Chap3 Diode Circuits

Microelectronic Circuit Design
McGraw-Hill
Chapter 3
Solid-State Diodes and Diode Circuits
Richard C. Jaeger
Travis N. Blalock
Chap 3 -1
McGraw-Hill
Chapter Goals
Understand diode structure and basic layout
Develop electrostatics of the pn junction
Explore various diode models including the mathematical model, the
ideal diode model, and the constant voltage drop model
Understand the SPICE representation and model parameters for the
diode
Define regions of operation of the diode (forward, reverse bias, and
reverse breakdown)
Apply the various types of models in circuit analysis
Explore different types of diodes Discuss the dynamic switching
behavior of the pn junction diode
Explore diode applications
Practice simulating diode circuits using SPICE
Chap 3 -2
McGraw-Hill
Diode Introduction
A diode is formed by
interfacing an n-type
semiconductor with a p-type
semiconductor.
A pnjunction is the
interface between n and p
regions.
Diode symbol
Chap 3 -3
McGraw-Hill
pn Junction Electrostatics
Donor and acceptor concentration
on either side of the junction.
Concentration gradients give rise
to diffusion currents.
Chap 3 -4
McGraw-Hill
Drift Currents
Diffusion currents lead to localized charge density variations near the
pn junction.
Gauss law predicts an electric field due to the charge distribution:
Assuming constant permittivity,
Resulting electric field gives rise to a drift current. With no external
circuit connections, drift and diffusion currents cancel. There is no
actual current, since this would imply power dissipation, rather the
electric field cancels the diffusion current tendency.
V E=

c
c
s
E(x) =
1
c
s
(x)dx
}
Chap 3 -5
McGraw-Hill
Space Charge Region Formation
at the pn Junction
Chap 3 -6
McGraw-Hill
Potential across the Junction
Charge Density Electric Field Potential
|
j
= E(x)dx
}
= V
T
ln
N
A
N
D
n
i
2
|
\

|
.
| , V
T
=
kT
q
Chap 3 -7
McGraw-Hill
Width of Depletion Region
w
d0
= (x
n
+ x
p
) =
2c
s
q
1
N
A
+
1
N
D
|
\

|
.
|
|
j
Combining the previous expressions, we can form an expression
for the width of the space-charge region, or depletion region. It
is called the depletion region since the excess holes and electrons
are depleted from the dopant atoms on either side of the junction.
Chap 3 -8
McGraw-Hill
Width of Depletion Region (Example)
Problem: Find built-in potential and depletion-region width for given diode
Given data:On p-type side: N
A
=10
17
/cm
3
on n-type side: N
D
=10
20
/cm
3
Assumptions: Room-temperature operation with V
T
=0.025 V
Analysis:
m 113 . 0
1 1
2
0
|
c
= + =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
j
D
N
A
N
q
s
d
w
( )( )
( )
V 979 . 0
/cm 10
/cm 10 /cm 10
V)ln (0.025 ln
6 20
3 20 3 17
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
i
D A
T j
n
N N
V |
Chap 3 -9
McGraw-Hill
Diode Electric Field (Example)
Problem: Find electric field and size of individual depletion layers on
either side of pn junction for given diode
Given data:On p-type side: N
A
=10
17
/cm
3
on n-type side: N
D
=10
20
/cm
3
from earlier example,
Assumptions: Room-temperature operation
Analysis:
V 979 . 0 =
j
|
m 113 . 0
0
=
d
w
m
4 -
10 13 . 1
1
0
1 1
0
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+ = + = + =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
N
D
N
d
w
n
x
D
N
A
N
p
x
A
N
D
N
n
x
p
x
n
x
d
w
kV/cm 173
m 113 . 0
) V 979 . 0 ( 2
0
j
2
= = =

