HARDWARE ORGANISATION OF COMPUTERS AND

MICROPROCESSORS
COMPUTER ORGANISATION
This deals with the optimization of performance-based products i.e.
hardware is optimized in order to achieve the most performance at the least
expense. Hardware refers to the physical and electronic equipment used for the
input, processing, output, and storage activities performed in a computer system.
The hardware components consist of:
Input technologies
Central processing unit (CPU) - data path and control
Memory (primary and secondary storage)
Output technologies
Communication technologies
These components are linked together by a communication network or bus.
STANDARD ORGANISATION OF A COMPUTER

FIGURE 1.0 : STANDARD ORGANISATION OF A COMPUTER SHOWING THE
FIVE CLASSIC COMPONENTS



FIGURE 1.5. A desktop computer. The liquid crystal display (LCD) screen is the
primary output device, and the keyboard and mouse are the primary input
devices. On the right side is an Ethernet cable that connected the laptop to the
network and the Web. The laptop contains the processor, memory, and additional
I/O devices. This system is a MacBook Pro 15" laptop connected to an external
display.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

This performs the actual computation inside a computer. It processes information
and executes programs. It performs arithmetic and logic operations on data,
times and controls the rest of the computer system. The CPU is a microprocessor
made up of millions of microscopic transistors embedded in a circuit on a silicon
wafer or chip. The microprocessor has different parts, which perform different
functions. The control unit sequentially accesses program instructions, decodes
them, and controls the flow of data to and from the ALU, the registers, the
caches, primary storage, secondary storage, and various output devices. The
arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs the mathematic calculations and makes
logical comparisons. The registers are high-speed storage areas that store very
small amounts of data and instructions for short periods of time.
The microprocessor is a CPU with a single integrated circuit. The microprocessor
logically comprises two main components: datapath and control, the respective
brawn and brain of the processor. The datapath performs the arithmetic
operations, and control tells the datapath, memory, and I/O devices what to do
according to the instructions of the program.



FIGURE 1.4: PARTS OF A MICROPROCESSOR

The figure above illustrates the following
The inputs are data and brief instructions about what to do with the data.
The instructions come from software within the parts of the computer.
They could be typed by the user on the keyboard, or read from a data file in
another part of the computer. They are stored in registers until when sent
for processing.
Data and instructions travel in the chip via electrical pathways called buses.
The size of the busanalogous to the width of a highwaydetermines how
much information can flow at any time.
The control unit directs the flow of data and instructions within the chip.
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) receives the data and instructions from the
registers and makes the desired computation. These data and instructions
have been translated into binary form, that is, only 0s and 1s. The CPU can
process only binary data.
The data in their original form and the instructions are sent to storage
registers and then are sent back to a storage place outside the chip, such as
the computers hard drive. Meanwhile, the transformed data go to another
register and then on to other parts of the computer (e.g. to the monitor for
display, or to be stored).



FIGURE 1.5: HOW THE CPU WORKS

A CPU has three functional sections which are:

1. Arithmetic and Logic unit (ALU): It is used for arithmetic and logic
operations that are performed on numbers. It performs the mathematic
calculations and makes logical comparisons.
2. Registers: These are fast temporary storage devices for data, instructions or
intermediate results of calculations. They store very small amounts of data
and instructions for short periods of time.
3. Control section: This times and regulates all elements of the computer
system, translates register patterns into computer activities.

The control unit is the main part of the processor. It performs its task by
repeatedly cycling through the following steps:
1. Read (fetch) the next instruction from memory.
2. Examine the instruction to determine what it is and to find any possible errors.
3. Execute the instruction.
These steps are known as the fetch-execute cycle. In order to read the next
instruction from memory, the control unit needs to know the location (memory
address) of the instruction. This address is kept in a special register called the
program counter (PC). The PC is a special register and is normally located in the
control unit. It always contains the address of the next instruction, not the current
one. When the next instruction is fetched, it is stored in the instruction register
(IR), another special-purpose register that always contains the current instruction.
Note that as soon as the next instruction is fetched and is stored in the IR it
becomes the current instruction.


Figure 1.2: The main components used in the fetch-execute cycle

CPU ELEMENTS
Program Counter or PC: This contains the address of the instruction that
will be executed next.
Stack: This is a data structure of last in first out type. A stack is described by
a special register stack pointer. It can be used explicitly to save/restore
data. It is used implicitly by procedure call instructions (if available in the
instruction set).
IR: This is an instruction register that holds the current instruction being
processed by the microprocessor. It is not exposed through the instruction
set architecture. It is an organization element.


