Structural Engineering II

Draft
DRAFT
LECTURE NOTES
CVEN 3525/3535
STUCTURAL ENGINEERING II
c VICTOR
E. SAOUMA
Spring 1999
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
July 8, 2003
02
Draft
Blank Page
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering
Draft
03
PREFACE
Whereas there are numerous excellent textbooks covering Structural Analysis, or Structural Design, I
felt that there was a need for a single reference which
Provides a succinct, yet rigorous, coverage of Structural Engineering.
Combines, as much as possible, Analysis with Design.
Presents numerous, carefully selected, example problems.
in a properly type set document.
As such, and given the reluctance of undergraduate students to go through extensive verbage in
order to capture a key concept, I have opted for an unusual format, one in which each key idea is clearly
distinguishable. In addition, such a format will hopefully foster group learning among students who can
easily reference misunderstood points.
Finally, whereas all problems have been taken from a variety of references, I have been very careful
in not only properly selecting them, but also in enhancing their solution through appropriate figures and
LATEX typesetting macros.
Victor Saouma
04
Draft
Structural Engineering can be characterized as

the art of molding materials we dont really understand into shapes we cannot really analyze so
as to withstand forces we cannot really assess in
such a way that the public does not really suspect.
-Really Unknown Source
Victor Saouma
Draft
Contents
I
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING I; CVEN 3525
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Structural Engineering . . . . . . .
1.2 Structures and their Surroundings
1.3 Architecture & Engineering . . . .
1.4 Architectural Design Process . . .
1.5 Architectural Design . . . . . . . .
1.6 Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Load Transfer Elements . . . . . .
1.9 Structure Types . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Structural Engineering Courses . .
1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11
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2 LOADS
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Dead Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-1 Live Load Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-2 Wind Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-3 Earthquake Load on a Frame . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-4 Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller
2.4 Other Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Hydrostatic and Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-5 Hydrostatic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-6 Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996) . .
2.4.3 Bridge Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Impact Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Other Important Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 Load Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3 Structural Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.4 Tributary Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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21
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3 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
3.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Structural Steel . . . .
3.1.2 Reinforcing Steel . . .
3.2 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . .
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31
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02
CONTENTS
Draft
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
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4 EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Equations of Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Static Determinacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-1 Statically Indeterminate Cable Structure
4.5 Geometric Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-2 Simply Supported Beam . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-3 Parabolic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-4 Three Span Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-5 Three Hinged Gable Frame . . . . . . . .
E 4-6 Inclined Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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41
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410
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5 TRUSSES
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Assumptions . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Basic Relations . . . . . .
5.2 Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Determinacy and Stability
5.2.2 Method of Joints . . . . .
E 5-1 Truss, Method of Joints .
5.2.2.1 Matrix Method .
E 5-2 Truss I, Matrix Method .
E 5-3 Truss II, Matrix Method .
5.2.3 Method of Sections . . . .
E 5-4 Truss, Method of Sections
5.3 Case Study: Stadium . . . . . . .
3.7
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Section Properties . . . . . . .
3.6.1 ASCII File with Steel Section
Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Properties
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51
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511
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514
6 CABLES
6.1 Funicular Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 6-1 Funicular Cable Structure . . . .
6.2 Uniform Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 qdx; Parabola . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 qds; Catenary . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2.1 Historical Note . . . . .
E 6-2 Design of Suspension Bridge . . .
6.3 Case Study: George Washington Bridge
6.3.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3 Cable Forces . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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61
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67
69
69
610
610
611
7 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI and AISC CODES

7.1 Safety Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Working Stress Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Ultimate Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 The Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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74
75
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CONTENTS
03
Draft
7.4
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
E 7-1 LRFD vs ASD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8 DESIGN I
8.1 Case Study: Eiffel Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Materials, & Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Magazini Generali by Maillart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Buildings Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.1 Wall Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.1.1 Example: Concrete Shear Wall
8.3.1.1.2 Example: Trussed Shear Wall
8.3.1.2 Shaft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.2.1 Example: Tube Subsystem . .
8.3.1.3 Rigid Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Design of a Three Hinged Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.6 Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiffened Arches . .
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81
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89
810
811
812
812
812
813
815
815
816
817
817
818
818
820
821
821
824
825
9 STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Geometric Considerations . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1.1 Net Area, An . . . . . . . . .
E 9-1 Net Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-2 Net Area, Angle . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1.2 Effective Net Area, Ae . . . .
E 9-3 Reduction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members . . . . . .
9.3.1 Tension Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2 Block Shear Failure . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-4 Load Capacity of Angle . . . . . . . .
E 9-5 Shear Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-6 Shear Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-7 Complete Analysis/Design of a Truss .
9.4 Computer Aided Analysis . . . . . . . . .
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91
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910
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912
913
914
920
Victor Saouma
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04
CONTENTS
Draft
10 INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

10.1 Design Sign Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Load, Shear, Moment Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Moment Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.1 Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-1 Simple Shear and Moment Diagram . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-2 Sketches of Shear and Moment Diagrams . . . . . . .
10.4.2 Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-3 Frame Shear and Moment Diagram . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-4 Frame Shear and Moment Diagram; Hydrostatic Load
E 10-5 Shear Moment Diagrams for Frame . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-6 Shear Moment Diagrams for Inclined Frame . . . . . .
10.4.3 3D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-7 3D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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101
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. 1010
. 1013
. 1014
. 1015
. 1015
. 1018
11 ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

