Vitamin

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A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin
supplement pills.
A vitamin (US /vatmn/ or UK /vtmn/) is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in
limited amounts.
[1]
An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot be
synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both
on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but
not for most other animals. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems but there is little
evidence of benefit when used by those who are otherwise healthy.
[2]
By convention, the term vitamin includes neither other essential nutrients, such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids,
or essential amino acids (which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins) nor the large number of other nutrients that
promote health but are otherwise required less often.
[3]
Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present. Vitamins
are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number of
vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is
grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compounds
retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the
body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.
Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of
mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others
function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C).
[4]
The largest number of vitamins, the B complex
vitamins, function as precursors for enzyme cofactors, that help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this
role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymes
involved in making fatty acids. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable
molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic acid may carry
methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are
vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.
[5]
Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C
supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for
example, could occur during a particular growing season) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins
ingested. However, vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive
semisynthetic and synthetic-source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives, since the middle of the 20th
century.
Contents
1 List of vitamins
2 Health effects
2.1 Supplements
2.2 Effect of cooking
2.3 Deficiencies
2.4 Side-effects
3 Pharmacology
4 History
4.1 Etymology
5 Society and culture
5.1 Governmental regulation
5.2 Naming
6 Anti-vitamins
7 References
8 External links
List of vitamins[edit]
Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and, therefore, most have multiple functions.
[6]
Vitamin
generic
descriptor
name
Vitamer
chemical
name(s) (list not
complete)
Solubility
Recommended
dietary
allowances
(male, age 19
70)
[7]
Deficiency
disease
Upper
Intake
Level
(UL/day)
[7]
Overdose
disease
Food
sources
Vitamin A
Retinol, retinal,
and
four carotenoids
including beta
carotene
Fat 900 g
Night-blindness,
Hyperkeratosis,
and
Keratomalacia
[8]
3,000 g
Hypervitaminosis
A
Liver,
orange, ripe
yellow
fruits, leafy
vegetables,
carrots,
pumpkin,
squash,
spinach,
fish, soy
milk, milk
Pork,
Vitamin
B
1
Thiamine Water 1.2 mg
Beriberi,
Wernicke-
Korsakoff
syndrome
N/D
[9]
Drowsiness or
muscle relaxation
with large doses.
[10]
oatmeal,
brown rice,
vegetables,
potatoes,
liver, eggs
Vitamin
B
2
Riboflavin Water 1.3 mg
Ariboflavinosis,
Glossitis,
Angular
stomatitis
N/D
Dairy
products,
bananas,
popcorn,
green
beans,
asparagus
Vitamin
B
3
Niacin,
niacinamide
Water 16.0 mg Pellagra 35.0 mg
Liver damage
(doses > 2g/day)
[11]
and other
problems
Meat, fish,
eggs, many
vegetables,
mushrooms,
tree nuts
Vitamin
B
5
Pantothenic acid Water
5.0 mg
[12]
Paresthesia N/D
Diarrhea;
possibly nausea
and heartburn.
[13]
Meat,
broccoli,
avocados
Vitamin
B
6
Pyridoxine,
pyridoxamine,
pyridoxal
Water 1.31.7 mg
Anemia
[14]
peripheral
neuropathy.
100 mg
Impairment of
proprioception,
nerve damage
(doses >
100 mg/day)
Meat,
vegetables,
tree nuts,
bananas
Vitamin
B
7
Biotin Water 30.0 g
Dermatitis,
enteritis
N/D
Raw egg
yolk, liver,
peanuts,
leafy green
vegetables
Vitamin
B
9
Folic acid, folinic
acid
Water 400 g
Megaloblastic
anemia and
Deficiency
during
pregnancy is
associated with
birth defects,
such as neural
tube defects
1,000 g
May mask
symptoms of
vitamin B
12
deficiency; other
effects.
Leafy
vegetables,
pasta,
bread,
cereal, liver
Vitamin
B
12
Cyanocobalamin,
hydroxycobalamin,
methylcobalamin
Water 2.4 g
Megaloblastic
anemia
[15]
N/D
Acne-like rash
[causality is not
conclusively
established].
Meat and
other animal
products
Vitamin CAscorbic acid Water 90.0 mg Scurvy 2,000 mg
Vitamin C
Many fruits
and
megadosage vegetables,
liver
Vitamin
D
Cholecalciferol,
Ergocalciferol
Fat 10 g
[16]
Rickets and
Osteomalacia
50 g
Hypervitaminosis
D
Fish, eggs,
liver,
mushrooms
Vitamin E
Tocopherols,
tocotrienols
Fat 15.0 mg
Deficiency is
very rare;
sterility in males
and abortions in
females, mild
hemolytic
anemia in
newborn infants.
[17]
1,000 mg
Increased
congestive heart
failure seen in
one large
randomized
study.
[18]
Many fruits
and
vegetables,
nuts and
seeds
Vitamin
K
phylloquinone,
menaquinones
Fat 120 g
Bleeding
diathesis
N/D
Increases
coagulation in
patients taking
warfarin.
[19]
Leafy green
vegetables
such as
spinach,
egg yolks,
liver
Health effects[edit]
Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint
inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop, at the moment of conception, from the nutrients it absorbs. It
requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that
