Northwest Economic Region (PNWER) Arctic Caucus formed informally in November 2010 as a loose
alliance between Alaska and the Canadian Territories of Northwest Territories and the Yukon. Members include
legislators, government officials, business and nonprofit leaders. The Caucus met in December 2010 in Barrow,
Alaska; in Portland, Oregon in July 2011; and in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories in August 2011.
[11]
The Northern Forum
The Northern Forum is a non-profit, international organization composed of sub-national or regional governments
from eight northern countries. The Forum's mission is to improve the quality of life of Northern peoples by using
leadership networking to tackle common problems; and to support sustainable development and cooperative
socio-economic initiatives.
[12]
Arctic Policies of Select Nations
United States of America (Alaska)
Main article: Arctic policy of the United States
Main goals in U.S. Arctic Policy are: National security; Protecting the Arctic environment and wildlife; Ensuring
economic development is environmentally sustainable; Strengthening cooperative institutions among the eight Arctic
nations; Including the Arctics indigenous communities in decisions; and Improving scientific monitoring and
research.
[13]
On January 9, 2009, President Bush signed National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD)-66 on Arctic Region
Policy,
[14]
a collaborative effort replacing the Clinton era Arctic policy directive. NSPD-66 is currently the active
Arctic policy playbook being pursued by the Obama Administration and its Departments.
The U.S. Arctic Policy Group is a federal interagency working group comprising those agencies with programs
and/or involvement in research and monitoring, land and natural resources management, environmental protection,
human health, transportation and policy making in the Arctic. The APG is chaired by the U.S. Department of State
and meets monthly to develop and implement U.S. programs and policies in the Arctic, including those relevant to
the activities of the Arctic Council.
State Departments Office of Ocean and Polar Affairs (OPA) is a part of the State Departments Bureau of Oceans
and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OES). OPA is responsible for formulating and implementing
U.S. policy on international issues concerning the oceans, the Arctic, and Antarctica.
Arctic cooperation and politics
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Canada (NWT, Nunavut, and Yukon)
Main article: Arctic policy of Canada
Canada has more Arctic land mass than any country. On August 23, 2010, Canada's Prime Minister Stephen Harper
said protection of Canada's sovereignty over its northern regions was its number one and "non-negotiable priority" in
Arctic policy.
[15]
Canada has slated $109 million, to be spent before 2014, for research to substantiate extended
continental shelf claims.
[16]
Canada's Arctic policy priorities are: to try to resolve boundary issues; to secure
international recognition for the full extent of Canada's extended continental shelf; and to address Arctic governance
and related emerging issues, such as public safety.
Canadas Arctic Foreign Policy Pamphlet
[17]
Statement on Canada's Arctic foreign policy: Exercising sovereignty and promoting Canada's Northern Strategy
abroad
[18]
G-7 finance ministers met in Nunavut in February 2010.
Canada's Northern Strategy
[19]
Iceland
Main article: Arctic policy of Iceland
Denmark (Greenland, Faroe Islands)
Main article: Arctic policy of Denmark
Norway
Main article: Arctic policy of Norway
The Norwegian Polar Institute in Troms is hosting the Arctic Council Secretariat from 20072013.
The Norwegian Government's Strategy for the High North (2.21.07)
[20]
Sweden
Main article: Arctic policy of Sweden
Finland
Main article: Arctic policy of Finland
The Finnish Arctic Strategy was released June 4, 2010 and concentrates on seven priority areas: security,
environment, economy, infrastructure, arctic indigenous residents, institutions and the European Union.
[21]
Russia
Main article: Arctic policy of Russia
In2007, Russia planted a flag on the Arctic Ocean seafloor beneath the North Pole while performing research to
substantiate its claim to an extended continental shelf. The flag planting was perceived erroneously to be a land
claim a claim Canada and other Arctic nations rebuked even though the Russian Government clearly stated that no
such claim was made. In2009, a Russian government policy document cited western reports of a potential for
military conflict over Arctic resources.Wikipedia:Citation needed Despite having lost 18 percent of its population
between 1989 and 2002, the Russian Arctic comprises 25% of Russia's landmass and still contains 80percent of the
4million people who inhabit the planet's Arctic region.
[22]
Russia's current Arctic policy is contained in the
document "Basics of Russian Federation State Policy for the Arctic Through 2020 and Beyond" signed on 18
September 2008 by Russian President (now Prime Minister) Medvedev.
[23]
This policy document addresses various
Arctic cooperation and politics
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issues tied to the protection and development of the land and offshore waters of Russia's Arctic sector.
European Union
Main article: Arctic policy of European Union
If Accession of Iceland to the European Union occurs, the EU will increase its Arctic influence and possibly gain
permanent observer status in the Arctic Council. The Northern Dimension of European Union policy, established in
the late 1990s, intended to deal with issues concerning western Russia, as well as to increase general cooperation
among the EU, Iceland and Norway. It has since become a multilateral, equal partnership among the EU, Iceland,
Norway and Russia. Canada and the United States are observers to the partnership. Three Nordic Council members
have joined the EU (Denmark in 1973 and Sweden & Finland in1995). The European Unions application to become
a permanent observer in the Arctic Council was blocked in 2009 by Canada in response to the European Unions
ban on the importation of seal products.