|
d
w
MAX
E
m 113 . 0
1
0

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
D
N
A
N
d
w
p
x
Chap 3 -10
McGraw-Hill
Internal Diode Currents
j
n
T
= q
n
nE + qD
n
cn
cx
= 0
j
p
T
= q
p
pE qD
p
cp
cx
= 0
Mathematically, for a diode with no external connections, the total current
expressions developed in chapter 2 are equal to zero. The equations only
dictate that the total currents are zero. However, as mentioned earlier,
since there is no power dissipation, we must assume that the field and
diffusion current tendencies cancel and the actual currents are zero.
When external bias voltage is applied to the diode, the above equations are
no longer equated to zero.
Chap 3 -11
McGraw-Hill
Diode Junction Potential for Different
Applied Voltages
Chap 3 -12
McGraw-Hill
Diode i-v Characteristics
Turn-on voltage marks point of significant current flow. I
s
is called the
reverse saturation current.
Chap 3 -13
McGraw-Hill
where I
S
= reverse saturation current (A)
v
D
= voltage applied to diode (V)
q = electronic charge (1.60 x 10-19 C)
k = Boltzmanns constant (1.38 x 10
-23
J/K)
T = absolute temperature
n = nonideality factor (dimensionless)
V
T
= kT/q = thermal voltage (V) (25 mV at room temp.)
I
S
is typically between 10
-18
and 10
-9
A, and is strongly temperature dependent due
to its dependence on n
i
2
. The nonideality factor is typically close to 1, but
approaches 2 for devices with high current densities. It is assumed to be 1 in this
text.
Diode Equation
i
D
= I
S
exp
qv
D
nkT
|
\

|
.
|
1

(

(
= I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
1

(

(
Chap 3 -14
McGraw-Hill
Diode Voltage and Current Calculations
(Example)
Problem: Find diode voltage for diode with given specifications
Given data: I
S
=0.1 fA I
D
= 300 A
Assumptions: Room-temperature dc operation with V
T
=0.025 V
Analysis:
With I
S
=0.1 fA
With I
S
=10 fA
With I
D
= 1 mA, I
S
=0.1 fA
V 718 . 0 )
A
16 -
10
A
4 -
10 3
V)ln(1 0025 . 0 ( 1 1 ln =
+ = + =
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
S
I
D
I
T
nV
D
V
V 603 . 0 =
D
V
V 748 . 0 =
D
V
Chap 3 -15
McGraw-Hill
Diode Current for Reverse, Zero, and
Forward Bias
Reverse bias:
Zero bias:
Forward bias:
i
D
= I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
1

(

( ~ I
S
01
| |
~ I
S
i
D
= I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
1

(

( ~ I
S
11
| |
~ 0
i
D
= I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
1

(

( ~ I
S
exp
v
D
nV
T
|
\

|
.
|
Chap 3 -16
McGraw-Hill
Semi-log Plot of Diode Current and
Current for Three Different Values of I
S
I
S
[ A] = 10I
S
[B] = 100I
S
[C]
Chap 3 -17
McGraw-Hill
Diode Temperature Coefficient
Diode voltage under forward bias:
Taking the derivative with respect to temperature yields
Assuming i
D
>> I
S
, I
S
n
i
2
, and V
GO
is the silicon bandgap energy at 0K.
For a typical silicon diode
v
D
= V
T
ln
i
D
I
S
+1
|
\

|
.
|
=
kT
q
ln
i
D
I
S
+1
|
\

|
.
|
~
kT
q
ln
i
D
I
S
|
\

|
.
|
dv
D
dT
=
k
q
ln
i
D
I
S
|
\

|
.
|
kT
q
1
I
S
dI
S
dT
=
v
D
T
V
T
1
I
S
dI
S
dT
=
v
D
V
GO
3V
T
T
V/K
dv
D
dT
=
0.651.120.075
( )
V
300K
=-1.82 mV/K~ - 1.8 mV/ C
Chap 3 -18
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Bias
External reverse bias adds to the built-in potential of the pn
junction. The shaded regions below illustrate the increase in the
characteristics of the space charge region due to an externally
applied reverse bias, v
D
.
Chap 3 -19
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Bias (cont.)
External reverse bias also increases the width of the depletion
region since the larger electric field must be supported by
additional charge.
w
d
= (x
n
+ x
p
) =
2c
s
q
1
N
A
+
1
N
D
|
\