produce among other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a
child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage.
[20]
For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example,
microorganisms in the intestine commonly known as "gut flora" produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of
vitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of the natural ultraviolet wavelength of sunlight. Humans can produce
some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin,
from the amino acid tryptophan.
[7]
Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the
cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use
chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for
respiration.
[4]
Supplements[edit]
Evidence for supplementation in those who are otherwise healthy do not show any benefit with respect to cancer or
heart disease.
[2][21]
Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals,
but they may increase mortality, though the two large studies that support this conclusion included smokers for whom it
was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful.
[21][22]
While other findings suggest that vitamin E
toxicity is limited to only a specific form when taken in excess.
[23]
The European Union and other countries of Europe have regulations that define limits of vitamin (and mineral) dosages
for their safe use as food supplements. Most vitamins that are sold as food supplements cannot exceed a maximum daily
dosage. Vitamin products above these legal limits are not considered food supplements and must be registered as
prescription or non-prescription (over-the-counter drugs) due to their potential side effects. As a result, most of the fat-
soluble vitamins (such as the vitamins A, D, E, and K) that contain amounts above the daily allowance are drug
products. The daily dosage of a vitamin supplement for example cannot exceed 300% of the recommended daily
allowance, and for vitamin A, this limit is even lower (200%). Such regulations are applicable in most European
countries.
[24][25]
500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with
vitamin D, made from calcium carbonate,
maltodextrin, mineral oil, hypromellose,
glycerin, cholecalciferol, polyethylene glycol,
and carnauba wax.
Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and
botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions.
[26]
In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary
supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions.
[26]
They may also contain levels of
vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.
[27]
Effect of cooking[edit]
Shown below is percentage loss of vitamins after cooking averaged for common foods such as vegetables, meat or fish.
Vitamin C B
1
B
2
B
3
B
5
B
6
Folate B
12
A E
Average %loss 16 26 3 18 17 3 20 ? 11 11
It should be noted however that some vitamins may become more "bio-available" that is, usable by the body when
steamed or cooked.
[28]
The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heatsuch as heat from boiling, steaming,
cooking etc.and other agents. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water
soluble vitamins such as B and C seep into the water when a vegetable is boiled.
Vitamin Soluble in Water Exposure to Air Exposure to Light Exposure to Heat
Vitamin A no partially partially relatively stable
Vitamin C very unstable yes yes yes
Vitamin D no no no no
Vitamin E no yes yes no
Vitamin K no no yes no
Thiamine (B
1
) highly no ? > 100 C
Riboflavin (B
2
) slightly no in solution no
Niacin (B
3
) yes no no no
Pantothenic Acid (B
5
) quite stable ? NO yes
Vitamin B
6
yes ? yes ?
Biotin (B
7
) somewhat ? ? no
Folic Acid (B
9
) yes ? when dry at high temp
Vitamin B
12
yes ? yes no
[29]
Deficiencies[edit]
Humans must consume vitamins periodically but with differing schedules, to avoid deficiency. The human body's stores
for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B
12
are stored in significant amounts in the human body, mainly in
the liver,
[17]
and an adult human's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B
12
in some cases for
years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B
3
(niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in the
human body in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks.
[8][17]
For vitamin C, the first symptoms of
scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from a month to more
than six months, depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores.
[30]
Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism
does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that
prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol
consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin.
[17]
People who eat a
varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to
cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases.
Well-known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin (pellagra), vitamin C (scurvy), and vitamin D
(rickets). In much of the developed world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of food and
(2) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods, often called fortification.
[7][17]
In addition to these classical
vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of
different disorders.
[31][32]
Side-effects[edit]
The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources
Year of discovery Vitamin Food source
1913 Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil
1910 Vitamin B
1
(Thiamine) Rice bran
1920 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods
1920 Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil
1920 Vitamin B
2
(Riboflavin) Meat, dairy products, eggs
1922 (Vitamin E) (Tocopherol)
Wheat germ oil,