COMPUTER MEMORY

The amount and type of memory that a computer possesses has a great
deal to do with its general utility, often affecting the type of program it can run
and the work it can do, its speed, and both the cost of the machine and the cost
of processing data. There are two basic categories of computer memory. The first
is primary storage, so named because small amounts of data and information that
will be immediately used by the CPU are stored there. The second is secondary
storage, where much larger amounts of data and information (an entire software
program, for example) are stored for extended periods of time.
CPUs process only 0s and 1s. All data are translated through computer
languages into series of these binary digits, or bits. A particular combination of
bits represents a certain alphanumeric character or simple mathematical
operation. Eight bits are needed to represent any one of these characters.
This 8-bit string is known as a byte. The storage capacity of a computer is
measured in bytes. (Bits are used as units of measure typically only for
telecommunications capacity, as in how many million bits per second can be sent
through a particular medium.) The hierarchy of byte memory capacity is as
follows:
Kilobyte. Kilo means one thousand, so a kilobyte (KB) is approximately one
thousand bytes. Actually, a kilobyte is 1,024 bytes (210 bytes).
Megabyte. Mega means one million, so a megabyte (MB) is approximately one
million bytes (1,048,576 bytes, or 1,024 * 1,024, to be exact). Most personal
computers have hundreds of megabytes of RAM.
Gigabyte. Giga means one billion; a gigabyte (GB) is actually 1,073,741,824 bytes
(1,024 * 1,024 * 1,024 bytes). The storage capacity of a hard drive (a type of
secondary storage) in modern personal computers is often many gigabytes.
Terabyte. One trillion bytes (actually, 1,078,036,791,296 bytes) is a terabyte.

P r i m a r y S t o r a g e
Primary storage, or main memory, stores for very brief periods of time three
types of information: data to be processed by the CPU, instructions for the CPU as
to how to process the data and operating system programs that manage various
aspects of the computers operation. Primary storage takes place in chips
mounted on the computers main circuit board (the motherboard), located as
close as physically possible to the CPU chip. As with the CPU, all the data and
instructions in primary storage have been translated into binary code. There are
four main types of primary storage:
(1) Register: As indicated earlier, registers are part of the CPU. They have the
least capacity, storing extremely limited amounts of instructions and data
only immediately before and after processing.
Random access memory (RAM): It stores more information than the registers and
is farther away from the CPU, but it stores less than secondary storage and is
much closer to the CPU than is secondary storage. It comprises of memory chips
soldered onto printed circuit boards or plugged into sockets on the motherboard.
It is also called read/write memory. It deals with both hardware and software:
firmware. When you start most software programs on your computer, the entire
program is brought from secondary storage into RAM. As you use the program,
small parts of the programs instructions and data are sent into the registers and
then to the CPU. Again, getting the data and instructions as close to the CPU as
possible is key to the computers speed, as is the fact that the RAM is a type of
microprocessor chip. The chip is much faster (and more costly) than are
secondary storage devices. RAM is temporary and volatile; that is, RAM chips lose
their contents if the current is lost or turned off (as in a power surge, brownout,
or electrical noise generated by lightning or nearby machines). RAM chips are
located directly on the computers main circuit board or in other chips located on
peripheral cards that plug into the main circuit board. The two main types of RAM
are dynamic RAM (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM). DRAM memory chips offer the
greatest capacities and the lowest cost per bit, but are relatively slow. SRAM costs
more than DRAM but has a higher level of performance, making SRAM the
preferred choice for performance-sensitive applications, including the external L2
and L3 caches (discussed next) that speed up microprocessor performance
(1) Cache memory: This is a type of high-speed memory that a processor can
access more rapidly than main memory (RAM). It augments RAM in the
following way: Many modern computer applications (Microsoft XP, for
example) are very complex and have huge numbers of instructions. It takes
considerable RAM capacity (usually a minimum of 128 megabytes) to store
the entire instruction set. Or you may be using an application that exceeds
your RAM. In either case, your processor must go to secondary storage
(similar to a lengthy trip to the garage) to retrieve the necessary
instructions. To alleviate this problem, software is often written in smaller
blocks of instructions. As needed, these blocks can be brought from
secondary storage into RAM. This process is still slow, however. Cache
memory is a place closer to the CPU where the computer can temporarily
store those blocks of instructions used most often. Blocks used less often
remain in RAM until they are transferred to cache; blocks used infrequently
stay stored in secondary storage. Cache memory is faster than RAM
because the instructions travel a shorter distance to the CPU. In our tool
analogy, cache memory might represent an additional box with a selected
set of needed tools from the kitchen toolbox and the garage. There are two
types of cache memory in the majority of computer systems Level 1 (L1)
cache is located in the processor, and Level 2 (L2) cache is located on the
motherboard but not actually in the processor. L1 cache is smaller and
faster than L2 cache. Chip manufacturers are now designing chips with L1
cache and L2 cache in the processor and Level 3 (L3) cache on the
motherboard.
(2) Read-only memory (ROM): This is the place (a type of chip) where certain
critical instructions are safeguarded. ROM is nonvolatile and retains these
instructions when the power to the computer is turned off. The read-only
designation means that these instructions can be read only by the
computer and cannot be changed by the user. Examples of ROM
instructions are those needed to start or boot the computer once it has
been shut off. There are variants of ROM chips that can be programmed
(PROM), and some that can be erased and rewritten (EPROM). These are
relatively rare in mainstream organizational computing, but are often
incorporated into other specialized technologies such as video games
(PROM) or robotic manufacturing (EPROM). Another form of rewritable
ROM storage is called flash memory. This technology can be built into a
system or installed on a personal computer card (known as a flash card).
These cards, though they have limited capacity, are compact, portable, and
require little energy to read and write. Flash memory via flash cards is very
popular for small portable technologies such as cellular telephones, digital
cameras, handheld computers, and other consumer products.

