Fluid flow through Fluid flow through

ducts and air distribution

(Duct design)
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Introduction Introduction
Inairconditioningsystemsthatuseairasthefluidinthethermaldistribution
system,itisessentialtodesigntheAirHandlingUnit(AHU)properly.The
primaryfunctionofanAHUistotransmitprocessedairfromtheair
conditioningplanttotheconditionedspaceanddistributeitproperlywithin
the conditioned space A typical AHU consists of: theconditionedspace.AtypicalAHUconsistsof:
1.Aductsystemthatincludesasupplyairduct,returnairduct,cooling
and/orheatingcoils,humidifiers/dehumidifiers,airfiltersanddampers g p
2.Anairdistributionsystemcomprisingvarioustypesofoutletsforsupplyair
andinletsforreturnair.
3.Supplyandreturnairfanswhichprovidethenecessaryenergytomovethe
airthroughoutthesystem.
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Between any two points 1 and 2 in the flow field for
irrotational flows, the Bernoullis equation is written as:
Each of the heads has units of length as explained before. The
above equation can be written in terms of static velocity above equation can be written in terms of static, velocity,
datum and total pressures as:
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Since all real fluids have finite viscosity, this is referred to
h d l Th h d l ill th t t l t as head loss. The head loss will cause the total pressure to
decrease in the flow direction. If the head loss is denoted by
H then Bernoullis equation can be modified to: H
I
then Bernoulli s equation can be modified to:
To overcome the fluid friction and the resulting head, a fan is
i d i i diti i t Wh f i i t d d required in air conditioning systems. When a fan is introduced
into the duct through which air is flowing, then the static and
total pressures at the section where the fan is located rise total pressures at the section where the fan is located rise.
This rise is called as Fan Total Pressure (FTP). Then the
required power input to the fan is given by q p p g y
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. Evaluation of FTP is important in the selection of a suitable fan for
l I b l h h h l d a given application. It can be easily shown that when applied
between any two sections 1 and 2 of the duct, in which the fan is
located the FTP is given by located, the FTP is given by
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Estimation of pressure loss in ducts:
The pressure drop due to friction is known as frictional
d f i ti l Th d pressure drop or friction loss, p
f
. The pressure drop
due to momentum change is known as momentum
pressure drop or dynamic loss, p
d
Thus the total pressure drop or dynamic loss, p
d
. Thus the total
pressure drop p
t
is given by:
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Evaluation of frictional pressure drop in ducts:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is one of the most The Darcy-Weisbach equation is one of the most
commonly used equations for estimating frictional pressure
drops in internal flows. This equation is given by: p q g y
Where:
f is the dimensionless friction factor.
L is the length of the duct .
D is the diameter in case of a circular duct and hydraulic
di i f i l d diameter in case of a non-circular duct.
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Table1 :Average surface roughness of commonly used duct
materials materials.
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Taking GI as the reference material and properties of air
at 20
o
C and 1 atm pressure the frictional pressure drop in at 20
o
C and 1 atm. pressure, the frictional pressure drop in
a circular duct is given by:
Where: Q
air
is the volumetric flow rate of air in m
3
/s.
L is the length .
D i h i di f h d i D is the inner diameter of the duct in meters.
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Fig.1 :Chart for estimating frictional pressure drop in circular g g p p
GI ducts.
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For small changes in air density () and temperature one For small changes in air density () and temperature, one
can use the following relation to obtain frictional pressure drop
from the standard chart.
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Rectangular ducts:
Even though circular ducts require the least material for a
given flow rate and allowable pressure drop, rectangular
ducts are generally preferred in practice as they fit easily into
the building construction thus occupying less space and they the building construction thus occupying less space, and they
are also easy to fabricate. The ratio of the two sides a and b
of the rectangle (a/b) is called as aspect ratio of the duct. g ( ) p
A rectangular duct is said to be equivalent to a circular
duct if the volumetric flow rate and frictional pressure drop duct, if the volumetric flow rate and frictional pressure drop
per unit length ( P. Q
f
/ L) are same for both.
Equating these two parameters for a rectangular duct g g
and an equivalent circular duct, it can be shown that the
equivalent diameter is given by:
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Dynamic losses in ducts: Dynamic losses in ducts:
In turbulent flows, the dynamic loss is proportional to square of
velocity. Hence these are expressed as
h K i h d i l ffi i where K is the dynamic loss coefficient.