unrefined vegetable oils
1926 Vitamin B
12
(Cobalamins) Liver, eggs, animal products
1929 Vitamin K
1
(Phylloquinone) Leafy green vegetables
1931 Vitamin B
5
(Pantothenic acid)
Meat, whole grains,
in many foods
1931 Vitamin B
7
(Biotin) Meat, dairy products, eggs
1934 Vitamin B
6
(Pyridoxine) Meat, dairy products
1936 Vitamin B
3
(Niacin) Meat, grains
1941 Vitamin B
9
(Folic acid) Leafy green vegetables
In large doses, some vitamins have documented side-effects that tend to be more severe with a larger dosage. The
likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but overdosing (vitamin poisoning) from vitamin
supplementation does occur. At high enough dosages, some vitamins cause side-effects such as nausea, diarrhea, and
vomiting.
[8][33]
When side-effects emerge, recovery is often accomplished by reducing the dosage. The doses of
vitamins differ because individual tolerances can vary widely and appear to be related to age and state of health.
[34]
In 2008, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multivitamin-mineral formulations was reported by
68,911 individuals to the American Association of Poison Control Centers (nearly 80% of these exposures were in
children under the age of 6), leading to 8 "major" life-threatening outcomes, but no deaths.
[35]
Pharmacology[edit]
Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E,
and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in
general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin
consumption.
[36]
Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important.
[37]
Many types of water-
soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria.
[38]
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the
help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to
hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic
fibrosis.
[39]
History[edit]
The value of eating a certain food to
maintain health was recognized long
before vitamins were identified. The
ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver
to a person would help cure night
blindness, an illness now known to be
caused by a vitamin A deficiency.
[40]
The
advancement of ocean voyages during the
Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods
without access to fresh fruits and
vegetables, and made illnesses from
vitamin deficiency common among ships'
crews.
[41]
In 1747, the Scottish surgeon James Lind
discovered that citrus foods helped
prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly
disease in which collagen is not properly
formed, causing poor wound healing,
bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death.
[40]
In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which
recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the
nickname Limey for sailors of that organization. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in
the Royal Navy's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by
practicing good hygiene, regular exercise, and maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet
of fresh food.
[40]
As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In the
early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic, the prevailing medical theory
at the time was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food.
[40]
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a
number of vitamins. Lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called
"antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A";
however, the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D.
[42]
In 1881, Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied
the effects of scurvy while at the University of Tartu in present-day Estonia.
[43]
He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the
separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that
received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a
conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small
quantities of unknown substances essential to life."
[43]
However, his conclusions were rejected by other researchers
when they were unable to reproduce his results. One difference was that he had used table sugar (sucrose), while other
researchers had used milk sugar (lactose) that still contained small amounts of vitamin B.
[citation needed]
The Ancient Egyptians knew that
feeding a person liver would help
cure night blindness.
In east Asia, where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of
vitamin B
1
was endemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy,
observed that beriberi was endemic among low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers
who consumed a Western-style diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two
battleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The
group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had
only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of
beriberi, but mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it.
[44]
That diseases could result from some
dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice
instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens. The following year, Frederick
Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors" in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats
etc. that are necessary for the functions of the human body.
[40]
Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize
for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discovery of several vitamins.
[45]
In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki, who succeeded in extracting a
water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid (later Orizanin). He published this
discovery in a Japanese scientific journal.
[46]