[24]
China
Main article: Arctic policy of China
China's ice capable research vessel, Xu Lng, sailed the Northwest Passage in August 2012. China is interested in
Arctic resources and shipping routes; and is seeking permanent observer status in the Arctic Council.
South Korea
Main article: Arctic policy of South Korea
South Korea has an icebreaker and is building another. The country is investing in LNG infrastructure near Inuvik,
where LNG will be shipped from the Beaufort Sea and south through the Bering Strait.
Other Arctic treaties and agreements
Iceberg between Lang and Sanderson Hope, south of Upernavik,
Greenland.
Other treaties governing all or part of the Arctic region:
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 among initially
fourteen countries governs the political and
economic status of Svalbard.
The Arctic Cooperation Agreement of 1988 between
the United States and Canada regulates bilateral
cooperation regarding the Northwest Passage, but
does not resolve the disagreement between the two
countries about the legal status of the passage.
The Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement of 2011,
concluded by the Arctic Council member states,
coordinates search and rescue in the Arctic.
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic
The Barents Sea Border Treaty
[25]
specifies the demarcation line between Norway and Russia in the Barents Sea.
The Joint NorwegianRussian Fisheries Commission
The Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears
Arctic cooperation and politics
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Territorial Claims
Main article: Territorial claims in the Arctic
According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), coastal states have sovereign rights
to resources in the water and seabed within a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). However, Article 76 of the
Convention allows coastal states to extend their sovereign rights up to 350 nautical miles from their coastline if they
can prove that the Arctic seafloors underwater ridges are an extension of the countrys own continental shelf.
[26]
Nations have 10 ten years following their ratification of UNCLOS within which to submit their claims to extended
continental shelves.
In 2001 Russia was the first Arctic littoral state to submit its claim. The UN Commission on the Continental Shelf
requested a revised claim with more scientific data supporting their claim, and Russia planned to file additional data
in 2013.
[27]
Ice Dwellers Watching the Invaders -- William Bradford, 1875.
Denmark and Canada dispute ownership of Hans Island
in the Nares Strait between Ellesmere Island and
Greenland.
On April 27, 2010, Norway and Russia announced an
end to their 40-year arctic demarcation dispute in the
Barents Sea. Future joint energy development is
expected.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Maritime boundaries between Canada and the United
States in the Beaufort Sea and between Canada and
Denmark in Baffin Bay remain under dispute.
[28]
Denmark (Greenland), Russia and Canada may have
competing extended continental shelf claims over the
Lomonosov Ridge, an underwater mountain chain crossing the central Arctic basin.
[29]
Shipping & Transport
Global warming has had a greater impact on summer sea ice in the Arctic than previously estimated. Based on the
recent studies, the Arctic will be largely ice-free during the summer sometime between 2020 and 2050. One 2011
Cambridge University study predicted that the Arctic would be free of summer ice by 2015.
[30]
No models predict
that the winter sea ice will disappear during this century.
[31]
An ice-free Arctic has major strategic and economic ramifications for global shipping, as vessels will potentially be
able to traverse the Arctic Ocean. Trans-Arctic shipping routes could shorten distances between northern Europe and
northern China by up to 4,000 nautical miles and reduce shipping times by up to two weeks.