The logic of primary storage in the computer is just like the logic of storing things
in your house. The stored data which will be used immediately gets stored in very
small amounts as close to the CPU as possible. Remember, as with CPU chip
design, the shorter the distance the electrical impulses (data) have to travel, the
faster they can be transported and processed. That which requires special
protection will be stored in an exceptionally secure manner.

S e c o n d a r y S t o r a g e
Secondary storage is designed to store very large amounts of data for extended
periods of time. Secondary storage can have memory capacity of several
terabytes or more and only small portions of that data are placed in primary at
any one time. Secondary storage has the following characteristics:
It is nonvolatile.
It takes much more time to retrieve data from secondary storage than it
does from RAM because of the electromechanical nature of secondary
storage devices.
It is much more cost effective than primary storage (see Figure 3.6).
It can take place on a variety of media, each with its own technology.
The overall trends in secondary storage are toward more direct-access
methods, higher capacity with lower costs, and increased portability.
Under secondary (auxiliary) storage, we have:
Magnetic diskette (Floppy disk)
Optical storage device: Types are compact disk read-only memory (CD-
ROM), digital video disk (DVD), and fluorescent multilayer disk (FMD-ROM).
Magnetic tape

Memory cards: PC memory cards are credit-card-size devices that can be
installed in an adapter or slot in many personal computers. The PC memory card
functions as if it were a fixed hard disk drive. The cost per megabyte of storage is
greater than for traditional hard disk storage, but the cards do have advantages,
which are:
They are less failure-prone than hard disks,
They are portable, and
They are relatively easy to use.

Expandable storage: Expandable storage devices are removable disk cartridges.
The storage capacity ranges from 100 megabytes to several gigabytes per
cartridge, and the access speed is similar to that of an internal hard drive.
Although more expensive than internal hard drives, expandable storage devices
combine hard disk storage capacity and diskette portability. Expandable storage
devices are ideal for backup of the internal hard drive, as they can hold more than
80 times as much data and operate five times faster than existing floppy diskette
drives.

INPUT TECHNOLOGIES

These allow people and other technologies to put data into a computer.

H u m a n D a t a - E n t r y D e v i c e s
Human data-entry devices allow people to communicate with the computer.
Some of these devices are very common, such as the keyboard and the mouse.
Others, such as the touch screen, stylus, trackball, joystick, and microphone, are
used for somewhat more specialized purposes.

KEYBOARDS: These are the most common input device. The keyboard is
designed like a typewriter but with many additional function keys. Most computer
users utilize keyboards regularly.
MICE AND TRACKBALLS: A mouse is a handheld device used to point a cursor
at a desired place on the screen, such as an icon, a cell in a table, an item in a
menu, or any other object. Once the arrow is placed on an object, the user clicks a
button on the mouse, instructing the computer to take some action. The use of
the mouse reduces the need to type in information or use one of the function
keys.
A variant of the mouse is the trackball, which is often used in graphic design. The
user holds an object much like a mouse, but rather than moving the entire device
to move the cursor (as with a mouse), he or she rotates a ball that is built into the
top of the device. Portable computers have some other mouse-like technologies,
such as the glide-and-tap pad, used in lieu of a mouse. Many portables also allow
a conventional mouse to be plugged in when desired.
Another variant of the mouse, the optical mouse, replaces the ball, rollers, and
wheels of the mechanical mouse with a light, lens, and a camera chip. It replicates
the action of a ball and rollers by taking photographs of the surface it passes over,
and comparing each successive image to determine where it is going.
The pen mouse resembles an automobile stick shift in a gear box. Moving the pen
and pushing buttons on it perform the same functions of moving the cursor on
the screen as a conventional pointing device. But the pen mouse base stays
immobile on the desk. With a pen mouse, the forearm rests on the desk, saving
wear and tension. Because the mouse is not lifted or moved, the fingers, not the
arm, do the work.
TOUCH SCREENS: These are a technology that divides a computer screen into
different areas. Users simply touch the desired area (often buttons or squares) to
trigger an action. These are common in computers built into self-service kiosks
such as ATM machines and even bridal registries.
STYLUS: This is a pen-style device that allows the user either to touch parts of a
predetermined menu of options (as with a wearable computer, discussed above)
or to handwrite information into the computer (as with some PDAs). (See the
photo of the PDA and stylus on page 76.) The technology may respond to
pressure of the stylus, or the stylus can be a type of light pen that emits light that
is sensed by the computer.
JOY STICK: This is used primarily at workstations that display dynamic graphics.
It is also used to play video games. The joy stick moves and positions the cursor at
the desired place on the screen.
MICROPHONE: This is becoming a popular data-input device as voice-
recognition software improves and people can use microphones to dictate to the
computer. These are also critical technologies for people who are physically
challenged and cannot use the more common input devices.