When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state
that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to
gain publicity. In 1912 Polish biochemist Casimir Funk isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the
complex be named "vitamine" (from "vital amine", reportedly suggested by Max Nierenstein a friend and reader of
Biochemistry at Bristol University
[47]
).
[48]
The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and,
by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil
Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference, after researchers began to
suspect that not all "vitamines" (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component.
[44]
In 1930, Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta-carotene, the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified
other carotenoids. Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent-Gyrgyi's discovery of ascorbic acid and
made significant contributions to the chemistry of flavins, which led to the identification of lactoflavin. For their
investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2, they both received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937.
[49]
In 1931, Albert Szent-Gyrgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that "hexuronic acid" was actually
vitamin C, and gave a sample to Charles Glen King, who proved its anti-scorbutic activity in his long-established guinea
pig scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-Gyrgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery.
In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their
discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize (along with
Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological
process.
[45]
Etymology[edit]
The term vitamin was derived from "vitamine," a compound word coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Kazimierz
Funk
[50]
when working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine. The name is from vital and amine, meaning amine
of life, because it was suggested in 1912 that the organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps
other similar dietary-deficiency diseases might be chemical amines. This proved incorrect for the micronutrient class, and
the word was shortened to vitamin.
Society and culture[edit]
Governmental regulation[edit]
Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods, not drugs. This
necessitates that the manufacturer, and not the government, be responsible for ensuring that its dietary supplement
products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In the United States, a
dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994.
[51]
In addition, the
Food and Drug Administration uses the Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with
supplements.
[52]
In 2007, the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 21, part III took effect, regulating GMP
practices in the manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for dietary supplements. Even though product
registration is not required, these regulations mandate production and quality control standards (including testing for
Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins
Previous name Chemical name
Reason for name change
[55]
Vitamin B
4
Adenine DNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Vitamin B
8
Adenylic acid DNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Vitamin F Essential fatty acids
Needed in large quantities (does
not fit the definition of a vitamin).
Vitamin G Riboflavin Reclassified as Vitamin B
2
Vitamin H Biotin Reclassified as Vitamin B
7
Vitamin J Catechol, Flavin Catechol nonessential; flavin reclassified as B
2
Vitamin L
1
[56]
Anthranilic acid Non essential
Vitamin L
2
[56]
Adenylthiomethylpentose RNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Vitamin M Folic acid Reclassified as Vitamin B
9
Vitamin O Carnitine Synthesized in body
Vitamin P Flavonoids No longer classified as a vitamin
Vitamin PP Niacin Reclassified as Vitamin B
3
Vitamin S Salicylic acid
Proposed inclusion
[57]
of salicylate as an essential micronutrient
Vitamin U S-Methylmethionine Protein metabolite; synthesized in body
identity, purity and adulterations) for dietary supplements.
[53]
In the European Union, the Food Supplements Directive
requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without a prescription.
[54]
For most
vitamins, pharmacopoeial standards have been established. In the United States, the United States Pharmacopeia (USP)
sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof. Likewise, monographs of the European
Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market.
Naming[edit]
The reason
that the set of
vitamins skips
directly from E
to K is that the
vitamins
corresponding
to letters F-J
were either
reclassified
over time,
discarded as
false leads, or
renamed
because of
their
relationship to
vitamin B,
which became
a complex of
vitamins.
The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because
the vitamin is intimately involved in the Koagulation of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the
letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.
[55][58]
The table on the right lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of
vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.
Anti-vitamins[edit]
Main article: Antinutrient
Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin is a protein
in egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin.
[59]
Pyrithiamine is similar to thiamine, vitamin B
1
, and inhibits the
enzymes that use thiamine.
[60]
References[edit]
1. ^ Lieberman, S and Bruning, N (1990). The Real Vitamin & Mineral Book. NY: Avery Group, 3, ISBN 0-
89529-769-8
2. ^
a