11.1 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 Statically Determinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-1 Three Hinged Arch, Point Loads. (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-2 Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2 Statically Indeterminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-3 Statically Indeterminate Arch, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Curved Space Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-4 Semi-Circular Box Girder, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1.2 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-5 Internal Forces in an Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder, (Gerstle 1974)
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111
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. 1111
. 1112
12 DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

12.1 Flexural Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.1 Curvature Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.2 Differential Equation of the Elastic Curve . . . .
12.1.3 Moment Temperature Curvature Relation . . . .
12.2 Flexural Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.1 Direct Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 12-1 Double Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.2 Curvature Area Method (Moment Area) . . . . .
12.2.2.1 First Moment Area Theorem . . . . . .
12.2.2.2 Second Moment Area Theorem . . . . .
E 12-2 Moment Area, Cantilevered Beam . . . . . . . .
E 12-3 Moment Area, Simply Supported Beam . . . . .
12.2.2.3 Maximum Deflection . . . . . . . . . .
E 12-4 Maximum Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 12-5 Frame Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 12-6 Frame Subjected to Temperature Loading . . . .
12.2.3 Elastic Weight/Conjugate Beams . . . . . . . . .
E 12-7 Conjugate Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Axial Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Torsional Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. 128
. 128
. 1210
. 1210
. 1211
. 1212
. 1214
. 1215
. 1217
. 1217
Victor Saouma
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.
CONTENTS
05
Draft
13 ENERGY METHODS; Part I

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Real Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.2 Internal Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-1 Deflection of a Cantilever Beam, (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.1 External Virtual Work W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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13.3.2 Internal Virtual Work U
13.3.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-2 Beam Deflection (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-3 Deflection of a Frame (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-4 Rotation of a Frame (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-5 Truss Deflection (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-6 Torsional and Flexural Deformation, (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-7 Flexural and Shear Deformations in a Beam (White, Gergely and Sexmith 1976)
E 13-8 Thermal Effects in a Beam (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-9 Deflection of a Truss (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-10Thermal Defelction of a Truss; I (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-11Thermal Deflections in a Truss; II (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-12Truss with initial camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-13Prestressed Concrete Beam with Continously Variable I (White et al. 1976) . . .
13.4 *Maxwell Bettis Reciprocal Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5 Summary of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
131
. 131
. 131
. 131
. 132
. 133
. 134
. 136
. 136
. 139
. 139
. 1311
. 1312
. 1313
. 1314
. 1315
. 1316
. 1317
. 1318
. 1319
. 1320
. 1321
. 1324
. 1324
14 BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

14.1 Review from Strength of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.1 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.2 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Nominal Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Flexural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.1 Failure Modes and Classification of Steel Beams
14.3.1.1 Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.1.2 Partially Compact Section . . . . . . .
14.3.1.3 Slender Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 14-1 Shape Factors, Rectangular Section . . . . . . .
E 14-2 Shape Factors, T Section . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 14-3 Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Shear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6 Complete Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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141
. 141
. 141
. 143
. 144
. 145
. 145
. 145
. 146
. 147
. 147
. 147
. 148
. 149
. 1411
. 1411
. 1412
15 COLUMN STABILITY
15.1 Introduction; Discrete Rigid Bars . . . . .
15.1.1 Single Bar System . . . . . . . . .
15.1.2 Two Bars System . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.3 Analogy with Free Vibration . . .
15.2 Continuous Linear Elastic Systems . . . .
15.2.1 Lower Order Differential Equation
15.2.2 Higher Order Differential Equation
15.2.2.1 Derivation . . . . . . . .
15.2.2.2 Hinged-Hinged Column .
15.2.2.3 Fixed-Fixed Column . . .
15.2.2.4 Fixed-Hinged Column . .
15.2.3 Effective Length Factors K . . . .
15.3 Inelastic Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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151
. 151
. 151
. 152
. 154
. 155
. 156
. 156
. 156
. 158
. 158
. 159
. 1510
. 1512
Victor Saouma
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06
CONTENTS
Draft
16 STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS

16.1 AISC Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 LRFD Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3.1 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 16-1 Unbraced Column Evaluation, (?) . . .
E 16-2 Braced Column Evaluation, (?) . . . . .
E 16-3 Braced Column Evaluation, (?) . . . . .
16.3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 16-4 Column Design, (?) . . . . . . . . . . .
E 16-5 Design of Braced Column, (?) . . . . . .
E 16-6 Design of a Column, (?) . . . . . . . . .
E 16-7 Column Design Using AISC Charts, (?)
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161
. 161
. 162
. 166
. 166
. 166
. 166
. 167
. 168
. 168
. 169
. 169
. 1610
17 STEEL CONNECTIONS
17.1 Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.1 Types of Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.2 Types of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.3 Nominal Strength of Individual Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4 Concentric Loads (Tension Connections) . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4.1 AISC Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 17-1 Analysis of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990)
E 17-2 Design of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990) .
17.1.5 Eccentric Connection (Shear Connections) . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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171
. 171
. 171
. 171
. 174
. 175
. 175
. 176
. 176
. 178
. 179
. 179
18 UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3 AISC Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3.1 Dividing values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3.2 Governing Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4.1 Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 18-1 Adequacy of an unbraced beam, (?) . . . .
E 18-2 Adequacy of an unbraced beam, II (?) . . .
18.4.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 18-3 Design of Laterally Unsupported Beam, (?)
18.5 Summary of AISC Governing Equations . . . . . .
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181
. 181
. 181
. 182
. 182
. 182
. 184
. 184
. 184
. 185
. 186
. 187
. 1811
19 Beam Columns, (Unedited)