Sometimes, an equivalent length L

eq
is defined to
eq
estimate the dynamic pressure loss through bends and
fittings.
Where f is the friction factor
L is the equivalent length
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L
eq
is the equivalent length.
The dynamic pressure drop due to the elbow or 90
o
turn
is:
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Evaluation of dynamic pressure loss through various
fittings:
a) Turns, bends or elbows: The most common type of bends
used in air conditioning ducts are 90
o
turns shown in Fig.
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installing turning vanes in the bends reduces the dynamic pressure
drop as it is equivalent to increasing W/H as shown in Fig drop as it is equivalent to increasing W/H, as shown in Fig.
U f i i 90

b d ( lb ) Use of turning vanes in a 90
o
bend (elbow) .
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b)Branch take-offs:
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Th d i d f th t ( )t The dynamic pressure drop from the upstream(u)to
branch (b),p
u-b
is given by:
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c) Branch entries: Branch entries are commonly used in return
air ducts air ducts
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d) Sudden enlargement d) Sudden enlargement
e) Sudden contraction:
Sudden enlargement
Sudden contraction
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The pressure loss due to sudden enlargement, Pd,enl is given by
Borda Carnot equation as Borda-Carnot equation as
:
Where v
1
is the velocity before enlargement.
A
1
and A
2
are the areas before and after enlargement ,respectively
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Similar to sudden enlargement, the dynamic pressure loss due to
sudden contraction Pd con is given by: sudden contraction Pd,con. is given by:
Where v
2
is the velocity in the downstream.
A
1
and A
2
are the areas at vena contract and after
t ti ti l contraction, respectively.
The coefficient c
c
is known as contraction coefficient and is seen to
be equal to area ratio A
1
/A
2
be equal to area ratio A
1
/A
2
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Filters, cooling and heating coils, dampers etc.:
The pressure drop across air handling unit equipment , The pressure drop across air handling unit equipment ,
such as, air filters , dampers, cooling and heating coils
depend on several factors. Hence, normally these values
have to be obtained from the manufacturers data.
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Static regain:
Whenever there is an enlargement in the cross-
sectional area of the duct the velocity of air decreases and sectional area of the duct, the velocity of air decreases, and
the velocity pressure is converted into static pressure. The
increase in static pressure due to a decrease in velocity p y
pressure is known as static regain. In an ideal case, when
there are no pressure losses, the increase in static pressure
( ) i l l h d i l i (p
s
) is exactly equal to the decrease in velocity
pressure(p
v
)and the total pressure (pt) remains constant as
shown in fig shown in fig.
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Ideal enlargement.
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Thus for the ideal case:
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for sudden enlargements or for other non-ideal
enlargements the decrease in velocity pressure will be enlargements, the decrease in velocity pressure will be
greater than the increase in static pressure, and the total
pressure decreases in the direction flow due to pressure p p
losses as shown in Fig. The pressure loss is due to
separation of the boundary layer and the formation of eddies
Sudden enlargement.
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for sudden or non ideal enlargement for sudden or non-ideal enlargement:
The pressure loss due to enlargement p
loss
is expressed in
terms of a static Regain Factor R as: terms of a static Regain Factor, R as:
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Where the static regain factor R is given by:
Thus for ideal enlargement the Static Regain Factor R is equal to
1 0 whereas it is less than 1 0 for non-ideal enlargement 1.0, whereas it is less than 1.0 for non-ideal enlargement.
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Example1: One m
3
/s of air is conveyed through a straight,
h l d f f d l h f 40 If horizontal duct of uniform cross-section and a length of 40 m. If
the velocity of air through the duct is 5 m/s, find the required fan
power input when a) A circular duct is used and b) A rectangular power input when a) A circular duct is used, and b) A rectangular
duct of aspect ratio 1:4 is used. Take the efficiency of the fan to be
0.7. If a GI sheet of 0.5 mm thick with a density of 8000 kg/m3 is y g
used to construct the duct, how many kilograms of sheet metal is
required for circular and rectangular cross section? Assume
d d di i d h i h i l d i f standard conditions and the static pressure at the inlet and exit of
the duct to be same.
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Example2 : Air at a flow rate of 1.2 kg/s flows through a fitting
with sudden enlargement The area before and after the with sudden enlargement. The area before and after the
enlargement are 0.1 m
2
and 1 m
2
, respectively. Find the
pressure drop due to sudden enlargement using Borda-Carnot p p g g
Equation. What is the pressure drop if the same amount of air
flows through a sudden contraction with area changing from
0 1
2
d 1
2
0.1 m
2
and 1 m
2
.
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Example3: Air at a flow rate of 1 m
3
/s flows through a
fitting whose cross sectional area increases gradually from fitting whose cross-sectional area increases gradually from
0.08 m
2
to 0.12 m
2
. If the static regain factor (R) of the
fitting is 0.8, what is the rise in static pressure (static fitting is 0.8, what is the rise in static pressure (static
regain) and total pressure loss as air flows through the
fitting?
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General rules for duct design:
1. Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to save
space, power and material .
2 Sudden changes in directions should be avoided When not 2. Sudden changes in directions should be avoided. When not
possible to avoid sudden changes, turning vanes should be
used to reduce pressure loss. p
3. Diverging sections should be gradual. Angle of divergence