b
Fortmann, SP; Burda, BU; Senger, CA; Lin, JS; Whitlock, EP (Nov 12, 2013). "Vitamin and Mineral
Supplements in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: An Updated Systematic Evidence
Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.". Annals of internal medicine 159 (12): 82434.
doi:10.7326/0003-4819-159-12-201312170-00729. PMID 24217421.
3. ^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David
LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0-13-981176-1. OCLC 32308337.
4. ^
a

b
Bender, David A. (2003). Nutritional biochemistry of the vitamins. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80388-5.
5. ^ Bolander FF (2006). "Vitamins: not just for enzymes". Curr Opin Investig Drugs 7 (10): 9125.
PMID 17086936.
6. ^ Kutsky, R.J. (1973). Handbook of Vitamins and Hormones. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN 0-
442-24549-1
7. ^
a

b

c

d
Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001.
8. ^
a

b

c
Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin A. Dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov (2013-06-05).
Retrieved on 2013-08-03.
9. ^ N/D= "Amount not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food
only to prevent high levels of intake" (see Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001).
10. ^ "Thiamin, vitamin B1: MedlinePlus Supplements". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
National Institutes of Health.
11. ^ Hardman, J.G. et al., ed. (2001). Goodman and Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (10th
ed.). p. 992. ISBN 0071354697.
12. ^ Plain type indicates Adequate Intakes (A/I). "The AI is believed to cover the needs of all individuals, but a lack
of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake" (see
Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001).
13. ^ "Pantothenic acid, dexpanthenol: MedlinePlus Supplements". MedlinePlus. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
14. ^ Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin B6. Dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov (2011-09-15).
Retrieved on 2013-08-03.
15. ^ Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin B12. Dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov (2011-06-24).
Retrieved on 2013-08-03.
16. ^ Value represents suggested intake without adequate sunlight exposure (see Dietary Reference Intakes:
Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001).
17. ^
a

b

c

d

e
The Merck Manual: Nutritional Disorders: Vitamin Introduction Please select specific vitamins from
the list at the top of the page.
18. ^ Gaby, Alan R. (2005). "Does vitamin E cause congestive heart failure?". Townsend Letter for Doctors and
Patients.
19. ^ Rohde LE, de Assis MC, Rabelo ER (2007). "Dietary vitamin K intake and anticoagulation in elderly patients".
Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 10 (1): 15. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e328011c46c. PMID 17143047.
20. ^ Gavrilov, Leonid A. (10 February 2003) Pieces of the Puzzle: Aging Research Today and Tomorrow.
fightaging.org
21. ^
a

b
Moyer, VA (Feb 25, 2014). "Vitamin, Mineral, and Multivitamin Supplements for the Primary Prevention
of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement.".
Annals of internal medicine. PMID 24566474.
22. ^ Bjelakovic, Goran; Nikolova, D; Gluud, LL; Simonetti, RG; Gluud, C (2007). "Mortality in Randomized Trials
of Antioxidant Supplements for Primary and Secondary Prevention: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis".
JAMA 297 (8): 84257. doi:10.1001/jama.297.8.842. PMID 17327526.
23. ^ Sen, Chandan K.; Khanna, Savita; Roy, Sashwati (2006). "Tocotrienols: Vitamin E beyond tocopherols". Life
Sciences 78 (18): 208898. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.12.001. PMC 1790869. PMID 16458936.
24. ^ S. Getman (March 2011). EU Regulations on food supplements, health foods, herbal medicines. US
Commercial Service. Retrieved February 2014.
25. ^ Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft. Bundesrecht 817.022.104. Verordnung des EDI ber Speziallebensmittel
vom 23. Nov. 2005 Art. 22 Nahrungsergnzungsmittel. (in German)
26. ^
a