19.1 Potential Modes of Failures . . . . . . . .
19.2 AISC Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.1 Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 19-1 Verification, (?) . . . . . . . . . . .
E 19-2 8.2, (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 19-3 Design of Steel Beam-Column, (?)
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STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING II; CVEN 3235
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1911
20 ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

20.1 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1.1 Statically Determinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 20-1 Three Hinged Arch, Point Loads. (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma
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CONTENTS
07
Draft
E 20-2 Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20.1.2 Statically Indeterminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 20-3 Statically Indeterminate Arch, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 Curved Space Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 20-4 Semi-Circular Box Girder, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.1.2 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 20-5 Internal Forces in an Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder, (Gerstle 1974)
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21 STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2 The Force/Flexibility Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3 Short-Cut for Displacement Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-1 Steel Building Frame Analysis, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-2 Analysis of Irregular Building Frame, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . .
E 21-3 Redundant Truss Analysis, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-4 Truss with Two Redundants, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-5 Analysis of Nonprismatic Members, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . .
E 21-6 Fixed End Moments for Nonprismatic Beams, (White et al. 1976) . . .
E 21-7 Rectangular Frame; External Load, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . .
E 21-8 Frame with Temperature Effects
and Support Displacements, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-9 Braced Bent with Loads and Temperature Change, (White et al. 1976)
22 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS
22.1 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2 Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2.1 Portal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 22-1 Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected
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to Vertical and Horizontal
23 KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.1.1 Stiffness vs Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.1.2 Sign Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.2 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.2.1 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3 Kinematic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.1 Force-Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.2 Fixed End Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.2.1 Uniformly Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.2.2 Concentrated Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4 Slope Deflection; Direct Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4.1 Slope Deflection Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4.3 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-1 Propped Cantilever Beam, (Arbabi 1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-2 Two-Span Beam, Slope Deflection, (Arbabi 1991) . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-3 Two-Span Beam, Slope Deflection, Initial Deflection, (Arbabi 1991)
E 23-4 dagger Frames, Slope Deflection, (Arbabi 1991) . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.1.1 Sign Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.1.2 Fixed-End Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.1.3 Stiffness Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma
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204
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211
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Loads
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08
CONTENTS
Draft
23.5.1.4 Distribution Factor (DF) . . . . . . . . . . .

23.5.1.5 Carry-Over Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.3 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-5 Continuous Beam, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-6 Continuous Beam, Simplified Method, (Kinney 1957) .
E 23-7 Continuous Beam, Initial Settlement, (Kinney 1957) .
E 23-8 Frame, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-9 Frame with Side Load, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . .
E 23-10Moment Distribution on a Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . .
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2316
2316
2317
2317
2318
2318
2320
2322
2323
2327
2329
24 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I

24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1.2 Modes of Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1.3 Analysis vs Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions . . . . . . .
24.1.5 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method .
24.2.1 Equivalent Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2.2 Balanced Steel Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 24-1 Ultimate Strength Capacity . . . . . . . . . .
E 24-2 Beam Design I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 24-3 Beam Design II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.3 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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241
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25 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II

25.1 T Beams, (ACI 8.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.1.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.1.2 Design, (balanced) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 25-1 T Beam; Moment Capacity I . . . . . . . .
E 25-2 T Beam; Moment Capacity II . . . . . . . .
E 25-3 T Beam; Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams . . . . . . .
25.2.1 Tests for fs and fs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.2.2 Moment Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 25-4 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review
E 25-5 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design .
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251
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. 2511
26 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.1.1 Structural Idealization . . . .
26.1.2 Structural Discretization . . .
26.1.3 Coordinate Systems . . . . .
26.1.4 Sign Convention . . . . . . .
26.1.5 Degrees of Freedom . . . . .
26.2 Stiffness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . .
26.2.1 Truss Element . . . . . . . .
26.2.2 Beam Element . . . . . . . .
26.2.3 2D Frame Element . . . . . .
26.2.4 Remarks on Element Stiffness
26.3 Direct Stiffness Method . . . . . . .
26.3.1 Orthogonal Structures . . . .
E 26-1 Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. 2610
Victor Saouma
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Matrices
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CONTENTS
09
Draft
26.3.2 Local and Global Element Stiffness Matrices ([k(e) ] [K(e) ])