|
.
|
|
j
+v
R
( )
wherew
d0
= (x
n
+ x
p
) =
2c
s
q
1
N
A
+
1
N
D
|
\

|
.
|
|
j
w
d
= w
d
0
1+
v
R
|
j
Chap 3 -20
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Bias Saturation Current
We earlier assumed that reverse saturation current was constant.
Since it results from thermal generation of electron-hole pairs in
the depletion region, it is dependent on the volume of the space
charge region. It can be shown that the reverse saturation gradually
increases with increased reverse bias.
I
S
= I
S 0
1 +
v
R
|
j
I
S
is approximately constant at I
S0
under forward bias.
Chap 3 -21
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Breakdown
Increased reverse bias
eventually results in the diode
entering the breakdown
region, resulting in a sharp
increase in the diode current.
The voltage at which this
occurs is the breakdown
voltage, V
Z
.
2 V < V
Z
< 2000 V
Chap 3 -22
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Breakdown Mechanisms
Avalanche Breakdown
Si diodes with V
Z
greater than about 5.6 volts breakdown according to
an avalanche mechanism. As the electric field increases, accelerated
carriers begin to collide with fixed atoms. As the reverse bias
increases, the energy of the accelerated carriers increases, eventually
leading to ionization of the impacted ions. The new carriers also
accelerate and ionize other atoms. This process feeds on itself and
leads to avalanche breakdown.
Chap 3 -23
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Breakdown Mechanisms (cont.)
Zener Breakdown
Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped diodes. The heavy doping
results in a very narrow depletion region at the diode junction.
Reverse bias leads to carriers with sufficient energy to tunnel directly
between conduction and valence bands moving across the junction.
Once the tunneling threshold is reached, additional reverse bias leads
to a rapidly increasing reverse current.
Breakdown Voltage Temperature Coefficient
Temperature coefficient is a quick way to distinguish breakdown
mechanisms. Avalanche breakdown voltage increases with
temperature, zener breakdown decreases with temperature.
For silicon diodes, zero temperature coefficient is achieved at
approximately 5.6 V.
Chap 3 -24
McGraw-Hill
Breakdown Region Diode Model
In breakdown, the diode is
modeled with a voltage source,
V
Z
, and a series resistance, R
Z
.
R
Z
models the slope of the i-v
characteristic.
Diodes designed to operate in
reverse breakdown are called
Zener diodes and use the
indicated symbol.
Chap 3 -25
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Bias Capacitance
Q
n
= qN
D
x
n
A = q
N
A
N
D
N
A
+ N
D
|
\

|
.
|
w
d
A Coulombs
C
j
=
dQ
n
dv
R
=
C
j 0
A
1+
v
R
|
j
F/cm
2
where C
j 0
=
c
s
w
d 0
Changes in voltage lead to changes in depletion width and charge.
This leads to a capacitance that we can calculate from the charge
voltage dependence.
C
j0
is the zero bias junction capacitance per unit area.
Chap 3 -26
McGraw-Hill
Reverse Bias Capacitance (cont.)
Diodes can be designed with hyper-abrupt doping profiles that
optimize the reverse-biased diode as a voltage controlled capacitor.
Circuit symbol for the variable
capacitance diode (varactor)
Chap 3 -27
McGraw-Hill
Forward Bias Capacitance
Coulombs
T D D
i Q t =
( )
F
T
T D
T
T S D
D
D
j
V
i
V
I i
dv
dQ
C
t t
~
+
= =
In forward bias operation, additional charge is stored in neutral
region near edges of space charge region.
t
T
is called diode transit time and depends on size and type of
diode.
Additional diffusion capacitance, associated with forward region
of operation is proportional to current and becomes quite large at
high currents.
Chap 3 -28
McGraw-Hill
Schottky Barrier Diode
One semiconductor region of the pn
junction diode is replaced by a non-
ohmic rectifying metal contact.A
Schottky contact is easily added to
n-type silicon,metal region becomes
anode. n
+
region is added to ensure
that cathode contact is ohmic.
Schottky diode turns on at lower
voltage than pn junction diode, has
significantly reduced internal
charge storage under forward bias.
Chap 3 -29
McGraw-Hill
Diode Spice Model
R
s
is inevitable series resistance of a
real device structure. Current
controlled current source represents
ideal exponential behavior of diode.
Capacitor specification includes
depletion-layer capacitance for
reverse-bias region as well as
diffusion capacitance associated with
junction under forward bias.
Typical default values: Saturation
current= 10 fA, R
s
= 0O, Transit
time= 0 second
Chap 3 -30
McGraw-Hill
Diode Layout
Chap 3 -31
McGraw-Hill
Diode Circuit Analysis: Basics
V and R may represent Thevenin
equivalent of a more complex 2-
terminal network.Objective of
diode circuit analysis is to find
quiescent operating point for
diode, consisting of dc current and
voltage that define diodes i-v
characteristic.
Loop equation for given circuit is:
This is also called the load line for
the diode. Solution to this equation
can be found by:
Graphical analysis using load-line
method.
Analysis with diodes mathematical
model.
Simplified analysis with ideal
diode model.
Simplified analysis using constant
voltage drop model.
D D
V R I V + =
Chap 3 -32
McGraw-Hill
Load-Line Analysis (Example)
Problem: Find Q-point
Given data: V=10 V, R=10kO.
Analysis:
To define the load line we use,
V
D
= 0
V
D
= 5 V, I
D
=0.5 mA
These points and the resulting
load line are plotted.Q-point is
given by intersection of load line
and diode characteristic:
Q-point = (0.95 mA, 0.6 V)
10 10
4
D D
V I + =
mA 1 ) k 10 / V 10 ( = O =
D
I
Chap 3 -33
McGraw-Hill
Analysis using Mathematical Model for
Diode
( ) | |
( ) | |
D D
D
T
D
S D
V V
V
nV
V
I I
+ =
=
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1 40 exp 10 10 10
1 40 exp 10 1 exp
13 4
13
Problem: Find Q-point for given diode
characteristic.
Given data: I
S
=10
-13
A, n=1, V
T
=0.0025 V
Analysis:
is load line, given by a transcendental
equation. A numerical answer can be
found by using Newtons iterative
method.
Make initial guess V
D
0
.
Evaluate f and its derivative f for
this value of V
D
.
Calculate new guess for V
D
using
Repeat steps 2 and 3 till convergence.
Using a spreadsheet we get :
Q-point = ( 0.9426 mA, 0.5742 V)
Since, usually we dont have accurate
saturation current and significant
tolerances for sources and passive
components, we need answers precise
up to only 2or 3 significant digits.
( ) | |
D D
V V f =