SOURCE DATA AUTOMATION: Its function is to input data with minimal
human intervention. These technologies speed up data collection, reduce errors,
and gather data at the source of a transaction or other event. Below are the
common types:
CASH-TRANSACTION DEVICES: Various input devices are common in
association with cash transactions. The most common are ATMs and POS
terminals.
Automated teller machines (ATMs) are interactive input/output devices that
enable people to make bank transactions from remote locations. ATMs utilize
touch screen input as well as magnetic card readers.
Point-of-sale (POS) terminals are computerized cash registers that also often
incorporate touch screen technology and bar-code scanners (described below).
These devices allow the input of numerous data such as item sold, price, method
of payment, name or Zip code of the buyer, and so on. Some inputs are
automated; others may be entered by the operator.
OPTICAL SCANNERS: Bar-code scanners, used in retail stores, scan the black
and white bar code lines typically printed on labels on merchandise. They are very
popular for tracking inventory and shipping.
An optical mark reader is a special scanner for detecting the presence of pencil
marks on a predetermined grid, such as multiple-choice test answer sheets.
Similarly, magnetic ink character readers (MICRs) are used chiefly in the banking
industry. Information is printed on checks in magnetic ink that can be read by the
MICR technology, thus helping to automate and greatly increase the efficiency of
the check-handling process.
Optical character recognition (OCR) software is used in conjunction with a scanner
to convert text into digital form for input into the computer. Although the scanner
can digitize any graphic, the OCR software can recognize the individual characters,
so that they can be manipulated. As a practical example, the scanner by itself
could take a picture of this page of text and convert it into digital information
that the computer could store as a picture of the text. OCR-equipped scanning
technologies are very useful when printed documents not only must be preserved
but also would benefit from any manipulations or modifications. OCR
technologies would enable you to scan data, process them with the OCR
software, and then put them into a database, spreadsheet, or word-processing
format. OCR software is usually incorporated in stylus-input devices.
Other source data automation devices:
Voice-recognition systems are used in conjunction with microphones to input
speech to computers. Voice-recognition software (VRS) attempts to identify
spoken words and translate them into digital text.
Sensors are extremely common technologies embedded in other technologies.
They collect data directly from the environment and input them into a computer
system. Examples might include your cars airbag activation sensor or fuel
mixture/pollution control sensor, inventory control sensors in retail stores, and
the myriad types of sensors built into a modern aircraft.
Cameras can now operate digitally, capturing images and converting them into
digital files. There are digital still-image cameras, and there are now many types
of digital motion-picture cameras. Many computer enthusiasts and practical
business people find it useful to attach small digital cameras to their personal
computers. When linked to the Internet, and using special software such as
Microsofts NetMeeting, such a system can be used to conduct desktop
videoconferencing.

OUTPUT TECHNOLOGIES
The output generated by a computer can be transmitted to the user via several
devices and media. Below are common types of output technologies.

M o n i t o r s
Monitors are the video screens used with most computers that display input as
well as output. Like television sets, monitors come in a variety of sizes and
color/resolution quality. And like television sets, the common desktop monitor
uses cathode ray tube (CRT) technology to shoot beams of electrons to the
screen. The electrons illuminate tiny points on the screen known as pixels. The
more pixels on the screen, the better the resolution, i.e. the less space between
pixels, the finer the dot pitchthe better the resolution.
Here are some other useful facts about monitors:
Portable computers use a flat screen that uses liquid crystal display (LCD)
technology, not CRT.
LCDs use less power than CRT monitors but cost six to eight times what an
equivalent CRT does.
LCD monitors may be passive matrix, which have somewhat less display speed
and brightness compared to active matrix monitors, which function somewhat
differently (and cost significantly more).
Organic light-emitting diodes: Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) provide
displays that are brighter, thinner, lighter, and faster than liquid crystal displays
(LCDs).

Retinal scanning displays: As people increasingly use mobile devices, many are
frustrated with the interfaces. The interfaces are too small, too slow, and too
awkward to process information effectively. As a result,
Web sites become unusable, e-mails are constrained, and graphics are eliminated.
One solution does away with screens altogether. A firm named Microvision
(mvis.com) projects an image, pixel by pixel, directly onto a viewers retina. This
technology, called retinal scanning displays (RSDs), is used in a variety of work
situations, including medicine, air traffic control, and controls of industrial
machines. RSDs can also be used in dangerous situations, for example, giving
firefighters in a smoke-filled building a floor plan.

FIGURE 2.9: A retinal scanning display (RSD) device.