26.3.2.1 2D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.3 Global Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.3.1 Structural Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.3.2 Augmented Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.5 Boundary Conditions, [ID] Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.6 LM Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.7 Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 26-2 Assembly of the Global Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.8 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 26-3 Direct Stiffness Analysis of a Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 26-4 Analysis of a Frame with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 26-5 Analysis of a simple Beam with Initial Displacements . . .
26.4 Computer Program Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.1 Program Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.1.1 Input Variable Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.1.2 Sample Input Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.1.3 Program Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2 Program Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.1 Main Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.2 Assembly of ID Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.3 Element Nodal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.4 Element Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.5 Element Stiffness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.6 Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.7 Assembly of the Augmented Stiffness Matrix . . .
26.5.2.8 Print General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.9 Print Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.10 Load Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.11 Nodal Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.12 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.13 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.14 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.15 Sample Output File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 COLUMNS
27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.1.1 Types of Columns . . . . . . . . .
27.1.2 Possible Arrangement of Bars . . .
27.2 Short Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.2.1 Concentric Loading . . . . . . . . .
27.2.2 Eccentric Columns . . . . . . . . .
27.2.2.1 Balanced Condition . . .
27.2.2.2 Tension Failure . . . . . .
27.2.2.3 Compression Failure . . .
27.2.3 ACI Provisions . . . . . . . . . . .
27.2.4 Interaction Diagrams . . . . . . . .
27.2.5 Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . .
E 27-1 R/C Column, c known . . . . . . .
E 27-2 R/C Column, e known . . . . . . .
E 27-3 R/C Column, Using Design Charts
Victor Saouma
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2612
2612
2613
2613
2613
2614
2615
2616
2616
2617
2618
2618
2623
2625
2629
2631
2631
2631
2632
2633
2634
2634
2635
2636
2637
2637
2638
2639
2640
2640
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2649
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271
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. 277
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. 279
. 2714
010
CONTENTS
Draft
28 DESIGN II
28.1 Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.1.1 Beam Column Connections . . . . . . . .
28.1.2 Behavior of Simple Frames . . . . . . . .
28.1.3 Eccentricity of Applied Loads . . . . . . .
28.1.4 Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch
28.1.5 Temperature Changes in an Arch . . . . .
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29 INFLUENCE LINES (unedited)

30 ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY
30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.2 Elements of Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3 Distributions of Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.1 Uniform Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.2 Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.3 Lognormal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.4 Beta Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.5 BiNormal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4 Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.1 Performance Function Identification . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.3 Mean and Standard Deviation of a Performance Function
30.4.3.1 Direct Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.3.2 Monte Carlo Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.3.3 Point Estimate Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.3.4 Taylors Series-Finite Difference Estimation . . .
30.4.4 Overall System Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.5 Target Reliability Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.5 Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma
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291
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301
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. 3010
. 3010
. 3012
Draft
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D) .

Basic Aspects of Cable Systems . . . . . . . .
Basic Aspects of Arches . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variations in Post and Beams Configurations
Different Beam Types . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Forms of Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Air Supported Structures . . . .
Basic Forms of Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sequence of Structural Engineering Courses .
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13
14
15
16
17
18
19
110
111
111
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
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22
24
25
25
26
27
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Snow Map of the United States, ubc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loads on Projected Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical and Normal Loads Acting on Inclined Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Map of the United States, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vibrations of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seismic Zones of the United States, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Earth and Hydrostatic Loads on Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Truck Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Placement to Maximize Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Life of a Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concept of Tributary Areas for Structural Member Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One or Two Way actions in Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Transfer in R/C Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two Way Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of Load Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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210
211
212
217
218
220
220
221
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224
224
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel . . . . . .

Standard Rolled Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections . . . . . . . . .
Residual Stresses in Welded Sections . . . . . . . . .
Influence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain
Concrete Stress-Strain curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W and C sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
prefabricated Steel Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Types of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inclined Roller Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures .
Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Curve of a Rolled Section
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31
32
33
33
34
36
36
38
320
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41
43
44
45
02
Draft
LIST OF FIGURES
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
Types of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Statically Indeterminate Truss . . . . .
X and Y Components of Truss Forces . .
Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces
Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces Acting on Truss Joint . . . . . . .
Complex Statically Determinate Truss . .
Florence Stadium, Pier Luigi Nervi (?) . .
Florence Stadioum, Pier Luigi Nervi (?) .
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52
52
54
54
55
58
58
59
514
515
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
Cable Structure Subjected to q(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Catenary versus Parabola Cable Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leipnizs Figure of a catenary, 1690 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge
Truck Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dead and Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Location of Cable Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Reactions in Columns Due to Central Span Load . . . . .
Cable Reactions in Side Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deck Idealization, Shear and Moment Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . .
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63
66
67
69
610
611
611
612
613
613
614
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
Load Life of a Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function
Frequency Distributions of Load Q and Resistance R . . . . . . . . . .
Definition of Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Probability of Failure in terms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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72
73
74
75
75
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
Eiffel Tower (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eiffel Tower Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiffel Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiffel Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiffel Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiffel Tower, Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiffel Tower, Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiffel Tower, Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiffel Tower, Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Loads (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram,
(Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark
1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Effect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . .
Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trussed Shear Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Basic Portal Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Hinges, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Sections, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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81
83
83
84
84
85
86
86
87
88
89
89
89
810
810
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
8.25
8.26
Victor Saouma
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. 811
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811
812
813
815
816
817
819
819
819
820
LIST OF FIGURES
03
Draft
8.27
8.28
8.29
8.30
8.31
8.32
8.33
Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . .

Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . .
Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983) .
Structural Behavior of Stiffened Arches, (Billington 1979) . . . . . . . . . . . .
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820
822
823
823
823
824
825
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Stress Concentration Around Circular Hole

Hole Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Staggered Holes on Net Area . . .
Gage Distances for an Angle . . . . . . . . .
Net and Gross Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tearing Failure Limit State . . . . . . . . .
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92
93
93
94
99
99
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sign Conventions for 3D Frame Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Free Body Diagram of an Infinitesimal Beam Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shear and Moment Forces at Different Sections of a Loaded Beam . . . . . . . . .
Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment
Inclined Loads on Inclined Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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102
102
103
104
105
108
11.1 Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Arch Rib Stiffened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 Semi-Circular three hinged arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.8 Statically Indeterminate Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.9 Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.10Semi-Circular Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11Geometry of Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.12Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.13Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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112
112
113
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
1111
1112
1113
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
122
126
127
127
1210
1215
1217
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Curvature of a flexural element . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Moment Area Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sign Convention for the Moment Area Method . . . .
Areas and Centroid of Polynomial Curves . . . . . . .
Maximum Deflection Using the Moment Area Method
Conjugate Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Torsion Rotation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1 Load Deflection Curves . . .

13.2 Strain Energy Definition . . .
13.3 Deflection of Cantilever Beam
13.4 Real and Virtual Forces . . .
13.5 Torsion Rotation Relations .
13.6
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13.7
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13.8
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13.9
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13.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma
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. 132
. 133
. 134
. 135
. 137
. 1310
. 1310
. 1311
. 1312
. 1313
. 1314
. 1315
. 1317
04
LIST OF FIGURES
Draft
13.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318
13.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1319
13.16*(correct 42.7 to 47.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1322
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
Bending of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress distribution at different stages of loading . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels . . . . . . . . . . .
Flexural and Shear Stress Distribution in a Rectangular Beam . .
Local (flange) Buckling; Flexural and Torsional Buckling Modes
(Lulea University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6 W Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.7 Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections . .
14.8 AISC Requirements for Shear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Section,
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142
142
143
144
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145
146
147
1412
15.1 Stability of a Rigid Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.2 Stability of a Rigid Bar with Initial Imperfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 Stability of a Two Rigid Bars System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.4 Two DOF Dynamic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5 Euler Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.6 Simply Supported Beam Column; Differential Segment; Effect of Axial Force P . . . . . .
15.7 Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged Column
15.8 Column Effective Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.9 Frame Effective Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.10Column Effective Length in a Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.11Standard Alignment Chart (AISC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.12Inelastic Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.13Euler Buckling, and SSRC Column Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
151
152
153
154
155
157
1510
1511
1511
1512
1513
1513
1514
16.1 SSRC Column Curve and AISC Critical Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

16.2 Fcr versus KL/r According to LRFD, for Various Fy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
Examples of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Stress Transfer by Shear and Bearing in a Bolted Connection
Stress Transfer in a Friction Type Bolted Connection . . . . .
Modes of Failure of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number of Shearing Planes m in Bolted Connections . . . . .
Bearing Strength Related to End Distance . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Types of Weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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172
173
173
174
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179
18.1 I Shaped Beam in Slightly Buckled Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

18.2 Nominal Strength Mn of Compact Sections as Affected by Lateral-Torsional Buckling . 183
18.3 Design of Laterally Unsupported Steel Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
19.1 Rigid Frame Subjected to Lateral Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
20.1 Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4 Arch Rib Stiffened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . .
20.5
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20.6 Semi-Circular three hinged arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.7 Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.8 Statically Indeterminate Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.9 Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.10Semi-Circular Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.11Geometry of Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.12Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma
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202
202
203
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
2011
2012
LIST OF FIGURES
05
Draft
20.13Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2013

21.1 Statically Indeterminate 3 Cable Structure . . . .
21.2 Propped Cantilever Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3
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21.4
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21.5
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21.6
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21.7
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21.8
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21.9
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21.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.16Definition of Flexibility Terms for a Rigid Frame
21.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. 212
. 213
. 216
. 216
. 217
. 218
. 219
. 2110
. 2112
. 2113
. 2114
. 2116
. 2116
. 2118
. 2119
. 2119
. 2122
. 2125
22.1 Uniformly Loaded Beam and Frame with Free or Fixed Beam Restraint . . . . . . . . . .
22.2 Uniformly Loaded Frame, Approximate Location of Inflection Points . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments . . . . . .
22.4 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces . . . .
22.5 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments . . . . .
22.6 Horizontal Force Acting on a Frame, Approximate Location of Inflection Points . . . . . .
22.7 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear . . . . . . . .
22.8 ***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment . . . . .
22.9 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force . . . .
22.10Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.11Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Vertical Loads
22.12Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.13Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.14Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.15Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.16Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Lateral Loads
22.17Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.18Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.19Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
2210
2210
2211
2213
2215
2216
2217
2218
2220
2222
2223
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
23.5
23.6
23.7
23.8
23.9
232
232
234
235
239
2310
2311
2312
2313
Sign Convention, Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . .

Independent Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements
Flexural Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Illustrative Example for the Slope Deflection Method . .
Slope Deflection; Propped Cantilever Beam . . . . . . .
Two-Span Beam, Slope Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two Span Beam, Slope Deflection, Moment Diagram . .
Frame Analysis by the Slope Deflection Method . . . . .
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24.1 Cracked Section, Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

24.2 Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
25.1
25.2
25.3
25.4
T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T Beam as Rectangular Section . . . . . . .
T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram . . . . .
Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T
Victor Saouma
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Beams
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251
252
252
253
06
LIST OF FIGURES
Draft
25.5
25.6
25.7
25.8
Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams . . . .

Different Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams
Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding? . .
Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding . .
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257
257
258
259
26.1 Global Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.2 Local Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3 Sign Convention, Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . .
26.4 Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements
26.5 Dependent Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.6 Examples of Active Global Degrees of Freedom . . . . .
26.7 Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . .
26.8 2D Frame Element Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.9 *Frame Example (correct K32 and K33 ) . . . . . . . . .
26.10Example for [ID] Matrix Determination . . . . . . . . .
26.11Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code . . . .
26.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.13Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code . . . .
26.14ID Values for Simple Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.15Structure Plotted with CASAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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263
264
264
264
265
266
269
2613
2614
2616
2617
2619
2623
2626
2649
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7
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271
272
272
273
274
275
278
Types of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . .
Possible Bar arrangements . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources of Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load moment interaction diagram . . . . . .
Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column
Column Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . .
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28.1 Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28.2 Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads,
(Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.3 Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames
Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.4 Axial and Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.5 Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.6 Normal and Shear Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 281
. 282
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283
284
285
287
30.1 Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . 303

30.2 Definition of Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
30.3 Probability of Failure in terms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3011
Victor Saouma
Draft
List of Tables
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
Unit Weight of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Weights of Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Velocity Variation above Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ce Coefficients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Pressure Coefficients Cq , (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z Factors for Different Seismic Zones, ubc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S Site Coefficients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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22
23
23
23
27
28
28
28
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29
212
213
213
217
3.1
3.2
3.3
Properties of Major Structural Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Properties of Reinforcing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Joist Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
4.1
Equations of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.1
Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1
7.2
7.3
Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Strength Reduction Factors, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.1
9.2
Usual Gage Lengths g, g1 , g2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Effective Net Area Ae for Bolted and Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12.1 Conjugate Beam Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215

13.1 Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.2 k Factors for Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
13.3 Summary of Expressions for the Internal Strain Energy and External Work . . . . . . . . 1325
15.1 Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions for Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
16.1 Design Stress Fcr for Fy =36 ksi in Terms of rKL
min
KL
16.2 Design Stress Fcr for Fy =50 ksi in Terms of rmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
16.3 Stiffness Reduction Factors (AISC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17.1 Nominal Areas of Standard Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
18.1 Unbraced Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2 Summary of AISC Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
02
LIST OF TABLES
Draft
19.1 Values of m for use in Beam-Column Design Equation, (from a paper in AISC Engineering
Journal by Uang, Wattar, and Leet (1990)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
L
g1 (x)g2 (x)dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
21.1 Table of
0
21.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115
21.3 Displacement Computations for a Rectangular Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120
22.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2221
22.2 Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2224
23.1 Stiffness vs Flexibility Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
23.2 Degrees of Freedom of Different Structure Types Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
Example of Nodal Definition .

Example of Element Definition
Example of Group Number . .
Degrees of Freedom of Different
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structure Types Systems
28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
Geometry of the Arch . . . . . . .

Calculation of Horizontal Force . .
Moment at the Centers of the Ribs
Values of Normal and Shear Forces
Design of the Arch . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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262
262
262
267
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. 286
. 286
. 287
. 288
. 289
. 2810
. 2810
. 2810
. 2811
30.1 Tabulated Results of a Simple Monte-Carlo Simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

30.2 Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3012
Victor Saouma
Draft
Part I
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING I;
CVEN 3525
Draft
Draft
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1
Structural engineers are responsible for the detailed analysis and design of:
Architectural structures: Buildings, houses, factories. They must work in close cooperation with an
architect who will ultimately be responsible for the design.
Civil Infrastructures: Bridges, dams, pipelines, offshore structures. They work with transportation,
hydraulic, nuclear and other engineers. For those structures they play the leading role.
Aerospace, Mechanical, Naval structures: aeroplanes, spacecrafts, cars, ships, submarines to ensure the structural safety of those important structures.
1.2
2
Structures and their Surroundings
Structural design is affected by various environmental constraints:

