Ims Ga-Brm 2008

Dear Student,
If you were asked:

l Where is Kaziranga National Park located?
l Who was the last ruler of Mughal Empire?
l Who signs the one rupee note?
l Who is the President and Prime Minister of Seychelles?
and then you would feel lost and perplexed. Or maybe you would wonder why should I know all
these details? Where is the connection, what do I have to do with these facts? Now stop agonizing
further.
You do not have to experience those flashes of bewilderment or even for a moment think that you
are not intelligent. It is time for you to realize that you have to pull up your socks! It is time you
comprehend the need for General Knowledge (GK).
This Booklet on General Awareness has been designed to introduce you to the different
categories of questions that appear in the General Awareness section of various aptitude
based entrance examinations.
Success in most aptitude- based competitive entrance examinations depends on two important
skills Speed & Accuracy. Of these two skills, accuracy comes from knowledge of facts
whereas speed comes from practice. Knowledge of facts is vital without which, you will
either not be able to attempt a question or will attempt it incorrectly. This Booklet is
designed specifically to give you an in- depth knowledge of the subject, which will help in
achieving accuracy in solving the questions in the examination.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THE BOOKLET ON GENERAL AWARENESS
l Study each chapter in the order given in the Booklet. Do not skip any chapter.
l Revise the key points once again by going through the chapters . Do not worry too
much about your current state of knowledge base. Learning is a continuous process
and your general knowledge will keep increasing.
Please Note:
l All the information provided in this booklet are based on data available as on
1
st
August, 2008
l Keep yourself updated regarding the changes that are taking place regularly.
Wishing you all the best!
Warm Regards,
Product Head
Index
CHAPTERS PG. NO.
1. History 1
2. Structure of the Earth 19
3. Geography of India 25
4. Geography of the World 35
5. Civics 51
6. Economics 59
7. The UNO and International Agencies 73
8. The Superlatives 77
9. Books and Authors 81
10. Sports 89
11. Popular Awards 99
12. Abbreviations 103
13. Science 113
14. Legal Awareness 133
15. IT Awareness 157
In this chapter, you will learn:
l Ancient India
l Medieval India
l Modern India
l World Wars
l Major Revolutions
Chapter 1
History
GENERAL AWARENESS 4
ANCIENT INDIA
History is a record of time. Ages have come and brought with them their foundations and ruins. The
study of Ancient India begins with the study of the Stone Age.
1. Stone Age
The Stone Age, or the stages of early man can be classified into:
Paleolithic Age This period was essentially the stage of hunters and food gatherers. They
used crude tools made of flakes. They had no knowledge of cultivation and house building.
They lived on roots and fruits. By the end of the Paleolithic Age, the flint industry came up. The
important development of this age was the emergence of Homo-Sapiens.
Mesolithic Age This age was the transition between the Paleolithic & the Neolithic Ages.
Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering. At a later stage, they domesticated
animals. They used microlith - a small raw-stone tools.
Neolithic Age - These people used tools and implements of polished stone. They particularly used
stone axes. Parashurama became an important axe-wielding hero. Dwelling pits, ceramics, a variety of
stone and bone tools and a complete absence of microliths marked this age. Cattle, sheep and goat
were domesticated. Men became food producer.
2. Chalcolithic Age
Copper was the first metal used by men.
3. Indus Valley Civilization
The most important event of ancient Indian history was the development of Indus Valley Civilization.
This Civilization prospered on the banks of river Indus. It extended from Jammu in the North to
Daimabad in the South, and covered various regions of Gujarat. The main sites which have been
found in the excavation are:
Kalibangan in Rajasthan
Lothal in Gujarat (Sea Port)
Banwali in Haryana
Ropar in Punjab.
Mohenjodaro in Pakistan (Great Bath)
The Indus Valley Civilization existed between 2350 BC and 1750 BC. The main cities associated
with the civilization were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal. The main feature of this
civilization was Town Planning. They had great buildings, well-planned roads, cities and drainage
GENERAL AWARENESS 5
systems. Trade and agriculture were the main sources of livelihood for the people. The people
of Indus Valley were the first to produce cotton. Mother Goddess was the most important deity
of worship. Wheat was the main food crops. They did not know about Iron.
4. Vedic Period
This period is marked by the entry of the Aryans, who were originally inhabitants of Central Asia
around the Caspian Sea and probably came through the Hindu Kush Mountains. The period in
which they existed was between 1500-600 BC.
The Main Features of the Aryans were:
i) They were admirers of nature and worshipped the Sun, Fire and Water.
ii) Indra was an important deity for the Aryans.
iii) Metal iron was used for the first time during this period in 1000 BC.
iv) Sanskrit was first time introduced in India by Aryans.
The following religious books were written during this period:
i) Vedas: These were their most sacred books.
They were four in number, viz. :
a) Rig Veda The oldest, and it contained prayers of God, Vayu, Varun, Indra and Agni.
b) Sam Veda It dealt with music.
c) Yajur Veda It dealt with formulae, sacrifices and rituals.
d) Atharva Veda It dealt with medicines.
ii) The Upanishads: They are the foundation stones of Indian Philosophy and are 108 in numbers.
Satyameva Jayate (Truth Alone Triumphs) is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
5. Rise of Religions
The two major religions that came into prominence after the vedic period:
i) Buddhism - Initiated by a Kshatriya prince of the Shakya clan, Siddhartha, (who later came to
be known as Buddha) around 6th century BC. Siddhartha was born in 567 BC at Lumbini in
Kapilavastu (present day Nepal). He was the son of king Shuddhodana. He went in search of truth
and attained enlightenment under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya, and delivered his first sermons at
Sarnath in U.P. He died at Kushinagar in U.P.
The main Buddhist teachings of the eightfold path of
right faith
thought
GENERAL AWARENESS 6
action
livelihood
efforts
speech
remembrance and concentration
belief in nirvana (freedom from the cycle of birth and death)
Ahimsa and law of karma were recorded in Triptikas, the religious book of Buddhists.
ii) Jainism - Initiated by Rishabha Dava (a Kshatriya prince), Jainism attained peak under
Vardhamana Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara). Mahavira was born at Kundagrama in 540 BC. He
left his house at the age of 30 years and attained Kaivalya (Perfect knowledge) at the age of 42
years. He became a Jina (one who has conquered happiness and misery) and died at Pavapuri
(present day Bihar).
The major teachings of Jainism were based on the Tri-ratna concept and the Tri-ratna concept
was based on
a) Right knowledge,
b) Right faith
c) Right conduct.
Religious book - Agam (In Pali Language)
Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a famous religious place of Jainism.
6. Magadha Empire (6th Century BC - 4th Century BC)
Major dynasties of the Magadha Empire were:
i) Haryanka Dynasty - Bimbisara and Ajatashatru laid the foundation of this dynasty in 684 BC.
ii) Shishunaga Dynasty - This dynasty was founded by Shishunag in 413 BC after defeating the
last king of the Haryanka dynasty.
iii) Nanda Dynasty This dynasty was founded in 382 BC by Mahapadma Nanda.
7. Alexanders Invasion of India
Alexander, after establishing his Kingdom in present day Pakistan, crossed the river Indus and
invaded India.
He defeated Porus, the ruler of Punjab in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC and extended his
kingdom till India.
He founded the city of Alexandria in present day Afghanistan.
GENERAL AWARENESS 7
8. The Age of Mauryas (321-198 BC)

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Maurya Empire.
Kautilya (also known as Chanakya) was in the court of Chandragupta Maurya and he had
written the book titled Arthashastra.
Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador who came in the court of Chandragupta Maurya and
wrote the book titled INDICA.
Ashoka (273-232 BC) was the important king of this dynasty.
Ashoka fought the Kalinga war (261 BC) and after that war he adopted Buddhism.
Ashoka was the first Indian king to talk directly to the people throughout his empire.
The Ashoka pillar of Sarnath is the most popular of the Eelics left by Ashoka. It has four lions
standing back to back which is adopted as the emblem of modern day Republic.
The last king of Maurya empire Brihadratha was killed by his commander in chief Pushyamitra
Sunga
9. Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire was founded by the Kushan tribe of the Yuezhi Confederation around 1st
century BC.
Kanishka was the most important king of the empire. He founded the Saka Era in 78 AD.
His capital was at Pursushpura (now Peshawar).
He was responsible for organizing the 4th Buddhist council in Kashmir.
Both Gandhar and Mathura art forms developed during Kanishkas reign.
10. Gupta Empire
It was founded by Chandragupta I (320-325 AD). He started the Gupta Era in 320 AD. Other
important kings of the Gupta empire were:
i) Samudra Gupta (335-380 AD): He was known as the Napoleon of India. His coins depicted
him as playing the musical instrument Veena.
ii) Chandragupta II (380-412 AD): He was also known as Vikramaditya.
Chinese Pilgrim, Fa-hien came in his court.
Aryabhatta and Kalidas were among the Nine Gems or distinguished men at the court of
Chandragupta II. With Chandragupta II began the Vikram Era in 58 BC.
iii) Kumaragupta I of this dynasty built the Nalanda University (in present day Bihar).
GENERAL AWARENESS 8
11. Harshvardhana
Harshvardhana was the last important king of North India.
His capital was at Kannauj.
Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrime came to his court.
Harshcharita, a book on the life of Harshvardhana was written by Banabhata, who had also
written Kadambari.
He was defeated by Pulshekin II of the Chalukya dynasty.
12. South Indian Dynasties
12.1 The Sathavanas
This dynasty was founded by Simuka. (65 BC)
Satakarni was an important king.
They constructed many buddhist worshipping sites- the important ones being at Amaravati and
Nagarjuna Konda.
They issued the maximum number of lead coins.
Sangam Literature relates primarily to Pandyan kingdom but also contains information about
Cholas and Cheras.
Tolkappiyam is the oldest book of Tamil grammar.
Three Major Southern Kingdoms
Kingdom Capital Emblem
Famous
Port
Important
King
Cholas
Cheras
Pandyas
Uraiyar
Vanji Karur
Madurai
Tiger
Bow
Carp
Puhar
Tondi, Bandar
Korkai
Karikala
Udiyanjeral
Nedunjeliyan
12.2 The Chalukyas (6th - 7th Century AD)
Pulkeshin I founded the Chalukya dynasty and established its capital at Vatapi.
Pulkeshin II (609 AD - 642 AD) was the most important king.
According to the Aihole inscriptions, he defeated Harshvardhana on the banks of river Narmada
in 619 AD.
Narasimhavarman I defeated and killed Pulkeshin II and captured Vadani.
Most of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta and Ellora were structured during the reign of the Chalukyas.
GENERAL AWARENESS 9
Aihole was the temple town of this period.

12.3 The Pallavas (560 AD 903 AD)
The Pallava dynasty was founded by Simhavishnu in 560 AD.
Their Capital was at Kanch.
Mahendravarman I was defeated by Pulakeshin II.
Narasimhavarma I was the greatest king, and because he defeated Pulakeshin II and captured
Badan, he was known as Vatapi-Konda.
Narshimhavarma II constructed the shore temple of Mahabalipuram and the Kailashnath Temple
of Kanchi.
Narshimhavarma II was also a worshipper of Vishnu. He built the Vaikunthaperumal Temple at
Kanchi.
Aparajita Pallav was the last ruler and was defeated by Aditya Chola.
Administrative Units of the Pallavas Names of the Chiefs
Mandal (Province) Rastrik
Nadu (District) Deshatric
Village (Kottam - Group of Villages) Gram Bhojak
12.4 The Rashtrakutas
Founded by Dantidurga in Deccan, their capital was located at Manyakheta or Malkhed. Greatest
kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty were:
i) Govind III (796 AD - 814 AD)
ii) Amoghavarsha I (814 AD - 978 AD) - He had written the first Kannada book - Kavirajamarga.
and Ratnamalika in Kannada.
iii) KrishnaI built the Kailash Temple at Ellora (in 9th century).
Administrative Units of the Rashtrakutas
Rashtras - the provinces
Visaya - the districts
Bhukti - the villages
12.5 The Cholas (850 -1200 AD)
The Chola dynasty was founded by Vijayalaya in 850 AD.
Early capital was situated at Uraiyur. Later the capital was shifted to Tanjore.
Raja Raja I (985 AD - 1014 AD) was an important king.
- He constructed the Siva Temple at Tanjore which is also famous as Raja Rajeshvar
Temple.
Rajendra I (1014 AD- 1044AD) was called the Napolean of South India.
GENERAL AWARENESS 10
The Cholas were famous for naval power and for their village administration.
Administrative Units of the Cholas
Mandlam, the provinces
Valanadusnadus, the districts
Taniyur, the large villages
The Village Assembly was constituted of
Urs- the assembly of common people.
Abha - the assembly of brahmins.
Nagaram - the assembly of merchants.
MEDIEVAL INDIA
It is marked by the beginning of the Sultanate of Delhi, which was established after the conquest of
Muhammad Ghori. The period of the Sultanate of Delhi ranges from AD 1206-1526. It is also considered
as the beginning of Muslim rule in India.
Important Dynasties
1. The Slave Dynasty period ranges from AD 1206-1290. It was founded by Qutabud-din Aibak
whose capital was at Lahore. The Qutub Minar at Delhi was also built by Qutabud-din Aibak.
Later Iltutmish got three more floors added to the Minar. Razia Sultana, the only woman ruler
of India, and Balban was the important ruler of the Slave Dynasty. Balban had started the Persian
Festival, NAUROZ.
2. The Khi l j i Dynast y was founded by Jal al - ud- di n Khi l j i and i t s per i od r anges
from AD 1290-1320. Ala-ud-din Khilji was one of the most prominent rulers of this dynasty.
He started branding of horses and constructed Siri Fort at Delhi and Alai Darwaza near
Qutub Minar. He was famous for market reforms.
3. The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyath-al-din-Tughlag and the period of this dynasty ranges
from AD 1320-1414. Ibn Buttuta was an important African traveller who visited India in 1333.
Mohammed-Bin-Tughlaq introduced coins of brass and copper.
Feroz Shah Tughlaq was another important king and he constructed many towns.
4. The Lodhi dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodhi and the period of this dynasty ranges
from AD 14511526. Sikandar Lodhi and Ibrahim Lodhi were the other two prominent
rulers belonging to this dynasty. Sikandar Lodhi established Agra City and transferred his
capital from Agra to Delhi.
5. Mughal Dynasty (AD 1526-1857)
5.1 Babur - He is credited with the foundation of the Mughal empire by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi
in the First Battle of Panipat on April 20, 1526. His tomb is built at Kabul, and his autobiography
Baburnama is written in Turkish.

5.2 Humayun - He was the next emperor of the Mughal empire after Babur. His tomb is in Delhi,
his biography Humayu-Nama was written by Gulbadan Begum.
5.3 Akbar - He was the most successful Mughal emperor. An excellent leader, who separated
religion and politics, started a new religion called Din-e-Ilahi. He established Fatehpur Sikri and
Buland Darwaza near Agra. He abolished the Jazia Tax. Bairam Khan, Akbars General, fought the
Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 and defeated Hemu. Two important books Akbar-Nama and
Ain-e-Akbari were written during Akbars tenure by Abul Fazal. His tomb is built at Sikandara
near Agra.
5.4 Jehangir - The son of Akbar, who ascended the throne after Akbars death, known for his
administration and strict sense of justice. He was the husband of Noor Jahan Begum and had
built Shalimar and Nishant Bagh. His autobiography is Tuzk-e-Jahangiri and his tomb is
built at Lahore.
5.5 Shahjahan - Famous ruler and son of Jehangir, who built the Taj Mahal at Agra, in the
memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Jama Masjid and Red Fort are the other two famous
monuments that were built by him. He had transferred his capital from Agra to Delhi.
5.6 Aurangzeb - A very cruel ruler and son of Shahjahan, who demolished several religious
structures of Hindus, and ruled for about 50 years. He constructed the Moti Masjid in the Red
Fort at Delhi and Bibi ka Makbara at Aurangabad.
The Mughal empire started declining with the attack of Nadir Shah who took with him the famous
Kohinoor Diamond to Afghanistan and peacock throne to Iran.
6. Suri Dynasty (1540-1555):
Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) - He was a brilliant administrator who issued the Rupiah and
Paisa coins and built the famous Grand Trunk Road from Peshawar to Calcutta. He constructed
the Old Fort of Delhi. He came to power after Humayun and before Akbar.
IMPORTANT MONUMENTS/HISTORICAL SITES
Historical Site / Monument Location By
Ajanta Caves Aurangabad Rashtrakutas
Anand Bhawan Allahabad Moti Lal Nehru
Buland Darwaza Fatehpur Sikri near Agra Akbar

Char Minar Hyderabad Quli qutab Shah
Dilwara Temples Mount Abu
Elephanta Caves Mumbai Gupta Rulers
Ellora Temples Aurangabad Gupta Rulers
Gol Gumbaz Bijapur Adil Shah
Golden temple Amritsar Guru Arjun Dev
Jama Masjid Delhi Shah Jahan
Khajuraho Bhopal Chandelas
Sabarmati Ahmedabad M.K. Gandhi
Sanchi Stupa Madhya Pradesh Ashoka
Shantiniketan Kolkata Ravindra Nath Tagore
Victoria Memorial Kolkata The Britishers
MODERN INDIA
Coming of the Europeans
Vasco-da-Gama discovered the sea route to India in 1498 and he belonged to Portugal. So
Portugal was the first European country to start trade with India.
The East India Company (EIC) of England came to India in 1602.
The first officer of the EIC, Captain Hawkins came to India in 1608 in the court of Jahangir,
the then ruler of India.
The EIC established its first factory at Surat in 1613.
The first English Ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, came to India in 1615 in the court of Jahangir.
Important Battles of Modern India
i) Battle of Plassey (1757)
Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal was defeated by the East India Co., under the leadership of Lord
Clive, the first governor of Bengal. It is also known as the Black Hole Episode of the Indian history.
ii) Battle of Wandiwash (1760)

It was the decisive battle fought between the English and the French. The French rule in India
came to an end.
iii) Battle of Buxar (1764)
The joint army of Mir Quasim, former Nawab of Bengal Suja-ud-Daulah, Nawab of Awadh and
Shah Alam II was defeated by the English army under the leadership of Captain Hector Munro.
The Regulating Act (1773)
In1773, the British Parliament initiated a series of administrative and economic reforms in
India. The post of Governor General for Bengal was created. Warren Hastings became the
first Governor General of Bengal. The Governor General and his council had all the legislative
powers. Supreme Court was established at Calcutta and Sir Elijah Impey became the First
Chief Justice of India.
Governor Generals (1774 - 1858)
1. Warren Hastings (1774 - 1785)
Warren Hastings was the first Governor General of Bengal. The foundation of the British Empire
was laid down by Lord Clive (first Governor of Bengal) and Warren Hastings consolidated it.
2. Lord Cornwallis (1786 - 1793)
Lord Cornwallis is known as the father of Indian Civil Services. He introduced the system of the
Permanent Settlement, also called the Zamindari System, in 1793 in Bengal. It was an agreement
between East India Company and the Bengali landlords (zamindars) for effective agricultural
methods and productivity in the empire.
3. Lord Wellesley (1797 - 1805)
Lord Wellesely adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance. He established the Fort William College
at Calcutta.
4. Lord William Bentinck (1828 - 1835)
He was the first Governer General of India. He was a famous social reformer. He abolished the
Sati system in 1829. He introduced engineering education in India.
5. Lord Dalhousie (1845 - 1856)
Lord Dalhousie laid the foundation of railways in India. The first railway line was laid between
Bombay and Thane and began operating in 1853. He also started the first telegram line in India
between Agra and Calcutta. He introduced the Widow Remarriage Act, opened post offices
throughout India, established the Public Works Department, and introduced The Doctrine of Lapse.
Viceroys of India
1. Lord Canning (1858 - 1862)
Lord Canning was the first Viceroy of India. He abolished The Doctrine of Lapse and also established
three major Indian universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
2. Lord Litton (1876 - 1880)
Lord Litton introduced The Vernacular Press Act, to curb the freedom of Indian Press.
3. Lord Rippon (1880 - 1884)
Lord Rippon was known as the father of Local Self Government. He started census for the
first time in India in 1881.He abolished The Vernacular Press Act and introduced Illbert Bill.
4. Lord Curzon (1899 - 1904)
Lord Curzon was responsible for the partition of Bengal into East and West Bengal in 1905. He passed
Indian University Act in 1904 and also passed The Indian Monuments Act.
5. Lord Minto (1905 -1910)
During his tenure there was great unrest in India because of the the Indian Council Act or the
Minto Morley reforms passed in 1909.
6. Lord Hardinge (1910 - 1916)
During his tenure a Durbar was held at Delhi in 1911 to greet the King of England, George V.
Bengal was unified and Delhi was made the capital in place of Calcutta in 1911. Gate-way of India
was constructed to greet him.
7. Lord Chelmsford (1916 - 1921)
Under Lord Chelmsford, The Government of India Act of 1919, popularly know as Montague-
Chelmsford reform was passed. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on 13th April 1919.
Rowlatt Act, also called the Black Bill, was passed in 1919. The Non - Cooperation movement
started in the year 1920.
8. Lord Reading (1921 - 1925)
The visit of the Duke of Connaught and the Prince of Wales to India was boycotted under Lord Reading.
Mahatma Gandhi called off Non-cooperation Movement in 1922 due to Chauri-Chaura event.
9. Lord Irwin (1926 - 1931)
During Lord Irwins reign, the Simon commission visited India in 1928. Civil Disobedience
movement was started in India by Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi - Irwin pact was signed in 1931. The
First Round Table Conference was held in London. Indian National Congress boycotted it.
10. Lord Willingdon (1931 - 1936)

Under Lord Willingdon, the second and third round table conferences were held at London. The
Poona pact was signed between Dr. B R Ambedker and Mahatma Gandhi. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
participated in all thre round conference.
11. Lord Linlithgow (1936 - 1943)
Under him elections were held for the first time in 11 Indian states in 1939. Congress ministries
were formed in eight out of 11 provisions but subsequently resigned because India was being
dragged into the Second World War.
12. Lord Wavell (1943 - 1947)
Under him the Cabinet Mission came to India from London. The first meeting of the Constituent
Assembly was held on 9th December, 1946.
13. Lord Mountbatten (March 13, 1947 to 14 August 1947)
Under him an act for Indian independence was passed by British Parliament. He was the last
British Governor General of independent India.
Presidents of Indian National Congress (Important Sessions)
Session No. Year Place President
1 1885 Bombay W. C. Bannerjee
3 1887 Madras BadurddinTyabji
4 1888 Allahabad George Yule
9 1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji
21 1905 Banaras G. K. Gokhale
22 1906 Kolkata Dadabhai Naoroji
23 1907 Surat Dr. Rash Bihari Ghosh
33 1917 Kolkata Mrs.Annie Besant
35 1918 Delhi (Annual Session) M. M. Malyviya
36 1919 Amritsar Lala Lajpat Rai
57 1939 Tripura Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Imortant Socio-Religious Organisations

Year Place Name of the Organisation Founder
1815 Calcutta Atmiya Sabha Ram Mohan Roy
1828 Calcutta Brahmo Samaj Ram Mohan Roy
1829 Calcutta Dharma Sabha Radhakanta Dev
1867 Bombay Prarthna Samaj Atmaram Pandurang
1875 Bombay Arya Samaj Swami Dayanand Saraswati
1875 New York (USA) Theosophical Society Madam H.P. Blavatsky and
Col. H.S. Olcott
1878 Calcutta Sadharan Brahmo Samaj Anand Mohan Bose
1886 Pune (Poona) Deccan Education Society G.G. Agarkar
1887 Aligarh Muhammadan Educational Syed Ahmad Khan
Conference
1887 Bombay Indian National Conference M.G. Ranade
1887 Lahore Deva Samaj Shivnarayan Agnihotri
1897 Belur Ramakrishna Mission Swami Vivekanand
1905 Bombay Servents of Indian Society Gopalakrishna Gokhale
1911 Bombay Social Service League N.M. Joshi
1914 Allahabad Seva Samiti H.N. Kunzru
Important Milestones of Modern India
Event Year Related Facts
First War of Independence 1857 Mangal Pandey was a prominent figure. He killed
two British sepoys at Barrackpore.
Government of India Act 1858 Direct governance of British Crown over India.
Formation of Indian National 1885 A. O. Hume was the founder. W.C. Banerjee was
Congress the first president of Indian National Congress.

Partition of Bengal 1905 Bengal was divided on the basis of religion.
Swadeshi Movement 1905 Indian National Congress adopted a resolution on
7th August 1905 to boycott all foreign goods.
Formation of Muslim League 1906 Founded by Aga Khan and Salimuddin at Dhaka.
MorleyMinto Reforms 1909 Under these reforms, a separate electorate was made
for Muslims during the leadership of Lord Minto.
Home Rule Movement 1915-16 Annie Besant started the movement in September
1916.
Lucknow Pact 1916 Congress and Muslim League held their sessions
at Lucknow, which strengt hened the Hindu
Muslim unity.
Rowlatt Act 1919 It gave unstoppable powers to the government to
arrest and imprison suspects, without even having
a trial.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 1919 Because of firing, under the orders of General
O Dyer, many peopl e wer e ki l l ed, whi l e
attending a public meeting at Jallianwala Bagh
in Amritsar.
Khilafat Movement 1920 This was an antiBritish movement started by two
brothers Shaukat and Muhammad Ali.
Non-Cooperation Movement 1920 Gandhiji pioneered the movement which included
t he boycot t of forei gn goods and refusi ng
government work.
Simon Commission 1927 Simon Commission was dispatched to India in
1927 to study constitutional reforms. Simon
Commi ssi on was confront ed by t hrongs of
protesters in India. Lala Lajpat Rai died of his
injuries due to Lathi charge in a procession against
the Commission.
Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) 1930 Gandhiji marched from his Sabarmati Ashram,
which was basically a form of protest against
t he t ax on sal t i mposed by t he Br i t i sh
Government.
Government of India Act 1935 Passed on the basis of the Simon Commission
report , i t envi saged t he st ruct ure of t he
government under the direct governance of the
British Crown.
Quit India Movement 1942 Mahatma Gandhi led this movement and asked the
Britishers to leave India.
Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 This envisaged forming an interim government in
India
Formation of the Constituent 1946 Without the Muslim leagues participation under
Assembly the Assembly predisency of Dr. Rajendra Prasad,
the Constituent Assembly was formed.
Partition of India 1947 Indian Independence Act of 1947 was responsible
for the partition of India.
Constitution Enforcement 1950 The Constitution came into force on 26
th
Jan, 1950.
THE WORLD WARS
World War I (Aug 14, 1914 to Nov 11, 1919)
Major Participants
1. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey formed a group known as the Central powers.
2. England, France, Belgium and Serbia later joined by Russia and Italy, were known as the
Allied powers.
Causes of War
The First World War was a consequence of
1. assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria,
2. initiation of war against Serbia by Austria,
3. mobilization of forces against Austria-Hungary by Russia.
Outcome
The Allied forces won the war, Treaty of Versailles was signed, which curbed the power of the
German Empire and led to the creation of many new countries in Eastern Europe.
World War II (1939 to 1945)
Major Participants
1. Allied Powers - Britain, Russia, USA, and France.
2. Axis Powers (central powers) - Germany, Italy and Japan.
Causes of War
The Second World War was a consequence of
1. rise of the Nazi party in Germany.
2. treaty of Versailles which was against Germany.
3. the expansion policy of Japan.
Outcome
The Allied forces won the war and Germany was divided into two parts. Russia and the US
became the biggest powers in the World. The end of war led to the Cold War amongst the
industrialised countries.
The Cold War (1947-1991)
The Cold War refers to the period of geopolitical and economic struggle that emerged after the
World War II between the US and its allies and Russia and its allies. The phase lasted from
1947 till the division of erstwhile Soviet Union in 1991. This stage was referred to as the Cold
War because members of both the blocs were faced wit h a fear of host ile at tack from i ts
enemies. The era of cold war led to a large scale development of weapons including nuclear
weapons. It also led t o economic warfare and trade embargoes between nations. Japan had
full support of the US and Russia supported all the erstwhile Soviet Union members. The war
finally came to an end in 1991 with the dissolution of Warsaw Pact which led to the division of
the Soviet Union.
MAJOR REVOLUTIONS
I. The Russian Revolution (1917)
The main cause of the Russian Revolution was the autocratic rule of the Czars. This revolution led
to the establishment of the rule of Lenin in Russia. In this way Russia became the first communist
state of the World.
II.French Revolution (1789 - 1793)
The autocratic rule of the king of France led the country to financial bankruptcy. The philosophers
and intellectuals inspired the people of France to change the face of the society. Liberty, Equality
and Fraternity became the slogan of the revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte emerged as a great
military general of France.
END OF THE CHAPTER
l The Structure of the Earth
l The Shape and Composition of the Earth
l The Internal Structure of the Earth
l Important Geographical Terms
Chapter 2
Structure of the Earth
THE EARTH
Earth is the third planet in the solar system in terms of distance from the Sun, and the fifth largest in
size. It is also the largest amongst its planetary systems terrestrial planets, making it the largest solid
body in the solar system, and it is the only planet in the universe known to support life. The Earth was
formed around 4.57 billion years ago and its largest natural satellite, the Moon, was orbiting it shortly
thereafter, around 4.533 billion years ago.
THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH
The Earths shape is that of an oblate spheroid, with an average diameter of approximately 12,742 km
(~ 40,000 km /).
THE COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH
The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 10
24
kg. It comprises of iron (35.1%), oxygen (28.2%),
silicon (17.2%), magnesium (15.9%), nickel (1.6%), calcium (1.6%) and aluminum (1.5%).
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
The interior of the Earth, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is
chemically divided into layers. The Earth has an outer silicate solid
crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less
viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.
1. Earths Hydrosphere
The abundance of water on Earth is a unique feature that
distinguishes The Blue Planet from the other planets in the
Solar System. Approximately, 71% of the Earth is covered by
water and only 29% is solid land.
The Earths hydrosphere mainly consists of oceans, but
technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including
inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters. The average
depth of the oceans is 3,794 m (12,447 ft), more than five
times the average height of the continents.
Earth Structure
2. Earths Atmosphere : It consists of the following layers:

Troposphere - This is the lowermost
part of the atmosphere in which we live,
and which is the theatre for almost all
the weather phenomena.
Stratosphere - Above troposphere is
the stratosphere, which is important
primarily because of the presence of
ozone. This layer of calm and clear air
is preferred for high-speed jet flights
because of the absence of air pockets.
Mesophere - Above stratosphere is
mesosphere, which i s more of a
transitional layer.
Ionosphere - Above mesosphere lies
the ionosphere, which has electrically
conducting layers that help in radio
communication.
Exosphere - The outermost layer of
the Earths atmosphere is known as the
Exosphere.
KINDS OF ROCKS
Rocks are naturally occuring aggregate of minerals. The Earths crust and mantle are formed of
rocks. The study of rocks is called Petrology. Rocks are classified by their mineral and chemical
composition, texture of the constituent particles and the process by which they are formed.
The transformation of one rock t ype t o another through geographical process is called the
Rock Cycle.
Types of Rocks
i. Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks are formed when the molten magma or lava slowly cools and
crystallises within the Earths crust. Examples of the Igneous rock are granite,basalt, etc.
ii. Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of organic and non-
organic matter over a period of time. The process of deposition is called sedimentation. Commonly
known sedimentary rocks are coal, limestone, sandstone etc.
iii.Metamorphic Rocks Pressure and change in temprature under the Earths surface cause
Igneous and Sedimentary rocks to undergo change. This change leads to the formation of
Metamorphic Rocks.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
(Figure not to scale)
IMPORTANT GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS

i. Latitude and Longitude - Latitude
is the angular disance of a point on the
Earths surface, measured in degrees
from the centre of the Earth. Longitude
is the angular distance, measured in
degrees along the equator, east or west
of the Prime Meridian (the meridian that
passes through Greenwich near London).
ii. International Date Line It is the line that passes through 180 East or West meridian of
longitude which falls on the opposite side of the Greenwich meridian. One day is added when this
line is crossed East to West and a day is deducted when the line passes West to East.
iii.Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) GMT refers to the 0 longitude that passes through Greenwich
near London.
iv. Indian Standard Time (IST) - IST refers to the
1
82
2
longitude that passes through Allahabad
and is
1
5
2
hours ahead of the GMT..
v. Solstice - It is the date on which the Sun shines vertically over a tropic when the days and
nights are the longest and the shortest. On the 22
nd
of June the sun shines vertically over the
Tropic of Cancer and this date is termed as Summer Solstice for the Northern Hemisphere and
Winter Solstice for the Southern Hemisphere. Similarly, on December 22
nd
, the Sun shines vertically
over the Tropic of Capricorn. Hence it is Summer Solstice for Southern Hemisphere and Winter
Solstice for the Northern Hemisphere.
vi. Equinox - It means two days during the year when the day and night are almost equal throughout
the World because the Sun shines vertically over the Equator. March 21
st
is called the Vernal
Equinox and September 23
rd
is called the Autumnal Equinox.
vii. Equator - The Equator represents the imaginary line passing around the Earth midway between
the North and South poles. It divides the Earth into two equal parts.
viii. Meridians - They represent the imaginary lines drawn out on the global map from pole to
pole and perpendicular to the Equator. Prime Meridian is the 0 degree meridian, which passes
through Greenwich, a place near London.
ix. Aphelion - Aphelion refers to that position of the Earth in its orbit, when it is at the greatest
distance from the Sun (about 152 million kms). The Earth reaches this position during the northern
summer. This term also refers to the position of any other planet or a comet, when it is at its
greatest distance from the Sun.
x. Perihelion - Perihelion refers to the nearest point of a heavenly body in its orbit around the
Sun. The Earth at perihelion is at a distance of about 147 million kms from the Sun.
xi. Apogee - Apogee refers to the position of the orbit of the moon when it is at its greatest
distance from Earth. This is approximately 406,000 kms for the Earth.
xii. Perigee - Perigee refers to the point of the moon when it is at its minimum distance from the
Earth. This distance is approximately 364,000 kms.
xiii. Cyclone - Any area of low pressure around which the air turns in the same direction as the
Earth is a cyclone. In the Indian Ocean, a tropical storm with masses of air turning rapidly round
a low pressure area is called a tropical cyclone.
xiv. Typhoon - It is the name given to a tropical cyclone in the Far East.
xv. Hurricane - It is a tropical storm in the Caribbean or West Pacific Ocean, with extremely
strong winds. The wind force reaches 12 on the Beaufort scale.
xvi. Tornado - It is a type of whirlwind which is formed by rising air currents associated with
large cumulonimbus clouds. It rotates in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere
and in a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
xvii. Estuary - It is the tidal mouth of a river where the salt water of the tide meets the fresh
water of the river current.
xviii. Isobars - Lines on the map denoting places experiencing equal pressure.
xix. Isobaths - Lines denoting equal depths in the Sea.
xx. Isobronts - Lines joining places experiencing a thunderstorm at the same time.
xxi. Isochrones - Lines joining places located at equal travel time from a common centre.
xxii. Isogonics - Lines joining places with the same magnetic declination.
xxiii. Isorymes - Lines denoting places experiencing equal frost.
xxiv. Isoseismics - Lines denoting places experiencing equal seismic activity.
END OF THE CHAPTER
l India at a glance
l Indian Agriculture
l Major Rivers of India
l Indias Mineral Wealth
l Major Industries and Industrial Regions
l States/Union Territories and Capital
l National Parks
l Important towns on the bank of rivers
Chapter 3
Geography of India
INDIA AT A GLANCE
India, the seventh largest country of the world, accounts for about 2.4% of the total world area. It is bounded
by the great Himalayas and other snowy mountains in the north. The country stretches southwards and at the
Tropic of Cancer, narrows down and ends into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal on the East and
the Arabian Sea on the West.
Location
India lies on the Northern Hemisphere between parallels of latitude 37
o
6 and 8
o
4 North and between the
Meridians of longitude 68
o
7 E and 97
o
25 East.
Dimensions
The land area covered by Indian mainland is 32, 87,780 Sq Kms. It measures about 3214 Kms from North to
South and 2933 Kms from East to West. The length of the Indian coastline is 7615 Kms. It is bounded by
Arabian Sea in the West, the Indian Ocean in the South and the Bay of Bengal in the East. The coastline of
India is not indented and the sea on the coast is not very deep. The Western coast is rocky while the Eastern
coast is shallow. Therefore, India does not have many good harbours. Only Mumbai and Goa are natural
harbours while all the other are artificial.
Population
India is the second largest country in the World in terms of population. According to the 2001 census, the
population of India was about 10287 crore (16.87% of the World population). The number of males in 2001
was 53.13 crore while the number of females was 49.57 crore. The density of population in India is about 324
persons per square km. The life expectancy is 64 years and the present literacy rate in 2005 was 65.38 percent.
Neighbours
To the North of the country lie China, Nepal, Bhutan and Afghanistan. The East of the country is surrounded
by Myanmar and Bangladesh. Towards the West of India lies Pakistan and in the South, the Indian mainland
is surrounded by Sri Lanka.
INDIAN AGRICULTURE
India primarily has an agrarian economy. About 2/3
rd
of the population is engaged in agricuture and it provides
livelihood to about 60% of the population. About 43% of the total land area in India is under agricultural
cultivation. It is the second largest contributor to the national income, and accounted for 16% of the national
income.
Major Soil Types
The major types of soil found in India are:
i. Alluvial Soil Alluvial soil is formed due the deposition of particles such as silt, gravel and sand by
the rivers in the plains. It is the most fertile soil form found in India and is generally found in regions of
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Haryana and parts of West Bengal. This soil type facilitates the cultivation
of cereals, pulses, sugarcane and wheat.
ii. Black Soil - Also known as the cotton soil, this soil type is rich in iron, lime and alluminium. It
covers 30 percent of the total area of the country. Black soil is generally found in Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and facilitates the cultivation of cotton, wheat,
oil seeds and tobacco.
iii. Red Soil This soil is red in colour because of the presence of Iron oxides. It is mainly found in
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa and Chattisgarh and facilitates the cultivation of wheat, millets,
potato and chillies.
iv. Laterite Soil Laterite soil is highly leached and the least fertile soil type found in India. It is mainly
found in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and facilitates the cultivation of tea, coffee, and cashew nut.
Largest Producers of Major Food Crops
Crops State
Rice 1. West Bengal
2. Punjab
Wheat 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Punjab
Maize 1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Andhra Pradesh
Total Coarse Cereals 1. Maharashtra
2. Karnataka
Total Pulses 1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Uttar Pradesh
Total Foodgrains 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Punjab
Groundnut 1. Gujarat
2. Tamil Nadu
Rapessed & Mustard 1. Rajasthan
2. Uttar Pradesh
Soyabean 1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
Suflower 1. Karnataka
2. Andhra Pradesh
Total Oilseeds 1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
Cash Crops Sugarcane 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
Cotton 1. Maharashtra
2. Gujarat
Jute & Mesta 1. West Bengal
2. Bihar
Potato 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. West Bengal
Onion 1. Maharashtra
2. Gujarat
RIVERS OF INDIA
There are four major river routes found in India. These are:
1) Himalayan Rivers The Himalayan Rivers are snow fed and have water throughout the year.
During monsoon heavy rainfall in the Himalayan region causes frequent floods in these rivers. The
major Himalayan rivers are:
The Indus and its tributaries- Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
The Ganges and its tributaries- Yamuna, Chambal, Betwa, Sone, Ghagra, Gandak, Gomti etc.
Brahmaputra and its tributary - Tista.
2) Peninsular Rivers - The Peninsular rivers are only rain fed and fluctuate in volume and a large
number of streams dry up after monsoon. The major peninsular rivers are:
Mahanadi
Krishna
Kaveri known as the Ganga of South India.
Godavari
Narmada
Tapi (also known as Tapti)
3) Coastal Rivers - The coastal rivers, especially on the West Coast, are short and have limited catchment
areas. Most of these are non-perennial as well. Periyar, Mithi and Mandovi are major coastal rivers of
India.
4) Rivers of the inland drainage basin - The rivers on the inland drainage basin consists of those in
Western Rajasthan which are very few and short lived, like the Sambhar, which is lost in the desert
sands, and the Loni that drains into the Rann of Kutch.
Major River Projects
Name of the Project River State
Bhakra Nangal Project Satluj Punjab
Damodar Valley Project Damodar Jharkhand
Farakka Barrage Project Ganga West Bengal
Hirakund Dam Project Mahanadi Orissa
Nagarjunasagar Project Krishna Karnataka
Tehri Dam Project Bhilangana, Bhagirathi Uttrakhand
INDIAS MINERAL WEALTH
India has certain basic and useful minerals such as iron and coal. India is very rich in iron, coal, aluminium,
limestone, manganese, titanium, thorium and mica but does not have large reserves of mineral oil, sulphur,
lead and tin.
India is the largest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings, ranks third in the production of coal,
fourth in iron ore, sixth in bauxite and manganese ore, tenth in aluminium and eleventh in crude steel.
1. Iron
Ranked fourth in the world in iron ore production, India has almost one-fourth of the worlds iron ore
reserves. Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa are major iron
bearing areas. Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Keonjhar, Bonai and Mayurbhanj (all Orissa) are areas with
richest iron deposits in the world. The major iron ore mines are at Chanda, Bastar and Durg districts
in Chhattisgarh.
2. Manganese
Ranked sixth in the world for production of manganese, India is a major exporter of manganese and
possesses one-third of the worlds reserves. It is an important mineral used for the production of steel.
A major portion of the deposits is found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir.
3. Mica
Indias is the worlds largest producer of Mica. The majority of this product (almost 60%) comes
from Jharkhand. Apart from Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh are the major producers of
Mica in the country. Since the domestic consumption is not very large most of the Mica produce
is exported.
4. Coal
Ranked third in the production of coal, 80 per cent of the coal is extracted from the mines in West
Bengal and Jharkhand. Huge coal reserves exist in Rani Ganj (West Bengal) and Jharia (Jharkhand).
Other coal bearing areas are in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
5. Bauxite
Bauxite is an aluminium ore which is mainly found in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Andhra
Pradesh and Gujarat. These are also the largest aluminium producing areas of the country.
Major Indian Industries and Industrial Regions
Aircraft - Bangalore and Kanpur.
Cement - Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Tamil Nadu.
Cotton Textile - Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Glass - Firozabad, Jabalpur, Amritsar, Ambala, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
Jute - West Bengal
Leather - Kanpur, Batanagar, Dighaghat, Deonar, Chembur, Chennai, Agra, Coimbatore and Bangalore.
Paper - Nepanagar, Pune, Saharanpur, Orissa, and Mumbai.
Rail Engine and Coaches - Chittaranjan Locomotives Works at Chittaranjan, Diesel
Locomotives at Varanasi, Rail Coaches at Integral Coach Factory at Perambur and Rail Coach
Factory at Kapurthala.
Silk - Karnataka, West Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir.
Sugar - Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Tamil Nadu.
INDIAN STATES
States Capital Since Former Capital
Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar 1972
Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad 1956 Kurnool
Assam Dispur 1972 Shillong (1874-1972)

Bihar Patna 1936
Chhattisgarh Raipur 2000
Goa Panaji 1961
Gujarat Gandhinagar 1970 Ahmedabad (1960-1970)
Haryana Chandigarh 1966
Himachal Pradesh Shimla 1948
Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar (Summer) 1948
Jammu (Winter)
Jharkhand Ranchi 2000
Karnataka Bengaluru 1956
Kerala Thiruvananthapuram 1956 Kochi (1949-1956)
Madhya Pradesh Bhopal 1956
Maharashtra Mumbai 1960
Manipur Imphal 1947
Meghalaya Shillong 1970
Mizoram Aizawl 1972
Nagaland Kohima 1963
Orissa Bhubaneshwar 1948 Cuttack (1936-1948)
Punjab Chandigarh 1966 Lahore (1936-1947)
Shimla (1947-1966)
Rajasthan Jaipur 1948
Sikkim Gangtok 1975
Tamil Nadu Chennai 1956
Tripura Agartala 1956
Uttaranchal Dehradun 2000
Uttar Pradesh Lucknow 1937
West Bengal Kolkata 1905
INDIAN UNION TERRITORIES

States Capital Since Former Capital
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Port Blair 1956
Chandigarh Chandigarh 1966
Dadra and Nagar Haveli Silvassa 1961
Daman and Diu Daman 1987
Delhi (NCT) Delhi 1956
Lakshadweep Kavaratti 1956
Puducherry Puducherry 1954
National Parks and Wild Life Sancturies of India
Name of the National Parks State and famous For
Gir Forests Home of Asiatic lion, Gujarat
Kaziranga Sanctuary One horned rhino, Assam
Manas Sanctuary One horned rhino, Assam
Chandraprabha Sanctuary 2
nd
home of Asiatic lion, Uttar Pradesh
Ghana or Keoladeo Bird Sanctuary Bharatpur, Rajasthan
Dachigam Sanctuary Hangul, Kashmir
Corbett National Park Home of Tiger, Uttaranchal
Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh
Shiv Puri National Park Madhya Pradesh
Hazaribagh National Park Jharkhand
Periyar Game Sanctuary Elephants, Kerala
Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu
Nokrek National Park Meghalaya

Sariska Sanctuary Rajasthan
Ranthambhor National Park Rajasthan
Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh
Keibul Lamjo Floating National Park Manipur
Palamau Tiger Project Bihar
Simlipal National Park Orrisa
Ranganthittoo Bird Sanctuary Mysore, Karnataka
Nagarhole National Park Karnataka
Mudumalai Sanctuary Tamil Nadu
Balpakram Sanctuary Meghalaya
Bandipur Sanctuary Along the Karnataka - Tamil Nadu Border
Jaldapara Sanctuary Rhinos, West Bengal
Wild Ass Sanctuary Wild Ass, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat
Bandipur National Park Tiger Reserve, Karnataka
Gulf Of Mannar Marine National Park Coral Reef, Dolphins - Tamil Nadu
Manas Tiger Reserve Tiger Reserve under Project Tiger - Assam
Point Calimere Wild Life Sanctuary Dolphins, Turtles, Bonnet macaque Black Buck,
Flamingoes, Gulls - Tamil Nadu
Sunderbans National Park Royal Bengal tigers Estuarine Crocodile,
West Bengal
Important Towns on Rivers

Town River Town River
Allahabad At the confluence of Kota Chambal
the Ganga and Yamuna
Patna Ganga Jabalpur Narmada
Varanasi Ganga Ujjain Kshipra
Kanpur Ganga Surat Tapti
Hardwar Ganga Jamshedpur Swarnarekha
Badrinath Alaknanda Agra Yamuna
Delhi Yamuna Guwahati Brahmaputra
Mathura Yamuna Kolkata Hooghly
Ferozpur Satluj Sambalpur Mahanadi
Ludhiana Satluj Cuttack Mahanadi
Srinagar Jhelum Serianagapatnam Cauvery
Lucknow Gomti Hyderabad Musi
Jaunpur Gomti Nasik Godavari
Ayodhya Saryu Vijayvada Krishna
Bareilly Ram Ganga Tiruchirapalli Cauvery
Ahmedabad Sabarmati
END OF THE CHAPTER
Chapter 4
Geography of the World
l Continents of the World
l The Largest and the Smallest
countries of the World
l Seas and Oceans
l Peaks of the World
l Least and Most populous countries of
the World
l Countries, Capitals and Currencies
l Countries and Parliaments
l National Emblems of Countries
l New Names of Countries, State and
Cities
l Sobriquets
l Famous International Boundaries
l International Days
CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD

Continents
Size
(Mn. Sq
km)
Population
(millions)
Number of
Countries
Tallest
Mountain
Major River
Largest
Country (Area
Mn. Sq km)
Africa 30 877.5 53 Mt. Kilimanjaro
Nile,
6825 km
Sudan, 2.37
Antarctica 13.2 Vinson Massif
Asia 44.5 3879 44 Mt. Everest
Chang Jiang
(Yangtze),
6380 km
China, 9.32
Australia /
Oceania
7.7 32 14 Puncak Jaya
Murray,
3370 km
Australia, 7.6
Europe 10.1 727 46 Mt. Elbrus
Volga,
3690 km
Russia, 17.07
North
America
24.7 501.5 23 Mt. McKinley
Mississippi,
5971 km
Canada, 9.33
South
America
17.8 379.5 12 Mt. Aconcagua
Amazon,
6437 km
Brazil, 8.45

Country Area (Mn. Sq km) Continent
Russia 17.07 Europe
Canada 9.97 North America
China 9.59 Asia
USA 9.62 North America
Brazil 8.51 South America
Australia 7.68 Australia/Oceania
India 3.28 Asia
Argentina 2.76 South America
Kazakhstan 2.71 Asia
Sudan 2.50 Africa

LARGEST AND SMALLEST COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD
The 10 Largest Countries
WORLD
The 10 Smallest Countries

Country Area (Sq km) Continent
Vatican City 1 Europe
Monaco 2 Europe
Nauru 21 Oceania
Tuvalu 26 Oceania
San Marino 61 Europe
Liechtenstein 160 Europe
Marshall Islands 181 Oceania
St. Kitts and Nevis 261 North America
Seychelles 270 Europe
Maldives 300 Asia
Malta 316 Europe

THE SEAS OF THE WORLD
The 10 largest seas of the World and the area covered by them
Sea Area (Mn. Sq km)
1. South China Sea 2.97
2. Caribbean Sea 2.515
3. Mediterranean Sea 2.512
4. Bering Sea 2.26
5. Gulf of Mexico 1.5
6. Arbian Sea 1.49
7. Sea of Okhotsk 1.39
8. Sea of Japan 1.01
9. Hudson Bay 0.73
10. East China Sea 0.66
11. Andaman Sea 0.56
The worlds largest salt water lake (Inland sea), is Russias Caspian Sea. It has an area of 372,000 Sq. Km.
The largest fresh water lake is Lake Superior, Canada, with an area of 82,100 Sq Km.
THE OCEANS OF THE WORLD

The 5 largest oceans of the World are
Oceans Size (Mn.Sq km)
Pacific Ocean 155
Atlantic Ocean 76.7
Indian Ocean 68.55
Southern Ocean 20.32
Arctic Ocean 14.05

THE PEAKS OF THE WORLD
The Tibetan name for Mt. Everest is Chomolungma, which means Goddess mother of the world.
The 10 highest peaks of the World, all of which are in the Himalayas, are as follows
* Source World Atlas

Peaks Height (in meters)
Everest (Nepal) 8850
K2 (Godwin Austen) (India P.O.K.) 8611
Kanchenjunga (India) 8586
Lhotse 8501
Yalung Kang 8502
Makalu 8462
Cho Oyu 8201
Dhaulagiri 8167
Mansalu I 8156
Nanga Parbat 8126
Annapurna I 8091

THE SMALLEST AND MOST POPULOUS COUNTRIES OF
THE WORLD
Most Populous Countries
Country Population (in millions)
China 1306.3
India 1080.2
USA 295.7
Indonesia 241.9
Brazil 186.1

Pakistan 162.4
Bangladesh 144.3
Russia 143.4
Nigeria 128.7
Japan 127.4

Smallest Countries
Country Population (Numbers)
Vatican City 920
Tuvalu 11640
Nauru 13050
Palau 20300
San Marino 28880
Monaco 32410
Liechtenstein 33720
St. Kitts 38960
Marshall Islands 59070
Antigua & Barbuda 68720

COUNTRIES, CAPITALS AND CURRENCIES
Country Capital Currency
Afghanistan Kabul Afghani
Albania Tirane Lek
Algeria Algiers Dinar
Principality of An Dorra Andorra La Vieille Franc
Angola Luanda Kwanza
Argentina Buenos Aires Peso
Australia Canberra Australian Dollar
Austria Vienna Schilling
Bahrain Manama Bahraini Dinar
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka
Barbados Bridgetown Barbados Dollar
Belgium Brussels Euro
Belize Belmopan Belize Dollar
Benin Porto Novo Franc
Bhutan Thimphu
Ngultrum (fixed at par
with Indian rupee)

Bolivia La paz/Sucre The Boliviano

Botswana Gaborone Pula
Brazil Brasilia Real
Bulgaria Sofia Lev
Burundi Bujumbura Burundi Franc
Cambodia Phnom-Penh Riel
Cameroon Yaounde CFA Franc
Canada Ottawa Dollar
Central African Republic
(CAR)
Bangui CFA Franc
Chad NDjamena CFA Franc
Chile Santiago Peso
China Beijing Renmimbi (Yuan)
Colombia Bogota Colombian Peso
Congo Kinshasa Congolese Franc
Costa Rica San Jose Costan Rican Colon
Cuba Havana Peso
Cyprus Nicosia Cyprun Pound
Czech Republic Prague The Koruna
Denmark Copenhagen Danish Krone
Djibouti Djibouti Djibouti Franc
Dominican Republic Santo Domingo Peso
Ecuador Quito US Dollar and Sucre
Egypt Cairo Egyptian Pound
El Salvador San Salvador Colon
Equatorial Guinea Malabo CFA Franc
Ethiopia Addis Ababa Birr
Fiji Suva Dollar
Finland Helsinki Euro
France Paris Euro
Gabon Liberville CFA Franc
The Gambia Banjul Dalasi
Germany Berlin Euro
Ghana Accra Cedi
Greece Athens Euro
Grenada St. Georges East Carribean Dollar
Guatemala Guatemala City Quetzal

* Bolivia has 2 capitals, Sucre being the main capital. LaPaz administrative capital.
Guyana Georgetown Guyana Dollar

Honduras Tegucigalpa Lempira
Hong Kong Victoria HK Dollar
Hungary Budapest Forint
Iceland Reykjavik Krona
India New Delhi Rupee
Indonesia Jakarta Rupiah
Iran Teheran Rial
Iraq Baghdad Iraqi Dinar
Ireland Dublin Euro
Israel Jerusalem New Shekel
Italy Rome Euro
Jamaica Kingston Dollar
Japan Tokyo Yen
Jordan Amman Dinar
Kenya Nairobi Shilling
Korea (North) Pyongyang Won
Korea (South) Seoul Won
Kuwait Kuwait City Kuwaiti Dinar
Laos Vientiane Kip
Lebanon Beirut Pound
Libya Tripoli Libyan Dinar
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Ringgit
Malawi Lilongwe Kwacha
Maldives Male Rufiya
Mauritius Port Louis Maurituan Rupee
Mongolia Ulan Bartor Tugrik
Myanmar (Burma) Yangon Kyat
Namibia Windhoek Dollar
Nepal Kathmandu Nepalese Rupee
Netherlands Amsterdam Euro
New Zealand Wellington NZ Dollar
Nigeria Abuja Naira
Norway Oslo Krone
Oman Muscat Rial
Pakistan Islamabad Rupees
Peru Lima New Sol
Philippines Manila Peso

Poland Warsaw Zloty

Portugal Lisbon Euro
Puerto Rico San Juan US Dollar
Qatar Doha Riyal (QAR)
Romania Bucharest Leu
Russia Moscow Rouble
Rwanda Kigali Franc
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh (Royal),
Jeddah (Administrative)
Rial
Seychelles Victoria Rupee
Singapore Singapore City Singapore Dollar
South Africa
Pretoria (Administrative),
Cape Town (Legislative)
Rand
Spain Madrid Euro
Sri Lanka Colombo Rupee
Sudan Khartoum Dinar
Sweden Stockholm Krona
Switzerland Berne Franc
Syria Damascus Syrian Pound
Taiwan Taipei New Taiwan Dollar
Tanzania Dodoma Shilling
Thailand Bangkok Baht
Tunisia Tunis Dinar
Turkey Ankara Turkish Lira
Uganda Kampala Uganda Shilling
United Arab Emirates
(UAE)
Abu Dhabi Dirham
United Kingdom (UK) London Pound Sterling
United States of
America
Washington D.C. Dollar
Uruguay Montevideo Peso
Venezuela Caracas Bolivar
Yemen Sanaa Rial
Zambia Lusaka Kwacha
Zimbabwe Harare Dollar

COUNTRIES AND THEIR PARLIAMENTS

Country Name of Parliament
Afghanistan Shora
Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad
Bhutan Tsongdu
Bulgaria Narodna Subranie
Myanmar (Burma) Pyithu Hluttaw
Denmark Folketing
Ethiopia Shergo
Finland Eduskusta
Bundestag (Lower House)
Germany
Bundestag (Upper House)
Greenland Landstraad
Iceland Althing
Lok Sabha (Lower House)
India
Rajya Sabha (Upper House)
Indonesia Majlis
Iran Majlis
Israel Knesset
Japan Diet
Malaysia Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Negara
Maldives Majlis
Mongolia Great Peoples Khural
Nepal National Panchayat
The Netherlands The Staten General
Norway Storting
Poland Sejm
Russia Duma
Spain Cortes
Surinam Staten
Swaziland Liblandla
Sweden Riksdaq
Switzerland Federal Assembly

NATIONAL EMBLEMS OF COUNTRIES
Country Emblem
Australia Kangaroo
Canada Maple Tree

Denmark Beach
France Lily
Germany Corn Flower
India Lion Capital
Iran Rose
Ireland Shamrock
Italy White Lily
Japan Chrysanthemum
Pakistan Crescent
Spain Eagle
United Kingdom Rose
USA Golden Rod

NEW NAMES OF COUNTRIES AND STATES
Old Name New Name
Abyssinia Ethiopia
Angora Ankara
Batavia Jakarta
Burma Myanmar
Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy
Ceylon Sri Lanka
Christina Oslo
Congo Zaire
Constantinople Istanbul
Dacca Dhaka
Dutch East Indies Indonesia
East Pakistan Bangladesh
Egypt United Arab Republic of Egypt
Ellice Island Tuvalu
Formosa Taiwan
French West Africa Mali