1 40 exp 10 10 10
13 4
( )
) ( '
0
0
0 1
D
D
D D
V f
V f
V V =
Chap 3 -34
McGraw-Hill
Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode
If diode is forward-biased, voltage across diode
is zero. If diode is reverse-biased, current
through diode is zero.
v
D
=0 for i
D
>0 and v
D
=0 for v
D
< 0
Thus diode is assumed to be either on or off.
Analysis is conducted in following steps:
Select diode model.
Identify anode and cathode of diode and label
v
D
and i
D
.
Guess diodes region of operation from circuit.
Analyze circuit using diode model appropriate
for assumed operation region.
Check results to check consistency with
assumptions.
Chap 3 -35
McGraw-Hill
Analysis using Ideal Model for Diode:
Example
Since source is forcing positive current
through diode assume diode is on.
Q-point is(1 mA, 0V)
0
m 1
k 10
V ) 0 10 (
>
=
O
=
D
D
I
A I
O
our assumption is right.
Since source is forcing current
backward through diode assume diode
is off. Hence I
D
=0 . Loop equation is:
Q-point is (0, -10 V)
V 10
0 10 10
4
=
= + +
D
D D
V
I V
our assumption is right.
Chap 3 -36
McGraw-Hill
Analysis using Constant Voltage Drop
Model for Diode
Analysis:
Since 10V source is forcing positive current
through diode assume diode is on.
v
D
= V
on
for i
D
>0 and
v
D
= 0 for v
D
< V
on
.
mA 94 . 0
k 10
V ) 6 . 0 10 (
k 10
V ) 10 (
=
O
=
O
=
on
D
V
I
Chap 3 -37
McGraw-Hill
Two-Diode Circuit Analysis
Analysis: Ideal diode model is chosen. Since
15V source is forcing positive current through
D
1
and D
2
and -10V source is forcing positive
current through D
2
, assume both diodes are on.
Since voltage at node D is zero due to short
circuit of ideal diode D
1
,
Q-points are (-0.5 mA, 0 V) and (2.0 mA, 0 V)
But, I
D1
<0 is not allowed by diode, so try again.
mA 50 . 1
k 10
V ) 0 15 (
1
=
O
= I
mA 00 . 2
k 5
V ) 10 ( 0
2
=
O