1. Major movements: For example, elevator shafts are usually shear walls good at resisting lateral
load (wind, earthquake).
2. Sound and structure interact:
A dome roof will concentrate the sound
A dish roof will diffuse the sound
3. Natural light:
A flat roof in a building may not provide adequate light.
A Folded plate will provide adequate lighting (analysis more complex).
A bearing and shear wall building may not have enough openings for daylight.
A Frame design will allow more light in (analysis more complex).
4. Conduits for cables (electric, telephone, computer), HVAC ducts, may dictate type of floor system.
5. Net clearance between columns (unobstructed surface) will dictate type of framing.
1.3
3
Architecture & Engineering
Architecture must be the product of a creative collaboration of architects and engineers.
Architect stress the overall, rather than elemental approach to design. In the design process, they
conceptualize a space-form scheme as a total system. They are generalists.
12
Draft
INTRODUCTION
The engineer, partly due to his/her education think in reverse, starting with details and without
sufficient regards for the overall picture. (S)he is a pragmatist who knows everything about nothing.
Thus there is a conceptual gap between architects and engineers at all levels of design.
Engineers education is more specialized and in depth than the architects. However, engineer must
be kept aware of overall architectural objective.
In the last resort, it is the architect who is the leader of the construction team, and the engineers are
his/her servant.
A possible compromise might be an Architectural Engineer.
1.4
10
Architectural Design Process
Architectural design is hierarchical:
Schematic: conceptual overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. Collaboration is mostly
between the owner and the architect.
Preliminary: Establish basic physical properties of major subsystems and key components to prove
design feasibility. Some collaboration with engineers is necessary.
Final design: final in-depth design refinements of all subsystems and components and preparation of
working documents (blue-prints). Engineers play a leading role.
1.5
11
Architectural Design
Architectural design must respect various constraints:
Functionality: Influence of the adopted structure on the purposes for which the structure was erected.
Aesthetics: The architect often imposes his aesthetic concerns on the engineer. This in turn can place
severe limitations on the structural system.
Economy: It should be kept in mind that the two largest components of a structure are labors and
materials. Design cost is comparatively negligible.
1.6
Structural Analysis
Given an existing structure subjected to a certain load determine internal forces (axial, shear, flexural, torsional; or stresses), deflections, and verify that no unstable failure can occur.
12
13
Thus the basic structural requirements are:
Strength: stresses should not exceed critical values: < f

Stiffness: deflections should be controlled: < max
Stability: buckling or cracking should also be prevented
1.7
14
Structural Design
Given a set of forces, dimension the structural element.
Steel/wood Structures Select appropriate section.

Reinforced Concrete: Determine dimensions of the element and internal reinforcement (number and
sizes of reinforcing bars).
Victor Saouma
1.8 Load Transfer Elements
13
Draft
15 For new structures, iterative process between analysis and design. A preliminary design is made
using rules of thumbs (best known to Engineers with design experience) and analyzed. Following
design, we check for
Serviceability: deflections, crack widths under the applied load. Compare with acceptable values
specified in the design code.
Failure: and compare the failure load with the applied load times the appropriate factors of safety.
If the design is found not to be acceptable, then it must be modified and reanalyzed.
16 For existing structures rehabilitation, or verification of an old infrastructure, analysis is the most
important component.
17
In summary, analysis is always required.
1.8
18
Load Transfer Elements
From Strength of Materials, Fig. 1.1
Figure 1.1: Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D)

Axial: cables, truss elements, arches, membrane, shells
Flexural: Beams, frames, grids, plates
Torsional: Grids, 3D frames
Shear: Frames, grids, shear walls.
1.9
19
Structure Types
Structures can be classified as follows:
Victor Saouma
14
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Tension & Compression Structures: only, no shear, flexure, or torsion

Cable (tension only): The high strength of steel cables, combined with the efficiency of simple
tension, makes cables ideal structural elements to span large distances such as bridges, and
dish roofs, Fig. 1.2
Figure 1.2: Basic Aspects of Cable Systems

Arches (mostly compression) is a reversed cable structure. In an arch, we seek to minimize
flexure and transfer the load through axial forces only. Arches are used for large span roofs
and bridges, Fig. 1.3
Trusses have pin connected elements which can transmit axial forces only (tension and compression). Elements are connected by either slotted, screwed, or gusset plate connectors.
However, due to construction details, there may be secondary stresses caused by relatively
rigid connections. Trusses are used for joists, roofs, bridges, electric tower, Fig. 1.4
Post and Beams: Essentially a support column on which a beam rests, Fig. 1.5, and 1.6.
Victor Saouma
1.9 Structure Types
15
Draft
Figure 1.3: Basic Aspects of Arches
Victor Saouma
16
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Figure 1.4: Types of Trusses
Victor Saouma
1.9 Structure Types
17
Draft
Figure 1.5: Variations in Post and Beams Configurations
Victor Saouma
18
INTRODUCTION
Draft
VIERENDEEL TRUSS
OVERLAPPING SINGLE-STRUT
CABLE-SUPPORTED BEAM
TREE-SUPPORTED TRUSS
BRACED BEAM
CABLE-STAYED BEAM
SUSPENDED CABLE
SUPPORTED BEAM
BOWSTRING TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED
STRUTED ARCH OR
CABLE BEAM/TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED
MULTI-STRUT
BEAM OR TRUSS
GABLED TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED ARCHED FRAME
CABLE-SUPPORTED PORTAL FRAME
Figure 1.6: Different Beam Types
Victor Saouma
1.9 Structure Types
19
Draft
Beams: Shear, flexure and sometimes axial forces. Recall that =

beams, i.e. span/depth at least equal to five.
Mc
I
is applicable only for shallow
Whereas r/c beams are mostly rectangular or T shaped, steel beams are usually I shaped (if the
top flanges are not properly stiffened, they may buckle, thus we must have stiffeners).
Frames: Load is co-planar with the structure. Axial, shear, flexure (with respect to one axis in 2D
structures and with respect to two axis in 3D structures), torsion (only in 3D). The frame is
composed of at least one horizontal member (beam) rigidly connected to vertical ones1 . The vertical
members can have different boundary conditions (which are usually governed by soil conditions).
Frames are extensively used for houses and buildings, Fig. 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Basic Forms of Frames