Arctic cooperation and politics
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Arctic Natural Resources
Main article: Natural resources of the Arctic
See also: Petroleum exploration in the Arctic
Fisheries
Key Arctic fishery regimes include:
The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT)
The bilateral (Canada and the United States) International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC)
The bilateral (Russian Federation and the US) Intergovernmental Consultative Committee (ICC)
The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO)
The North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO)
The North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC)
The North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission (NPAFC)
The Norway-Russian Federation Fisheries Commission, and
The Convention on the Conservation and Management of the Pollock Resources in the Central Bering Sea
(CBS)
[32]
Cooperative Arctic Research
See also: List of Arctic research programs
International Polar Year
Main article: International Polar Year
References
[1] (http:/ / www.foreignpolicy. com/ articles/ 2010/ 08/ 16/ think_again_the_arctic?page=full) Think Again: The Arctic
[2] http:/ / www. gwichin.org
[3] http:/ / www. aleut-international.org
[4] http:/ / www. arcticathabaskancouncil. com/ aboutus
[5] (http:/ / arcticportal. org/ features/ features-of-2010/ polar-law-textbook) Polar Law Textbook
[6] http:/ / www. oceanlaw.org/ downloads/ arctic/ Ilulissat_Declaration. pdf
[7] http:/ / www. international. gc.ca/ polar-polaire/ arctic-meeting_reunion-arctique-2010_summary_sommaire. aspx?lang=en
[8] (http:/ / csis.org/ files/ publication/ 100426_Conley_USStrategicInterests_Web. pdf) U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic
[9] http:/ / www. city. sapporo.jp/ somu/ kokusai/ wwcam/
[10] (http:/ / www. beac.st/ in_English/ Barents_Euro-Arctic_Council. iw3) Barents Euro-Arctic Council
[11] (http:/ / pnwer. org/ WorkingGroups/ ArcticCaucus.aspx) PNWER: Arctic Caucus
[12] The Northern Forum (http:/ / www. northernforum.org)
[13] (http:/ / www. wilsoncenter. org/ index.cfm?topic_id=1420& categoryid=D7F89003-AEDB-FB2E-B842E72D6D2C5C60&
fuseaction=topics.events_item_topics& event_id=513866) US Arctic Policy
[14] (http:/ / www. fas. org/ irp/ offdocs/ nspd/ nspd-66. htm) US Arctic Region Policy Presidential Directive
[15] (http:/ / alaskadispatch. com/ dispatches/ arctic/ 6502-arctic-sovereignty-non-negotiable-canadas-pm) Arctic Sovereignty "Non-Negotiable"
-- Canada's PM
[16] (http:/ / csis.org/ files/ publication/ 100426_Conley_USStrategicInterests_Web. pdf) U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic
[17] http:/ / www.international. gc. ca/ polar-polaire/ assets/ pdfs/ CAFP_brochure_PECA-eng. pdf
[18] http:/ / www.international. gc. ca/ polar-polaire/ assets/ pdfs/ CAFP_booklet-PECA_livret-eng. pdf
[19] http:/ / www.northernstrategy.ca/ index-eng. asp
[20] http:/ / www.regjeringen. no/ upload/ UD/ Vedlegg/ strategien. pdf
[21] (http:/ / www. arcticportal. org/ images/ stories/ pdf/ J0810_Finlands. pdf) Finlands Strategy for the Arctic Region
[22] (http:/ / csis.org/ files/ publication/ 100426_Conley_USStrategicInterests_Web. pdf) U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic
[23] Russian Federation Policy for the Arctic to 2020 (http:/ / www. arctis-search. com/ Russian+ Federation+ Policy+ for+ the+ Arctic+ to+
2020)
Arctic cooperation and politics
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[24] (http:/ / csis.org/ files/ publication/ 100426_Conley_USStrategicInterests_Web. pdf) U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic
[25] http:/ / www.regjeringen. no/ upload/ SMK/ Vedlegg/ 2010/ avtale_engelsk. pdf
[26] (http:/ / csis.org/ files/ publication/ 100426_Conley_USStrategicInterests_Web. pdf) U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic
[27] (http:/ / chauprade. com/ ocean-arctique/ russia-on-track-for-new-arctic-bid-in-2013-05-10-10) Russia To File For Extended Continental
Shelf in 2013
[28] (http:/ / www. foreignpolicy. com/ articles/ 2010/ 08/ 16/ think_again_the_arctic?page=full) Think Again: The Arctic
[29] (http:/ / csis.org/ files/ publication/ 100426_Conley_USStrategicInterests_Web. pdf) U.S. Strategic Interests in the Arctic
[30] (http:/ / www. alaskadispatch. com/ article/ grim-new-prediction-arctic-sea-ice-could-disappear-2015) Ice-free Summers in Arctic Ocean by
2015
[31] (http:/ / www. thefreelibrary. com/ Arctic+ security+ considerations+ and+ the+ U. S. + Navy's+ roadmap+ for+ the. . . -a0228993310)
Ice-free Summers in Arctic Ocean by 2060
[32] (http:/ / arcticportal. org/ features/ features-of-2010/ polar-law-textbook) Polar Law Textbook
External links
Arctic Risks and Opportunities (http:/ / www. cfr. org/ arctic/ thawing-arctic-risks-opportunities/ p32082) A
primer from the Council on Foreign Relations
Arctic Centre, Rovaniemi (http:/ / www. arcticcentre. org/ InEnglish. iw3) Arctic research
Arctic Council (http:/ / www. arctic-council. org)
Arctic Geopolitics - Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies (http:/ / www. geopoliticsnorth. org/ index.
php?option=com_content& view=article& id=84& Itemid=69& limitstart=7)
United States Arctic Research Commission (http:/ / arctic. gov)
The Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region (http:/ / www. arcticparl. org)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ los/ index. htm)
Arctic Portal (http:/ / www. arcticportal. org)
U.S. State Departments Office of Ocean and Polar Affairs (OPA) (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ oes/ ocns/ opa/
index. htm)
The Arctic Human Development Report (http:/ / www. svs. is/ AHDR/ )
Barents Euro-Arctic Council (http:/ / www. beac. st/ in_English/ Barents_Euro-Arctic_Council. iw3)
Eye on the Arctic (http:/ / eyeonthearctic. rcinet. ca/ index. php)
Article Sources and Contributors
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