Gold Coast Ghana

Holland The Netherlands
Kampuchea Cambodia
Leopoldville Kinshasa
Malaya Malaysia
Mesopotamia Iraq
Nippon Japan
Northern Rhodesia Zambia
Peking Beijing
Petrograd Leningrad
Persia Iran
Rangoon Yangon
Southern Rhodesia Zimbabwe
Saigon Ho Chi Minh City
Salisbury Harare
Sandwich Island Hawaiian Islands
Siam Thailand
South West Africa Namibia
Stalingrad Volgograd
Tanganyika and Zanzibar Tanzania
Trucial Oman United Arab Emirates

City of Seven Hills Rome

City of Skyscrapers New York
Cockpit of Europe Belgium
Dark Continent Africa
Dairy of Northern Europe Denmark
Emerald Island Ireland
Empire City New York
Eternal City Rome, Italy
Forbidden City Lhasa (Tibet)
Garden of England Kent
Granite City Aberdeen (Scotland)
Gift of Nile Egypt
Herring Pond Atlantic Ocean
Hermit Kingdom Korea
Holy land Palestine
Island of Cloves Madagascar
Island of Pearls Bahrain
The Isle of Spring Jamaica
Key to the Mediterranean Gibraltar
Land of the Golden Pagoda Myanmar (Burma)
Land of Kangaroos Australia
Land of Lilies Canada
Land of the Midnight Sun Norway
Land of Morning Calm Korea
Land of the Rising Sun Japan
Land of a Thousand Lakes Finland
Land of Thunderbolt Bhutan
Land of White Elephants Thailand
Little Venice Venezuela

Playground of Europe Switzerland

Queen of the Adriatic Venice
Rich Port Puerto Rico
Roof of the World Pamir (Tibet)
Sorrow of China River Hwang Ho
The Saw Mill of Europe Sweden
Sick Man of Europe Turkey
Sugar Bowl of the World Cuba
The Down Under Australia
Venice of the North Stockholm
Venice of the East Bangkok
Yellow River Hawang Ho (China)
White City Belgrade
Windy City Chicago
City of the Arabian Nights Baghdad
The Imperial City Rome

SOBRIQUETS
Distinctive Name Country/Town/Port/River
Britain of the South New Zealand
The Battlefield of Europe Belgium
City of the Golden Gate San Francisco
City of Magnificent Distances Washington D.C.
City of Popes Rome

IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES
Durand Line : Boundary between India & Afghanistan.
Hindenburg Line : Boundary between Germany & Poland.
McMohan Line : Boundary between China & India.
Maginot Line : Boundary between France & Germany.
Radcliffe Line : Boundary between India & Pakistan.
17th parallel : Defined the boundary between North Vietnam & South Vietnam
before the two were united.
38th parallel : Boundary line between North Korea & South Korea.
49th parallel : Boundary line between USA & Canada.
Siegfried Line : The line between Germany and France
International Days

International Customs Days January 26
World Leprosy Day January 30
International Womens Day March 8
World Disabled day March 15
World Health Day April 7
Earth day April 22
International Labor Day May 1
Mothers Day May (2nd Sunday)
World Red Cross Day May 8
World Telecommunication Day May 17
Commonwealth Day May 24
Anti Tobacco Day May 31
World Environment Day June 5
World Diabetes Day June 27
World Population Day July 11
World Peace Day (Hiroshima day) August 6
Nagasaki Day August 9
International Literacy Day September 8
World Tourism Day September 27
World Postal Day October 9
World Food Day October 16
U.N. Day October 24
World AIDS day December 1
Human Rights Day December 10

END OF THE CHAPTER

l The India Constitution
l Indian Legislature
l Indian Judiciary
l Indian Defence
l First in Indian Politics
Chapter 5
Civics
THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Salient Features
1. The Constituent Assembly was formed by the order of The Cabinet Mission in 1946.
2. Sachida Prasad Sinha was the temporary President of the Constituent Assembly.
3. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the permanent President of the Constituent Assembly.
4. Dr. B.R. Ambedker was the chairman of the Drafting Committee.
5. B.N. Rao was the legal advisor of the Constituent Assembly.
6. The Constituent Assembly took 2 years 11 months and 18 days to prepare the largest written
constitution in the World.
7. Rs. 64 lakhs were spent on the making of the Constitution.
8. The original Constitution consisted of 22 parts, 395 articles but at present it has 22 parts,
444 articles and 12 schedules.
9. It was adopted by the Government of India on the 26
th
of November, 1949.
10. It was enforced by the Government of India on the 26
th
of January, 1950.
Structure of the Indian Constitution
The constitution of India consists of :
1. The Preamble
2. Parts I to XXII, covering over 449 Articles
3. Schedules 1 12
4. An Appendix
Fundamental Rights
1. Part III (Articles 12 - 35) of the Constitution deals with Fundamental Rights.
2. Originally, seven Fundamental Rights were listed, but after the 44
th
Amendment, only six
Fundamental Rights exist. These are
a) Right to Equality (14 - 18)
b) Right to freedom of speech (19)
c) Right against Exploitation (23-24)
d) Right to freedom of Religion (25-28)
e) Culture and Educational Right (29-30)
f) Right to Constitutional Remedies (32-33)
3. Right to Property used to be a Fundamental Right but after the 44
th
Amendment it became a
legal right.
Fundamental Duties
Article (51-A) included in the Constitution in the 42
nd
Amendment, lays down 11 Fundamental Duties
that citizens have towards the state. These are:
a) To abide by the Constitution, show respect to the National Flag and the National Anthem.
b) To follow the noble ideas of the freedom struggle.
c) To protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
d) To defend ones country.
e) To promote common brotherhood and establish dignity of women.
f) To preserve our heritage and culture.
g) To protect the natural environment.
h) To develop a scientific temper.
i) To safeguard public property.
j) To strive for excellence in all spheres of activity.
k) Every citizen who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or
as the case may be ward between the age of 6 & 14 years.
Union Executive
Part V (Articles 52-78) describe the functioning of the President, Vice president and the parliament.
The president is elected by the member of an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both
House of Parliament and the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States and the Union
Territory of Delhi and Puducherry.
Article 55 describes how President is elected. The election is held in accordance with the system of
proportional representation through secret ballot.
Every elected member of the Legislative Assembly of a State shall have as many votes as there are
multiply of 1000 in the quotient obtained by dividing the pupulation of the State by the total number of
the elected members of Assembly.
The term of the president is 5 years (Article 56 but can serve for any number of terms).
The qualifications of the president are laid down in Article 58. To be eligible, a person must be:
a) a citizen of India,
b) has minimum age of thirty-five years,
c) is qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha
A person is not eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under
central government
state government
any local or other authority.
The monthly salary of the president is Rs. one lakh per month.
There is no limit as to how many times a person can become President.
Article 61 lays down the procedure for impeachment of the President.
Article 63-68 lays down the procedure for the Vice-President of India. The Vice-president is ex-officio
chairman of the council of states (Rajaya Sabha) and shall not hold any other office of profit.
If the president is temporarily unable to discharge his duties, the vice-president discharge his functions.
The procedure of election of the Vice-president is laid down in Article 66 and is similar to that of the
president. The Vice-president is elected by the members of electoral college consisting of the members
of both House of Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation. The basic
qualifications are the same as that of the president.
The term of office of Vice-president is five years.
Any disputes in connection with the election of a president or Vice-president are to be decided by the
Supreme Court. (Article 71)
The president has a power to grant pardons, reprieves, respires of remissions of punishment of commute
the sentence of any person convicted of any offence (Article 72).
Under Article 74, the Council of ministers with the prime minister as the head, is to aid and advice the
president who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.
Article 76 - the appointment of Attorney General of India, who gives advice to the government of India
upon legal matters.
Article 77 says that all executives action of the government of India is to be taken in the name of the
president. In this regard, it is the duty of the prime minister to inform the president about the decision
of the Council of Ministers (Article 78), and to furnish information relating of the Union as the president
may call for.
Kinds of Bills
i. Ordinary Bill - An ordinary bill can be introduced in either of the Houses and can be passed by
a simple majority in both the Houses. In case of a deadlock a joint sitting of both the houses is
possible.
ii. Money Bill (Article 110) A money bill is concerned with taxation and government spending.
It can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha after prior recommendation of the President. Speaker
of the Lok Sabha is the deciding authority whether the introduced bill is a Money bill or not.
iii. Financial Bill - A bill which is related with revenue and expenditure of the government is a
financial bill.
iv. Constitutional Amendment Bill (Article 368) - This bill can be introduced in either of the
Houses of the Parliament. It can be passed only by a special majority.
INDIAN LEGISLATURE
India is the second largest democracy in the world. The Indian legislature is bicameral i.e. the Indian Parliament
is made up of the Lower House Lok Sabha, and the Upper House Rajya Sabha and President.
Features Lok Sabha (Lower House) Rajya Sabha (Upper House)

Term Five years It is continual in nature
Term of Members Five Years Six Years
No. of Members 545 (maximum 552) 250
Nomination by President 2 members (Anglo-Indian) 12
Election of Members Directly elected by people Not elected by people
Age to Contest Election 25 Years (minimum) 30 Years (minimum)
INDIAN JUDICIARY
Salient Features
1. The Constitution contains provisions related to the Union Judiciary in Articles 124127.
2. Supreme Court is the apex court of India. Supreme Court has 26 judges including the Chief
Justice. The salary of the Chief Justice is Rs.33000 per month and each judge gets Rs. 30000 per
month. The retirement age of the judges of the Supreme Court is 65 years.
3. High Courts are at the top of hiearchy in the State Judicial System. Presently there are 21 High
Courts in the country. The retirement age of the judges of a High Court is 62 years.
States and Union Territories
Article 3 authorises the Parliament, by a majority vote, to establish or eliminate State and Union
Territories.
India has 28 States and 7 Union Territories.
Article 370 provides special status to Jammu and Kashmir in the Consititution.
Article 256 and 257 require States to comply with the governor, who is appointed by the President.
The eligibility for appointment as Governor is that he is a citizen of India and has completed the
age of thirty-five years and he should not hold any other office of profit.
The Governor of a state has the power to grant pardons, reprieves or remissions of punishment or
to remit or compute the sentence of any person relating to a matter to which the executive power
of the State extends.
The term of the governor is five years unless dismissed by the president or resignation.
In 6 of Indias 28 states (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharastra, Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra
Pradesh) the legislative council serves as the upper houses of a bicameral legislature.
Where there are two houses of the Legislature of a State, one is known as the Legislative Council
and the other as the Legislative Assembly, and where there is only one House, it is known as the
Legislative Assembly.
There is a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister as the head to aid and advice the Governor
in the exercise of his functions.
The Legislative Assembly of each state shall consist of not more than five hundred, and not less
than sixty members chosen by direct election. (except Sikkim)
The Central government distributes taxes and grants-in-aid to States through the decision of the
Finance Commission, stipulated in Article 275. The president constitutes the Finance Commission
at the expiry of 5 years.
The central Government also distributes grants to States through the development plans prepared
by the Planning Commission.
Union Territories are administered by the President through the administrator who is appointed by President.
President may appoint the Goveror of a state as the administrator of an adjoining Union Territory.
CAG
The powers and duties of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) are described in
Articles 149 and 150. He has three main functions: (1) to audit governments expenditure; (2) to
see that the financial rules are obeyed; and (3) to see the sanction of expenditure.
Under Article 151, reports of the CAG relating to the Union are submitted to the President, those
relating to the states are submitted to the Governor. These are to be a placed before Parliament and
State Legislature respectively.
Elections
Under Article 327, Parliament is vested with the Supreme power to legislate on all matters relating
to elections, including election State legislatures. The States have also been vested with certain
limited powers of legislation with respect to elections, Under Article 328. But such legislation
should not be in conflict with any parlimentary.
One of the outstanding features of the Consitution is adult suffrage. Every person who is not less than 18
years of the age has the right to vote in the election to the House of the People and the State Legislative
Party. The only grounds for disqualifications are: () non residence (ii) unsoundness of mind, (iii) crime,
and (iv) corrupt or illegal practice, Article 325 says that no person will be ineligible for inclusion in, or to
claim to be included in special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.
Article 324 provides that the superintendence, direction and control of election in India to be
vested in and Election Commission. According to the 19th Amendment, the provisions of
constituting election tribunals have been abolished. Election petitions are now heard by the High
Court in appeals. Article 339, however, bars interference by courts in electoral matters. State
election commission conducts election of corporations, municipalities and other local bodies.
THE ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA

The Election Commission of India is an autonomous constitutional body created to conduct free and
fair elections for the representative bodies in India. It was established on January 25, 1950.
The Constitution of India has vested in the Election Commission of India the superintendence, direction
and control of the entire process for the conduct of elections for the Parliament and the Legislature of
every State and for the offices of the President and the Vice-President of India.The law which governs
all the elections in India as mentioned above is the Representation of People Act, 1950.
The Commission presently consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners.
Originally, however, the Commission had just one Chief Commissioner. Two Commissioners were
appointed for the first time on October 16, 1989 but their tenure lasted only till January 1, 1990.
On October 1, 1993, two additional Election Commissioners were appointed. The commission has
followed the multi-member structure since then, with decisions taken by a majority vote.
The Election Commission has a Secretariat at New Delhi consisting of about 300 officials.
INDIAN DEFENCE
The President of India is the Supreme Commander of the armed forces. It is on his behalf that the
Defence Minister looks after all the matters concerning the Defence Services. The Defence Minister is
responsible to the Parliament for all matters concerning the Defence. However, the responsibility of
national defence rests with the Cabinet of Ministers. The three services of Defence i.e. Army, Navy and
Air Force, function under their respective Chief of Staff.
Army
Indian Army is responsible for the defence and security of Indias territorial area. The Army is
organised into five operational commmands Northern, Eastern, Western, Central and Southern and
one Training Command each headed by a Commander-in-Chief of the rank of Lieutenant General.
The Army, with its headquarter at New Delhi, consists of a number of services such as armoured
corps, regiment of artillery, engineer corps, infantry, army services corps, army medical corps,
intelligence corps, etc. The Chief of the Army is of the designation Major General and is answerable
to the Defence Minister.
Navy
The Indian Navy is responsible for the defence and security of the Indian water. The Navy is organised
into three operational commands Western, Eastern, and Southern headquartered at Mumbai,
Vishakhapatnam, and Cochin respectively. The Western and the Eastern commands have under them
operational fleets like warships, submarines, aircrafts and other support ships. The Southern Naval
Command is responsible for all the training activities of the Navy. The designation of The Chief of the
Navy is Admiral and he is answerable to the Defence Minister.
Air Force
The Indian Air Force is responsible for the defence and security of the Indian airspace. The fourth
largest Air Force in the World, it is organised into five operational commands Western Command,
South-Western Command, Central Air Command, Eastern Air Command, and Southern Air Command
and two functional commands - a Maintainance and a Training command. It is headquartered at New
Delhi. The designation of The Chief of the Air Force is Air Chief Marshall and he is answerable to the
Defence Minister
First in Indian Politics
1. First President of India Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
2. First Vice-President of India Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.
3. First Muslim President of India Dr. Zakir Hussain.
4. First Sikh President of India Giani Jail Singh.
5. First Prime Minister of India Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru
6. First Woman President of India Mrs. Pratibha Patil
7. First Woman Prime Minister of India Mrs. Indira Gandhi.
8. First Speaker of the Lok Sabha G.V. Mavlankar.
9. First Chief Justice of India Justice H.L. Kania.
10. First Chairman of the Rajaya Sabha Dr. S. Radhakrishnan.
11. First Woman Governor of a State Mrs. Sarojini Naidu.
12. First Woman Chief Minister Mrs. Sucheta Kripalani.
13. First Woman Central Minister Rajkumari Amrit Kaur.
14. First Woman Speaker of Lok Sabha Mrs. Shanno Devi.
15. First Woman IAS Officer Anna George.
16. First Woman IPS Officer Kiran Bedi.
17. First Woman Advocate Carnelia Sorabji.
18. First Woman Judge Anna Chandi.
19. First Woman Judge of High Court Anna Chandi.
20. First Woman Judge of Supreme Court M. Fathima Beevi.
21. First Woman Chief Justice of High Court Justice Leela Seth.
22. First Chairman of Planning Commission Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru.
23. First Chairman of Finance Commission K.C. Niyogi.
24. First Acting Prime Minister of India Guljari Lal Nanda.
25. First Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar.
26. First recognised leader of opposition in Lok Sabha Y.V. Chavan.
27. First recognised leader of opposition in Rajya Sabha Lokpati Tripathi.
28. First Lok Sabha Election 1952
29. First State where Panchayati Raj was implemented (in the whole state) Rajasthan.
30. First Chief Election Commissioner of India Sukumar Sen.
31. First Woman Chief Election Commissioner (acting) of India Smt. V.S. Rama Devi.
END OF THE CHAPTER
l The Planning Commission
l The Monetary Policy
l The Fiscal Policy
l The Major Public Sector Financial Institutions
l Economic Liberalisation
l Important Sectors in Indian Economy
l Important Industries of India
l Insurance, Stock Exchange
l Census - 2001
Chapter 6
Economics
THE PLANNING COMMISSION

The Planning Commission is the supreme organ for planning social and economic development in
India. It was established on March 15, 1950. The Prime Minister of India is the ex-officio Chairman of
Planning Commission. The committee members also appoint a Deputy Chairman, who is the de-facto
executive head of the Commission and enjoys the rank of a Cabinet Minister.
The Cabinet Ministers with certain important portfolios act as part-time members of the Commission,
while the full-time members are experts from various fields like Economics, Industry, Science and
General Administration.
The commission works through the following divisions
General Planning Divisions
Special Planning Divisions
Programme Administration Divisions
The majority of experts in the commission are economists, making the commission the biggest employer
of the Indian Economic Services.
Five Year Plans
The Indian Economy is based on the concept of planning. This is carried through the five-year plans,
developed, executed and monitored by the Planning Commission. The First Five Year plan was
implemented in 1951. The Tenth plan is currently underway.
First Five Year Plan (1951-56) The first plan aimed at correcting the distortions caused to
the economy after the World War II.
Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) The second plan aimed at a pattern of development leading
to a socialist society framework for the economy.
Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) The third plan aimed at achieving the goals enlisted in the
first two plans and also aimed at achieving self-sufficiency in foodgrains, increase employment
oppurtunities and expand basic and heavy industries.
Three Annual Plans (1966-69)
Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) The objectives of the fourth plan were to achieve self-
reliance, and give priority to agriculture, promote industrial production and exports.
Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) The fifth five year plan aimed at removal of poverty, attaining
economic self reliance and increasing employment oppurtunities in the country.
Sixth Year Plan (1979-85) The sixth plan aimed at achieving a annual growth rate of 5.2 per
cent and raising the per capita income by 3.3 per cent.
Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) The plan focussed on policies and programmes to
i ncrease domest i c i ndust rial product i vi t y, empl oyment oppurt uni t i es, and agri cul t ure
productivity by increasing the basic framework and by adopting modern technologies.
Annual Plans 1990-92
Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) The plan aimed at achieving a higher outlay of public
sector enterprises to meet the demands of various central and state sectors.
Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-02) The plan aimed to achieve an anual growth rate of 6.5 per
cent. The total public sector outlay was Rs. 859000 crore.
Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07) This plan has adopted an aggressive approach. This plan
aims at achieving 8 per cent GDP growth, reduce the poverty ratio to 20 per cent, increase the
literacy rate to 72 per cent, reduce the infant mortality rate to 45 per 1000 births and clean all
major polluted rivers till the end of the plan in 2007.
Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12) This plan aims to accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10%
and then maintain at 10% in the 12th Plan in order to double per capita income by 2016-17,increase
literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or more to 85%, reduce infant mortality rate to 28 and maternal
mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live births and ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households
by 2009 and round-the-clock power.
THE MONETARY POLICY
The Monetary Policy, as the name suggests, is the policy used as a tool to regulate the supply of money
in the economy. The basic task of a monetary policy in a developing economy is to meet the credit
needs of the growth sectors on the one hand and to curb the supply of money meant to be used in
non - productive activities like speculative dealings, headging etc. In India, the monetary policy is
regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The policy in India is designed on the principles mentioned
above and exercises various quantitative controls to make the policy effective. The policy is therefore
also referred to as the policy of Controlled Monetary Expansion which implies
i. Expansion in the supply of money.
ii. Restraint on secondary expansion of credit.
The Monetary Policy thus helps the government to exercise control over the money supply in the
economy.
THE FISCAL POLICY

The fiscal policy helps the government exercise a control over the fiscal deficit i.e. the difference
between the total revenue earned and the total expenditure incurred by the government. A rise in the
fiscal deficit implies a higher borrowing for the government from the RBI. The economic impact of
such borrowing is that the money supply in the economy decreases.
The pressure on the money supply leads to an increase of prices i.e. an inflationary situation. So the
government, through a proper fiscal policy tries to maximize revenue sources (taxes) and reduce
expenditure, thereby reducing fiscal deficits.
THE MAJOR PUBLIC SECTOR FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
1. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) was set up in April 1935, with its central office at Calcutta (Kolkata)
under the Reserve Bank of India Act of 1934, but was permanently moved to Mumbai in 1937. Though
originally privately owned, since nationalization in 1949, the RBI is fully owned by Government of
India. Presently, RBI is the central bank of India. It issues notes, buys and sells government securities,
regulates the volume of what direction and cost of credit, manages foreign exchange, supports other
financial institutions and comes out with the Monetary Policy. The RBI is presently headquartered at
Mumbai and the present RBI governor is Mr. Y.V. Reddy.
2. The Small Industrial Development Bank of India (SIDBI)
SIDBI was established on April 2, 1990. The Small Industries Development Bank of India Act, 1989
envisaged SIDBI to be the principal financial institution for the promotion, financing and development
of industry in the small scale sector and to co-ordinate the functions of the institutions engaged in the
promotion and financing or developing industry in the small scale sector and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto. In the SIDBI charter,four basic objectives were set out. They are Financing,
Promotion, Development, Coordination, for orderly growth of industry in the small scale sector.
The business domain of SIDBI consists of small scale industrial units, which contribute significantly to
the national economy in terms of production, employment and exports. Small scale industries are the
industrial units in which the investment in plant and machinery does not exceed Rs.10 million. About
3.1 million such units, employing 17.2 million persons account for a share of 36 per cent of Indias
exports and 40 per cent of industrial manufacture. In addition, SIDBIs assistance flows to the transport,
health care and tourism sectors and also to the professional and self-employed persons setting up
small-sized professional ventures. Mr. Rajendra Mohan Malla is the present chairman and managing
director of the SIDBI.
3. The Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI)

IDBI was established on July 1, 1964, by an act of the Parliament as a wholly owned subsidiary of the
Reserve Bank of India, to catalyze the development of a diversified and efficient industrial structure in
the country, in tune with national priorities. In 1976, the ownership was transferred from the RBI to
the Government of India. The current Government holding in IDBI is about 53%. IDBI is currently the
tenth largest development bank in the world. It financed some well-known institutes in India like, the
National Stock Exchange of India (NSE), the National Securities Depository Services Ltd. (NSDL),
and the Stock Holding Corporation of India (SHCIL).
To meet the emerging challenges and to keep up with reforms in the financial sector, IDBI converted
into a banking company in 2004, to undertake an entire gamut of banking activities. Mr. Yogesh Agarwal
is the present Chairman and Managing Director of the IDBI bank.
4. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
NABARD was established on 12th July 1982 to implement the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development Act 1981. It replaced the Agricultural Credit Department (ACD) and the Rural Planning
and Credit Cell (RPCC) of the Reserve Bank of India, and the Agricultural Refinance and Development
Corporation (ARDC).
The following functions are performed by NABARD
i. Serves as an apex financing agency for the institutions providing investment and production
credit for promoting the various developmental activities in rural areas.
ii. Takes measures towards institution building for improving absorptive capacity of the credit
delivery system, including monitoring, formulation of rehabilitation schemes, restructuring of
credit institutions, training of personnel, etc.
iii. Co-ordinates the rural financing activities of all institutions engaged in developmental work at
the field level and maintains liaison with the Government of India, State Governments, the Reserve
Bank of India (RBI) and other national level institutions concerned with policy formulation.
iv. Undertakes monitoring and evaluation of projects refinanced by it.
Shri Umesh Chandra Sarangi is the present chairman of NABARD.
ECONOMIC LIBERALISATION (1991)
The economic liberalisation of 1991 was initiated by the then Indian Prime Minister, Mr. P. V. Narasimha
Rao and his Finance Minister, Mr. Manmohan Singh in response to a balance-of-payments crisis being
faced by the country. The new economic framework adopted by the government did away with the
Licence Raj (investment, industrial and import licensing) system and ended many public monopolies.
The policy aimed at allowing foreign direct investment (FDI) in many sectors of the economy. Even
though the foreign direct investment ceiling was removed by the government in 1991, it was only in
1996 that foreign investors started showing confidence in the Indian economy and large sectors saw
the inflow of foreign capital.
Since then, the overall direction of liberalisation has remained the same, irrespective of the ruling party,
although no party has yet tried to take on powerful lobbies such as the trade unions and farmers, or
contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies.
IMPORTANT SECTORS OF INDIAN ECONOMY
1. AGRICULTURE
i) Contribution to GDP
Agriculture forms the backbone of Indian economy. it contributes approx. 26 percent of Gross
Domestic Product. It was 55.4 percent in 1950-51.
Though the agriculture in national income has come down, even now agriculture contributes a
major share of the national income in India. Further, the share of agriculture in manufacturing
and services sector is increasing.
ii) Source of Employment
Agriculture provides employment to around 65 percent of the total work-force of the country.
iii) Source of Industrial Development
Agriculture has been the source of supply of raw material to our leading industries.
Many of our small and cottage industries like handloom, weaving, oil crushing, rice husking,
etc. depends on agriculture.
Green Revolution
Indian Green Revolution is associated with the use of HYVS (High Yielding Variety Seeds). Chemical
fertilizers and new technology led to a sharp rise in agricultural production during the middle of
1960.
The term Green Revolution was given by Americal Scientist, Dr. William Gande.
During the middle of sixties, Indian agriculture scientists developed a number of new high yielding
varieties of wheat by processing wheat seeds imported from Mexico. A similar improvement in
variety of rice was also observed.
The credit of this goes not only to Nobel Laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug. But also to Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is also known as the father of the Green Revolution in
India.
Second Green Revolution

Of all the plans, the sixth five-year plan was hailed as a great success on the agriculture front. As
against the expected annual growth of 3.8 percent for agriculture, the actual growth rate was 4.3
percent. The production of food grains in 1983-84 was 152 million tones and was hailed by the
Government as the Second Green Revolution.
While the first Green Revolution from 1967-68 arose from the introduction of HYVS of Mexican
wheat and rice, the second Green Revolution from 1983-84 was said to be for the extension in
supplies of inputs and services to farmers, agricultural extension and better management.
While the first Green Revolution was confirmed mainly to Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar
Pradesh, the second Revolution has spread to the entire North India.
Other Revolutions
Revolution Area
Yellow Revolution Oil Seeds
White Revolution Milk
Blue Revolution Fish
Pink Revolution Shrimp
Grey Revolution Egg
Golden Revolution Horticulture
IMPORTANT INDUSTRIES OF INDIA
1. LARGE SCALE INDUSTRIES
i) Iron and Steel Industries:
I
st
Steel Industry at Kulti near Jhari, West Bengal
I
st
large scale steel plant - TISCO at Jamshedpur in 1907 followed by IISCO at Bumpur in
1919. Both belonged to private sector.
The first public sector unit was Vishveshvaraya Iron and Steel Works at Bhadrawati
Public Sector Steel Plants
Location Assistance
1. Rourkela (Orissa) Germany
2. Bhilai (Madhya Pradesh) Russian Govt.
3. Durgapur (West Bengal) Britain Govt.
4. Bokaro (Jharkhand) Russian Govt.
5. Burnpur (West Bengal) Acquired by Private sector in 1976
6. Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) Russian Govt.
7. Salem (Tamilnadu)
8. Vijai Nagar (Karnataka)