=
D
I
2 1 1 D
I
D
I I + = mA 50 . 0 2 5 . 1
1
= =
D
I
Chap 3 -38
McGraw-Hill
Two-Diode Circuit Analysis (contd.)
Since current in D
1
is zero, I
D2
= I
1
,
Q-points are D
1
: (0 mA, -1.67 V):off
D
2
: (1.67 mA, 0 V) :on
Analysis: Since current in
D
2
but that in D
1
is invalid,
the second guess is D
1
off
and D
2
on.
V 67 . 1 7 . 16 15
1
000 , 10 15
1
mA 67 . 1
15,000
V 25
1
0 ) 10 (
2
000 , 5
1
000 , 10 15
= = =
=
O
=
=
I
D
V
I
D
I I
Chap 3 -39
McGraw-Hill
Analysis of Diodes in Reverse
Breakdown Operation
Choose 2 points (0V, -4 mA) and (-5 V, -3
mA) to draw the load line.It intersects with i-v
characteristic at Q-point (-2.9 mA, -5.2 V).
Using piecewise linear model:
D
I
D
V 5000 20 + =
Using load-line analysis:
0 > =
D
I
Z
I
mA 94 . 2
5100
V ) 5 20 (
0 5 5100 20
=
O
=
=
Z
I
Z
I
Since I
Z
>0 (I
D
<0), solution is consistent
with Zener breakdown assumption.
Chap 3 -40
McGraw-Hill
Voltage Regulator using Zener Diode
Zener diode keeps voltage
across load resistor constant.
For Zener breakdown
operation, I
Z
>0.
mA 3
k 5
V ) 5 20 (
=
O
=
R
Z
V
S
V
S
I
mA 1
k 5
V 5
=
O
= =
L
R
Z
V
L
I
mA 2 = =
L
I
S
I
Z
I
0
1 1
> + =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
L
R R Z
V
R
S
V
Z
I
For proper regulation, Zener current must be
positive. If Zener current <0, Zener diode no
longer controls voltage across load resistor
and voltage regulator is said to have
dropped out of regulation.
min
1
R
Z
V
S
V
R
L
R =
>
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
Chap 3 -41
McGraw-Hill
Voltage Regulator using Zener Diode:
Example (Including Zener Resistance)
Problem: Find output voltage and
Zener diode current for Zener diode
regulator.
Given data: V
S
=20 V, R=5 kO, R
Z
=
0.1 kO, V
Z
=5 V
Analysis: Output voltage is a
function of current through Zener
diode.
0 mA 9 . 1
100
V 5 V 19 . 5
100
V 5
V 19 . 5
0
5000 100
V 5
5000
V 20
> =
O
=
O
=
=
=
O
+
O
+
O
L
V
Z
I
L
V
L
V
L
V
Z
V
Chap 3 -42
McGraw-Hill
Line and Load Regulation
Line regulation characterizes how sensitive output voltage is to input
voltage changes.
S
dV
L
dV
= Line Regulation mV/V
For fixed load current, Line regulation =
Load regulation characterizes how sensitive output voltage is to changes
in load current withdrawn from regulator.
Load Regulation Ohms
For changes in load current, Load regulation =
Load regulation is Thevenin equivalent resistance looking back into
regulator from load terminals.
L
dI
L
dV
=
Z
R R
Z
R
+
) ( R
Z
R
Chap 3 -43
McGraw-Hill
Rectifier Circuits
Basic rectifier converts an ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.
A filter then eliminates ac components of the waveform to
produce a nearly constant dc voltage output.
Rectifier circuits are used in virtually all electronic devices to
convert the 120 V-60 Hz ac power line source to the dc voltages
required for operation of the electronic device.
In rectifier circuits, the diode state changes with time and a
given piecewise linear model is valid only for a certain time
interval.
Chap 3 -44
McGraw-Hill
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with
Resistive Load
For positive half-cycle of input, source forces positive current through
diode, diode is on, v
o
= v
s
.
During negative half cycle, negative current cant exist in diode, diode is
off, current in resistor is zero and v
o
=0 .
Chap 3 -45
McGraw-Hill
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with
Resistive Load (contd.)
Using CVD model, during on state of diode v
o
=(V
P
sinet)- V
on