b
Use and Safety of Dietary Supplements NIH office of Dietary Supplements.
27. ^ Higdon, Jane (2011)Vitamin E recommendations at Linus Pauling Institute's Micronutrient Information Center
28. ^ Comparison of Vitamin Levels in Raw Foods vs. Cooked Foods. Beyondveg.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-03.
29. ^ Effects of Cooking on Vitamins (Table). Beyondveg.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-03.
30. ^ Pemberton, J. (2006). "Medical experiments carried out in Sheffield on conscientious objectors to military
service during the 193945 war". International Journal of Epidemiology 35 (3): 5568.
doi:10.1093/ije/dyl020. PMID 16510534.
31. ^ Lakhan, SE; Vieira, KF (2008). "Nutritional therapies for mental disorders". Nutrition journal 7: 2.
doi:10.1186/1475-2891-7-2. PMC 2248201. PMID 18208598.
32. ^ Boy, E.; Mannar, V.; Pandav, C.; de Benoist, B.; Viteri, F.; Fontaine, O.; Hotz, C. (2009). "Achievements,
challenges, and promising new approaches in vitamin and mineral deficiency control". Nutr Rev 67 (Suppl 1):
S2430. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00155.x. PMID 19453674.
33. ^ Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K,
Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and
Zinc. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.
34. ^ Healthier Kids Section: What to take and how to take it.
35. ^ Bronstein, AC; et al. (2009). "2008 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers'
National Poison Data System (NPDS): 26th Annual Report" (PDF). Clinical Toxicology 47 (10): 9111084.
doi:10.3109/15563650903438566. PMID 20028214.
36. ^ Fukuwatari T, Shibata K (2008). "Urinary water-soluble vitamins and their metabolite contents as nutritional
markers for evaluating vitamin intakes in young Japanese women". J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 54 (3): 2239.
doi:10.3177/jnsv.54.223. PMID 18635909.
37. ^ Bellows, L. and Moore, R. "Water-Soluble Vitamins". Colorado State University. Retrieved 2008-12-07.
38. ^ Said HM, Mohammed ZM (2006). "Intestinal absorption of water-soluble vitamins: an update". Curr. Opin.
Gastroenterol. 22 (2): 1406. doi:10.1097/01.mog.0000203870.22706.52. PMID 16462170.
39. ^ Maqbool A, Stallings VA (2008). "Update on fat-soluble vitamins in cystic fibrosis". Curr Opin Pulm Med 14
(6): 57481. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283136787. PMID 18812835.
40. ^
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e
Jack Challem (1997)."The Past, Present and Future of Vitamins"
41. ^ Jacob, RA. (1996). "Three eras of vitamin C discovery". Subcell Biochem. Subcellular Biochemistry 25: 1
16. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-0325-1_1. ISBN 978-1-4613-7998-0. PMID 8821966.
42. ^ Bellis, Mary. Production Methods The History of the Vitamins. Retrieved 1 February 2005.
43. ^
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1929 Nobel lecture. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on 2013-08-03.
44. ^
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b
Rosenfeld, L. (1997). "Vitaminevitamin. The early years of discovery". Clin Chem 43 (4): 6805.
PMID 9105273.
45. ^
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Carpenter, Kenneth (22 June 2004). "The Nobel Prize and the Discovery of Vitamins". Nobelprize.org.
Retrieved 5 October 2009.
46. ^ Suzuki, U., Shimamura, T. (1911). "Active constituent of rice grits preventing bird polyneuritis". Tokyo
Kagaku Kaishi 32: 47; 144146; 335358.
47. ^ Combs, Gerald (2008). The vitamins: fundamental aspects in nutrition and health.
ISBN 9780121834937.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopdia Britannica article Vitamine.
Food portal
USDA RDA chart in PDF format
Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes Reference Chart for Vitamins
NIH Office of Dietary Supplements: Fact Sheets
NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Dietary Supplements: Background Information
Interactive table based on United States Department of Agriculture Database
Vitapred : A web server for predicting vitamin interacting residues in vitamin binding protein
v
t
e
Vitamins (A11)
Fat soluble
A
-Carotene -Carotene Retinol
#
Tretinoin
D
D
2
(Ergosterol, Ergocalciferol
#
) D
3
(7-Dehydrocholesterol, Previtamin D
3
, Cholecalciferol,
25-hydroxycholecalciferol, Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol), Calcitroic acid) D
4
(Dihydroergocalciferol) D
5
D analogues (Alfacalcidol, Dihydrotachysterol, Calcipotriol,
Tacalcitol, Paricalcitol)
48. ^ Funk, C. and Dubin, H. E. (1922). The Vitamines. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Company.
49. ^ Nobelprize.org. The Official Website of the Nobel Prize.Paul Karrer-Biographical. Retrieved 08-01-2013.
50. ^ Iowiecki, Maciej (1981). Dzieje nauki polskiej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Interpress. p. 177. ISBN 83-
223-1876-6.
51. ^ Legislation. Fda.gov (2009-09-15). Retrieved on 2010-11-12.
52. ^ Event Reporting System (AERS). Fda.gov (2009-08-20). Retrieved on 2010-11-12.
53. ^ U.S. Food and Drug Administration. CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. Retrieved 16 February
2014.
54. ^ not EUR-Lex 32002L0046 EN. Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2010-11-12.
55. ^
a