P r i n t e r s
Printers come in a variety of styles for varying purposes. The three main types are
impact printers, nonimpact printers, and plotters.
Impact printers: Impact printers work like typewriters, using some kind of striking
action. A raised metal character strikes an inked ribbon that makes a printed
impression of the character on the paper. These devices cannot produce high-
resolution graphics, and they are relatively slow, noisy, and subject to mechanical
failure. Although inexpensive, they are becoming less popular.
Nonimpact printers: Nonimpact printers come in two main styles. Laser printers
are higher-speed, high-quality devices that use laser beams to write information
on photosensitive drums, whole pages at a time; then the paper passes over the
drum and picks up the image with toner (similar to ink). Laser printers produce
very-high-resolution text and graphics, making them suitable for a broad range of
printing needs from simple text to desktop publishing. Inkjet printers work
differently, by shooting fine streams of colored ink onto the paper. These are less
expensive than laser printers, but offer somewhat less resolution quality.
Plotters: Plotters are printing devices that use computer-directed pens for
creating high-quality images. They are used in complex, low-volume situations, for
example, creating maps and architectural drawings. Some plotters are quite large,
suited for producing correspondingly large graphics.

V o i c e O u t p u t
Voice output is now possible via sophisticated synthesizer software that can be
installed in most personal computers. A voice output system constructs the sonic
equivalent of textual words, which can then be played through speakers. Other
types of software can manage spoken communication in different ways. For
example, one can purchase programs that integrate telephone voice mail with the
computer, so that the computer can record and make limited responses to
incoming calls.


FIGURE 3.0: Multimedia authoring system with a great variety of input sources
and output displays













ELEMENTS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL

CONTROL SYSTEM
This is a system of integrated elements whose function is to maintain a
process variable at a desired value or within a desired range of values. This deals
basically with control, which is a series of actions directed for making a variable
system adhere to a reference value (that might be either constant or variable).
The major characteristic of control is to interfere, to influence or to modify the
process. This control function or the interference to the process is introduced by
an organization of parts (including operators in manual control) that, when
connected together is referred to as the Control System. Within our daily lives,
we accomplish numerous objectives such as;
In the domestic domain, we need to regulate the temperature and
humidity of homes and buildings for comfortable living.
For transportation, we need to control the automobile and airplane to go
from one point to another accurately and safely.
Industrially, manufacturing processes contain numerous objectives for
products that will satisfy the precision and cost-effectiveness requirements.
A human being is capable of performing a wide range of tasks, including decision
making. Some of these tasks, such as picking up objects and walking from one
point to another, are commonly carried out in a routine fashion. Under certain
conditions, some of these tasks are to be performed in the best possible way. For
instance, an athlete running a 100-yard dash has the objective of running that
distance in the shortest possible time. A marathon runner, on the other hand, not
only must run the distance as quickly as possible, but, in doing so, he or she must
control the consumption of energy and devise the best strategy for the race. The
means of achieving these "objectives" usually involve the use of control systems
that implement certain control strategies.
In recent years, control systems have assumed an increasingly important
role in the development and advancement of modern civilization and technology.
Practically every aspect of our day-to-day activities is affected by some type of
control system. Control systems are found in abundance in all sectors of industry,
such as quality control of manufactured products, automatic assembly lines,
machine-tool control, space technology and weapon systems, computer control,
transportation systems, power systems, robotics, Micro-Electro-Mechanical
Systems (MEMS), nanotechnology, and many others. Even the control of
inventory and social and economic systems may be approached from the theory
of automatic control.
This is based on Control Theory, which is an interdisciplinary branch of
engineering and mathematics that deals with the behavior of dynamical
systems with inputs. The external input of a system is called the reference. When
one or more output variables of a system need to follow a certain reference over
time, a controller manipulates the inputs to a system to obtain the desired effect
on the output of the system. The control theorys function is to calculate solutions
for the proper corrective action from the controller that result in system stability,
that is, the system will hold the set point and not oscillate around it.



FIGURE 1.1: Basic components of a control system

Basic Components of a Control System
The basic ingredients of a control system can be described by:
1. Objectives of control.
2. Control-system components.
3. Results or outputs.
The basic relationship among these three components is illustrated in Fig. 1 -
1.Technically, the objectives can be referred to as inputs, or actuating signals, u,
and the results are be called outputs, or controlled variables, y. Basically, the
objective of the control system is to control the outputs in some prescribed
manner by the inputs through the elements of the control system.

Examples of Control-System Applications

Intelligent Systems
Applications of control systems have significantly increased through the
development of new materials, which provide unique opportunities for highly
efficient actuation and sensing, thereby reducing energy losses and
environmental impacts. State-of-the-art actuators and sensors may be
implemented in virtually any system, including biological propulsion; locomotion;
robotics; material handling; biomedical, surgical, and endoscopic; aeronautics;
marine; and the defense and space industries. Potential applications of control of
these systems may benefit the following areas:
Machine tools: Improve precision and increase productivity by
controlling chatter.
Flexible robotics: Enable faster motion with greater accuracy.
Photolithography: Enable the manufacture of smaller microelectronic
circuits by controlling vibration in the photolithography circuit-printing
process.
Biomechanical and biomedical: Artificial muscles, drug delivery systems,
and other assistive technologies.
Process control: For example, on/off shape control of solar reflectors or
aerodynamic surfaces.