9. Bhadrawati (Karnataka) Nationalization of Vishveshvaraya Iron and Steel Ltd.
(Owned by Central and State Government).
All these are managed by SAIL. (At present all important steels except TISCO, are under Public
Sector).
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was established in 1974 and was made responsible for the
development of the steel Industry.
Bhilai, Durgapur and Rourkela were established during the Second Five Year Plan. Bokaro was
established during the Third while the steel plants at Salem, Vijay Nagar, and Vishakhapatnam
were established in the Fourth Five Year Plant.
Presently India is the 8
th
largest steel producing country in the world.
ii) Jute Industry:
Jute industry is an important industry for a country like India, because not only does it earn
foreign Exchange but also provides substantial employment opportunities in agriculture and industrial
sectors.
Its first modernized industrial unit was established at Reshra in West Bengal in 1855. There are at
present 73 jute mills in India, out of which West Bengal has 59 mills, Bihar 3 mills, Uttar Pradesh
3 mills, Andhra Pradesh 4 mills and Assam, Tripura, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh one each.
The Jute Industry in the Country is traditionally export oriented. India ranks number one in raw
jute and jute goods production and number two in export of jute goods in the world.
iii) Cotton and Textile Industry:
Oldest industry of India, and employs largest number of workers.
It is the largest organized and broad-based industry which accounts for about 4 percent of GDP,
20 percent of manufacturing value added and one-third of total export earnings.
The first Indian modernized cotton cloth mill was established in 1818 at Fort Gloaster near Kolkata
but this mill was not successful. The second mill named Bombay Spinning and Weaving Co. was
established in 1854 at Bombay by K.G.N. Daber.
iv) Sugar Industry:
Sugar Industry is the second largest industry after cotton textile industry among agriculture based
Industries in the country.
There are more than 500 installed sugar factories in the country. This industry provides not only
employment to a substantial number of persons but also holds the potential of developing other
industries related to its by-products.
India is now the largest producer and consumer of sugar in the world. Maharashtra contributes
over one-third of the total sugar output, followed closely by Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka are the other important producers of sugar.
v) Fertilizer Industry:
India is the third largest producer of nitrogeneous fertilizers in the world.
There are at present, 57 fertilizer units manufacturing a wide range of nitrogeneous and complex fertilizers,
including 29 units producing urea and 9 units producing ammonium sulphate as a by-product.
vi) Paper Industry:
The first mechanized paper mill was set-up in 1812 at Serampur in West Bengal.
The Paper Industry in India is ranked among the 15 top global paper industries.
vii) Silk Industry :
India is the second largest (first being China) country in the world in producing natural silk. At
present, India produces about 16 percent silk of the world.
India enjoys the distinction of being the only country producing all the five known commercial
varieties of silk, viz. Mulberry, Troical rassal, Oak Tussar, Eri and Muga.
viii) Petroleum and Natural Gas:
First successful oil well was dug in India in 1889 at Digboi, Assam.
For exploration purpose, Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) was established in 1956 at
Dehradun, Uttranchal.
The total oil reserves in India have been estimated to be about 13 crore tones. Domestic production
of oil in India is much less to meet the domestic demand. India currently produces just over 32
million tones of crude oil against it annual demand of 105 million tones meeting only 30.5 percent
of demand from domestic resources.
Marketing and Distribution of Petroleum Products
a) Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL): By acquisition of Burmah Shell in 1976.
b) Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL): Established in 1974 by acquiring the assets of
US company ESSO Eastern. In 1976, Government acquired Caltex Oil Refining Ltd. and merged
it with HPCL.
c) Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL): Established in 1984 for handling post-exploration activities
relating to natural gas. The company was assigned the priority task of setting up the cross
country HBJ (Hazira, Bijapur, and Jagdishpur) pipeline. Presently GAIL is the largest company
in India for marketing of natural gas.
NAVRATNAS
In 1997, the Government identified nine leading, well performing and high profit making public enterprises
as Navratnas (Nine Precious Jewels). Later, on the same year, two more were added to the list.
They have been given special powers including freedom to form new joint ventures, make new
investments and authorized to raise money.
1. Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOC)

2. Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL)
3. Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL)
4. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (ONGC)
5. Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Ltd. (IPCL)
6. Steel Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL)
7. National Thermal Power Corporation Ltd. (NTPC)
8. Bharat Heavy Electronics Ltd. (BHEL)
9. Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd. (VSNL)
10. Mahangar Telephone Nigam Ltd. (MTNL)
11. Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL)
Two of these Navratnas, IPCL and VSNL, have been privatized.
INSURANCE
Insurance has been an important part of the Indian financial system. Until recently, insurance services
were provided by the public sector, i.e. life insurance by the Life Insurance Corporation of India and
general insurance by the General Insurance Corporation and its four Subsidaries. This insurance industry
was opened to the Private sector in August 2000. After the opening, 12 new companies have entered
life segment and 9 companies in the non life segment.
1. Life Insurance Corporation (LIC)
Established : Sept, 1956
Head Office : Mumbai
Zonal Offices : 8 (Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Kanpur, Hyderabad, Bhopal, Patna)
2. The National Insurance Company Ltd.
Established :
Head Office : Kolkata
3. The New India Assurance Co. Ltd.
Established : 1919, (by Sri Sorab Tata)
Head Office : Mumbai
4. The Oriental Insurance Co. Ltd.
Established : 12th September, 1947
Head Office : New Delhi
5. United India Insurance Co. Ltd.
Established : February 18, 1938
Head Office : Chennai
STOCK EXCHANGES
Stock exchange or share market plays a dominant role in mobilizing resources for corporate sector. It
is a market for dealing in shares, debentures and financial securities. In the stock exchange, shares and
debentures are bought and sold for investment as well as for speculative purposes. There are 24 stock
exchanges in the country.
CENSUS-2001
Total Population : 1,02,70,15,247
Males : 531,277,078
Females : 495,738,169
Population Growth : 21.34%
Males : 20.93%
Females : 21.70%
Average Yearly Growth Rate : 1.93%
Density of population : 324
Sex Ratio : 933
Literacy Rate : 65.38
Males : 75.85
Females : 54.16
Life Expectancy : 62 years
Child Population : 15.42%
TOP STATES IN IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
MAXIMUM POPULATION
Uttar Pradesh : 16.6 crore
Maharashtra : 9.7 crore
Bihar : 8.3 crore
West Bengal : 8.0 crore
Andhra Pradesh : 7.6 crore
MINIMUM POPULATION
Sikkim : 5.4 lakh
Mizoram : 8.9 lakh
Arunachal Pradesh : 10.9 lakh
Goa : 13.4 lakh
Nagaland : 19.8 lakh
MAXIMUM DECADAL GROWTH RATE
Nagaland : 64.41
Sikkim : 32.98
Manipur : 30.02
Jammu and Kashmir : 29.04
Meghalaya : 29.94
MAXIMUM POPULATION DENSITY

West Bengal : 904
Bihar : 880
Kerala : 819
Uttar Pradesh : 689
Punjab : 482
MINIMUM POPULATION DENSITY
Arunachal Pradesh : 13
Mizoram : 42
Sikkim : 76
Jammu and Kashmir : 99
Meghalaya : 103
MAXIMUM SEX RATIO
Kerala : 1058
Chhatisgarh : 990
Tamilandu : 986
Andhra Pradesh : 978
Manipur : 978
MINIMUM SEX RATIO
Haryana : 861
Punjab : 874
Sikkim : 875
Uttar Pradesh : 898
Jammu and Kashmir : 900
MAXIMUM LITERACY RATE
Kerala : 90.92
Mizoram : 88.49
Goa : 82.32
Maharashtra : 77.27
Himachal Pradesh : 77.13
MINIMUM LITERACY RATE
Bihar : 47.53
Jharkhand : 54.13
Uttar Pradesh : 57.36
MAXIMUM FEMALE LITERACY RATE

Kerala : 87.86
Mizoram : 86.13
Goa : 75.51
Maharashtra : 67.57
MINIMUM FEMALE LITERACY RATE
Bihar : 33.57
Jharkhand : 39.38
Uttar Pradesh : 42.98
Arunachal Pradesh : 44.24
MAXIMUM URBAN POPULATION (%)
Goa : 49.77
Mizoram : 49.50
Tamilnadu : 43.86
Maharashtra : 42.40
Gujarat : 37.35
MINIMUM URBAN POPULATION(%)
Bihar : 10.47
Sikkim : 11.10
Assam : 12.72
Orissa : 14.97
IMPORTANT PARAMETERS OF UNION TERRITORIES
TOTAL POPULATION
Delhi : 1.3 crore
Pondicherry : 9.7 lakh
Chandigarh : 9.0 lakh
Andaman and Nicobar : 3.5 lakh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli : 2.2 lakh
Lakshadweep : 0.6 lakh
POPULATION DENSITY
Delhi : 9294
Chandigarh : 7903
Pondicherry : 2029
Lakshadwep : 1894
Daman and Diu : 1411
Dadar and Nagar Haveli : 449
Andaman and Nicobar : 43
SEX RATIO
Pondicherry : 1001
Daman and Diu : 989
Lakshadweep : 947
Andaman and Nicobar : 846
Delhi : 821
Dadar and Nagar Haveli : 811
Chandigarh : 773
LITERACY RATE
Lakshadweep : 87.52
Delhi : 81.82
Chandigarh : 81.76
Pondicherry : 81.49
Andaman and Nicobar : 81.18
Daman and Diu : 81.09
Dadar and Nagar Haveli : 60.03
END OF THE CHAPTER
l The United Nations Organisation (UNO)
l Important International Agencies and their Headquaters
Chapter 7
The UNO and International Agencies
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO)

The United Nation Organisation came into existence on 24th October 1945. The name was devised by
the then US President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
At present, there are 192 members 8 the UNO. Taiwan and Vatican City are not members. Vatican City
is the permanent observer for the UN.
Headquarter- First Avenue at 46th Street, UN Plaza, New York City-10017.
Official Languages- English, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, French, and Chinese (Mandarin)
The Principal Organs of the UNO
The principal organs of the UNO are:
1. General Assembly - The General Assembly consists of representatives of the member
nations. Each state has one vote, but may send 5 representatives. The assembly meets at least
once in a year. Special sessions may be summoned by the Secretary General, on a request by
the Security Council.
2. Security Council - It consists of 15 members, each of which has one vote.There are 5
permanent and 10 non permanent members. The 5 permanent members are USA, Russia, UK,
France and China. The 10 non permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a
period of 2 years. The permanent members have the power to veto any decision.
3. The Secretariat - It is composed of the Secretary General, the Chief Administrative Officer of
the organisation and an international staff appointed by him under the regulations of the General
Assembly. However the Secretary General, the High commissioner of Refugees and the Managing
Director of funds is appointed by the General Assembly.
4. Trusteeship Council - The Charter of the UN provides for an international trusteeship system
to safeguard the interests of the inhabitants of territories which are not yet fully self-governing
and which may have been placed thereunder by individual trusteeship agreements.
5. International Court - The International Court of Justice was created by an international
treaty, the statute of the Court, which forms an integral part of the UN charter, and all the members
are ipso facto parties to the statute of the court. There are 15 judges, appointed for a 9 year term.
The expenses of the Court are borne by the UN.
6. Economic and Social Council - It is responsible under the General Assembly for carrying out
the functions of the UN with regard to international, social, cultural, educational, health and related
matters. The Economic and Social council consists of 54 member States elected by a two-thirds
majority of the General Assembly.
UN Secretary Generals
1. Trygve Lie (Norway) 1946-53
2. Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden) 1953-61
3. U Thant (Burma) 1961-71
4. Kurt Waldheim (Austria) 1972-81
5. Javier Perez De Gueller (Peru) 1982-91
6. Boutros Boutros Ghali (Egypt) 1992-96
7. Kofi Annan (Ghana) 1997-2007
8. Ban Ki Moon (South Korea) 2007- till date
Specific UN Agencies and their Headquarters
1. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) - UNDP is the UNs global development
network advocating change and connecting countries to share knowledge and resources which
helps build a better life in countries across the globe. Presently it has offices in 166 member
countries. UNDP is headquartered at New York, US.
2. The United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) UNICEF was initially set up in 1946 as an
emergency fund to provide post-war relief to children in different countries. Today, as a childrens
fund, UNICEF concentrates its activities on providing assistance to children and mothers in
developing countries, aiming at improving their quality of life. UNICEF is headquartered at New
York, US.
3. The United Nations Educational and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) UNESCO was founded
on 16 November 1945 to assist developing countries in their educational projects, to help the
countries in scientific development and to build cultural understanding between the nations.
UNESCO is headquartered at Paris, France.
4. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) IMF is an international organisation having 184
member countries. It was established in 1945 to promote international monetary co-operation and
exchange stability between nations which in turn would promote economic growth and increase
employment opportunities. IMF also provides temporary financial assistance to its member countries
to ease their balance of payment. IMF is headquartered at Washington DC, US.
5. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, commonly known as
the World Bank) The World Bank was formed after the Bretton Woods conference in 1944,
but begun operations in 1946. It aims at providing financial and technical assistance to developing
countries around the World. Presently World Bank has 184 member countries and is headquartered
at Washinton DC, US.
6. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) WTO was formed as an international trade body to
replace General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) in 1995. WTO is the only international
body dealing with rules of trade between the countries to help producers of goods and services,
exporters and importers conduct their business. It is headquartered at Geneva, Switzerland.

7. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) IAEA was set up in 1957. It is presently
headquartered at Vienna, Austria.
8. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) FAO was set up in 1945. It is presently
headquartered at Rome, Italy.
9. The World Health Organisation (WHO) W.H.O was set up in 1946. It is presently headquartered
at Geneva, Switzerland.
10. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) IFC is an affiliate of the World Bank, and was
set up in 1956. It is headquartered at Washinton DC, US.
11. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) ITU was set up in 1932. It is headquartered
at Geneva, Switzerland.
12. The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) ICAO was set up in 1944. It is
headquartered at Montreal, Canada.
13. The Universal Postal Union (UPU) UPU was set up in 1875. It is headquartered at Berne,
Switzerland.
14. The International Labor Organisation (ILO) ILO was set uo in 1919. It is headquartered at
Geneva, Switzerland.
15. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) IMO was set up in 1948. It is headquartered
at London, UK.
INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES AND THEIR HEADQUARTERS
1. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) It is headquartered at Manila, Phillipines.
2. The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) It is headquartered at Jakarta, Indonesia.
3. The European Union (EU) It is headquartered at Brussels, Belgium.
4. The INTERPOL It is headquartered at Lyon, France
5. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) It is headquartered at Brussels, Belgium.
6. The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) It is headquartered at Vienna,
Austria.
7. The Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) It is headquartered at
Kuwait.
8. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) It is headquartered at
Kathmandu, Nepal.
9. The Red Cross It is headquartered at Geneva, Switzerland.
END OF THE CHAPTER
l The Highest, Longest, Largest, Biggest etc. in the World
Chapter 8
The Superlatives
THE SUPERLATIVES
THE HIGHEST, BIGGEST, LARGEST, LONGEST ETC. IN THE WORLD
Airport Largest
King Khaled International Airport,
Riyadh (Saudi Arabia)
Tallest Giraffe (Average height 6.09m)
Largest & Heaviest Blue Whale (190 tonnes) Animal
Fastest Cheetah (Approximately 100 km/hr)
With max. shore line Hudson Bay
Bay
With max. area Bay of Bengal
Highest
Over the Royal Gorge of the Arakansas river,
Colorado, USA
Longest Donghai Bridge, China Bridge
Rail Bridge
Tsing Ma bridge linking HongKong to Lantau
island
Building Highest Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Big Ship Suez Canal
Canal
Busiest Kiel Canal
Deepest Vicos Gorge (Greece)
Canyon
Largest Grand Canyon (Colarado River)
Church Largest Basilica of St. Peter (Vatican City)
Cinema House Largest Radio City Music Hall (New York)
Largest Population Mumbai
City
Largest Area Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia
Largest Asia (44.5 million sq km)
Continent
Smallest Australia (7.7 million sq km)
Coral Formation Largest The Great Barrier Reef (Australia)
Largest in Population China
Largest in Area Russia
With largest electorate India
Smallest in Area Vatican City
Country
With most Land Frontiers China
Largest Grand Coulee Dam, Columbia River (USA)
Dam
Highest Rogunskaya dam across river Vakash, Tajakistan
Delta Largest Ganges Delta (Sundarban Delta )

Desert Largest Sahara desert, Africa

Diamond Largest The Cullinan
Dome Largest Louisiana Superdome, USA
Epic Largest Mahabharata
Largest fresh water Plabeuk
Most abundant Bristle mouth
Most venomous Stone fish
Fish
Most electric Electric Eel
Longest Die Zweite Heimat (Germany)
Film
Most Oscars Ben Hur and Titanic (11 oscars each)
Fountain Tallest Fountain at Fountain Hills ( Arizona, US)
Most nutritive Avocado (Vitamin A,C,E and Proteins)
Fruit
Least nutritive Cucumber
Gulf Largest Gulf of Mexico
Hotel
With the most
number of rooms
MGM Grand Las Vegas (Nevada)
Island Biggest Greenland
Largest Caspian Sea
Deepest Baikal Lake Lake
Largest fresh water Lake Superior
Biggest US Library of Congress (Washinton DC)
Library
Biggest non statutory New York Public Library
Highest Peak Mt. Everest (8848 mts)
Mountain
Highest Range Himalayas, Asia
Museum Largest
American museum of Natural History, New
York
Ocean Largest and Deepest Pacific Ocean
Peninsula Largest Arabian
Park Largest National Park of Greenland
Coldest Antartica
Driest Calama, Chile
Hottest Dallol, Ethiopia
Places
Rainiest Mawsynram near Cherrapunji in Meghalaya
Biggest Jupiter
Brightest, hottest, and
nearest to the Earth
Venus
Farthest from Sun Neptune/Pluto (Unsolved)
Nearest to Sun Mercury
Planet
Most Satellites Uranus
Plateau Highest Tibetan Plateau

END OF THE CHAPTER

Platform (rail) Longest Kharagpur, West Bengal
Largest Port of New York and New Jersey
Port
Busiest Rotterdam, Netherlands
Railway Line Longest Trans-Siberian Railway
Largest Grand Central Terminal, New York
Railway Station
Highest Condor, Bolivia
Oldest Hinduism
Religion
Largest Christianity
Rivers Largest Amazon (6750 km)
Highest Kang-ti-Suu
Road
Longest
Pan American Highway (from Alaska to
Brasilia)
Largest South China Sea
Sea
Largest (inland) Caspian Sea
Star Brightest Sirius A ( dog star)
Swimming course Longest recognized English Channel
Largest (radio) at US National Science Foundation
Largest (solar) at Kitt Peak National Observatory Telescope
Largest refractor at Yerkes Observatory
Temple Largest Angkor Wat, Cambodia
Tower Tallest Burj Dubai
Longest (Railway) Seikan Rail Tunnel (Japan)
Tunnel
Largest (Road) Laerdal Aurland, Norway
Wall Longest The Great Wall of China
Highest Angel Falls in Venezuela
Widest Khone Falls in Loas Waterfall
Largest Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
Largest
Etoha Reserve, Namibia
Sandiago Zoo
Zoo
Largest collection of
animals
Berlin Zoo

l Names of Books and Authors
Chapter 9
Books and Authors
BOOKS AND AUTHORS

Name of the book Authors
Autobiographies
BaburNama Babur
Made in Japan Akio Morita
Mein Kamph Adolf Hitler
Moon Walk Michael Jackson
Sunny Days Sunil Gavaskar
Wings of Fire APJ Abdul Kalam
Biographies
Ain-I-Akbari Abul Fazal
Akbarnama Abul Fazal
Idols Sunil Gavaskar
Shahnama Firdausi
Classic
Alls Well that Ends well William Shakespeare
A Tale of Two Cities Charles Dickens
Anna Karenina Leo Tolstoy
Antony and Cleopatra William Shakespeare
As You like it William Shakespeare
Abhijnanshakuntalam Kalidas
Babbit Sinclair Lewis
Ceaser and Cleopatra George Bernard Shaw
The Comedy of Errors Shakespeare
David Copperfield Charles Dickens
Devdas Sharat Chandra Chatterjee
Doctor Zhivago Boris Pasternak
Don Quixote Miguel de Cervantes
Fountain Head Ayn Rand
Gone with the Wind Margaret Mitchell
Gullivers Travels Jonathan Swift
Hamlet William Shakespeare

Iliad Homer
Indica Magasthenese
The Importance of Being Earnest Oscar Wilde
Invisible Man H. G. Wells
Julius Caesar William Shakespeare
Kadambari Bana Bhatt
Kamasutra Vatsyayan
Kamayani Jai Shankar Prasad
King Lear William Shakespeare
Macbeth William Shakespeare
Mahabharata Ved Vyas
Meghdoot Kalidas
Merchant of Venice William Shakespeare
Much Ado About Nothing William Shakespeare
Mudra Rakshas Vishakadutta
Natya Shastra Bharat Muni
Nine Days Wonder John Masefield
Odyssey Homer
Oliver Charles Dickens
Othello William Shakespeare
Paradise Lost John Milton
Pather Panchali Bibhuti Bhushan Bandopadhyay
Pride and Prejudice Jane Austen
Raghuvamsa Kalidas
Ram Charita Manas Tulsidas
Ramayana Valmiki
Ratnavali Harsha Vardhan
Rendezvous with Rama Arthur C Clarke
Ritu Samhara Kalidas
Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe
Romeo and Juliet William Shakespeare
Savitri Sir Aurobindo Ghosh
Sense and Sensibility Jane Austen
Sohrab and Rustum Mathew Arnold
The Tempest William Shakespeare

The Count of Monte Cristo Alexander Dumas
My Experiments with Truth Mahatma Gandhi
Three Musketeers Alexander Dumas
Time machine H.G. Wells
Treasure Island R L Stevenson
Twelfth Night Willam Shakespeare
Twenty Years After Alexander Dumas
Ulysses James Joyce
Unto This Last John Ruskin
Uttar Ramcharita Bhavbhuti
Vanity Fair William Thackeray
Vinay Patrika Tulsidas
The Virginians William Thackeray
Yama Mahadevi Verma
Descriptive
Area of Darkness V. S. Naipaul
Freedom from Fear Aung San Su Kyi
Long Walk to Freedom Nelson Mandela
Maneaters of Kumaon Jim Corbett
Origin of Species Charles Darwin
Sadar-I-Riyasat Karan Singh
Starry Nights Shobha De
Economics
New Dimensions of
Indias Foreign Policy A B Vajpayee
Wealth of Nations Adam Smith
Fantasy
Adventures of Tom Sawyer Mark Twain
The Class Eric Segal
Dr. JekyII and Mr. Hyde Robert Louis Stevenson
One Hundred Years of Solitude Gabrial Garcla Marquez
Other Side of Midnight, The Sidney Sheldon
Swami and Friends R.K. Narayan
The Alchemist Paulo Coelho

The God of Small Things Arundhati Roy
Fiction
Adventures of Sherlock Holmes Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Adventure of Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe
Adventures of Tom Sawyer Mark Twain
Alice in Wonderland Lewis Carrol
A Bend In the River V S Naipaul
A Suitable Boy Vikram Seth
An Equal Music Vikram Seth
Arabian Nights Richard Burton
Being Digital Nicholas Negroponte
Catcher in the Rye J D Sallinger
Canterbury Tales Geoffrey Chaucer
Chitra Rabindranath Tagore
City of Joy Domonique Lapiere
Coolie Mulk Raj Anand
East West Salman Rushdie
Fury Salman Rushdie
Future Shock Alvin Toffler
Godfather Mario Puzo
Godan Munshi Prem Chand
The Guide R.K. Narayan
Gullivers Travels Jonathan Swift
Half a Life V S Naipaul
Harsha Charita Bana Bhatt
Inscrutable Americans Anurag Mathur
Interpreter of Maladies Jhumpa Lahiri
Iron in the soul Jean Paul Sartre
Ivanhoe Walter Scott
The Judgement Kuldip Nayar
Jungle Book Rudyard Kipling
Kim Rudyard Kipling
Life Divine Aurobindo Ghosh
Lajja Tasleema Nasreen
Lolita V. Nabakov
Love Story Eric Segal
Malgudi Days R K Narayan
Midnights children Salman Rushdie
Moors Last Sigh Salman Rushdie
Mother Moxim Gorky
Nice Guys Finish Second B K Nehru
Panchatantra Vishnu Sharma
Post Office Rabindranath Tagore
The Satanic Verses Salman Rushdie
Shape of Things to Come H. G. Wells
Shame Salman Rushdie
The Last Don Mario Puzo
The Tin Drum Guenter Grass
Treasure Island R L Stevenson
Two Leaves and a Bud Mulk Raj Anand
Unofficial Guide to Ethical Hacking Ankit Fadia
Vish Vriksha Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
War and Peace Leo Tolstoy
History Books
Arthashastra Kautilya
August 1914 (H) Alexander Solzhenitsyn
Ben Hur Lewis Wallace
Communist Manifesto Karl Marx
Discovery of India Jawahar Lal Nehru
Hindu View of Life D. S. Radhakrishnan
India-A Wounded Civilisation V S Naipaul
India Divided Rajendra Prasad
India Wins Freedom Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
Indian Home Rule M. K. Gandhi
Indian Philosophy D. S. Radhakrishnan
Man and Superman George Bernard Shaw
A Passage to India E. M. Forster
Wake up India Annie Besant
The Wonder that Was India A.L. Basham
Poetry
Bharat Bharati Maithili Sharan Gupt
Geet Govinda Jaya Dev
Gitanjali Rabindranath Tagore
Rubaiyat Omar Khayyam
Philosophy
Atlas Shrugged Ayn Rand
Geet govinda Jaya Dev
Voice of Conscience V. V. Giri
Psychology
Crime and Punishment Fyodor Dostoevsky
Games People Play Eric Berne
Man of Destiny George Bernard Shaw
Satyartha Prakash Swami Dayanand
Sociology
Das Kapital Karl Marx
Diplomacy Henry Kissinger
Gita Rahasya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Grammer of Politics Harold Laski
Politics Aristotle
Republic Plato
Sub Regionalism in Asia Abul Kalam Azad
Surviving Men Khushwant Singh
The Degeneration of India T. N. Seshan
Untouchable Mulk Raj Anand
Utopia Thomas Moore
Miscellaneous
Area of Darkness V. S. Naipaul
Between the lines Kuldip Nayar
Brave New world Aldous Huxley
Broken wing Sarojini Naidu
Beyond Peace Richard Nixon

Blood, Brain and Beer David Ogilvy
Confessions of a Lover Mulk Raj Anand
District Diary Jaswant Singh
Dragon Fire Humphry Hawensky
Dilemma of our time Harold Joseph Laski
Doctors Dilemma George Bernard Shaw
Don Juan Lord Byron
Ends and Means Aldous Huxley
Fifth Column Ernest Hemingway
Farewell to Arms Ernest Hemingway
First Among Equals Jeffrey Archer
For Whom the Bell Tolls Ernest Hemingway
Gathering Storm Winston Churchill
Glimpses of World History Jawaharlal Nehru
Golden Threshold Sarojini Naidu
The Golden Gate Virkram Seth
Heat and Dust Ruth P. Jhabwala
India Unbound Gurcharan Das
Is Paris Burning Larry Collins & Dominique Lapiere
If I am Assassinated Z. A. Bhutto
Kumar Sambhava Kalidas
Mother India Katherine Mayo
My Music, My life Ravi Shankar
My Truth Indira Gandhi
A Passage to England Nirad C. Choudhary
To live or Not to Live Nirad C. Choudhary
Triumph John Kenneth Galbraith
Valley of Dolls Jacqueline Susan
Worshipping False Gods Arun Shourie
END OF THE CHAPTER
l Common Terminologies
l Important Cups and Trophies
l Major Sporting Events
Chapter 10
Sports
COMMONLY USED SPORTS TERMINOLOGIES