. Output voltage is zero when
diode is off.
Often a step-up or step-down transformer is used
to convert 120 V-60 Hz voltage available from
power line to desired ac voltage level as shown.
Time-varying components in circuit output are
removed using filter capacitor.
Chap 3 -46
McGraw-Hill
Peak Detector Circuit
As input voltage rises, diode is on and
capacitor (initially discharged) charges
up to input voltage minus the diode
voltage drop.
At peak of input, diode current tries to
reverse, diode cuts off, capacitor has no
discharge path and retains constant
voltage providing constant output voltage
V
dc
= V
P
- V
on
.
Chap 3 -47
McGraw-Hill
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC
Load
As input voltage rises during first quarter
cycle, diode is on and capacitor (initially
discharged) charges up to peak value of input
voltage.
At peak of input, diode current tries to reverse,
diode cuts off, capacitor discharges
exponentially through R. Discharge continues
till input voltage exceeds output voltage which
occurs near peak of next cycle. Process then
repeats once every cycle.
This circuit can be used to generate negative
output voltage if the top plate of capacitor is
grounded instead of bottom plate. In this case,
V
dc
= -(V
P
- V
on
)
Chap 3 -48
McGraw-Hill
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RC
Load (contd.)
Output voltage is not constant as in ideal peak detector, but has ripple
voltage V
r
.
Diode conducts for a short time AT called conduction interval during
each cycle and its angular equivalent is called conduction angle
c
.
P
V
r
V
T
c
P
V
r
V
P
V
on
V
P
V
RC
T
T
C
T
R
on
V
P
V
T
T
RC
T
on
V
P
V
r
V
2
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
1 ) (
= A =
=
~ A
~
A
~
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
e u
e e
Chap 3 -49
McGraw-Hill
Half-Wave Rectifier Analysis: Example
Problem: Find dc output voltage, output current, ripple voltage, conduction
interval, conduction angle.
Given data: secondary voltage V
rms
12.6 (60 Hz), R= 15 O, C= 25,000 F,
V
on
= 1 V
Analysis:
Using discharge interval T=1/60 s,
A 12 . 1
15
16.8V
16.8V V ) 1 2 6 . 12 (
=
O
=
=
= = =
R
on
V
P
V
dc
I
on
V
P
V
dc
V
ms 769 . 0
120
29 . 0
2
= = = = A
t t
u
e
u
f
c c
T
V 747 . 0
) (
=
~
C
T
R
on
V
P
V
r
V
0
6 . 16 rad 290 . 0
2
= = = A =
P
V
r
V
T
c
e u
Chap 3 -50
McGraw-Hill
Peak Diode Current
In rectifiers, nonzero current exists in
diode for only a very small fraction of
period T, yet an almost constant dc
current flows out of filter capacitor to
load.
Total charge lost from capacitor in each
cycle is replenished by diode during
short conduction interval causing high
peak diode currents. If repetitive current
pulse is modeled as triangle of height I
P
and width AT,
using values from previous example.
A 6 . 48
2
=
A
=
T
T
dc
I
P
I
Chap 3 -51
McGraw-Hill
Surge Current
Besides peak diode currents, when power supply is turned on, there is an
even larger current through diode called surge current.
During first quarter cycle, current through diode is approximately
Peak values of this initial surge current occurs at t = 0
+
:
using values from previous example.
Actual values of surge current wont be as large as predicted because of
neglected series resistance associated with rectifier diode as well as
transformer.
t
P
CV t
P
V
dt
d
C t
c
i t
d
i e e e cos sin ) ( ) ( = ~ =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
A 168 = =
P
CV
SC
I e
Chap 3 -52
McGraw-Hill
Peak Inverse Voltage Rating
Peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of the
rectifier diode gives the breakdown
voltage.
When diode is off, reverse-bias across
diode is V
dc
- v
s
. When v
s
reaches
negative peak,
PIV value corresponds to minimum
value of Zener breakdown voltage for
rectifier diode.
P
V
P
V
on
V
P
V
s
v
dc
V 2 ) (
min
PIV ~ = >
Chap 3 -53
McGraw-Hill
Diode Power Dissipation
dc
I
on
V
T
T
P
I
on
V dt
T
t
D
i
on
V
T
dt
T
t
D
i t
D
v
T
D
P
~
A
=
}
=
}
=
2
0
) (
1
0
) ( ) (
1
Average power dissipation in diode is given by
The simplification is done by assuming the triangular approximation of
diode current and that voltage across diode is constant at V
dc
.
Average power dissipation in the diode series resistance is given by
This power dissipation can be reduced by minimizing peak current
through use of minimum required size of filter capacitor or using full-
wave rectifiers.
S
R
dc
I
T
T
T
T
S
R
P
I dt
T
S
R t
D
i
T
D
P
2
3
4
2
3
1
0
) (
2
1
A
=
A
=
}
=
Chap 3 -54
McGraw-Hill
Full-Wave Rectifiers
Full-wave rectifiers cut capacitor discharge
time in half and require half the filter
capacitance to achieve given ripple voltage.
All specifications are same as for half-wave
rectifiers.
Reversing polarity of diodes gives a full-
wave rectifier with negative output voltage.
Chap 3 -55
McGraw-Hill
Full-Wave Bridge Rectification
Requirement for a center-tapped
transformer in the full-wave
rectifier is eliminated through use
of 2 extra diodes.All other
specifications are same as for a
half-wave rectifier except
PIV=V
P
.
Chap 3 -56
McGraw-Hill
Rectifier Topology Comparison
Filter capacitor is a major factor in determining cost, size and weight in
design of rectifiers.
For given ripple voltage, full-wave rectifier requires half the filter
capacitance as that in half-wave rectifier. Reduced peak current can
reduce heat dissipation in diodes. Benefits of full-wave rectification
outweigh increased expenses and circuit complexity (a extra diode and
center-tapped transformer).
Bridge rectifier eliminates center-tapped transformer, PIV rating of
diodes is reduced. Cost of extra diodes is negligible.
Chap 3 -57
McGraw-Hill
Rectifier Design Analysis
Problem: Design rectifier with given specifications.
Given data: V
dc
=15 V, V
r
< 0.15 V, I
dc
= 2 A
Analysis: Use full-wave bridge rectifier that needs smaller value of filter
capacitance, smaller diode PIV rating and no center-tapped transformer.
A 7 . 94
0.352ms
s 1/60
A 2
2 T
2
ms 352 . 0
17V
V) 15 . 0 ( 2
120
1
2
1
T
F 111 . 0
V 15 . 0
1
s
120
1
A 2
2 /
rms
12V V
2
2 15
2
2
2
= =
A
=
= = = A
= = =
=
+
=
+
= =
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
T
dc
I
P
I
P
V
r
V
r
V
T
dc
I C
on
V
dc
V
P
V
V
t e
A 711 ) 17 )( 111 . 0 ( 120
surge
I = = = t e
P
CV
V 17 PIV = =
P
V
Chap 3 -58
McGraw-Hill
Three-terminal IC Voltage Regulators
Uses feedback with high-gain amplifier to reduce ripple voltage at
output.Bypass capacitors provide low-impedance path for high-frequency
signals to ensure proper operation of regulator.
Provides excellent line and load regulation, maintaining constant voltage
even if output current changes by many orders of magnitude.
Main design constraint is V
REG
which must not fall below a minimum
specified dropout voltage (a few volts).
Chap 3 -59
McGraw-Hill
DC-to-DC converters: Boost Converter
When switch is closed, diode is off:
on
T
L
S
V
L
i dt
on
T
L
S
V
L
i
on
T
L
i +
+
=
}
+
+
= ) 0 (
0
) 0 ( ) (
When switch is open, diode is on:
off
T
L
o
V
S
V
on
T
L
S
V
L
i T
L
i