Control in Virtual Prototyping and Hardware in the Loop
The concept of virtual prototyping has become a widely used phenomenon in the
automotive, aerospace, defense, and space industries. In all these areas, pressure
to cut costs has forced manufacturers to design and test an entire system in a
computer environment before a physical prototype is made. Design tools such as
MATLAB and Simulink enable companies to design and test controllers for
different components (e.g., suspension, ABS, steering, engines, flight control
mechanisms, landing gear, and specialized devices) within the system and
examine the behavior of the control system on the virtual prototype in real time.
This allows the designers to change or adjust controller parameters online before
the actual hardware is developed. Hardware in the loop terminology is a new
approach of testing individual components by attaching them to the virtual and
controller prototypes. Here the physical controller hardware is interfaced with the
computer and replaces its mathematical model within the computer!

Smart Transportation Systems
The automobile and its evolution in the last two centuries is arguably the most
transformative invention of man. Over years innovations have made cars faster,
stronger, and aesthetically appealing. We have grown to desire cars that are
"intelligent" and provide maximum levels of comfort, safety, and fuel efficiency.
Examples of intelligent systems in cars include climate control, cruise control,
anti-lock brake systems (ABSs), active suspensions that reduce vehicle vibration
over rough terrain or improve stability, air springs that self-level the vehicle in
high-G turns (in addition to providing a better ride), integrated vehicle dynamics
that provide yaw control when the vehicle is either over- or under steering (by
selectively activating the brakes to regain vehicle control), traction control
systems to prevent spinning of wheels during acceleration, and active sway bars
to provide "controlled" rolling of the vehicle. The following are a few examples.
Drive-by-wire and Driver Assist Systems: The new generations of intelligent
vehicles will be able to understand the driving environment, know their
whereabouts, monitor their health, understand the road signs, and monitor driver
performance, even overriding drivers to avoid catastrophic accidents. These tasks
require significant overhaul of current designs.
Drive-by-wire technology replaces the traditional mechanical and hydraulic
systems with electronics and control systems, using electromechanical actuators
and human-machine interfaces such as pedal and steering feel emulators
otherwise known as haptic systems.
Hence, the traditional componentssuch as the steering column, intermediate
shafts, pumps, hoses, fluids, belts, coolers, brake boosters and master cylinders
are eliminated from the vehicle. Haptic interfaces that can offer adequate
transparency to the driver while maintaining safety and stability of the system.
Removing the bulky mechanical steering wheel column and the rest of the
steering system has clear advantages in terms of mass reduction and safety in
modern vehicles, along with improved ergonomics as a result of creating more
driver space. Replacing the steering wheel with a haptic device that the driver
controls through the sense of touch would be useful in this regard. The haptic
device would produce the same sense to the driver as the mechanical steering
wheel but with improvements in cost, safety, and fuel consumption as a result of
eliminating the bulky mechanical system.
Driver assist systems help drivers to avoid or mitigate an accident by sensing the
nature and significance of the danger. Depending on the significance and timing
of the threat, these on-board safety systems will initially alert the driver as early
as possible to an impending danger. Then, they will actively assist or, ultimately,
intervene in order to avert the accident or mitigate its consequences. Provisions
for automatic over-ride features when the driver loses control due to fatigue or
lack of attention will be an important part of the system. In such systems, the so-
called advanced vehicle control system monitors the longitudinal and lateral
control, and by interacting with a central management unit, it will be ready to
take control of the vehicle whenever the need arises. The system can be readily
integrated with sensor networks that monitor every aspect of the conditions on
the road and are prepared to take appropriate action in a safe manner.
Integration and Utilization of Advanced Hybrid Powertrains: Hybrid technologies
offer improved fuel consumption while enhancing driving experience. Utilizing
new energy storage and conversion technologies and integrating them with
powertrains would be prime objectives of this research activity. Such technologies
must be compatible with current platforms and must enhance, rather than
compromise, vehicle function. Sample applications would include developing
plug-in hybrid technology, which would enhance the vehicle cruising distance
based on using battery power alone, and utilizing sustainable energy resources,
such as solar and wind power, to charge the batteries. The smart plug-in vehicle
can be a part of an integrated smart home and grid energy system of the future,
which would utilize smart energy metering devices for optimal use of grid energy
by avoiding peak energy consumption hours.
High Performance Real-time Control, Health Monitoring, and Diagnosis: Modern
vehicles utilize an increasing number of sensors, actuators, and networked
embedded computers. The need for high performance computing would increase
with the introduction of such revolutionary features as drive-by-wire systems into
modern vehicles. The tremendous computational burden of processing sensory
data into appropriate control and monitoring signals and diagnostic information
creates challenges in the design of embedded computing technology. Towards
this end, a related challenge is to incorporate sophisticated computational
techniques that control, monitor, and diagnose complex automotive systems
while meeting requirements such as low power consumption and cost
effectiveness.
The following represent more traditional applications of control that have
become part of our daily lives.