b
Bennett, David. Every Vitamin Page. All Vitamins and Pseudo-Vitamins.
56. ^
a

b
Davidson, Michael W. (2004) Anthranilic Acid (Vitamin L) Florida State University. Retrieved 20-02-07.
57. ^ Abbasi, Kamran (2003). "Rapid Responses to: Aspirin protects women at risk of pre-eclampsia without
causing bleeding". British Medical Journal 327 (7424): 7424. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7424.0-h.
58. ^ Vitamins and minerals names and facts. pubquizhelp.34sp.com
59. ^ Roth KS (1981). "Biotin in clinical medicinea review". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34 (9): 196774.
PMID 6116428.
60. ^ Rindi G, Perri V (1961). "Uptake of pyrithiamine by tissue of rats". Biochem. J. 80 (1): 2146.
PMC 1243973. PMID 13741739.
E
Tocopherol (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta) Tocotrienol (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta)
Tocofersolan
K
Naphthoquinone Phylloquinone (K
1
) Menaquinones (K
2
) Menadione (K
3
) Menadiol
(K
4
)
Water
soluble
B
B
1
(Thiamine
#
) B
2
(Riboflavin
#
) B
3
(Niacin, Nicotinamide
#
) B
5
(Pantothenic acid,
Dexpanthenol, Pantethine) B
6
(Pyridoxine
#
, Pyridoxal phosphate, Pyridoxamine) B
7
(Biotin) B
9
(Folic acid, Dihydrofolic acid, Folinic acid, L-methylfolate) B
12
(Cyanocobalamin, Hydroxocobalamin, Methylcobalamin, Cobamamide) Choline
C
Ascorbic acid
#
Dehydroascorbic acid
Combinations Multivitamins
#
WHO-EM

Withdrawn from market

Clinical trials:

Phase III

Never to phase III

M: NUT cof, enz, met noco, nuvi, sysi/epon, met drug (A8/11/12)
v
t
e
Food chemistry
Additives
Carbohydrates
Coloring
Enzymes
Essential fatty acids
Flavors
Lipids
"Minerals" (Chemical elements)
Proteins
Vitamins
Water
v
t
e
Nutrition disorders (E40E68, 260269)
Protein- Kwashiorkor
Hypoalimentation/
malnutrition
energy
malnutrition
Marasmus
Catabolysis
Avitaminosis
B
vitamins
B
1
: Beriberi / WernickeKorsakoff syndrome (Wernicke's
encephalopathy
Korsakoff's syndrome)
B
2
: Ariboflavinosis
B
3
: Pellagra (Niacin deficiency)
B
6
: Pyridoxine deficiency
B
7
: Biotin deficiency
B
9
: Folate deficiency
B
12
: Vitamin B
12
deficiency
Other
vitamins
A: Vitamin A deficiency/Bitot's spots
C: Scurvy
D: Hypovitaminosis D/Rickets/Osteomalacia
E: Vitamin E deficiency
K: Vitamin K deficiency
Mineral
deficiency
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Calcium
Iron
Zinc
Manganese
Copper
Iodine
Chromium
Molybdenum
Selenium (Keshan disease)
Hyperalimentation
Overweight
Obesity
Childhood obesity
Obesity hypoventilation syndrome
Abdominal obesity
Vitamin
poisoning
Hypervitaminosis A
Hypervitaminosis D
Hypervitaminosis E
Mineral
overload
see inborn errors of metal metabolism, toxicity
M: NUT cof, enz, met noco, nuvi, sysi/epon, met drug (A8/11/12)
v
t
e
Dietary supplements
Types
Amino acids
Bodybuilding supplement
Energy drink
Energy bar
Fatty acids
Herbal Supplements
Minerals
Prebiotics
Probiotics (Lactobacillus
Bifidobacterium)
Protein bar
Vitamins
Vitamins
and
"minerals"
(chemical
elements)
Retinol (Vitamin A)
B vitamins: Thiamine (B
1
)
Riboflavin (B
2
)
Niacin (B
3
)
Pantothenic acid (B
5
)
Pyridoxine (B
6
)
Biotin (B
7
)
Folic acid (B
9
)
Cyanocobalamin (B
12
)
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
Ergocalciferol and Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D)
Tocopherol (Vitamin E)
Naphthoquinone (Vitamin K)
Calcium
Choline
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
Other
common
ingredients
AAKG
Carnitine
Chondroitin sulfate
Cod liver oil
Copper gluconate
Creatine/Creatine supplements
Dietary fiber
Echinacea
Elemental calcium
Ephedra
Fish oil
Folic acid
Ginseng
Glucosamine
Glutamine
Grape seed extract
Guarana
Iron supplements
Japanese Honeysuckle
Krill oil
Lingzhi
Linseed oil
Lipoic acid
Milk thistle
Melatonin
Red yeast rice
Royal jelly
Saw palmetto
Spirulina
St John's wort
Taurine
Wheatgrass
Wolfberry
Yohimbine
Zinc gluconate
Related
Codex Alimentarius
Enzyte
Hadacol
articles Herbal tea
Nutraceutical
Multivitamin
Nutrition
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