+ +
+
= ) 0 ( ) (
) 0 ( ) (
+
=
L
i T
L
i
o
=
1
s
V
o
V
where o = T
on
/T is duty cycle
Since 0<o<1, V
o
> V
S
.
Chap 3 -60
McGraw-Hill
DC-to-DC converters: Boost Converter
(contd.)
Ripple current is given by or
In ideal converter, power delivered to input of converter is same as power
delivered to load resistor.
or
Ripple voltage is given as
on
T
L
S
V
r
I =
o
RC
T
o
V
T
on
T
RC
T
o
V
RC
on
T
o
V
on
T
C
o
I
r
V = = = ~
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
f
r
I
S
V
T
on
T
r
I
T
S
V
on
T
r
I
S
V
L = = =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
I
o
V
S
I
S
V =
o
= = =
1
o
I
off
T
T
o
I
S
V
o
V
o
I
S
I
off
T
L
S
V
o
V
r
I

=
Chap 3 -61
McGraw-Hill
DC-to-DC converters: Buck Converter
When switch is closed, diode is off:
on
T
L
o
V
S
V
L
i dt
on
T
L
o
V
S
V
L
i
on
T
L
i

+
+
=
}

+
+
= ) 0 (
0
) 0 ( ) (
When switch is open, diode is on:
off
T
L
o
V
on
T
L
o
V
S
V
L
i T
L
i
+
+
= ) 0 ( ) (
) 0 ( ) (
+
=
L
i T
L
i
o
s
V
T
on
T
s
V
o
V = =
where o is switch duty cycle
Since 0<o<1, V
o
< V
S
.
Chap 3 -62
McGraw-Hill
DC-to-DC converters: Buck Converter
(contd.)
Ripple current is given by or
In ideal converter, power delivered to input of converter is same as power
delivered to load resistor.
Ripple voltage is given as
off
T
L
o
V
r
I =
C
Q
off
T
on
T
on
T
dt
r
i
C
r
V
A
+
= =
}
) 2 / (
2 /
1
o
f
r
I
o
V
T
off
T
r
I
T
o
V
off
T
r
I
o
V
L = = =
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
o
o
I
T
on
T
o
I
S
V
o
V
o
I
S
I = = =
on
T
L
o
V
S
V
r
I

=
8 2 2 2
1
T
r
I
off
T
on
T
r
I
Q =
+
= A
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
) 1 (
8
2
8
o = =
L
T
r
V
o
V
r
V
T
r
I
C
Chap 3 -63
McGraw-Hill
Clamping or DC-Restoring Circuit
After the initial transient lasting
less than one cycle in both
circuits, output waveform is an
undistorted replica of input.
Both waveforms are clamped to
zero. Their dc levels are said to
be restored by the clamping
circuit.
Clamping level can also be
shifted away from zero by
adding a voltage source in series
with diode.
Chap 3 -64
McGraw-Hill
Clipping or Limiting Circuits
Clipping circuits have dc path between input and
output, whereas clamping circuits use capacitive
coupling between input and output.
The voltage transfer characteristic shows that
gain is unity for v
I
< V
C
, and gain is zero for v
I
>
V
C
.
A second clipping level can also be set as shown
or diodes can be used to control circuit gain by
switching resistors in and out of circuits.
Chap 3 -65
McGraw-Hill
Dynamic Switching Behavior of Diode
Non-linear depletion-layer capacitance
of diode prevents voltage from changing
instantaneously and determines turn-on
and recovery times. Both forward and
reverse current overshoot final value
when diode switches on and off as
shown. Storage time is given by:
(
(
(
(
=
R
I
F
I
T S
1 ln t t
Chap 3 -66
McGraw-Hill
Photo Diodes and Photodetectors
If depletion region of pn junction diode is illuminated with
light with sufficiently high frequency, photons can provide
enough energy to cause electrons to jump the semiconductor
bandgap to generate electron-hole pairs:
G
E
hc
h
P
E > = =
u
h =Plancks constant= 6.626e-34 J.s
= frequency of optical illumination
= wavelength of optical illumination
c =velocity of light=3e+8m/s
Photon-generated current can be used in photodetector
circuits to generate output voltage
Diode is reverse-biased to enhance depletion-region width
and electric field.
R i
o
v
PH
=
Chap 3 -67
McGraw-Hill
Solar Cells and Light-Emitting Diodes
In solar cell applications, optical
illumination is constant, dc current I
PH
is
generated. Aim is to extract power from
cell, i-v characteristics are plotted in terms
of cell current and cell voltage. For solar
cell to supply power to external circuit,
I
C
V
C
product must be positive and cell
should be operated near point of maximum
output power P
max
.
Light-Emitting Diodes use recombination
process in forward-biased pn junction
diode. When a hole and electron
recombine, energy equal to bandgap of
semiconductor is released as a photon.
Chap 3 -68

Chap3 Diode Circuits

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