Steering Control of an Automobile
As a simple example of the control system, as shown in Fig. 1-1, consider the
steering control of an automobile. The direction of the two front wheels can be
regarded as the controlled variable, or the output, y; the direction of the steering
wheel is the actuating signal, or the input, u. The control system, or process in this
case, is composed of the steering mechanism and the dynamics of the entire
automobile. However, if the objective is to control the speed of the automobile,
then the amount of pressure exerted on the accelerator is the actuating signal,
and the vehicle speed is the controlled variable. As a whole, we can regard the
simplified automobile control system as one with two inputs (steering and
accelerator) and two outputs (heading and speed). In this case, the two controls
and two outputs are independent of each other, but there are systems for which
the controls are coupled. Systems with more than one input and one output are
called multivariable systems.

Idle-Speed Control of an Automobile
As another example of a control system, we consider the idle-speed control of an
automobile engine. The objective of such a control system is to maintain the
engine idle speed at a relatively low value (for fuel economy) regardless of the
applied engine loads (e.g., transmission, power steering, air conditioning).
Without the idle-speed control, any sudden engine-load application would cause
a drop in engine speed that might cause the engine to stall. Thus the main
objectives of the idle-speed control system are
(1) To eliminate or minimize the speed droop when engine loading is applied
and
(2) To maintain the engine idle speed at a desired value.
Fig. 1-2 shows the block diagram of the idle-speed control system from the
standpoint of inputs-system-outputs. In this case, the throttle angle a and the
load torque TL (due to the application of air conditioning, power steering,
transmission, or power brakes, etc.) are the inputs, and the engine speed to is the
output. The engine is the controlled process of the system.
Sun-Tracking Control of Solar Collectors
To achieve the goal of developing economically feasible non-fossil-fuel electrical
power, the U.S. government has sponsored many organizations in research and
development of solar power conversion methods, including the solar-cell
conversion techniques. In most of these systems, the need for high efficiencies
dictates the use of devices for sun tracking.
Fig. 1-3 shows a solar collector field. Fig. 1-4 shows a conceptual method of
efficient water extraction using solar power. During the hours of daylight, the
solar collector would produce electricity to pump water from the underground
water table to a reservoir (perhaps on a nearby mountain or hill), and in the early
morning hours, the water would be released into the irrigation system.
One of the most important features of the solar collector is that the collector dish
must track the sun accurately. Therefore, the movement of the collector dish
must be controlled by sophisticated control systems. The block diagram of Fig. 1-5
describes the general philosophy of the sun-tracking system together with some
of the most important components. The controller ensures that the tracking
collector is pointed toward the sun in the morning and sends a "start track"
command. The controller constantly calculates the sun's rate for the two axes
(azimuth and elevation) of control during the day. The controller uses the sun rate
and sun sensor information as inputs to generate proper motor commands to
slew the collector.



CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control systems are classified with respect to:
1. technique involved to perform control (i.e. human/machines):
manual/automatic control
2. Time dependence of output variable (i.e. constant/changing):
regulator/servo, (also known as regulating/tracking control)
3. Fundamental structure of the control (i.e. the information used
for computing the control): Open-loop/feedback control, (also
known as open-loop/closed-loop control).

MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEM: This is a system in which a machine is
controlled by the human element (human being). An example is shown
below.
A diagram of the system is shown below.

Figure a
To begin with the shower is cold. To start the heating process the valve in the hot
water line is opened. The operator can then determine the effectiveness of the control
process by standing in the shower. If the water is too hot, the valve should be closed a
little or even turned off. If the water is not hot enough then the valve is left open or
opened wider.
Another example is a man driving a car.
Functions of a Manual Control System
This control system which is completed by the operator possesses the following
functions:
Measurement
This is essentially an estimate or appraisal of the process being controlled by
the system. In this example, this is achieved by the right hand of the operator.


Comparison
This is an examination of the likeness of the measured values and the desired
values. This is carried out in the brain of the operator.
Computation
This is a calculated judgment that indicates how much the measured value and
the desired values differ and what action and how much should be taken. In this
example, the operator will calculate the difference between the desired
temperature and the actual one. Accordingly the direction and amount of the
adjustment of the valve are worked out and the order for this adjustment is sent
to the left hand from the brain of the operator. If the outlet water temperature is
lower, then the brain of the operator will tell the left hand to open the steam
valve wider. If there is any disturbance, or variation of flow rate in water to the
shower inlet, some adjustment must be made to keep the outlet water
temperature at a desired value.
Correction
This is ultimately the materialization of the order for the adjustment. The left
hand of the operator takes the necessary actions following the order from brain.
DISADVANTAGES
The accuracy and the continuous involvement of operators.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
This is the application of control theory for regulation of processes without direct
human intervention. Automatic control is widely employed in many technological
and biological systems to perform operations not feasible for a man because of
the necessity of processing a large amount of data in a limited time; it is also used
to increase the productivity of labor and the quality and accuracy of regulation
and to free men from controlling systems that operate under conditions which
are relatively inaccessible or hazardous to health. An automatic control system
(ACS) sustains or improves the functioning of a controlled object. In a number of
cases the auxiliary operations for the ACSstarting, stopping, monitoring,
adjusting, and so oncan also be automated. An ACS functions mainly as a
member of a production or some other complex. ACSs are classified mainly
according to the control objectives, the type of control circuit, and the method of
transmitting the signals.
The simplest example of an ACS is a system for the direct regulation of a motors
speed of rotation (see Figure 1). The control objective is to maintain a constant
speed of rotation of a flywheel; the controlled object is the motor, the control
effect is the position of the regulating slide of the throttle, the CD is the
centrifugal governor, which has a sleeve that is shifted by the centrifugal forces
when the speed of rotation of the shaft, which is rigidly connected to the
flywheel, deviates from the specified value. When the sleeve is shifted, the
position of the throttles slide is changed. A block diagram of this example (Figure
2) is representative of many ACSs regardless of their physical characteristics. The
system shown is a closed, single-loop continuous system of automatic control for
a mechanical action that can be linearized for analysis. Examples of automatic
control systems are aircraft autopilot, integrated circuits, traffic flow control etc.