20
o.
.
4. Aspect ratio should be as close to 1.0 as possible.
Normally, it should not exceed 4.
5 Air velocities should be within permissible limits to reduce 5. Air velocities should be within permissible limits to reduce
noise and vibration.
6. Duct material should be as smooth as possible to reduce p
frictional losses .
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Classification of duct systems:
1-Low pressure systems: Velocity 10 m/s,
static pressure 5 cm H
2
O (g)
2-Medium pressure systems: Velocity 10 m/s,
static pressure 15 cm H
2
O (g)
3 High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s 3-High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s,
static pressure 15<p
s
25 cm H
2
O (g)
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High velocities in the ducts results in:
1. Smaller ducts and hence, lower initial cost and lower space 1. Smaller ducts and hence, lower initial cost and lower space
requirement.
2. Higher pressure drop and hence larger fan power
consumption .
3. Increased noise and hence a need for noise attenuation.
Recommended air velocities depend mainly on the application Recommended air velocities depend mainly on the application
and the noise criteria. Typical recommended velocities are:
Residences: 3 m/s to 5 m/s
Theatres: 4 to 6.5 m/s
Restaurants: 7.5 m/s to 10 m/s
If nothing is specified, then a velocity of 5 to 8 m/s is used for
main ducts and a velocity of 4 to 6 m/s is used for the branches.
The allowable air velocities can be as high as 30 m/s in ships The allowable air velocities can be as high as 30 m/s in ships
and aircrafts to reduce the space requirement.
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duct design methods : duct design methods :
the following methods are most commonly used for
i l l t h th h i Fi simpler lay-outs such as the one shown in Fig..
1. Velocity method .
2 Equal Friction Method 2. Equal Friction Method .
3. Static Regain method .
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T i l i di i i d l Typical air conditioning duct lay-out.
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Velocity method:
The various steps involved in this method are:
i S l t it bl l iti i th i d b h d t i. Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts.
ii. Find the diameters of main and branch ducts from airflow
rates and velocities for circular ducts rates and velocities for circular ducts.
iii. find the frictional pressure drop for main and branch ducts
using friction chart or equation
iv. find the dynamic pressure losses for all the bends and
fittings.
S l t f th t id ffi i t FTP f th i d v. Select a fan that can provide sufficient FTP for the index run.
vi. Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run.
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. Equal friction method:
In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length in the In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length in the
main and branch ducts (p
f
/L) are kept same, i.e.,
the stepwise procedure for designing the duct system is as
follows:
i. Select a suitable frictional pressure drop per unit length
( /L) th t th bi d i iti l d i t (p
f
/L) so that the combined initial and running costs are
minimized.
ii Then the equivalent diameter of the main duct (A) is ii. Then the equivalent diameter of the main duct (A) is
obtained from the selected value of (p
f
/L) and the airflow
rate.
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As shown in Fig., airflow rate in the main duct (Q
A
)is equal As shown in Fig., airflow rate in the main duct (Q
A
)is equal
to the sum total of airflow rates to all the conditioned
zones, i.e.,
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the equivalent diameters of the other duct runs, B to I are
obtained from the equation:
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the total frictional pressure drop of that run is obtained by
multiplying the frictional pressure drop per unit length and the
length, i.e.,
vi. Next the dynamic pressure losses in each duct run are
obtained based on the type of bends or fittings used in that
run.
vii. Next the total pressure drop in each duct run is obtained
by summing up the frictional and dynamic losses of that run by summing up the frictional and dynamic losses of that run,
i.e.,
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viii. Next the fan is selected to suit the index run with the
highest pressure loss. Dampers are installed in all the duct
runs to balance the total pressure loss.
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Static Regain Method:
In this method the static pressure is maintained same . In this method the static pressure is maintained same
before each terminal or branch. The procedure followed is as
given below: g
i. Velocity in the main duct leaving the fan is selected first.
ii. Velocities in each successive runs are reduced such that
th i i t ti d t d ti i l it the gain in static pressure due to reduction in velocity
pressure equals the frictional pressure drop in the next
duct section Thus the static pressure before each terminal duct section. Thus the static pressure before each terminal
or branch is maintained constant.
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Then using the static regain factor, one can write:
Where
p and p are the frictional and dynamic losses between p
f,2
and p
d,2
are the frictional and dynamic losses between
1 and 2,
p
1
and p
2
are the velocity pressures at 1 and 2 p
v,1
and p
v,2
are the velocity pressures at 1 and 2
respectively.
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Principle of static regain method
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iii. If section 1 is the outlet of the fan, then its dimensions are
known from the flow rate and velocity (initially selected),
iv. The procedure is followed in the direction of airflow, and
th di i f th d t d t bt i d the dimensions of the downstream ducts are obtained.
v. As before, the total pressure drop is obtained from the
pressure drop in the longest run and a fan is accordingly pressure drop in the longest run and a fan is accordingly
selected.
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Variation of total pressure drop with flow rate for a given duct
system.
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Fan and duct performance curves and balance points.
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