Sport Terms associated with sports disciplines
Badminton Deuce, double fault, drop, let, love all, smash
Basketball Basket, blocking, dribbling, free throw, held ball, holding, jump ball, pivot
Billiards Bauik line, bolting, cannon, cue hazard, long jenny, scratch, screwback, short
jenny, spot stroke
Boxing Babit punch, break, cut, defence, hook, jab lying on, knock, slam, upper cut,
weight in, knockout
Bridge Chicane, dealer, dummy, finesse, grand slam, little slam, no trump, revoke,
rubber, suit, tricks, vulnerable
Chess Bishop, castle, checkmate, gambit, king, knight, pawn, queen, rook, stalemate
Cricket Ashes, boundary, bowling, caught, chinaman, cover drive, crease, duck, follow
on, googly, gully, hat trick, hit wicket, LBW, leg break, leg bye, maiden over,
no ball, off break, on drive, over pitch, popping crease, rubber, run out, sixer,
silly point, square leg, straight drive, stumped, wicket
Football Corner kick, dribble, free kick, goal kick, hat-trick, off side, penalty kick,
throw in, tripping
Golf Best ball, bogey, bunker, caddie, dormy, fairway, fourball, greed holes, links,
niblic, par, put, rough, stymied, tee
Hockey Bully, corner, dribble, hat-trick, offside, roll-in, scoop, short corner, stick,
striking circle, tie break
Table Tennis Deuce, drop, let, spin, smash
Tennis Backhand stroke, crosscourt, deuce, double fault, fault, forehand, ground stroke,
half volley, let, smash, slice, volley
Volleyball Blocking, doubling, heave, love point, service, volley
IMPORTANT CUPS AND TROPHIES

i. Badminton Thomas Cup, Uber Cup, and World Cup.
ii. Cricket Ashes, Champions Trophy, C.K.Naidu Trophy, County Championships, Duleep
Trophy, Gavaskar-Border Trophy, ICC World Cup, Irani Trophy, Ranji Trophy, and Sheffield
Shield Cup.
iii. Football African Nations Cup, Asia Cup, Confederations Cup, Durand Cup, English Premier
League, Federation Cup, FIFA World Cup, German Bundeslga, Italian Serie A, Merdeka Cup, NFL
Cup, Santosh Trophy, Spanish LA Liga, and UEFA Cup.
iv. Golf British Open, Ryder Cup, US Open, and Walker Cup.
v. Hockey Agha Khan Cup, Champions Trophy, Dhyan Chand Trophy, Sultan Azlan Shah
Trophy, and World Cup.
vi. Tennis ATP Masters, Australian Open Championships, Champions Cup, Davis Cup, Federation
Cup, French Open Championships, US Open Championships, and Wimbeldon Championships.
MAJOR SPORTING EVENTS
1. The Olympics The oldest and the largest sporting event in the World, Olympics were
first started in 776 BC in Greece. The games were first played in the ancient Greek kingdom
of Elis to honour Zeus, the Greek god of Sky and Thunder. But after the initial games in 776
BC, they became an irregular feature and were restricted only to Greece. It was only after
1500 years, in 1892 that revival of games was undertaken by Baron Pierre de Coubretin. In
June, 1894 Baron and his associates decided to make the games a regular sporting event and
created the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Presently, the IOC is headqutered at
Laussane, Switzerland.
Olympic Symbol (five rings) The Olympic Symbol comprises of five rings linked together to
represent sporting friendship amongst countries. The rings represent the five continents Europe,
Africa, America, Asia and Australia.
Olympic Games are held every four years. The table below gives the details of Olympic Games
held till date. No games were held in 1916, 1940 and 1944.
Year Place
1896 Athens
1900 Paris
1904 St. Louis
1908 London
1912 Stockholm
1920 Antwerp
1924 Paris
1928 Amsterdam
1932 Los Angeles
1936 Berlin
1948 London
1952 Helsinki
1956 Melbourne
1960 Rome
1964 Tokyo
1968 Mexico City
1972 Munich
1976 Montreal
1980 Moscow
1984 Los Angeles
1988 Seoul
1992 Barcelona
1996 Atlanta
2000 Sydney
2004 Athens
2008 Beijing
2012 London (scheduled)

2. Commonwealth Games The Commonwealth Games are the second largest sporting event
in the World after Olympics. These games are held every four years between the years of the
Olympic Games. The games involve atheletes from Commonwealth Nations (majority erstwhile
colonies of the British). Started in 1930, the games were originally called the British Empire
Games. It was in 1978 that the present name of the Commonwelth Games was adopted. The
table below gives the details of the Commonwealth Games till date. The games were not held
from 1939 till 1949.
Year Venue
1930 Hamilton
1934 London
1938 Sydney
1950 Auckland
1954 Vancouver
1958 Cardiff
1962 Perth
1966 Jamaica
1970 Edinburgh
1974 Christchurch
1978 Edmonton
1982 Brisbane
1986 Edinburgh
1990 Auckland
1994 Victoria
1998 Kuala Lumpur
2002 Manchester
2006 Melbourne
2010 Delhi (scheduled)

3. Asian Games The Asian Games, also called the Asiad, is a sporting event on the lines of the
Olympic Games held every four years among atheletes from all over Asia. India played a leading
role in starting an event for the Asian nations. The motto of the Asian Games is Ever Onward.
The table below gives the details of Asian Games till date.
Year Venue
1951 New Delhi
1954 Manila
1958 Tokyo
1962 Jakarta
1966 Bangkok
1970 Bangkok (originally had to be hosted by Seoul)
1974 Tehran
1978 Bangkok (originally had to be hosted by Karachi)
1982 New Delhi
1986 Seoul
1990 Beijing
1994 Hiroshima
1998 Bangkok
2002 Busan
2006 Doha
2010 Guangzhou (scheduled)

4. Cricket World Cup The Cricket World Cup is a premier international championship for one
day cricket in the world. The event is organised once every four years by the sports governing
body, The International Cricket Council (ICC) and is contested by all Test playing nations (presently
10) plus the qualifying teams. The table below gives the details of the World Cups held till date.
Year Venue Winner Runner-up
1975 England West Indies Australia
1979 England West Indies England

1983 England India West Indies

1987 Indian Subcontinent Australia England
1992
Australia &
New Zealand
Pakistan England
1996 Indian Subcontinent Sri Lanka Australia
1999 England Australia Pakistan
2003
South Africa,
Zimbabwe & Kenya
Australia India
2007 West Indies Australia Sri Lanka
2011 Indian Subcontinent
2015
Australia &
New Zealand
Scheduled

5. Hockey World Cup The Hockey World Cup is a premier international field hockey competition
organised by the International Hockey Federation (FIH) once every four years. The tournament
was started in 1971. The table below gives the details of each World Cup held till date.
1971 Barcelona, Spain Pakistan Spain
1973
Amstelveen,
The Netherlands
Netherlands India
1975 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia India Pakistan
1978 Buenos Aires, Argentina Pakistan Netherlands
1982 Mumbai, India Pakistan West Germany
1986 London, England Australia England
1990 Lahore, Pakistan Netherlands Pakistan
1994 Sydney, Australia Pakistan Netherlands
1998 Utrecht, The Netherlands Netherlands Spain

2002 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Germany Australia
2006
Monchengladbach,
Germany
Germany Australia
2010 New Delhi, India
Scheduled

6. Football World Cup - The Football/Soccer World Cup is an international football competition
contested by the national teams of the member nations of Federation Internationale de Football
Association (FIFA). The tournament started in 1930 and is held every four years, but could not
be held in 1942 and 1946 due to World War II. The table below gives details of the last ten
World Cups.
7. Tennis Grand Slams
The tables below give the last five year championship winners for four major Tennis Grand Slams
viz Australian Open (held at Melbourne), French Open (held at Paris, also called Roland
Garros), Wimbledon (held at Wimbledon, near London) and U.S. Open (held at Flushing
Meadows, New York).
Australian Open
French Open
Wimbledon
US Open
1974 West Germany
West
Germany
Netherlands
1978 Argentina Argentina Netherlands
1982 Spain Italy West Germany
1986 Mexico Argentina West Germany
1990 Italy
West
Germany
Argentina
1994 USA Brazil Italy
1998 France France Brazil
2002 South Korea & Japan Brazil Germany
2006 Germany Italy France
2010 South Africa
2014 South America
Scheduled

Mens Title Womens Title

Year
Winner Runner-up Winner Runner-up
2008
Novak Djokovic
(Serbia))
Jo-Wilfried
Tsonga (France)
Maria
Sharapova
(Russia)
Ana Ivanovic
(Serbia)
2007
Roger Federer
(Switzerland)
Fernando
Gonzalez
(Chile)
Serena Williams
(USA)
Maria Sharapova
(Russia)
2006

Roger Federer
(Switzerland)

Marcos
Baghdatis
(Cyprus)
Amelie
Mauresmo
(France)
Justine Henin-
Hardene
(Belgium)
2005
Marat Safin
(Russia)
Lleyton Hewitt
(Australia)
Serena
Williams (USA)
Lindsay
Davenport (USA)
2004

Roger Federer
(Switzerland)

Marat Safin
(Russia)

Justine Henin-
Hardene
(Belgium)
Kim Clijsters
(Belgium)

Australian open
French Open
END OF THE CHAPTER

Mens Title Womens Title
Year
Winner Runner-up Winner Runner-up
2008 Scheduled
2007
Roger Federer
(Switzerland)
Novak Djokovic
(Serbia))
Justine
Henin-Hardene
(Belgium)
Svetlona
Kuznetsova
(Russia)
2006
Roger Federer
(Switzerland)
Andy Roddick
(USA)
Maria
Sharapova (Russia)
Justine
Henin-Hardene
(Belgium)
2005
Roger Federer
(Switzerland)
Andre Agassi
(USA)
Kim Clijsters
(Belgium)
Mary Pierce
(France)
2004
Roger Federer
(Switzerland)
Lleyton Hewitt
(Australia)
Svetlona Kuznet
sova (Russia)
Elena Dementieva
(Russia)
2003
Andy Roddick
(USA)
Juan Carlos
Ferrero (Spain)
Justine
Henin-Hardene
(Belgium)
Kim Clijsters
(Belgium)

Wembledon
Wembledon
l International Awards
l Indian Awards
Chapter 11
Popular Awards
INTERNATIONAL AWARDS
1. Nobel Prizes
The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually to people (and, in the case of the Peace Prize, sometimes
to organisations) who have completed outstanding research, invented ground-breaking techniques
or equipment, or made an outstanding contribution to society in physics, chemistry, literature,
peace, medicine or physiology and economics. They are widely regarded as the supreme com-
mendation in their respective subject areas. Those honoured are known as Nobel Laureates.
The Prizes were instituted by the Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel through his will. They were first
awarded in 1901, five years after Nobels death. The prize in economics, instituted by the Bank of
Sweden, has been awarded since 1969.
As of September 2007, a total of 799 Nobel Prizes have been awarded, 777 to individuals (33 of
these to women), 20 to organizations and 2 were awarded in different categories.
Prize Categories
Nobel Prize Winners for 2007
Categories Awarding Body
Nobel Prize in Physics Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Nobel Prize in Chemistry Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Nobel Prize in Medicine Karolinska Institutet
Nobel Prize in Literature Swedish Academy
Nobel Prize in Peace Norwegian Nobel Committee
Nobel Prize in Economics Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Pri ze Category Winner
Peace
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC, President R.K.
Pachauri), Albert Arnold (Al),
Gore Jr.(USA)

Physics
Albert Fert (France)
Peter Grunberg (Germany)
Physiology or Medicine
Mario R. Capecchi (USA)
Sir Martin J. Evans (UK)
Oliver Smithies (USA)
Chemistry Gerhard Ertl (Germany)
Literature Doris Lessing (UK)
Economics
Leonid Hurwicz
Eric S. Maskin
Roger B. Myerson (All from USA)

2. Man Booker Prize
The Man Booker Prize for Fiction, also known as the Booker Prize, is one of the worlds
most prestigious literary prizes, awarded each year for the best original full-length novel
written by a citizen of the Commonwealth or the Republic of Ireland in the English lan-
guage. The Booker prize was started by Booker McConnel, a multinational conglomerate
company in 1969. This award is administered by Book Trust in the United Kingdom. For the
year 2007, the prize has been awarded to Ireland noveli st Anne Enright for The Gathering.
3. Ramon Magsaysay Award
Ramon Magsaysay Award or the Magsaysay Award is the Asian equivalent of the Nobel Prize. The
Ramon Magsaysay Award was established in April 1957 by the trustees of the Rockefeller Broth-
ers Fund (RBF) based in New York City. With the concurrence of the Philippine government, the
prize was created to commemorate Ramon Magsaysay, the late President of the Philippines, and
to perpetuate his example of integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and prag-
matic idealism within a democratic society.
Every year the Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation gives away prizes to Asian individuals
and organizations for achieving excellence in their respective fields. The awards are given in
six categories:
Government Service
Public Service
Community Leadership
Journalism, Literature and Creative Communication Arts
Peace and International Understanding
Emergent Leadership
Ramon Magsaysay Award Winners for 2006

1. Government Service - Grace Padaca ( Philippines)
2. Public Service - Center for Agriculture & Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions
(CARD MRI) - Philippines; Therdchai Jivacate - Thailand
3. Community Leadership - Dr. Prakash and Dr. Mandakini Amte
4. Peace and International Understanding - Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif (Indonesia)
5. Journalism, Literature and Creative Communication Arts - Akio Ishii (Japan)
6. Emergent leadership - Ananda Galappatti (Sri Lanka)
INDIAN AWARDS
1. Civilian Awards
Bharat Ratna The title Bharat Ratna translates literally to the Gem of India. It is the highest
civilian award in India given for exceptional contribution to the field of Art, Literature, Science
and Public Service. The award was instituted by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India
in 1954. The award initially carried a gold medal 35mm in diameter having Sun on one side and
state National Emblem on the other. The design of the medal was altered a year later in 1955.
The first Bharat Ratna was awarded to Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan in 1954. The last awardees
were Lata Mangeshkar and late Ustad Bismillah Khan in 2001.
2. Other Important Awards
i. Jnanpith Award - The Jnanpith Award instituted in 1961 is the highest literary honour
conferred in India. It is presented by the Jnanpith Trust, which is largely owned by the The
Times group. The award includes a cheque for Rs. 5,00,000 a citation plaque and a bronze
replica of Vagdevi (Devi Saraswati, the godess of learning). Any Indian citizen who writes in
any of the official languages of India is eligible for the honour.
Before 1982, the awards were given for a single work by a writer. From 1982, the award has
been given for a lifetime contribution to Indian literature. The first recipient of the award was
Malayalam writer G Sankara Kurup in 1965. For 2004, the award was presented to Kashmiri poet
Rehman Rahi.
iii. Dada Saheb Phalke Award The Dada Saheb Phalke Award is the highest honour pre-
sented by the Indian government to an artist who over the years has, made a significant
contribution to the field of cinema. The award was instituted in 1969, the birth centenary
year of Dada Saheb Phalke, the father of Indian cinema. The first winner of the award was
actress Devika Rani. Shyam Bengal was the recipient of the award for 2005.
END OF THE CHAPTER
l Commonly used abbreviations
Chapter 12
Abbreviations
ABBREVIATIONS
AAA : Asian Atheletics Association
AAFI : Amateur Atheletics Federation of India
ABC : Atomic Biological and Chemical (warfare)
ABLE : Association of Biotechnology led Enterprises
AC : Ante Christum
AD : Anno Domini
ADB : Asian Development Bank
ADBS : Advanced Data Broadcast System
AFI : Atheletics Federation of India
AFMS : Armed Forces Medical College
AFP : Agence France Presse
AG : Accountant General
AI : Artificial Intelligence
AIDS : Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
AIG : American International Group
AINEC : All India Newspaper Editors Conference
ALGOL : Algebraic Oriented Language
AMIE : Associate Member of the Institute of Engineers
ANC : African National Congress
ANERT : Agency for Non-conventional Energy and Rural Technology
ANN : Artificial Neural Network
AOC : Air Officer Commanding
APCTT : Asian and Pacific Centre for Transfer of Technology
AQA : Assessment and Qualification Alliance
APEC : Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
APM : Administered Price Mechanism
ARPANET : Advanced Research Project Agency Network
ART : Assisted Reproductive Technologies
ASCII : American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASEAN : Association of South East Asian Nations
ASEM : Asia-Europe Meeting
ASLV : Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
ASPO : Asoociation for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas
ASP : Application Service Provider
ATC : Air Traffic Control
ATM : Automated Teller Machine
ATP : Adenosine Tri-Phosphate

ATS : Anti-Tetanus Serum
AU : Astronomical Units
AVRC : Audio Video Research centre
AVATAR : Aerobic Vehicle for Hypersonic Aerospace Transportation
AWACS : Airborne Warning and Control System
BBC : British Broadcasting Corporation
BBS : Bulletin Board Service
BC : Before Christ
BCG : Bacillus Calrnette-Guerin (anti TB)
BHP : Brake Horsepower
BIOS : Basic Input Output System
BIS : Bank of International Settlement
BIT : Binary Digit
BOT : Build, Operate and Transfer
BPO : Business Process Outsourcing
BPR : Business Process Re-engineering
BPS : Bytes per Second
BRO : Border Roads Organisation
CABE : Central Advisory Board of Education
CAD : Computer Aided Design
CADA : Command Area Development Authority
CAFTA : Central American Free Trade Agreement
CAG : Comptroller and Auditor General of India
CAN : Calcium Ammonium Nitrate
CAPA : Centre for Asia-Pacific Aviation
CAS : Conditional Access System
CAT : Computerized Axial Tomography (CT)
CBDT : Central Board of Direct Taxes
CBFC : Central Board of Film Certification
CBM : Confidence Building Measures
CBU : Completely built up
CADC : Center for the Development of Advanced Computing
CDMA : Code Division Multiple Access
CECA : Comprehensive Economic Co-operation Agreement
CERT : Computer Emergency Response Team
CFC : Chloro Fluoro Carbons
CFSL : Central Forensic Science Laboratory
CGI : Common Gateway Interface
CGS : Chief of General Staff

CIBIL : Credit Information Bureau of India
CIF : Cost, Insurance and Freight
CIS : Commonwealth of Independent States
CISC : Complex Instruction Set Computing
CITU : Centre of Indian Trade Union
CMIE : Centre for Monitoring the Indian Economy
COFEPOSA : Conservative of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Act
COPRA : Consumer Protection Act
CPWD : Central Public Works Department
CRM : Customer Relation Management
CSC : Customer Service Centre
CSO : Central Statistical Organisation
CTBT : Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
CVC : Chief Vigilance Commission
CWC : Chemical Weapons Convention
DDT : Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane
DHSD : Duplex-High Speed Data Service
DMA : Direct Memory Access
DNA : Deoxyribo-nucleic Acid
DPT : Diphtheria, pertussisand tetanus (vaccine)
DSL : Digital Subscriber Line
DTP : Desktop Publishing
DVD : Digital Versatile Disc
DVI : Digital Video Interactive
EAM : Emergency Action Message
ECA : Essential Commodities Act
ECG : Electro Cardiogram
EDI : Electronic Data Interchange
EFTA : European Free Trade Association
EIS : Executive Information System
EMI : Equated Monthly Installments
EOU : Export Oriented Unit
EPCI : Enhanced Proliferation Control Initiative
EPROM : Erasable, Programmable Read Only Memory
EPZ : Export Processing Zone
ER&DC : Electronic Research and Development Center
ERNET : Educational and Research Network
ESA : European Space Agency
ESCAP : Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
ESMA : Essential Services Maintenance Act
ESR : Electron Spin Resonance
ETT : Embryo Transfer Technology
EVA : Economic Value Added
EVE : Economic Valuation of the Environment
FAO : Food and Agriculture Organisation
FBI : Federal Bureau of investigation
FBT : Fringe Benefit Tax
FBTR : Fast Breeder Test Reactor
FCI : Food Corporation of India
FCRA : Foreign Contribution Regulation Act
FEMA : Foreign Exchange Management Act
FIFA : Federation Internationale de Football Association
FIR : First Information Report
FIRE : Fully integrated robotised engine
FLAG : Fibre optic Link Around the Globe
FOSDIC : Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Computers
FPD : Flat panel display
FTII : Films and Television Institute of India
GAAP : Generally Accepted Accounting Practices
GAIN : Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition
GATS : General Agreement on Trade and Services
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GDR : Global Depository Receipt
GLS : Geographical Information System
GMO : Genetically Modified Organisms
GPS : Global Positioning System
GSI : Geological Survey of India
GSLV : Geo-Synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
GSM : Global System for Mobile Communications
HAL : Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.
HFD : High Frequency
HIV : Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HTML : Hyper Text Markup Language
HTR : High Temperature Reactor
Http : Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HUDCO : Housing and Urban Development Corp.
IA : Indian Airlines
IAAI : International Atomic Authority of India

IAEA : International Atomic Energy Agency
IARI : Indian Agricultural Research Institute
IAS : Indian Administrative Service
IATA : International Air Transport Association
IBRD : International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ICAR : Indian Council of Agricultural Research
ICCR : Indian Council for Cultural Relations
ICJ : International Court of Justice
ICMR : Indian Council of Medical Research
ICRA : Investment Information and Credit Rating Agency of India
ICU : Intensive Care Unit
ICWAI : Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India
IDBI : Industrial Development Bank of India
IEEE : Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers
IFC : Industrial Finance Corporation; International Finance Corporation
IIPA : Indian Institute of Public Administration
IISS : International Institute of Strategic Studies
ILO : International Labour Organisation
IMF : International Monetary Fund
INA : Indian National Army
INS : Indian Newspaper Society
INSAT : Indian National Satellite
IP : Internet Protocol
IPC : Indian Penal Code
IPCL : Indian Petro-Chemicals Corporation LTD
IPS : Indian Police Service: Inter Press Service
IRBM : Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
IRDP : Integrated Rural Development Programme
ISBN : International Standard Book Number
ISDN : Integrated Services Digital Network
ISI : Indian Statistical Institute
ISKCON : International Society for Krishna Consciousness
ISRO : Indian Space Research Organisation
ISSN : International Standard Serial Number
ITBP : Indo-Tibetan Border Police
ITI : Indian Telephone Industries; Industrial Training Institute
ITU : International Telecommunication Union
IVF : In-Vitro Fertilisation
IVM : In-Vitro maturation

JPEG : Joint Photographic Expert Group
LASER : Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
LASIK : Laser in situ Keratomileusis
LCD : Liquid Crystal Display
MIBBS : Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery
MICR : Magnetic ink character recognition
MIPS : Million Instructions per Second
MLA : Member of Legislative Assembly
MMTC : Minerals and Metals Trading Corporation
MODEM : Modulator demodulator
MODVAT : Modified Value Added Tax
MOU : Memorandum of Understanding
MPEG : Motion Picture Experts Group
MRTPC : Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Commission
NABARD : National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NAFED : National Agricultural Co-Operative Marketing Federation
NAFTA : North American Free Trade Agreement
NASA : National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO : North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NAV : Net Asset Value
NBOT : National Board of Trade
NCAER : National Council of Applied Economic Research
NCC : National Cadet Corps
NCERT : National Council of Educational Research and Training
NDA : National Defence Academy
NGO : Non-Government Organisation
NHPC : National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
NMDC : National Mineral Development Corporation
NOC : No Objection Certificate
NPC : National Productivity Council
NRS : National Readership Survey
NSUI : National Students Union of India
NTPC : National Thermal Power Corporation
NTSE : National Talent Search Examination
OAS : Organisation of American States
OAU : Organisation of African Unity
OCR : Optical Character Recognition
OECD : Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OIC : Organisation of Islamic Conference

OPEC : Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
ORT : Oral Rehyderation Therapy
PAC : Public Accounts committee
PAN : Permanent Account Number
PCM : Pulse code modulation
PETA : People for Ethical Treatment of Animals
PIB : Press Information Bureau
PIL : Public Interest Litigation
Pin : Postal Index Number
PM : Post Meridiem; Prime Minister
PMG : Post Master General
POTA : Prevention of Terrorism Act
POW : Prisoner of war
PSLV : Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
PVC : Poly vinyl Chloride
PWD : Public Works Department
R&D : Research and Development
RADAR : Ratio Detecting and Ranging
RAM : Random Access Memory
RDX : Research Department Explosive (Cyclotrimethylin Trinitratetrate)
RITES : Rail Indian Technical & Economic Services
RNA : Ribonucleic acid
ROM : Read Only Memory
RPM : Revolutions per Minute
RSS : Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh
R.S.V.P : Repondez Sil Vous Plait (Reply if you please)
SAM : Surface to Air Missile
SAPTA : South Asian Preferential Trade Agreement
SARS : Severe Actual Respiratory Syndrome
SCI : Shipping Corporation of India
SDR : Special Drawing Rights
SGPC : Siromani Gurudwara Prabandak Committee
SIM : Subscriber Information Module
SITA : Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act
SLR : Statutory Liquidity Ratio
SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
STC : State Trading Corporation
STD : Subscriber Trunk Dialing; Sexually Transmitted Diseases
SUV : Sports Utility Vehicle

SWOT : Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
TADA : Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention Act)
TAFTA : Trans-Atlantic Free Trade Agreement
TCP : Transfer Call Protocol
TDMA : Time Division Multiple Access
TELCO : Tata Engineering and Locomotive Company
TIFR : Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
TISCO : Tata Iron and Steel Company
TMO : Telegraphic Money Order
TQM : Total Quality Management
TRIPS : Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights
UAV : Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UGC : University Grants Commission
UNCED : UN Conference on Environment & Development
UNCIP : United Nations Commission for India & Pakistan
UNCLOS : United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNCSTD : United Nations Conference on Science and
Technology for Development
UNCTAD : United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development
UNEP : United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNI : United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF : United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund
(Now United Nations Childrens Fund)
UNIDO : United Nations Industrial Development Fund for Women
UPA : United Progressive Alliance
UPS : Uninterrupted Power Supply
UPSC : Union Public Service Commission
URL : Uniform Resource Locator
VCR : Video Cassette Recorder
VHS : Video Home System
VIP : Very Important Person
VPI : Virtual Private Internet
WAN : World Association of Newspapers; Wide Area Network
WEF : World Economic Forum
WFTU : World Federation of Trade Unions
WHO : World Health Organisation

WMD : Weapons of Mass Destruction
WMO : World Meteorological Organisation
WPI : Wholesale Price Index
WTO : World Trade Organisation
WWF : World Wildlife Fund, now renamed Worldwide Fund for Nature
WWW : World Wide Web
YMCA : Young Mens Christian Association
YWCA : Young Womens Christian Association
ZIP : Zone Improvement Plan
END OF THE CHAPTER
In this chapter, you will learn :
l The Human Body
l Food and Nutrition
l Human Diseases
l Branches of Science
l Scientific Inventions and Discoveries
l Scientific Instruments
Chapter 13
Science
The Human Body

The human body is composed of billions of cells to perform various functions. The cells are organised to
from tissues, tissues are organised to from organs, and organs together form organ system and so on.
Human body consists of many specialised organ systems such as skeletal system, muscular system, nervous
system, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, etc.
1. Skeletal system: It is made up of all the bones of the body and tissues such as tendons, ligaments
and cartilage that connects them. In humans, the skeletal system is made up of 206 bones and few
cartilages.
Functions:
Its 206 bones form a rigid framework to which the softer tissues and organs of the body are
attached.
Vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by the surrounding skull
and the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage.
The movement in the body is carried out by the interaction of skeletal and muscular system.
Bone marrow is the site of production of red blood cells. An average of 2.6 million red blood cells
is produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out and destroyed by the liver.
Bones serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an excess is
present in the blood, buildup will occur within the bones. When the supply of these minerals within
the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply.
2. Muscular system: There are several types of muscles such as cardiac, smooth and skeletal
muscles that form a part of muscular system. The muscular system is composed of over 600
muscles. Differences between each muscle are recognized by location, function, structure, and the
way they are contracted.
Functions:
The main function of muscular system is movement. Muscles in coordination with bones, joints,
and some other tissues provide movement to the body.
The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious movements such as
walking and running.
Skeletal muscles also produce more subtle movements that result in various facial expressions, eye
movements, and respiration.
In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills some other important functions in the
body, such as posture, joint stability, and heat production. Posture, such as sitting and standing, is
maintained as a result of muscle.
3. Digestive system: The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs,
which process food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body. The
digestive tract, also called the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, consists of a long
continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The tongue and teeth are accessory structures located
in the mouth. The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are major accessory organs that
have a role in digestion. These organs secrete fluids into the digestive tract.
Functions:
The main function of digestive system is to break down the food particles into smaller and smaller
particles so that they get absorbed in the blood.
4. Respiratory system: Respiration is the sequence of events that results in the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the body cells.
We generally associate breathing to be the only function of the Respiratory system, breathing is
only one of the activities of the respiratory system. The body cells need a continuous supply of
oxygen for the metabolic processes that are necessary to maintain life. The respiratory system
works with the circulatory system to provide this oxygen and to remove the waste products of
metabolism. It also helps to regulate pH of the blood.
It consists of following organs: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveoli.
The process of breathing, which involves inhalation and exhalation moves air into and out of the
lungs.
After this, there is an exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood. This is called external
respiration. The blood transports the gases to and from the tissue cells. The exchange of gases
between the blood and tissue cells is internal respiration. Finally, the cells utilize the oxygen for their
specific activities. This is cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration. Together these activities constitute
respiration.
5. Circulatory system: This system is also known as cardio-vascular system. It consists of the
heart, a muscular pumping device, and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries.
The blood is pumped by the heart around a close circuit of vessels. The vital role of the cardiovascular
system in maintaining homeostasis depends on the continuous and controlled movement of blood
through the thousands of miles of capillaries that permeate every tissue and reach every cell in the
body.
It is in the microscopic capillaries that blood performs its ultimate transport function. Nutrients and other
essential materials pass from capillary blood into fluids surrounding the cells as waste products are removed.
6. Reproductive system: In humans, male reproductive system consists of testes, epididymus,
scrotum, vas deferens, penis, and glands.
Female reproductive system consists of vagina, cervix, fallopian tubes, uterus,
The reproductive system has following functions
(i) to produce sperm and egg cells
(ii) to produce hormones
(iii) to nurture the developing offspring
7. Urinary system: The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
The kidneys form the urine and account for the other functions.
The urinary system maintains an appropriate fluid volume by regulating the amount of water that is
excreted in the urine. Other aspects of its function include regulating the concentrations of various
electrolytes in the body fluids and maintaining normal pH of the blood. Although the urinary system
has a major role in excretion, other organs contribute to the excretory function. The lungs in the
respiratory system excrete some waste products, such as carbon dioxide and water. The skin is
another excretory organ that rids the body of wastes through the sweat glands. The liver and intestines
excrete bile pigments that result from the destruction of hemoglobin. The major task of excretion still
belongs to the urinary system. If it fails the other organs cannot take over and compensate adequately.
8. Nervous system: The nervous system is composed of organs, principally the brain, spinal cord,
nerves. These, in turn, consist of various tissues, including nerve, blood, and connective tissue.
Together these carry out the complex activities of the nervous system. The nervous system is the
major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all mental
activity including thought, learning, and memory.
9. Endocrine system: The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, functions in the regulation
of body activities. The endocrine system acts through chemical messengers called hormones that
influence growth, development, and metabolic activities.
There are basically two types of glands endocrine and exocrine gland. The endocrine glands are
also known as ductless glands. The secretory products of endocrine glands are called hormones
and are secreted directly into the blood and then carried throughout the body where they influence
only those cells that have receptor sites for that hormone. There are eight major endocrine glands
scattered throughout the body. These are Pituitary and pineal gland; thyroid and parathyroid gland;
adrenal gland; pancreas; gonads(testes and ovaries), etc.
Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have functions other than hormone secretion.
For example, the pancreas has a major exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes and an
endocrine portion that secretes hormones. The ovaries and testes secrete hormones and also produce
the ova and sperm.
COMPONENTS OF THE BODY
I. Structural organization of cell
The word cell is derived from a Latin word cellula, which means a little room.
Robert Hooke was the scientist who coined the term cell. He observed the cells while examining a
thin slice of cork. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single, newly
fertilized cell.
Cells constitute various components of plants and animals. A cell is the smallest unit of life and is
capable of all living functions. Cells are the building blocks of life. This is the reason why cells are
referred to as the basic structural and functional units of life.
The cell theory that all plants and animals are composed of cells and that cell is the basic unit of life
was presented by two biologist, Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839).
The cell theory was further expanded by Rudolf Virchow in 1855. He suggested that all cells arise
from pre-existing cells.
Principles of cell theory
A. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
B. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism.
C. All cells come only from the reproduction of existing cells.
There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. For descriptive purposes, the
concept of a generalized cell is introduced. It includes features from all cell types. A cell consists
of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but
distinct structures called organelles.
Plasma membrane or cell membrane:

The cell membrane (or plasma membrane or plasmalemma) is the outermost covering of the cell that separates
the contents of the cell from the external environment.
Cell membrane is an extremely delicate, thin, elastic, and living membrane of the cell. It surrounds the
cytoplasm of the cell and regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell. This means that the
cell membrane allows the entry of only some substances and prevents the movement of some other materials.
Therefore, the cell membrane is known as selectively permeable membrane.
Functions of plasma membrane:
1. It gives a definite shape to the cell.
2. It separates the contents of the cell from its surrounding medium.
3. It provides mechanical barrier for the protection of the internal contents of cell.
4. It regulates entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm:
It is the fluid that fills the cell and occurs between the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane. The cell
organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
Functions:
1. Cytoplasm helps in the exchange of material between the cell organelles.
2. It acts as a storage organelle of vital chemicals, such as amino acids, glucose, vitamins, ions etc.
3. It is the site of certain metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, synthesis of fatty acids, nucleotides,
and some amino acids.
Nucleus:
The nucleus is round in shape and is the largest organelle of the cell. It is generally present in the centre of
the cell, except in plant cells where the nucleus is pushed towards the periphery of the cell because of the
central vacuole. The nucleus is composed of the following components: nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
and nucleolus.
Functions of nucleus:
1. The nucleus controls all metabolic activities of the cell.
2. It regulates the cell cycle.
3. It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the parent to the offspring.
4. It plays an important role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a single cell divides or
forms two new cells.
Cell organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like long
tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles). The ER functions as a packaging system. However, it does not
work alone; it works closely with Golgi apparatus and ribosomes.
There are two types of ERrough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its surface. The
ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the sites of protein manufacturing.
Functions:-
1. ER serves as a channel for the transport of materials (especially proteins) between various regions
of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
2. ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some of the biochemical
activities of the cell.
Ribosomes:
These are very small, round structures found either in free state suspended in the cytoplasm or attached to
the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. They are composed of ribonucleic acids and proteins.
The main function of ribosomes is to act as a site of protein synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus:
The Golgi apparatus is another packaging organelle like the endoplasmic reticulum. It was named after
Camillo Golgi, an Italian biologist. It consists of a system of membrane bound vesicles arranged approximately
parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
Functions:
1. The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets inside and
outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
2. It helps in the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles.
3. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes and peroxisomes.
Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are found in almost all animal-like eukaryotic cells. It is a membrane-bound vesicular structure
that holds variety of other enzymes. The purpose of lysosome is to digest worn out cells. Lysosomes are
involved in intracellular digestion of foreign food particles or microbes and are called digestive bags.
Sometimes, this organelle is also involved in the self-digestion of cells after their death, also known as autolysis.
Hence they are also called as suicidal bags. Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of a cell.
Mitochondria:
Mitochondria create energy for the cell and this process of creating energy for the cell is known as cellular
respiration. Most of the chemical reactions involved in cellular respiration occur in mitochondria. (though
cellular respiration also occur in cytoplasm but very little energy is produced) The energy required for
various chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate) molecules. This is why, mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
Functions of Mitochondria:
1. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration.
2. They provide energy (in the form of ATP) for vital activities of the living cells.
3. Mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins, so they are regarded as semiautonomous
organelles.
Plastids:
Plastids are the organelles that are present only in plant cells. These are double membrane organelles which
are usually spherical or discoidal in shape.
There are two types of plastids chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or colourless
plastids). Chromoplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are
important for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in
addition to chlorophyll. Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and
protein granules are stored.
Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are storage sacs (for solid or liquid contents) found in the cells. These are found in both plant and
animal cells but are much larger in plant cells. The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90%
of the cell volume.
In plant cells, vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell. Vacuoles store food and
nutrients that a cell needs to survive. These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins.
Differences between plant and animal cells
Animal Cell Plant Cell
1. Animal cells are generally small in size. 1. Plant cells are usually larger than animal cells.
2. Cell wall is absent. 2. The plasma membrane of plant cells is surrounded
by a rigid cell wall of cellulose.
3. Except the protozoan Euglena, no animal cell 3. Plastids (chromoplasts and leucoplasts) are
possesses plastids. present.
4. Vacuoles are less in number and small in size. 4. Vacuoles are present in abundance and larger in size.
5. Animal cells have a single highly complex and 5. Plant cells have many simpler units of golgi
prominent golgi apparatus. apparatus, called dictyosomes.
II Blood
Blood is a highly specialised connective tissue present in human body. It is a vascular tissue that
contains cells, separated by a non-living, liquid material. This liquid material or fluid is known as
plasma.
Red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), and platelets are suspended in plasma.
The blood is the medium through which the entire body is nourished and supported carrying nutrient
molecules from digested foods, as well as carrying away harmful waste products such as carbon
dioxide. It circulates the needed oxygen from the lungs. It also picks up hormones and uses custom
distribution to deliver chemical messages to the organs it comes into contact with. As other organs
interact with the blood it is in a constant flux of updating and extending its chemical composition.
Functions of blood:
It transports hormones, nutrients, waste material to different parts of the body.
Red blood cells transport respiratory gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.
White blood cells fight diseases by producing antibodies.
III Human brain
The brain is the main coordinating centre of the body. It is a part of the nervous system that
controls and monitors every organ of the body.
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS consists of nerves
that connect the central nervous system to different parts of the body.
The central nervous system receives information from all parts of the body and also sends information
to the muscles. The communication between the CNS and the body parts is facilitated by the nerves
of the PNS.
The brain is divisible into three main regionsforebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Forebrain: It consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus. It is the main thinking part of
the brain. Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and constitutes four-fifth of its weight. The
forebrain has sensory regions that receive sensory impulses from various receptors, as well as
motor regions that control the movement of various muscles such as, the leg muscles. There are
separate areas in the forebrain that are specialized for hearing, smelling, sight, and general sensations
such as pain, touch, taste, etc. A certain part of the cerebrum primarily controls intelligence,
learning, memory, thinking, and speech. The forebrain is also known as the main thinking part of
the brain.
The hypothalamus contains many areas that control things such as body temperature, urge for
eating and drinking, etc. Some regions of the cerebrum, along with the hypothalamus, are involved
in the regulation of sexual behaviour and expression of emotional reactions such as, excitement,
pleasure, fear, etc.
Midbrain: It has regions that are concerned with the sense of sight and hearing. Some regions of
the midbrain transmit motor impulses to the limbs.
Hindbrain: Most involuntary actions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, movement of food in the
alimentary canal, salivation, etc., are controlled by the midbrain and hindbrain. All these involuntary
actions are controlled by the medulla of the hindbrain.
The cerebellum, which is a part of the hindbrain, is responsible for maintaining posture and equilibrium
of the body. It also coordinates the contraction of voluntary muscles according to the directions of
the cerebrum.
The brain, as you have learnt, is an important organ for the maintenance of a variety of activities. As
an important organ, it needs protection. Hence, it is enclosed by a bony box called the cranium. The
spinal cord is protected by a bony, curved, vertical rod called the vertebrae or vertebral column.
EYE
Our paired eyes are located in sockets of the skull called orbits. A brief account of structure and functions
of the human eye is given in the following sections.
Parts of an eye
The adult human eye ball is nearly a spherical structure. The wall of the
eye ball is composed of three layers.
The external layer is composed of a dense connective tissue and is called the sclera. The anterior
portion of this layer is called the cornea.
The middle layer, choroid, contains many blood vessels and looks bluish in colour.
The choroid layer is thin over the posterior two-thirds of the eye ball, but it becomes thick in the
anterior part to form the ciliary body.
The ciliary body itself continues forward to form a pigmented and opaque structure called the iris
which is the visible coloured portion of the eye.
The eye ball contains a transparent crystalline lens which is held in place by ligaments attached to
the ciliary body.
In front of the lens, the aperture surrounded by the iris is called the pupil. The diameter of the pupil
is regulated by the muscle fibres of iris.
The inner layer is the retina and it contains three layers of cells from inside to outside ganglion
cells, bipolar cells and photoreceptor cells.
DEFECTS OF VISION
Myopia
Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot
see distant objects distinctly.
This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power.
Hypermetropia
Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness. A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly
but cannot see nearby objects distinctly.
This defect arises either because (i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the eyeball has become
too small. This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate power.
Presbyopia
The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing. For most people, the near point
gradually recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortable and distinctly without
corrective eye-glasses. This defect is called Presbyopia.
EAR
The ears perform two sensory functions, hearing and maintenance of body balance. Anatomically, the ear
can be divided into three major sections called the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
The outer ear consists of the pinna and external auditory meatus (canal). The pinna collects the
vibrations in the air which produce sound.
The external auditory meatus leads inwards and extends up to the tympanic membrane (the ear drum).
There are very fine hairs and wax- secreting sebaceous glands in the skin of the pinna and the
meatus. The tympanic membrane is composed of connective tissues covered with skin outside and
with mucus membrane inside.
The middle ear contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes which are attached to one
another in a chain-like fashion.
The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of
the cochlea. The ear ossicles increase the efficiency of transmission of sound waves to the inner
ear.
An Eustachian tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. The Eustachian tube helps in
equalising the pressures on either sides of the ear drum.
FOOD AND NUTRITION
The process of intake of any external source of energy or food is called nutrition. All living organisms
require energy, but they get it from different sources. Some organisms utilize simple inorganic sources such
as, carbon dioxide and water, whereas the other organisms utilize complex substances. These complex
substances are broken down into simpler ones before they can be utilized by various life processes for the
growth and repair of the body.
All the varied sources of energy, that any living organism consumes, are always broken down or built up
into a uniform source of energy that can be used for sustaining various life processes.
There are seven major classes of nutrients that the body needs: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, fibers and water
Carbohydrates:
These are the bodys main source of energy. The three different kinds of carbohydrates are starch, sugar
and fibers. Plant foods like cereals, bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, plantains and corn are good sources of
starch. They give us the energy we need to do daily activities. These starchy foods give us important
vitamins and minerals, too.
Fats:
Fat is a nutrient that is an important source of calories. One gram of fat supplies 9 calories - more than twice
the amount we get from carbohydrates or protein. Fat also is needed to carry and store essential fat-soluble
vitamins, like vitamins A and D. There are two basic types of fat. They are grouped by their chemical
structure. Each type of fat is used differently in our bodies and has a different effect on our health.
Fat is found in many foods. Some of the fat that we eat comes from the fat we add in cooking or spread
on breads, vegetables or other foods. A lot of fat is hidden in foods that we eat as snacks, pastries or
prepared meals.
Proteins
These are necessary for the growth of the cells. It also repairs or replaces healthy cells and tissues.
Protein is made of chains of amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Our bodies can
make most of the amino acids. Most foods that are obtained from animals, such as fish, chicken, beef, pork,
eggs, milk, cheese, and yogurt contain all of the essential amino acids. They are known as complete
proteins. Plant foods, such as rice, dried beans, peas, lentils, nuts, seeds, wheat, oats, corn, may be low or
lacking in one or more of the amino acids. They are considered to be incomplete proteins.
Vitamins
These are the organic compounds obtained from the food in minute quantity. They must be supplied from
external sources and perform specific functions. On the basis of their solubility, vitamins are divided into
two categories:
Fat soluble vitamins Vitamin A, D, E, and K
Water soluble vitamins Vitamin B complex, and C
Vitamin A: It is also known as retinol. It is manly found in animal sources such as cod-liver oil, milk,
butter, ghee, egg, fish, etc. In plant sources, vitamin A is mainly found in carrot, tomatoes, leafy vegetable,
papaya, etc.
The deficiency of this vitamin can cause nightblindness.
Functions
Vitamin A is essential for growth.
It is main component of rhodopsin, hence it is essential for night vision.
It controls the action of bone cells.
Vitamin D: It is also known as calciferol. It is mainly found in animal sources such as cod liver oil, butter,
milk, ghee, egg, etc.
Functions
It promotes calcium absorption from the intestine.
It helps in the development of new born.
Vitamin E: It is also known as tocopherol. The main animal source of this vitamin is egg, fish, meat, etc.
The plant sources include vegetable seed oils sucha s wheat, soyabean, corn, etc.
Functions
It has antioxidative properties. It mainly prevents unwanted oxidation the body.
It is required for normal functioning of muscles.
Vitamin K: It is also known as phylloquinone. The main plant sources of this vitamin are cabbage, spinach,
tomatoes, etc.
Functions
It helps in the maintenance of normal prothrombin and factor VII in the blood. Thus it takes active part in
normal coagulation.
Vitamin B complex: It includes vitamin B
1
or thiamine, B
2
or riboflavin, B
3
or pantothenic acid, B
5
or niacin,
B
6
or pyridoxine, B
12
or cyanocobalamin.
The main source of this vitamin are cereals, pulses, nuts, and green vegetables.
Functions:
It is essential for normal growth
It is essential basic reactions of metabolism
It helps in the formation of fat from carbohydrates.
Vitamin C: It is also known as ascorbic acid. It is mainly found in citrus fruits such as amla, tomato,
papaya, etc. It is also found in fresh vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, cauliflower, beans. Etc.
Functions:
It is essential for proper functioning of the formative cells of various tissues
It plays a key role in wound repair.
Human diseases
1. Infectious diseases
A disease caused due to microorganisms is known as an infectious disease.
Infectious agents: They are the disease-causing microorganisms which belong to different categories
such as:
Viruses
Some bacteria
Some fungi
Some unicellular animals
Some multicellular animals
Infectious agents
Viruses They are very tiny organisms which are visible only with the help of electron microscope.
They cannot grow, multiply, or reproduce on their own. They need to infect a host cell to get the
required machinery to perform these functions. Influenza, cold (Rhinovirus), dengue, AIDS, etc.,
are certain human diseases caused by viruses.
Bacteria Bacteria are unicellular organisms that are larger than viruses. There are only some
bacteria that cause diseases while some other bacteria are useful in nature.
Whooping cough, typhoid, cholera, anthrax, etc., are certain human diseases caused by bacteria.
Fungi They are plant-like organisms, which are heterotrophic, i.e., they lack chlorophyll. Their
cells have cell walls.
Athletes foot, candidiasis, ringworms, etc., are some human diseases caused by fungi.
Protozoa They are simple, primitive unicellular organisms which include Amoeba, Trypanosoma,
and Leishmania. They are often found in water as they need moisture for survival. Hence, they
cause diseases through contaminated water.
Amoebiasis, kala azar, malaria, African sleeping sickness, etc., are some of the diseases caused by
protozoans.
Multicellular animals like worms Worms are the parasites that infect intestines of human
beings and other animals. It includes round worms, pinworms, hookworm, tapeworm etc.
Diarrhoea, anaemia, liver rot, etc., are caused by these worms.
2. Deficiency diseases: These diseases are caused by the deficiency of one or the other nutrient in
the diet. For example,
(i) Deficiency of protein may cause Kwashiorkar and marasmus
(ii) Deficiency of iron causes anaemia
(iii) Deficiency of iodine causes goitre
(iv) Deficiency of vitamin A causes night blindness
(v) Deficiency of vitamin B1 causes beri-beri
SOME IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT THE HUMAN BODY
Number of cells in body 75 trillion
Longest bone Femur (Thigh bone)
Smallest bone Ear ossicle, stapes
Blood volume 6.8 liters (in 70 kg body)
Normal B.P. 120/80mm Hg
Life span of R.B.C. 120 days
Life span of W.B.C. 3-4days
Universal Blood Donor O Rh-ve
Universal Blood Recipient AB
Blood clotting time 2-5 minutes
Average body weight 70 kg

Normal body temperature 98.4
o
f or 37
o
C
Dental formula Adult : 2123/2123 = 32
Child : 2120/2120 = 32 milk teeth
Largest endocrine gland Thyroid
Normal heart beat 72-75/minute
Largest gland Liver
Largest W.B.C. Monocyte
Smallest W.B.C. Lymphocyte
Longest nerve Sciatic
Longest cell Neuron (nerve cell)
Total number of muscles in the body 639
Total number of bones in the body 206
Largest organ of human body Skin
BRANCHES OF SCIENCES
Acoustics : The study of sound and sound waves
Aerodynamics : The study of forces acting upon bodies in motion in the air (e.g., aircraft,
missiles, etc.)
Aeronautics : The study of all activities pertaining to aerial locomotion (art of flying)
Anatomy : The science of the structure of th e animal/human body learnt by dissection.
Anaesthesiology : A branch of medicine concerned with administration of anaesthetics and the
condition of the patient while under anaesthesia.
Anthropology : The study of the origin and physical and cultural development of mankind.
Archaeology : A scientific study of the material remains of the past as evidence of mans life,
culture and history.
Astrophysics : A branch of astronomy dealing with the physical nature of heavenly bodies.
Astronomy : The science of heavenly bodies (planets)
Bacteriology : A branch of microbiology dealing with bacteria
Biology : The science of living organisms; subdivided into Botany and Zoology
Biophysics : The physics of the vital processes of living organisms
Botany : The science of the plant kingdom
Cardiology : A branch of medicine dealing with the heart
Ceramics : The art of making objects from clay
Chemistry : The study of elements, their behaviour and laws of their combination, etc.
Cosmetology : The study of cosmetics and their use
Cosmology : The study of the universeits origin, nature, structure and evolution
Cytopathology : The study of diseased cells
Dermatology : A branch of medicine dealing with skin
Dietetics : The science of diet and nutrition
Entomology : Deals with study of insects
Endocrinology : The study of glands
Genetics : A branch of biology dealing with heredity and the laws that govern it
Geology : A study of the chemical composition of the earths crust
Gerontology : A branch medicine studying the ageing process, problems and diseases
Gynaecology : A branch of medicine dealing with female diseases of the reproduction system
Haematology : A branch of medicine studying blood and its disorders
Hepatology : A branch of medicine dealing with liver
Horticulture : A branch of agricultural science dealing with flowers, fruits, vegetables, etc.
Hydrology : The science of water with reference to its occurrence and properties in the
hydrosphere and atmosphere
Hygiene : A branch of medicine dealing with health and its presevation
Immunology : A branch of medicine dealing with the immune system of the body
Neuropathology : A branch of medicine dealing with changes produced by diseases in the nervous
system
Obstetrics : A branch of medicine dealing with pregnancy, labour and child birth
Oncology : A branch of medicine dealing with tumours
Ophthalmology : A branch of medicine dealing with eyes and related problems
Ornithology : The science of birds
Orthopaedics : A branch of medicine dealing with diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the
skeletal system (bones)
Paediatrics : A branch of medicine dealing with child diseases (infants)
Pathology : A branch of medicine that deals with etiologies, mechanisms and manifestation
of diseases
Physiology : A study of the life processes of various organs of living organisms
Psychiatry : The study and treatment of mental and emotional disorders
Radiology : A branch of medical science dealing with the use of x-rays for diagnosis and treatment
Zoology : A branch of biology that deals with animal life
SCIENTIFIC INVENTIONS
Invention Inventor(s) Country Year
Adding Machine
(Pascaline)
Blaise Pascal France 1642
Aeroplane Wright brothers US 1903
Ballpoint Pen Laszlo Biro Hungary 1938
Barometer E. Torricelli Italy 1644
Bicycle Kirkpatrick Scotland 1839
Bicycle Tyre J.B. Dunlop Scotland 1888
Centigrade Scale A. Celsius France 1742
Computer Charles Babbage Britain 1820
Cinema
A.L. and
J.L. Lumiere
France 1895
Clock (mechanical) Hsing and Ling-Tsan China 1725
Clock (pendulum) C. Hugyens The Netherlands 1656
Diesel Engine Rudolf Diesel Germany 1892
Dynamite Alfred Nobel Sweden 1866
Dynamo Michael Faraday England 1831
Electric Lam Thomas Alva Edison US 1879
Electromagnet W. Sturgeon England 1825
Elevator E G Otis US 1852
Fountain Pen L.E. Waterman US 1884
Gas Lighting William Murdoch Scotland 1794
Gramophone Thomas Alva Edison US 1877
Jet Engine Sir Frank Whittle England 1937

Locomotive Richard Trevithic England 1804

Machine Gun Richard Gatling US 1861
Match (safety) J.E. Lundstrom Sweden 1844
Microphone
Alexander Graham
Bell
US 1876
Microscope Z. Janssen The Netherlands 1590
Motor Car (Petrol) Karl Benz Germany 1885
Motorcycle Daimler Germany 1885
Parachute JPF Blanchard France 1785
Photography (film) John Carbott US 1888
Printing Press J. Gutenberg Germany 1455
Razor (safety) K.C. Gillette US 1895
Refrigerator
J. Harrison and A.
Catlin
Britain 1850
Safety Pin Walter Hunt US 1849
Sewing Machine B. Thimmonnier France 1829
Ship (steam) J.C. Perier France 1775
Ship (turbine) Sir Charles Parsons Britain 1894
Steam Engine
(piston)
Thomas Newcombe Britain 1712
Steam Engine James Watt Scotland 1765
Stainless Steel Harry Brearley England 1913
Submarine D. Bushnell US 1776
Telegraph Sir Ernest Swington France 1787
Telegraph Code Samuel F.B. Morse US 1837
Telephone
Alexander Graham
Bell
US 1876
Telescope Hans Lippershey The Netherlands 1608
END OF THE CHAPTER

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
Instrument Name Uses
Ammeter Instrument used for measuring electric current
Barometer Instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure
Calorimeter Instrument used for measuring heat quantity
Cardiograph (ECG) Instrument used for recording movements of the heart
Electrometer Instrument used for measuring small electric current
Endoscope Instrument used to examine internal body organs
Galvanometer Instrument used for measuring electric current
Hydrometer Instrument used to relative density of liquids
Hygrometer Instrument used to measure atmospheric humidity
Lactometer Instrument used to measure relative density of milk
Manometer Instrument used to measure pressure of gases
Micrometer Instrument used to measure distances
Microscope Instrument used to very minute objects
Periscope
Instrument used in submarines to views objects above
sea level
Polygraph
Instrument used to record changes in the physiological
process in the body
Salinometer Instrument to measure salinity in liquids
Sphygmomanometer Instrument used to measure blood pressure
Stethoscope
Instrument used to hear sounds produced in the body
by the lungs and the heart
Telescope Instrument used to view distant objects
Transponder Instrument used to receive and send signals
Voltmeter
Instrument used to measure the potential electric
difference between two points
Wattmeter
Instrument used to measure the power of an electric
circuit

Legal Awareness
Legal Awareness
Chapter 14
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE (from 1942 to 1947)