Figure 1
AUTOMATIC CONTROL THEORY (ACT) deals with the design principles of
automatic control systems and the rules for the processes taking place in them,
which are investigated by means of dynamic simulations of the real systems,
taking into account the operating conditions, the specific purpose, and the
structural features of the controlled object and the automatic devices, so that
efficient and accurate control systems can be designed.
An example of an automatic control system is shown below

Figure
In this system (compared to figure b);
A temperature measurement device is used to measure the water temperature,
which replaces the right hand of the operator. This improves the accuracy.
Instead of manual valves, we use a special kind of valve, called a control valve,
which is driven by compressed air or electricity. This will replace the left hand
of the operator.
A temperature controller replaces the brain of the operator. This has the
functions of comparison and computation and can give orders to the control
valve.
The signal and order connections between the measurement device, control
valve and controller are transferred through cables and wires, which replace the
nerve system in the operator.



FUNCTIONS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Control
Sensing
Metrics
Measurement
Comparison
Computation
Correction
APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
industrial processes, manufacturing, robots
consumer goods, home appliances, CD players
computers, networks, communication systems
transportation systems: cars, planes, spacecraft
Chemical processes
Engine management systems
Integrated circuit manufacturing
X-by-Wire systems

Hardware of a Control System
Sensor This is a piece of equipment used to measure system variables. It
serves as the signal source in automatic control.
Controller This is a piece of equipment used to perform the functions of
comparison and computation.
Control Element This is a piece of equipment used to perform the control
action or to exert direct influence on the process. It receives signals from the
controller and performs some type of operation on the process. Generally it is
simply a control valve.
Software of a Control System
Associated with a control system are a number of different types of variables.
Controlled Variable: This is the basic process value which is being regulated
by the system. It is maintained at a specified value or within a specified
range. It is the one variable that we are especially interested in e.g. the
outlet water temperature in the example above. In feedback control,
the controlled variable is usually the measured variable.
Set-point: This is the predetermined desired value for the controlled
variable. The objective of the control system is to regulate the controlled
variable at its set-point.
Manipulated Variable: This is the adjustable value which can be altered, in
order to achieve the control objective. It is acted on by the control system
to maintain the controlled variable at the specified value or within the
specified range. In the above example, this was the input hot water flow
rate.
Conclusively, in the control system we adjust the manipulated variable to maintain
the controlled variable at its set-point. This meets the requirement of keeping the
stability of the process and suppressing the influence of disturbances.
CLASSES OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
SERVO (TRACKING CONTROL): This is an automatic control system
designed to follow a changing reference. An example is a remote controlled
car.
REGULATOR: This is an automatic control system designed to maintain an
output fixed (regardless of the disturbances present) e.g. cruise control.
OPEN-LOOP CONTROL (NON-FEEDBACK CONTROL): This system does
not measure the actual output and there is no correction to make that output
conform to the desired output. It is such that the control action is independent
of the output. An example is an electric toaster.
CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL (FEEDBACK CONTROL): This system includes
a sensor to measure the output and uses feedback of the sensed value to
influence the control input variable. It is such that the control action is
dependent on the output. Feedback is the information in a closed-loop control system
which is about the condition of a process variable. An example is the water tank of a
flushing toilet.

Figure
Open loop system (a) and closed loop system (b)
ELEMENTS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
An error detection element: It first compares the value of the controlled
variable to the desired value, and then signals an error if a deviation exists
between the actual and desired values
A final control element: It responds to the error signal by correcting the
manipulated variable of the process.
Comparison unit: computes the difference between the desired and
actual output variables to give the controller a measure of the system
error
Control element: computes the desired control input variable
Correction element: device that can influence the control input variable
of the process (aka: actuator)
Process element: component whose the output is to be controlled
Measurement element: measures the actual output variable. It senses
and evaluates the controlled variable.



FIGURE


Figure


Figure 4: Relationships of Functions and Elements in an Automatic Control System