The Quit India Resolution 1942:- emphasized on ending the British rule in India .This movement was
suppressed by the government. This continued till 1944.
Sri Rajagopalachari along with Mahatma Gandhi wanted the Muslim League to endorse the Indian
demand for independence and cooperate with the Congress in the formation of a provincial interim
government, and began negotiations with Lord Wavell. Mr.Jinnah refused to accept.
The Wavell Plan 1945 And The Simla Conference: - both the Wavell plan and the Simla conference were a
failure, because the congress did not accept Mr.Jinnah demand of Pakistan. The Governor General was not
prepared to have an interim settlement without the cooperation and consent of the Muslim League.
The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 For United India: - The Cripps mission in March 1942 had proposed that,
immediately after the cessation of hostilities steps shall be taken to set up in India a Constitution making
body to frame a new Constitution for India. The British cabinet mission consisting of Lord Patrick
Lawrence and Secretary Of State A.V. Alexander and Sir Stafford Cripps came to Delhi on March 24,
1946.
The cabinet suggested its formula on May 16, 1946 to resolve the issue As the political parties, the
Muslim League and the congress did not come to any mutual understanding and the congress ruled out
the idea of Pakistan.
The mission recommended that there should be a union of India.
To frame a Constitution, the cabinet mission suggested that a constituent assembly be formed consisting of
389 members. Provincial representatives were to be sent in the proportion of 1:10, 00,000.
However the Muslim league resolved that the proceedings of the constituent assembly was ultra vires
and demanded its dissolution.
December 9, 1946 the constituent assembly first met. The Muslim league members did not attend.
Lord Mountbattens plan of 1947 for transfer of power:-
i) The partition of India,
ii) After Bengal and Punjab had decided that they wanted their respective provinces to be partioned;
Sindh and the N.W.F. provinces decided to join Pakistan.
Indian Independence: - the Indian Independence Bill was passed by the Parliament on the July 18, 1947.
Indian Independence Act, 1947 ended the British Raj in India and the partition of India into India and
Pakistan.
Our national flag, the tricolor was adopted on the July 22, 1947
August 15, 1947, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was sworn in as the first Prime minister of independent India.
Our first President was Dr. Rajendra Prasad
The Constituent Assembly appointed the drafting committee on August 29, 1947 under the chairmanship
of Dr. Ambedkar.
The Draft Constitution was ready by October and the Draft Constitution of India was published in
February, 1948.
The constituent assembly read the draft clause by clause from November 15, 1948 to October 17 1949.
The third reading started from November 14 1949 and finished it on November 26, 1949. On this date
the Constitution received the signature of the President Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
Our draft Constitution of India when presented to the President of the constituent assembly. It contained
315 Articles and 8 Schedules.
The date of commencement of the Constitution was 26
th
January, 1950. It contained 395 Articles and
8 Schedules.
The State Emblem which has three lions, a horse a bull and a charka was taken from Ashokas Pillar in
Sarnath, it was adopted on 26
th
January, 1950 and has the words Satyameva Jayayte (let Truth alone
prevail).
The National Anthem composed by Rabindranath Tagore was adopted on 24
th
January, 1950.
India as Part of the Commonwealth:-India did not sever all ties with the British Commonwealth. India
joined the Commonwealth without any allegiance to the British crown.
It was this decision of India to join the Commonwealth, that the association of these independent
nations it was called the Commonwealth of Nations.
This historic decision took place in London on April 27
th
, 1949.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru said it is an agreement by free will, to be terminated by free will.
WRITTEN CONSTITUTION
The Constitutional laws of the country contain the legal and the non legal norms. Legal norms are those
which are enforceable in the courts of law and non legal norms are generally practices and conventions
of the Constitution which are not enforceable.
Ours being a written Constitution is in the form of a Constitutional document whereas England does
not have a written Constitution. The Sovereignty of the Parliament is based upon traditions.
A written Constitution contains the supreme law of the land on the source of the Constitutional law in
the country. Every organ in the country must adhere to it otherwise it will be declared unconstitutional.
Though we have often heard that the Indian Parliament is Sovereign, it is sovereign to the extent that
India is a sovereign nation and not under any external influence. Therefore the Parliament which
functions under the written Constitution has to adhere to the rules stated under it and cannot have
unbridled powers.
Our Constitution being a federal Constitution has a few characteristics attached to it, they are:-
i) Distribution of powers
ii) Supremacy of the Constitution
iii) Written Constitution
iv) Rigidity
v) Authority of the Courts
PREAMBLE
The Preamble literally means preface, preliminary statement or intorduction states that India is a
Sovereign, Socialist, Democratic Republic.
Sovereign denotes that our country is not subject to any external authority.
Socialist herein does not mean that it adheres to any ideas of Socialism but means that it will have
Private enterprise as well as State ownership. What we were trying was a mixed economy.
Secular, means that the Constitution ensures equal freedom for all religions.
Democratic signifies that India has a Parliamentary form of government wherein the government is
responsible to an elected legislature.
Republic means where the Head of the State is an elected functionary.
According to the Preamble it is the people who have imposed this Constitution upon themselves and
will conduct their government through elected representatives.
The terms Socialist And Secular were added by the 42
nd
Amendment.
The Preamble envisages being a Social Welfare State as stated by the Directive Principles of State Policy.
In Aruna Roy v. Union of India 2002 SC, it was held that the Preamble was part of the basic structure
of the Constitution. The essence of secularism is non discrimination of people by the State on the
basis of religious differences.
THE JUDICIARY
It is very important to have an independent and impartial Judiciary. Our Constitution has done everything
to make the Supreme Courts and the various High Courts independent of the Executive.
The High Court is a Court Of Appeal and can also enforce the Fundamental Rights. The Supreme
Court, the High Court and the lower courts constitute a single judiciary having jurisdiction over all
cases arising under any law whether enacted by the Parliament or the State Legislature.
The judiciary scrutinizes Governmental action in order to assess whether it confirms with the Constitution
or not. It also scrutinizes the administrative action.
Judicial review is based on the assumption that the Constitution is the supreme law of the land and that
all government organs and governmental actions must confirm with the Constitution.
The State shall not make any law that takes away the Fundamental Rights of the people.
CITIZENSHIP
A person who is born in the territory of India Citizenship Act 1955; either whose parents are born in
India; or who has been ordinarily a resident in the territory of India for not less than five years immediately
preceding such commencement, shall be a citizen of India.
Articles 5 to 11 of the Constitution lay down as to who are citizens of India at the commencement of
the Constitution.
Article 5 deals with the Domicile of a person. But however the term domicile has not been defined in
the Constitution. Domicile means permanent home.
The Article draws a difference between Domicile and Residence. Its domicile and not residence
that makes a person an Indian citizen. Domicile and five years Residence is sufficient to make a
person a citizen of India.
India has neither State citizenship, nor dual citizenship. There is single citizenship in India.(2003
Citizenship Ammendant Act that further ammends the Citizenship Act, 155, 2 provides for overseas
Indian citizenship or Dual citizenship)
POLITICAL AND CIVIL RIGHTS
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Concept of Fundamental Rights: -
i) The fundamental rights were supposed to be basic, natural and in alienable rights of the man.
Where there are rights there are certain limitations. With time it became the most important thing
to protect the rights and liberties of the people to be protected from governmental action.
ii) The fundamental rights in India has its roots in the preamble which the people of India have given
to themselves and apart from guaranteeing all that, it also safeguards the interests of the minorities
and tries to keep away discrimination, guaranteeing religious freedom and protecting other cultural
rights.
Fundamental Rights In India
i) The framers of the constitution have tried to strike a balance between the rights of the people and
the society and the courts have also had a tough time interpreting them.
ii) Though it was said earlier that the fundamental rights were mutually exclusive but now the courts
have held that some of the rights are not mutually exclusive.
Justiciability Of Fundamental Rights
i) Article 13 makes the fundamental rights justiciable. It is because of this Article that the fundamental
rights cannot be infringed by the government.
RIGHT TO EQUALITY ARTICLE 14 to 18
Right to equality will encompass :
i) Equality before law-Article 14
ii) Prohibition on the grounds of religion ,race, caste, sex or place-Article 15
iii) Equal opportunity in matters of employment-Article 16
iv) Abolition of titles-Article 18
Right to equality Article 14:-
i) According to the Article all persons who are in the similar circumstances are to be treated
alike in respect to both privileges conferred and the liabilities imposed. It however does not
forbid different treatment of unequals. All persons are not equal in all respects and they
cannot be treated at par with every body. Thus, would only result in unequal treatment (e.g.
the reservation we have for the various classes of people is one such example of giving
different treatment for unequal).
ii) Right to equality has been recognised as the Basic Structure of the Constitution held in Indra
Swahney v. Union of India A.I.R. 2000
iii) Article14 does not allow classification of persons into groups that are treated differently but
does not forbid differentiation on the grounds of reasonable classification.
iv) According to the new approach of Article14; Article 14 strikes at the arbitrariness of the state
action and ensures fairness and equality of State action. The principle of reasonableness is an
essential element of equality. Any arbitrary or those actions which are unreasonable are as
such discriminatory.
v) In Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, A.I.R. 1997 Article14 was invoked to prohibit sexual harassment
of women in their workplace on grounds of violation of the right to gender equality.
Probation of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste sex or place of birth-Article15
i) The State may provide special provisions in favour of women and children.
ii) Indra Swahney v. Union of India the court held that other that in extraordinary cases reservation
should not exceed 50%. Caste should not be the yardstick for social or economic
backwardness (SEBC. Socially and educationally backward classes) within the SEBC further
classification between backward and more backward is however permissible.
Equal opportunity in matters of Employment-Article 16
i) Right to Equality is guaranteed by Article14, Article 16 gives Equality of Opportunity in
matters relating to appointment or employment in offices under the State.
Abolition of titles-Article 18
i) Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is punishable by law.
Abolition of titles-Article 18
i) No titles other than military and academic shall be conferred by the state. Conferring honors on the
people, like Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, and Padma Bhushan are not to be treated as a title.
RIGHT TO FREEDOM Article19
Freedom of speech Article 19(1)(a);
Freedom to assemble peacefully Article19(1)(b);
Freedom to form associations or unions Article19(1)(c)
Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India Article 19(1)(d);
To reside and settle in any part of the country Article 19(1)(e);
To acquire, hold and dispose off property Article 19(1)(f) (this freedom was omitted by the 44
th
Amendment
Act 1978)
To practice any profession, or carry on any occupation, trade or business Article 19(1) (g).
These freedoms are available only to citizens. These freedoms guaranteed under Article 19 are basic
freedoms which all persons should enjoy, but these freedoms do not come without certain restrictions.
From clause (2) to clause (6) of Article 19 the state has the right to impose certain reasonable restrictions
so that the interests of the public, security of the state, public order e.t.c are protected for general welfare
of the people.
These freedoms are restricted in matters related to the security of state, defamation, public order,
decency or morality, contempt of court, incitement to an offence, sovereignty and integrity of India.
The freedom to assembly is restricted so as to maintain public order.

The freedom to form associations does not mean several people getting together or voluntarily forming
an association but not at the cost of the sovereignty and integrity of India, public order or morality.
Wherein restrictions have been made on the freedom of movement it has to be reasonable in the
interests of the general public or for the protection of the interests of the schedule tribes.
The freedom to trade and occupation should not jeopardize the public order or public health, economic
welfare of the community.
PROTECTION IN RESPECT OF CONVICTION OF OFFENSES ARTICLE 20
Article 20 gives protection to persons with respect to conviction for offences.
Expost facto laws Article 20(1)
i) Ex-post laws are those laws which nullified and punished acts which were lawful when done.
Article20 (1) prohibits all convictions or subjections to penalties after the Constitution, in respect
of an expost facto law. It means that no one can be punished for any action which was not
declared a crime when such an action was done.
Double Jeopardy Article 20(2)
i) Under Article20 (2) no person shall be prosecuted or punished for the same offence more than
once. under the Indian Constitution in order to bring a person within the ambit of this Article it
has to be shown that he was prosecuted before the court and punished by it for the same
offence for which he is prosecuted again. There is no Constitutional bar to a second prosecution
and punishment for the same unless the accused has been punished in the first instance.
Self IncriminationArticle20(3)
i) Under Article 20(3) no person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself by a person
accused of an offence.
ii) To be a witness herein would mean to give oral or written statements against oneself in or out of
the court out of compulsion.
iii) The prohibition is only on the person being compelled to give evidence against oneself. This
however does not apply to those cases where the accused gives evidence without threat, or
inducement.
PROTECTION OF LIFE AND LIBERTY ARTICLE 21
Article 21 gives the fundamental right to life and liberty in accordance to procedure established by law.
For sometime the courts were of the view that right to life does not include right to livelihood.
Under Article39 (a) men and women equally have the right to adequate means of livelihood. The
courts now have clearly held that right to life would include right to livelihood because no
person can live without the means of living or livelihood.
Procedure established by law in Article 21 would mean; not mean a law which has only a semblance of
law even if it is arbitrary and unreasonable. It would now mean that the procedure must satisfy certain
requisites like being fair and reasonable .the procedure must not be arbitrary, unfair, and unreasonable.
Some of the areas which shows the widening horizon of Article21 are:-
i) Bandua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India A.I.R.1984 the court held that the bonded laborers
were to be released and rehabilitated as it was against the principles enunciated by Article21
and also the Directive Principles of State Policy.
ii) In Hussain v. State of Kerala 2000 SC and Rudal Shah v. State of Bihar recognised the Right
to Compensation for the violation of Article21.
PROTECTION AGAINST ARREST AND DETENTION ARTICLE 22
Fundamental rights can be suspended for the period the emergency is proclaimed but the rights under
Article20 and 21 cannot be suspended even then.
Today progressive judicial interpretation of Article 21 has lead it to greater heights in terms of protecting
a persons life and liberty. The procedure established by law could deprive a person of his right to life
and liberty under Article 21. The procedure must answer to the test of reasonableness. Article 21 is the
procedural Magna Carta protective of right to life and liberty and article 22 draws its strength from it.
Article 22 confers a few rights on the person who is arrested.
i) Shall not be detained without being informed of the grounds of arrest.
ii) Right to consult a lawyer. The right to consult a lawyer is not lost if he is released on bail.
iii) To be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest.
iv) Cannot be detained for a period exceeding 24 hours without the authority of the court.
All these are instances of punitive detention where in a person is detained for the wrong caused by him.
In case of preventive detention the object of this is to curtail a persons liberty so that h is prevented
from doing anything injurious.
Preventive detention is used for the purposes like defence, foreign affairs, or the security of India.
RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION
Prohibition of Traffic in Human Beings and Forced Labour Article 24.
i) There were socio economic problems that were growing out of the control which was mainly
due to poverty. Lack of education and economic conditions so bad that people were willing to
work for any amount of money.
ii) According to this article no person can be forced to work without payment, and traffic in human
beings means to buy and sell human beings like property, other forms of forced labour which
includes bonded labour, and also includes immoral traffic of women.
iii) Bandua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India A.I.R.1984 the Supreme Court held that it was the
fundamental right of every human being to live with human dignity and free from exploitation.
Prohibition Of Employment Of Children In Factories Article 24

i) Most of the Indias poor have many children and because the families feel that the family can be
supported by the extra income that the child will bring in, child labour is more of an economic
problem than any thing else.
ii) This article has been able to achieve only partial prohibition as there are millions of children in our
country who are toiling their childhood away without any one even listening to their plight.
iii) M.C. Mehta v. State of T.N. it was seen that child labour was wide spread. In this case the directions
were given by the Supreme Court in the context of employing children in the cracker and match
factories of Sivakasi.
iv) In Bandua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India, A.I.R. 1997 SC this case was concerning the children
being employed in the carpet weaving industry in U.P. The Supreme Court reiterated the direction of
the earlier case and prohibited the employment of children below the age of 14 making arrangements
for their education by creating a fund and providing employment to the parents or able bodied adults
in the family.
RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION ART 25 TO ART 28
Religion is an integral part in our lives and India being a country where many religions are followed it
has been called a Secular state and the people do have a certain amount of religious tolerance but not
enough to shun communal violence which is rampant. Religious tolerance is one and being fanatic is an
other. We should try to maintain the secular feature of our constitution.
Our constitution guarantees to every person not merely to the citizens freedom to profess, practice but
also to carry out religious obligations and propagate religion.
The state however has the authority to step in when it has to maintain public order, morality, curtail
practices which are not the integral part of the religion, conversion by fraud.
No Religion states that prayers have to be done with the help of loud speakers or beating of drums. It
was held by the Supreme Court that such practice should not adversely affect the rights of others
including those who are not disturbed by their activities. Not only was their liberty infringed under
Article 21 people also have their rights under Article19 (1) (a) wherein they need not be subjected to
sounds they do not like.
CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS ARTICLE 29 TO ARTICLE 31
Article 29 protects the interest of minorities: - this article provides the minorities the guarantee to
conserve their culture, language and their script. The state shall in no manner restrict this right.
Article 30 gives the minorities to establish and administer educational institutions: - The state shall
not discriminate against these institutions while granting aid. Article states that when the institution
is granted aid by the state then no citizen shall be denied admission on basis of religion, race, caste,
language. The minority institution may however reserve up to 50% of the seats of the members of
its community. Wherein the institution is receiving no aid then they are free in matters of admission.
RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES

Under Article 32 the right to move the Supreme Court by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement
of rights conferred by way of Fundamental Rights is guaranteed.
This Right is remedial in nature. Since we have all the Fundamental Rights conferred to us by the
Constitution, we have the remedy under article 32 when it is infringed. This right under Article 32
cannot be taken away or abridged by an Act of the legislature unless the Constitution itself is amended.
Enforcement of fundamental rights
i) Article 32 is applicable only if there is an infringement of a fundamental right. Cases where there
has been no specific violation of fundamental right also petitions under Article 32 has been
entertained.
ii) Under Article 32 the petitioner can challenge not only the validity of the law but can also question
executive action.
iii) The petition has an alternative under article 226, but that does not mean that the court will not
grant relief under Article 32. The Supreme Court insists that when an alternative remedy is available
then that remedy should be availed as extraordinary remedies should not be availed when ordinary
remedy is available.
Who can apply
i) When ever there has been an infringement of a fundamental right the person aggrieved by such
infraction can file a petition.
ii) When it is a writ of habeas corpus then any person, a relative or a friend can file a petition on
behalf of the person who has been detained.
iii) In case of public interest litigations any member of the public having sufficient interest can file a
petition for the persons against whom a legal injury has been caused by a violation of the fundamental
rights are incapable of doing so as they are under poverty or socially or economically disadvantaged.
Today petitions are filed by public spirited persons who take up issues like pavement dwellers,
bonded labourers, child labour, and child prostitution. The court has also acted on basis of news
paper reports, letters written to the court. The court has to be very careful as there are numerous
people who will fritter ways the valuable time of the court with frivolous litigation.
Various writs
i) Habeas corpus: -This writ used to secure a person who has been unlawfully detained without a
legal justification.
Though function of this writ is to release a person unlawfully arrested or detained, the Supreme
Court has widened its scope by giving relief to prisoners who are subjected to inhuman and
cruel treatment in the prison. The court permits the use of this writ for protecting the various
personal liberties that have been granted to persons who are arrested and prisoners under the
various laws and the constitution.
ii) Mandamus: - mandamus is used to enforce the performance of public duties by public authorities
which are imposed by law.
Mandamus is issued when the government denies jurisdiction when it very well has the
jurisdiction under law.
The main function of this writ is to keep the public authorities within their limits of jurisdiction
while carrying out their public functions. This writ can be issued to administrative bodies,
legislative, judicial as well as quasi judicial bodies.
A discriminatory administrative decision can be squashed by a writ of mandamus
iii) Certiorari: - the function of certiorari is to squash a decision already made by the lower subordinate court or a
tribunal. And so it is issued when the body in question has deposed off the matter and rendered the
decision.
The function of certiorari is supervisory. This writ is issued when the authority is acting
under an invalid law.
iv) Quo warranto: - This writ is used to control executive action in the areas of making appointments
to public offices under relevant statutory provisions judicially.
This writ protects the citizens from the holder of a public office when he is not entitled to it.
This writ requires the holder of a particular public office to show under what authority he is
holding that particular office. If it is found that he is not entitled to that office then the court
will restrain him from holding that office and declare that office vacant.
v) Prohibition: - both prohibition and certiorari are remedies for the judicial control of quasi judicial
bodies and administrative decisions affecting the rights.
Prohibition is issued when the matter has not been disposed of but being considered by the
body concerned. The function of prohibition is to prohibit the body concerned from proceeding
with the matter further.
RES JUDICATA
Wherein a matter has been resolved under Article 32 between two parties the same matter between
the same parties cannot come up under the same Article.
This principle will be applicable even when the High Court has been moved under Article226 and
a fresh petition has been filed under Article 32.
The writ of Habeas corpus is an exception to this rule. Res judicata is not applicable for this writ. A
writ of Habeas Corpus has been rejected by the High Court a petition can be filed under Article 32
under the same writ.
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
NATURE
Articles 38 to 51 deals with the Directive Principles of State Policy. This concept was borrowed from
the Irish Constitution. The directive principles lay down certain socio-economic goals which the
government of India seeks to achieve.
These directives are not enforceable in the court of law. The reason behind the non-justiciability of the
principles is that they impose positive obligations on the government.
Then why have them? It was more to have an awakened public opinion.
When directive principles override the fundamental rights, the courts have held that it is the fundamental
rights that will prevail. The fundamental rights are justiciable wherein the directive principles are not.
The laws made to implement directive principles cannot take away the fundamental rights.
If the Parliament in its capacity of an amending body amends the Constitution, by which a fundamental
right is taken away or is abridged the court cannot declare the Constitutional amendment as wrong.
Both the directive principles and the fundamental rights have to coexist harmoniously. There has to be
a harmonious construction between the directive principles and the fundamental rights.
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES- WHAT IT SEEKS TO ACHIEVE
The directive principle seeks to create certain obligations upon the government and at the same time
gives certain rights to its citizens.
The obligation it imposes upon the State:-
i) Directs the State to strive for social, political, and economic equality Article38(1)
ii) To minimize inequality of income Article38(2)
iii) To direct its policy towards controlling material resources Article39 (b) and concentration of
wealth in the hands of few Article39(c).this affects the entire economic system of our
nation.
iv) To enable the citizens to have village panchayats Article40.
v) Welfare of the workers .and to promote cottage industries on individual or cooperative basis in
rural areas Article42, 43.
vi) To strive for a uniform civil code Article44
vii) Educational and economic interests for the weaker sections of the people Article46.
viii) To regard as its primary duty to improve public health and raise nutritional levels and standard of
living Article47. To organize agriculture and animal husbandry Article48.
ix) To protect and improve environment safeguard wildlife and forests of the country Article48A.
x) Places of historical interest to be protected Article49.
xi) Independence of judiciary Article50 this Article is directory and not mandatory.
xii) To promote international peace and security and harmonious relations between countries. To
abide by treaties and international law Article51.
The rights that the directive principles give its citizens. Though these are non-justiciable rights there
are statutes which implement these provisions.
i) Right to means of livelihood Article39(a)
ii) Equal work for men and women Article39(d)
iii) Health of the workers Article39(e)

iv) Protection against exploitation and moral and material abandonment Article39(f)
v) To get free legal aid Article39 A
vi) To have humane conditions of work and maternity leave Article42.
vii) Participation of workers in the management Article43A.
viii) Compulsory and free education for children Article45. This directive just does not mean primary
education but education till the age of 14 years.
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Article 51A contains ten Fundamental Duties which were brought in by the Constitutions Forty Second
Amendment Act, 1976.
i) To abide by the Constitution .respect the national flag and anthem.
ii) To cherish and follow the noble ideas which inspired our national struggle for freedom
iii) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
iv) To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so.
v) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brother hood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic, and regional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to
dignity of women.
vi) To value the rich heritage of our composite culture.
vii) To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes rivers and wildlife, and to
have compassion for living creatures.
viii) To develop scientific temper abnd humanism and spirit of enquiry and reform.
ix) To safeguard public property and to abjure collective violence
x) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement.
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT-THE PARLIAMENT
CONSTITUTION OF PARLIAMENT
The Indian Parliament is bicarmel. It follows a Parliamentary system. It consists of the House of the
People or the Lok sabha and the Council of States which is the upper house or as we know the Rajya
Sabha.
The Parliament is constituted by the two houses and the President. These three organs are important
for the process of legislation by the Parliament.
It is the Parliament that tries to maintain a balance between the executive actions and the legislations, as
it is a Parliamentary system. It is also responsible for the legislations, taxes, and revenue and expenditure
of the public money.
COMPOSITION OF THE RAJYA SABHA AND LOK SABHA:-

RAJYA SABHA
i) The Council of States is a permanent body.
ii) The Vice-President is the ex-officio chair man of the Rajya Sabha.
iii) The representatives of the State in the Rajya sabha are elected by the elected members of the
State Legislative Assembly.
iv) There are some members who are elected and some who are nominated.
v) There is no difference between them except that the nominated members of the Rajya sabha
do not participate in the election of the President of India.
Membership
i) The maximum strength of the Rajya sabha has been fixed at 250 members.
ii) 238 members are elected representatives of the States and Union Territories.
iii) 12 members are nominated by the President, who have special or practical knowledge of subjects
like literature, science, art, social sciences.
Duration
i) 1/3
rd
of the members retire at the end of the second year.
ii) The Rajya sabha is not subjected to dissolution as it is a continuing body.
iii) The members continue for a duration of 6 years.
Qualification
i) Should be a citizen of India.
ii) Should not be less than 30 years of age
iii) Should possess other qualifications that Parliament may by law prescribe.
Disqualification
i) Corrupt practices during elections
ii) Conviction for an offence leading to imprisonment for more than two or more years.
iii) Should not hold office of profit under the government.
iv) A person cannot be a member for both the houses of the Parliament.
LOK SABHA
i) The members of the Lok sabha are directly elected by the people.
ii) The Speaker is the Chief Officer of the Lok sabha.
iii) The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are chosen by the house amongst the members itself.
Membership
i) Not more than 530 members are representatives of the state.
ii) Not more than 20 representatives of the union territories.
iii) Not more than 2 members belonging to the Anglo-Indian community.
Duration
i) The Lok sabha is not a continuing body.
ii) Elections may be held to constitute new Lok sabha before that is done the existing Lok sabha is
dissolved.
iii) The house shall continue for a period of 5 years.
iv) It can be dissolved earlier by the President. The life of the Lok sabha can be extended when there
is a proclaimed emergency.
Qualification
i) A citizen of India
ii) Not less than 25 years of age.
Disqualification
i) Must not be of unsound mind.
ii) Should not be discharged or insolvent.
iii) Voluntarily acquired the citizenship or acknowledges the allegiance to another country.
iv) If should not hold an office of profit.
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE CENTRE
WORKING OF EXECUTIVE
The Union Executive consists of the President, Prime minister, and the Council Of Ministers. Though the
Constitution gives a lot of functions to the President he actually does not do so without the consultation
of the ministers, so effectively it is the Prime minister and the Council of Ministers that constitute the
Executive.
PRESIDENT
Qualifications For Election As The President-Article58
i) Should be a citizen of India
ii) Should have completed 35 years of age
iii) Should be qualified for election as a member of the House Of The People
iv) Should not hold any office of profit under the Central Government or any of the State Governments.
Manner In Which The President Is Elected- Article55

i) The President of India is not directly elected by the people but by indirect election.
ii) President is elected by an electoral college which consists of the elected members of both the
Houses Parliament and the State Legislative Assemblies.
iii) Election is done in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a
single transferable vote by secret ballot.
Tenure Of The President
i) 5 years from the time he enters upon his office.
ii) Even after the term expires he continues as President till his successor takes over.
iii) The President may resign by giving in writing addressed to the Vice-President
iv) In the event of the death, resignation or removal of the President the Vice-President shall act as
the President until a new President is elected.
Salary
i) The salary of the President is Rs.1,00,000 per month.
Re-election as President
i) The Constitution lays no restrictions on the reelection of the same person to the office of the
President.
ii) He may be elected many numbers of terms.
iii) Dr. Rajendra Prasad the first President of India was elected twice from 26
th
January, 1950 to
1962.
Powers Of The President
i) Executive powers:-
Initiation of legislation, maintaining order, promoting social and economic welfare, public
health, welfare of industrial workers, education transport. The executive power vested in the
President has to be exercised in accordance to the Constitution.
ii) Administrative powers:-
Appoints the Prime minister, the Ministers of The Union, Attorney-General, Chief-Justice,
appoints the Commission to investigate the conditions of Backward Classes, the Judges of
the Supreme Court, the Chief Election Commissioner, Election Commissioner, chair-man and
members of the union public service, the finance commission. In case of the proclamation of
emergency the President could suspend the enforcement of the fundamental rights.
iii) Legislative powers
Every Bill to become a law has to have the accent of the President, he can refuse to give accent
and send it back for reconsideration issue ordinances during the recess of the Parliament, can
dissolve the Parliament, convene joint sessions, and his accent is also required for the amendment
of the Constitution.
iv) Powers dealing with defence:-

He is the supreme commander of the forces.
This military power is exercised in accordance to the Constitution.
The exercise of the supreme military power can be regulated by an Act of Parliament.
v) Judicial powers:-
Can grant pardons, reprieves(temporary suspension of a punishment fixed by law), remit
punishments (reduce the amount of punishments without changing the punishment), and
give respites (postpone the execution of a punishment to the future),and commutation (changing
the punishment )
vi) The President is the head of the state. He receives international dignitaries and also represents
India internationally.
vii) The present President of India is smt. Praibha Devsingh Patil
VICE-PRESIDENT
The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
If the office of the President falls vacant In the event of death, resignation or removal of the
President the Vice-President shall act as the President until a new President is elected.
Elected:-
i) The Vice- President acts as the president when the president is unable to carry out his duties
due to illness or absence.
ii) Vice-President is elected by an electoral college which consists of the elected members of
both the Houses Parliament; Election is done in accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of a single transferable vote by secret ballot.
Qualification:-
i) A citizen of India.
ii) 35 years of age.
iii) Cannot be a member of the Parliament and the State Legislature.
iv) Should be qualified to be elected as a member of the Rajya Sabha.
Tenure:-
i) 5 years from the date he enters upon his office.
ii) He may resign his office by writing to the President.
iii) He may also be removed by a resolution by members of the Rajya Sabha and agreed to by the Lok sabha.
PRIME MINISTER
Since it is a parliamentary form of government the Prime minister have a very important role to play.
He is the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha and also of the Council Of Ministers.
The Prime Minister is the link between the President and the Ministers. He appoints a minister and can
also compel the resignation of the minister.
The entire functioning of the parliament depends upon the Prime Minister.
The President may be the Head of State but practically it seems that the Prime Minister is the Head of
State.
When ever the Prime Minister resigns the entire council of ministers also resign.
The Constitution states that the Prime Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
The total number of the ministers including the Prime Minister in the Council of Ministers should not
exceed 15% of the total number of members in the House of People. The ministers hold office at the
pleasure of the President.
The Council of Ministers has collective responsibility towards the house of people. Where in the
whole ministry will be treated like a single entity on matters relating to policies as far as being answerable
to the parliament. The President shall act in accordance to the aid and advice given by the council of
ministers but the President can always ask the Council of Ministers to reconsider such advice.
If a minister within the period of 6 months is not a member of either house of the Parliament ceases to
be a minister.
ATTORNEY GENERAL OF INDIA Article 76
A person qualified to be appointed as the judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed as the
Attorney General of India.
Holds office at the pleasure of the President.
Functions of the Attorney General
i) To give advice to the Government of India on legal matters.
ii) Perform such duties assigned to him by the President.
iii) Discharge functions conferred to him by the Constitution.
SUPREME COURT
It is the protector of fundamental rights of the people in exercise of its original as well as appellate jurisdiction
It is the ultimate authority to interpret the provisions of the Constitution.
It is the final court of appeal in all matters, constitutional, civil, criminal, etc
It is the sole tribunal to decide matters regarding Centre State relationship and inter -State disputes.
FIRST WOMAN JUDGE OF SUPREME COURT M FATIMA BEEVI (1989)

FIRST LAWYER:- CORNELIA SORABJEE (1924)
COMPOSITION
Number of Judges:-
i) Article124 of the Constitution of India provides for the Chief Justice of India.
ii) The total number of judges 25. The age of retirement is 65.
iii) In S.C. Advocates on Board v. Union of India, A.I.R. 1994 SC The court held that the number of
judges should commensurate to the amount of work otherwise the judiciary cannot perform its
Constitutional obligations.
Appointment of Judges:-
i) The Judge of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President of India.
ii) The judges of the Supreme Court hold office at the pleasure of the President.
iii) The President should consult the Chief Justice of India in the appointment of a Judge other than
the Chief Justice of India.
iv) The Constitution does not give any procedure for the appointment of the Chief Justice.
v) It is the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court who is appointed as the Chief Justice. On two
occasions this rule was flouted, first when Justice A. N. Ray was appointed and when he retired
Justice Khanna was superceded and Justice Beg was appointed.
vi) The Supreme Court has since held that as a matter of rule only the senior most Judge shall be
appointed as the Chief Justice of India.
vii) Honble Mr. Justice Hiralal J. Kania was the first Chief Justice of India from 26
th
Jan., 1950 - 6
th
Nov.,1951
viii) The present Chief Justice is Konakuppakatil Gopinathan Balakrishnan
Qualification of a Supreme Court Judge Article124(3)
i) Must be a citizen of India
ii) Five years as the Judge of the High court in India
iii) Advocate of ten years standing
iv) Or in the opinion of the President an eminent jurist
Removal
i) A Judge of the Supreme Court can be removed by an order of the President
ii) The Presidents power to remove is exercisable only after an address to each House of Parliament.
iii) The removal is a Parliamentary procedure and no subject to judicial intervention unless it has
resulted in removal of the Judge wherein the finding has to be supported by the Inquiry Committee
and also subject to the judicial review.
iv) The process of removal of a Judge under Article124 (4) was invoked only once against Justice
Ramaswamy in 1991 but turned out in favour of the judge despite support for removal by the
committee and the media bar, and the Parliamentarians.
Salary
i) The salary of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Rs 33,000 and other Judges of the Supreme
Court Rs 30,000
JURISDICTION OF POWERS
The Constitution of India grants the Supreme Court three types of Jurisdiction. They are Original
Appellate and Advisory Jurisdiction.
Original Jurisdiction
i) Under Article131 the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court extends to any dispute between
the Centre and the State.
ii) The Supreme Court is not a court of original jurisdiction in all matters between parties.
iii) The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction under Article32 regarding the enforcement of
Fundamentals Rights, it is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs.
Appellate jurisdiction
i) Articles 132 to 136 deal with Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in Constitutional, Civil
and Criminal cases.
ii) It deals with appeals involving interpretation of the statutes and also regarding civil matters
iii) Article134 empowers the Supreme Court to hear appeals from any judgment, final order or
sentence in a criminal proceeding. It is a court of criminal appeal over the High Courts and
creates a right of second appeal.
Advisory jurisdiction
i) The Supreme Court has advisory jurisdiction in matters which may specifically be referred to it
by the President of India under Article143 of the Constitution.
POWER TO REVIEW
Under Article137 the Supreme Court can review its own judgments, subject to the provisions of any
law made by Parliament or any rules made by the Supreme Court under Article145.
PUBLIC INTEREST LITIGATION

The Supreme Court as started looking into matters in which the interest of public at large is involved.
The court can be moved by any individual or group, by either filing a writ petition or by addressing a
letter to the Chief Justice of India.
This concept is called the Public Interest Litigation
This concept is unique to the Supreme Court of India as no other court in the world excises this
extraordinary jurisdiction.
PROVISION FOR LEGAL AID
If a person belonging to the poor section of the society or the schedule caste or tribe, is a victim to a
natural calamity, who is a woman or a child or a mentally ill or otherwise a disabled person or an
industrial workmen is entitled to get free legal aid from the Supreme Court Legal Aid Committee.
HIGH COURTS
COMPOSITION OF HIGH COURT
The High Courts
i) The High Court is the Head of the States judicial administration.
ii) There are eighteen High Courts in the country and three of these High Courts have jurisdiction for
more than one State. Like the Bombay High Court, the Gauhati High Court, and Calcutta High
Court.
iii) Among the Union Territories only Delhi has a High Court .The others come under the different
State High Courts.
iv) The Ranchi High Court (Jharkand), the Nanital High Court (Uttaranchal) and the Bilaspur High
Court (Chattisgrah) are High Courts which were establishd in 2000.
The Chief Justice And The Judges
i) Each High Court comprises of a Chief Justice and other judges as the President may appoint.
ii) The Chief Justice of the High Court is appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief
Justice of India and the Governor of the State.
iii) THE FIRST WOMAN CHIEF JUSTICE OF A HIGH COURT LEILA SETH (1991)
iv) The Chief Justice can also be from another State.
v) They hold office until the age of 62 years and are removable in the same manner as the Supreme
Court Judge
vi) To be legible for appointment as judge one must be a citizen of India and have held judicial office in
India for ten years or must have practiced as an Advocate of a High Court for a similar period.
vii) The salary of the Chief Justice of the High Court is Rs 30,000 and the Judges it is Rs 26,000
JURISDICTION
The High Courts have Appellate Jurisdiction and is empower to supervise all courts under its appellate
jurisdiction.
The High Courts of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras and Andhra Pradesh continue to have admiralty
jurisdiction.
WRIT JURISDICTION
Article226 confers upon the High Courts of India to issue to any person or authority orders or writs for
the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights. Or any other legal right it can be exercised even against
the Legislature.
STATE GOVERNMENT
CONSTITUTION
i) The State legislature shall consist of the Governor,
ii) In the States of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh the legislature
is bicarmel, where in the States have two houses. The Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) and
the Legislative Assembly (vidhan sabha).
iii) In all the other States there is only one House which is the Legislative Assembly,
iv) The creation of, or the abolition of the Legislative Council shall not be considered the Amendment
of the Constitution.
COMPOSITION
i) Legislative Council
The total number of members in the Legislative Council of a State shall not exceed 1/3 of the
total number of members in the Legislative Assembly of the State. But the total number of
members shall not be less than 40.
The membership of the Legislative Council is not from territorial constituencies as in the
Legislative Assemblies but by nomination.
ii) Legislative Assembly
The members are elected directly by the people in the State.
They are elected once in every five years.
The minimum number members in the Legislative Assembly should be 60 and the maximum
should be 500.
No member shall be the member of the Council and the Assembly at the same time and no
member can be the member of the Assembly and the Parliament.
FUNCTION
i) Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly
When there are two Houses then the Bill has to be passed by both the Houses.
When the assembly is dissolved and the Bill pending in the Legislative Council which has not
been passed by the Legislative Assembly does not lapse.
But if passed by the Assembly and not by the Council then it lapses.
A non- money Bill may become an act without the consent of the Legislative Council if the
Legislative Assembly passes the Bill and the Council fails to pass it within three months from
the date the Bill was laid before the Council, or if the Council makes certain amendments to
which the Assembly does not agree to.
A Money Bill shall not be introduced in the Legislative Council.
Whether the Assembly accepts or does not accept the recommendations of the Council, the
Money Bill shall be deemed to have been passed by both the Houses.
Like the Parliament both the Houses perform the function of discussing and debating public
issues, controlling the State Government, looking into policies.
FUNCTIONS OF THE GOVERNOR
FIRST WOMAN GOVERNOR:-SAROJINI NAIDU (1947)
Each State has a Governor. Sometimes two or more States may have a common Governor. He is
formally appointed by the President.
The Governor is the Head of the State as well as the link between the Centre and the State so as to
ensure a smooth functioning of the Constitutional Machinery.
THE CHIEF MINISTER AND THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
FIRST WOMAN CHIEF MINISTER:- SUCHETA KRIPLANI (1963)
The Governor appoints the Chief Minister. There is no specific qualification required to be the Chief
Minister of a State. He only has to be the leader of the majority party.
The Governor can dismiss the Ministers and dissolve the Legislative Assembly. Under Article163 the
Ministers have no right to advice the Governor in relation to the functions he has to carry on under
Constitution to exercise his discretion.
He maintains peace and tranquility of the State, summoning, dissolving the State Legislative Assembly,
superintendence and direction, and control of elections, appointment of members of the State Public
Service Commission, and Advocate General of the State.
By the Constitution (Ninety-first Amendment) act, 2003, Article164(1-A) the total number of the Ministers
including the Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers should not exceed fifteen percent of the total
number of the memberd of the Legislative Assembly.
END OF THE CHAPTER
IT Awareness
Chapter 15
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF A COMPUTER

A Computer is an electronic device for automatically carrying out a program of instructions. It is a powerful
general-purpose machine which can be programmed to do a wide variety of computations.
There are three basic main steps to carry out any particular computation:
INPUT- The user feeds in, or inputs, his program and data (the data is the information which the
program will process to produce the desired results of the computations.)
PROCESS/EXECUTION- The computer carries out, or executes the program of instructions.
OUTPUT- The results of the computation are fed back, or output, to the user.
The tasks that a computer performs can be divided into three categories:
Arithmetic Operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
Comparison operations (determining whether a given value is greater than, equal to, or less than
another value)
Storage and retrieval operations (saving a program on any of the disks for further use)
ANATOMY OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
HARDWARE
The hardware consists of the actual physical components of a computer. The three basic components of a
computer system, which are essentially the same regardless of the type of system, are: a central processing
unit, a primary storage unit and peripheral devices.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), rightly called the brain of the computer is composed of: the control
unit and arithmetic/logic unit. The control unit controls the activities of the CPU. It does not process or
store the data, but instructs the various parts of the computer in performing these tasks. This unit interprets
the instructions given by the user and sends out signals to circuits within the CPU to execute these instructions.
The control unit also keeps track of all the programs that have already been executed and the ones which
remain to be executed. Finally it collects the output and sends it to the output device, like monitor screen or
a printer.
The arithmetic/logic unit performs only the mathematical computations like addition, subtraction, multiplication
or division and logical operations. A logical operation is performed by instructing the computer to make a
comparison and then to take an action based on the result of that comparison.
The Primary Storage

Types of Computer Memory:
Based on the different needs, the memory in computers is classified into two types:
Primary Memory & Secondary Memory
Primary Memory (also referred to as main memory, primary storage or internal storage) The Primary
memory is very important to the immediate processing needs of the computer, which means that when the
computer is first switched on, there is an immediate requirement of memory, which is supplied by the
primary memory. This unit temporarily holds program instruction, data and the intermediate and final results
of processing. It consists of various storage locations, each having a unique address and holding a small
amount of information. The address allocated to each storage locations allows the computer to locate items
that have been stored in the computers memory. This type of memory is of two types:
Random Access Memory or RAM
Read Only Memory or ROM
RAM- This is the additional memory which is inside the CPU. RAM is called the Temporary Memory of the
computer because the data, information or program that is present in the memory either gets overwritten by
new data or information gets erased when the computer is switched off.
ROM- The ROM contains programs that are permanently coded by the CPU. The ROM is called so, i.e read
only because it cannot be written on by the CPU. Unlike RAM, ROM does not allow anything to be written
on it.
Secondary Memory (also called external storage/external memory/storage device/magnetic storage device)
is so called because it is found outside the CPU box. The common examples of secondary storage devices
are floppy disks, compact disk and hard disk.
The Peripheral Devices
These devices are input devices, output devices, and secondary storage devices. The programs and data
that are entered into a computer to be processed are called input. The word data refers to unorganized facts.
When this data is processed to some meaningful form, it is called information.
Input devices
These devices are used to enter data into the computer so that it can be processed. Some examples of input
devices are a terminal keyboard, a mouse, a graphics tablet, and a light pen.
Output Devices
The device that gives the processed data or information to us is called the output device. Depending on the
requirement of the user, the result is displayed on the monitor or a printer.
Monitor: All the data entered from the keyboard, first appears on the small TV called monitor. It is
called so because it allows the user of the computer to keep a check on the things that are being
typed. Another very important use of this monitor is that after the processing has been completed
by the computer the result is obtained and is flashed on the monitor, allowing the user to see the
information. Monitors can be Monochrome (having a dark background) or Coloured (can display
text and pictures in all colours)
Printers: The data that has been processed in the computer can be printed on the paper by means
of a printer. They are classified on the basis of how they work. If the printer creates an impression
of the typed letter on the paper, it is called an impact printer, otherwise it is known as non-impact
printer.
Displaying output on the screen gives the user the result in a convenient readable form; this output is
referred to as soft copy. Printing the results on paper is a way of permanently saving the information which
can even be used at a later time. This output is called hard copy.
The Secondary storage devices allow programs, data and processing results to be saved on a storage media
(such as magnetic tape, floppy diskettes). If it is required to process these items, they can be transferred
back into the primary storage unit of the computer. Although it takes more time to access items in secondary
storage devices than in main memory, but the main advantage of secondary storage devices over primary
ones is that they are less expensive and can store enormous quantities of data.
SOFTWARE
The computer needs written instructions to solve a problem, these instructions must be written in a
programming language. These programs and series of programs are referred to as software. These programs
are of two types- system programs and application programs. The system programs direct the computer in
its own internal operations while the application programs are written to solve users problems.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating System is a set of software modules (Program) within a computer system that governs the
control of equipment resources such as processors, main memory, secondary memory, I/O devices and
files.
Some examples of operating system are DOS, WINDOWS, WINDOWS-XP, etc.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
DIGITAL, ANALOG & HYBRID COMPUTERS
The automatic, digital computer was invented in 1833 by Charles Babbage (known as the Father of
Computers) A digital computer is so called because it uses a series of digits to represent all types of
information. The digits used are called binary digit (0 and 1) also balled bits. In contrast to digital computers,
analogue computers use the values of continuously varying physical quantities to represent information. The
desirable features of analog and digital machines can be combined to create a Hybrid computing system,
which is partly digital and partly analog.
PROGRAMS
Refers to the set of instructions that have to be written for the computer so that it is able to process the data
to give the desired information. These programs are written by only those Computer Professionals called
programmers. These programmers have the required knowledge of how to communicate with the computer.
The tool that is used for writing the set of instructions is called a computer language. Working a program is
called executing or running the program.
TYPES OF PROGRAMS
The operating system contains several types of programs. These are:
1. Supervisor Program: (also called the monitor or executive) is the major component of the operating
system. It coordinates the activities of all other parts of the operating system. This program schedules
the order of input and output operations. It also sends messages to the computer operator if an error
occurs or if the computer requires additional direction.
2. Job Control Program: A job is a unit of work to be processed by the CPU. Job control commands are
used to identify the beginning of a job, the specific program to be executed, the work to be done, and
the input/output devices required. The job control program translates the job control commands written
by a programmmer into machine language.
3. Input/Output Management System: When a user-written program requests information to be
transferred into or out of main memory, the input/output (I/O) management system oversees and
coordinates the process. Input and output devices are assigned to specific programs and information is
moved between the devices and memory locations.
4. Language Translation Programs: A computer can only execute instructions that are in machine
language, which consists of 0s and 1s. In order for the computer to use English-like programs such as
those written in Pascal, it must use a language translation program. This program translates the
English-like program into machine language. There are two types of language translation programs:
interpreters and compilers. Compiler, on the other hand, is a program that translates high-level language
into absolute code, or sometimes into assembly language. The input to the compiler is a description of
an algorithm or program in a problem-oriented language; its output (the object code) is an equivalent
description of the algorithm in a machine-oriented language (the source code).
5. Library Programs: Library programs are user-written or manufacturer-supplied programs and

subprograms that are frequently used in other programs. They perform commonly needed tasks.
Library programs are stored in a system library and called into main memory when needed. They are
then linked together with other programs.
6. Utility Programs: Utility programs perform specialized functions. Utility programs or routines are
pre-written programs to provide procedures commonly required by virtually all applications. For example,
a utility program can transfer data from a tape to a disk, to another tape, or to a printer.
Computer Languages
The languages that are used to communicate with the computer are called computer languages. These
computer languages have developed a great deal since they were first used. Their evolution spans about four
stages which are referred to as generations.
Each generation has its own individual characteristic language.
First Generation Language: This language used for computers consisted of zeroes and ones. All
instructions that had to be given consisted of zeroes and ones. This language was also called
machine language (also called binary representation). This was used on computers of the first
generation, which used vacuum tubes. Data represented in binary form is stored in the computer as
a series of on and off states of electronic devices representing binary digits (or bits)
Second Generation Language: The chief characteristic of second generation language was assembly
language (also referred to as low-level language). In this type of language the programmer uses
symbolic names to specify various machine operations; these symbolic names are called mnemonics.
Mnemonics are nothing but easy to remember short-cuts to certain complex instructions. The use
of these mnemonics makes assembly language programming easier than machine language
programming. Another important improvement of Assemble language over machine language is the
use of names to represent storage locations, so that the programmer no longer has to know the
address of the location in which a particular value is kept.
Third Generation Language: The languages used in the third generation were very easy to learn
and use on the computers. These language do not require the programmer to understand the technical
details of internal computer operations. As they were very close to the English languages so they
were called high level languages. Example of such languages are Pascal, BASIC, COBOL,
FORTRAN, C, C++, etc.
Fourth Generation Language: These languages are used even today with most computers available.
They are popular because they allow a lot of data to be collected, stored and used for extracting
various types of information. Such huge collections of data is called a database. Examples of these
type of language are dBASE, FoxPro, Oracle and Ingres.
VIRUS
The term virus is used to describe virtually any type of destructive software. Viruses do not affect the
hardware of the computer. The viruses can and do corrupt data and programs. Computer Viruses are
executable computer programs. Like biological viruses, they find and attach themselves to a host. Most
viruses stay active in memory until the system is switched off. When we turn off the computer we remove
the virus from memory, but not from the file, files or disk it has affected. So, next time we use our
computer, the virus program is activated again and attaches itself to more programs.
TYPES OF VIRUS
Mainly, there are two main types of virus - Program Virus & Boot Virus
Program Virus must be written for a specific operating system. Boot Virus exploit the inherent features of
the computer (rather than operating system) to spread and activate.
Definitions
Virus: A virus is a type of program that can replicate itself by making (possibly modified) copies of itself.
The main criterion for classifying a piece of executable code as a virus is that it spreads itself by means of
hosts. A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected
computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or carrying it on a removable medium. Additionally,
viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is
accessed by another computer. Viruses are sometimes confused with worms.
Worm: A worm, however, can spread itself to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of
a host. Many personal computers are now connected to the Internet and to local-area networks, facilitating
their spread. Todays viruses may also take advantage of network services such as the World Wide Web, e-
mail, and file sharing systems to spread, blurring the line between viruses and worms.
Viruses can infect different types of hosts. The most common targets are executable files that contain
application software or parts of the operating system. Viruses have also infected the executable boot sectors
of floppy disks, script files of application programs, and documents that can contain macro scripts. Additionally,
viruses can infect files in other ways than simply inserting a copy of their code into the code of the host
program. For example, a virus can overwrite its host with the virus code, or it can use a trick to ensure that
the virus program is executed when the user wants to execute the (unmodified) host program. Viruses have
existed for many different operating systems, including MSDOS, Amiga OS, Linux and even Mac OS;
however, the vast majority of viruses affect Microsoft Windows.
Spyware: In the field of computing, the term spyware refers to a broad category of malicious software
designed to intercept or take partial control of a computers operation without the informed consent of that
machines owner or legitimate user. While the term taken literally suggests software that surreptitiously
monitors the user, it has come to refer more broadly to software that subverts the computers operation for
the benefit of a third party.
Spyware differs from viruses and worms in that it does not usually self-replicate. Like many recent viruses,
however, spyware by design exploits infected computers for commercial gain. Typical tactics furthering
this goal include delivery of unsolicited pop-up advertisements; theft of personal information (including
financial information such as credit card numbers); monitoring of Web-browsing activity for marketing
purposes; or routing of HTTP requests to advertising sites.
Adware: Adware or advertising-supported software is any software package which automatically plays,
displays, or downloads advertising material to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the
application is being used.
COMPUTER NETWORKING
Computer networking is the scientific and engineering discipline concerned with communication between
computer systems. Such networks involve at least two computers seperated by a few inches (e.g. via
Bluetooth) or thousands of miles (e.g. via the Internet). Computer networking is sometimes considered a
sub-discipline of telecommunications.
History
Carrying instructions between calculation machines and early computers was done by human users. In
September, 1940 George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from his
Model K at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and
received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an
interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency ARPA when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and
developed a working group he called the Intergalactic Network, a precursor to the ARPANet. In 1964,
researchers at Dartmouth developed a time sharing system for distributed users of large computer systems.
The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer
(DECs PDP-8) to route and manage telephone connections. In 1968 Paul Baran proposed a network system
consisting of datagrams or packets that could be used in a packet switching network between computer
systems. In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at
Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANet network using
50 kbit/s circuits.
Categorizing
Local area network
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small local area, like a home, office, or
small group of buildings such as a home, office, or college. Current LANs are most likely to be based on
switched Ethernet or Wi-Fi technology running at from 10 to 10000 Mbit/s. The defining characteristics of
LANs in contrast to WANs are: a) much higher data rates, b) smaller geographic range - at most a few
kilometers, and c) they do not involve leased telecommunication lines. LAN usually does not refer to data
running over local analog telephone lines, as on a private branch exchange (PBX).
Wide area network
A wide area network or WAN is a computer network covering a wide geographical area, involving a vast
array of computers. This is different from personal area networks (PANs), metropolitan area networks
(MANs) or local area networks (LANs) that are usually limited to a room, building or campus. The most
well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.
WANs are used to connect local area networks (LANs) together, so that users and computers in one location
can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular
organization and are private. Others, built by Internet Service Providers, provide connections from an
organizations LAN to the Internet. WANs are most often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased
line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other.
Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet
over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service providers to deliver the links that
are used in WANs. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the grandfather
of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today (with
upgrades) by Frame Relay.
BENEFITS OF NETWORKS
Exchanging Data
Sharing system resources
Creation of workgroups
Centralized Management
Security
Access to more than one operating system
Enhancement of the corporate structure
COMPONENTS OF NETWORKS
Server- A server runs the network operating system and offers network services to users at their
individual workstations. It offers services such as file, storage, security, resource management,
user management.
The types of server are
1. File server
2. E-mail server or E-mail gateway
3. Database server
4. Fax server
5. Print server
6. Backup and archive server
Workstations- When a computer is connected to a network, it becomes a node on the network
and is called a workstation or client. A workstations job has been to execute program files retrieved
from the network, and the servers job is to deliver those files to the workstation.
NICs- Network Interface Cards provides interface between the server and workstations. Each
computer attached to a network requires a network interface card (NIC) that supports a specific
networking scheme. The type of NICs used usually decides the maximum data transfer rate
Cabling- The network cabling system is the media used to connect the server and the workstations
together.
Shared resources and peripherals- Shared resources and peripherals include storage devices
attached to the server, optical disk drives, printers, plotters, modem and other equipment that can
be used by everyone on the network.
THE INTERNET
The Internet, or simply the Net, is the publicly accessible worldwide system of interconnected computer
networks that transmit data by packet switching using a standardized Internet Protocol (IP). It is made up
of thousands of smaller commercial, academic, domestic, and government networks. It carries various
information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, and the interlinked Web pages and other
documents of the World Wide Web.
Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the Internet is
a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless
connections etc.; the Web is a collection of interconnected documents, linked by hyperlinks and URLs, and
is accessible using the Internet.
Creation of the Internet
The USSRs launch of Sputnik spurred the U.S. to create the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead. DARPA created the Information Processing
Technology Office to further the research of the Semi Automatic Ground Environment program, which had
networked country-wide radar systems together for the first time. J. C. R. Licklider was selected to head
the IPTO, and saw universal networking as a potential unifying human revolution. Licklider recruited Lawrence
Roberts to head a project to implement a network, and Roberts based the technology on the work of Paul
Baran who had written an exhaustive study for the U.S. Air Force that recommended packet switching to
make a network highly robust and survivable. After much work, the first node went live at UCLA on
October 29, 1969 on what would be called the ARPANET, the eve network of todays Internet. In December
of 1970, Charles A. Petrik contacted the U.S. Navy and suggested that a special communications network,
that the Department of Defence had built for use in the possibility of a nuclear attack, could also be used
during peace time. Petrik convinced the military to connect the computers of the U.S. National Laboratories
for scientific research purposes, and to allow these labs to get data to other labs faster, and safer. The vast
majority of todays Internet uses version four of the IP protocol (i.e. IPv4), and although IPv6 is standardised,
it exists only as islands of connectivity, and there are many ISPs who dont have any IPv6 connectivity at
all. The first TCP/IP wide area network was operational by 1 January 1983 , when the United States
National Science Foundation (NSF) constructed a university network backbone that would later become the
NSFNet. (This date is held by some to be technically that of the birth of the Internet.) It was then followed
by the opening of the network to commercial interests in 1995. Important separate networks that offered
gateways into, then later merged into the Internet include Usenet, Bitnet and the various commercial and
educational X.25 networks such as Compuserve and JANET. The ability of TCP/IP to work over these pre-
existing communication networks allowed for a great ease of growth. Use of Internet as a phrase to describe
a single global TCP/IP network originated around this time.
The network gained a public face in the 1990s. In August 1991 CERN in Switzerland publicized the new
World Wide Web project, two years after Tim Berners-Lee had begun creating HTML, HTTP and the first
few web pages at CERN in Switzerland. In 1993 the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign released the Mosaic web browser version 1.0, and by late 1994
there was growing public interest in the previously academic/technical Internet. By 1996 the word Internet
was common public currency, but it referred almost entirely to the World Wide Web.
Meanwhile, over the course of the decade, the Internet successfully accommodated the majority of previously
existing public computer networks (although some networks such as FidoNet have remained separate).
This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the
network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor
interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.
Todays Internet
Apart from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is held together by
bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (for example peering agreements) and by technical specifications
or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is essentially defined
by its interconnections and routing policies.
Internet protocols
In this context, there are three layers of protocols:
at the lowest level is IP - the datagram which carries a block of data from one node to another
next comes TCP & UDP - the protocols by which one host exchanges data with another the
former making a virtual circuit giving some level of guarantee of reliability, the latter being a best-
effort connection-less transport
on top comes the application protocol - the specific messages or data stream used by the
application running on the hosts to talk to each other.
Unlike older communications systems, the Internet protocol suite was deliberately designed to be independent
of the underlying physical medium. Any communications network, wired or wireless, that can carry two-
way digital data can carry Internet traffic. Thus, Internet packets flow through wired networks like copper
wire, coaxial cable, and fibre optic; and through wireless networks like Wi-Fi.
Together, all these networks, sharing the same high-level protocols, form the Internet.
The Internet protocols originate from discussions within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and its
working groups, which are open to public participation and review. These committees produce documents
that are known as Request for Comments documents (RFCs). Some RFCs are raised to the status of
Internet Standard by the IETF process.
Some of the popular services on the Internet that make use of these protocols are e-mail, Usenet newsgroups,
file sharing, Instant Messenger, the World Wide Web, Gopher, session access, WAIS, finger, IRC, MUDs,
and MUSHs. Of these, e-mail and the World Wide Web are clearly the most used, and many other services
are built upon them, such as mailing lists and blogs. The Internet makes it possible to provide real-time
services such as Internet radio and webcasts that can be accessed from anywhere in the world.
World Wide Web
The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is a global information space which people can
read-from and write-to via a large number of different Internet-connected devices. For example, computers,
Personal Digital Assistants, cellular phones, telephone kiosks, etc. The World Wide Web is also available
(sometimes only partially) through digital television services, exposing content onto television screens.
END OF THE CHAPTER

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Dear Student,

If you were asked:

8. The Age of Mauryas (321-198 BC)

Aihole was the temple town of this period.

Baburnama is written in Turkish.

Buland Darwaza Fatehpur Sikri near Agra Akbar

ii) Battle of Wandiwash (1760)

10. Lord Willingdon (1931 - 1936)

Imortant Socio-Religious Organisations

Congress the first president of Indian National Congress.

2. Earths Atmosphere : It consists of the following layers:

IMPORTANT GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS

Assam Dispur 1972 Shillong (1874-1972)

INDIAN UNION TERRITORIES

Nokrek National Park Meghalaya

Important Towns on Rivers

CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD

THE OCEANS OF THE WORLD

Bolivia La paz/Sucre The Boliviano

Guyana Georgetown Guyana Dollar

Poland Warsaw Zloty

COUNTRIES AND THEIR PARLIAMENTS

Gold Coast Ghana

City of Seven Hills Rome

Playground of Europe Switzerland

In this chapter, you will learn:

THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Features Lok Sabha (Lower House) Rajya Sabha (Upper House)

THE ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA

THE PLANNING COMMISSION

THE FISCAL POLICY

3. The Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI)

Second Green Revolution

8. Vijai Nagar (Karnataka)

1. Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (IOC)

MAXIMUM POPULATION DENSITY

MAXIMUM FEMALE LITERACY RATE

THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO)

exporters and importers conduct their business. It is headquartered at Geneva, Switzerland.

Desert Largest Sahara desert, Africa

END OF THE CHAPTER

BOOKS AND AUTHORS

Hamlet William Shakespeare

The Tempest William Shakespeare

The Alchemist Paulo Coelho

Beyond Peace Richard Nixon

COMMONLY USED SPORTS TERMINOLOGIES

IMPORTANT CUPS AND TROPHIES

1983 England India West Indies

Mens Title Womens Title

END OF THE CHAPTER

Ramon Magsaysay Award Winners for 2006

ATP : Adenosine Tri-Phosphate

CGS : Chief of General Staff

IAAI : International Atomic Authority of India

IVM : In-Vitro maturation

OIC : Organisation of Islamic Conference

SUV : Sports Utility Vehicle

WHO : World Health Organisation

The Human Body

Plasma membrane or cell membrane:

Average body weight 70 kg

Locomotive Richard Trevithic England 1804