Grids and Plates: Load is orthogonal to the plane of the structure. Flexure, shear, torsion.
In a grid, beams are at right angles resulting in a two-way dispersal of loads. Because of the rigid
connections between the beams, additional stiffness is introduced by the torsional resistance of
members.
Grids can also be skewed to achieve greater efficiency if the aspect ratio is not close to one.
Plates are flat, rigid, two dimensional structures which transmit vertical load to their supports.
Used mostly for floor slabs.
Folded plates is a combination of transverse and longitudinal beam action. Used for long span
roofs. Note that the plate may be folded circularly rather than longitudinally. Folded plates are
used mostly as long span roofs. However, they can also be used as vertical walls to support both
vertical and horizontal loads.
1 The precursor of the frame structures were the Post and Lintel where the post is vertical member on which the lintel
is simply posed.
Victor Saouma
110
INTRODUCTION
Draft
Membranes: 3D structures composed of a flexible 2D surface resisting tension only. They are usually
cable-supported and are used for tents and long span roofs Fig. 1.8.
Figure 1.8: Examples of Air Supported Structures

Shells: 3D structures composed of a curved 2D surface, they are usually shaped to transmit compressive
axial stresses only, Fig. 1.9.
Shells are classified in terms of their curvature.
1.10
20
Structural Engineering Courses
Structural engineering education can be approached from either one of two points of views:
Architectural: Start from overall design, and move toward detailed analysis.
Education: Elemental rather than global approach. Emphasis is on the individual structural elements
and not always on the total system.
CVEN3525 will seek a balance between those two approaches.
21 This is only the third of a long series of courses which can be taken in Structural Engineering, Fig.
1.10
Victor Saouma
1.10 Structural Engineering Courses
111
Draft
Figure 1.9: Basic Forms of Shells
Figure 1.10: Sequence of Structural Engineering Courses
Victor Saouma
112
Draft
1.11
INTRODUCTION
References
22 Following are some useful references for structural engineering, those marked by were consulted,
and borrowed from in preparing the Lecture Notes:
Structural Art
1. Billington, D.P., The Tower and the Bridge; The new art of structural engineering, Princeton
University Pres,, 1983.
1. Biggs, J.M., Introduction to Structural Engineering; Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1986.
2. Gordon, J.E., Structures, or Why Things Dont Fall Down, Da Capo paperback, New York,
1978
3. Mainstone, R., Developments in Structural Form, Allen Lane Publishers, 1975.
Structural Engineering, Architectural Analysis and Design
1. Ambrose, J., Building Structures, second Ed. Wiley, 1993.
2. Salvadori, M. and Heller, R., Structure in Architecture; The Building of Buildings, Prentice
Hall, Third Edition, 1986.
3. Salvadori, M. and Levy, M., Structural Design in Architecture, Prentice hall, Second Edition,
1981.
4. Salvadori, M., Why Buildings Stand Up; The Strength of Architecture, Norton Paperack, 1990.
5. Lin, T.Y. and Stotesbury, S.D., Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers,
John Wiley, 1981.
6. White, R. Gergely, P. and Sexmith, R., Structural Engineering; Combined Edition, John
Wiley, 1976.
7. Sandaker, B.N. and Eggen, A.P., The Structural Basis of Architecture, Whitney Library of
Design, 1992.
Structural Analysis
1. Arbadi, F. Structural Analysis and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
2. Hsieh, Y.Y., Elementary Theory of Structures, Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 1988.
3. Ghali, A., and Neville, A.M., Structural Analysis, Third Edition, Chapman and Hall, 1989
Structural Design
1. Nilson, A., and Winter, G. Design of Concrete Structures, Eleventh Edition, McGraw Hill,
1991.
2. Salmon C. and Johnson, J. Steel Structures, Third Edition, Harper Collins Publisher, 1990.
3. Gaylord, E.H., Gaylord, C.N. and Stallmeyer, J.E., Design of Steel Structures, Third Edition, McGraw Hill, 1992.
Codes
1. ACI-318-89, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Institute
2. Load & Resistance Factor Design, Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel
Construction.
3. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman
Road; Whittier, CA 90601
4. Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI A58.1, American National
Standards Institute, Inc., New York, 1972.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 2
LOADS
2.1
Introduction
The main purpose of a structure is to transfer load from one point to another: bridge deck to pier;
slab to beam; beam to girder; girder to column; column to foundation; foundation to soil.
There can also be secondary loads such as thermal (in restrained structures), differential settlement
of foundations, P-Delta effects (additional moment caused by the product of the vertical force and the
lateral displacement caused by lateral load in a high rise building).
Loads are generally subdivided into two categories
Vertical Loads or gravity load

1. dead load (DL)
2. live load (LL)
also included are snow loads.
Lateral Loads which act horizontally on the structure
1. Wind load (WL)
2. Earthquake load (EL)
this also includes hydrostatic and earth loads.
This distinction is helpful not only to compute a structures load, but also to assign different factor of
safety to each one.
For a detailed coverage of loads, refer to the Universal Building Code (UBC), (UBC 1995).
2.2
Vertical Loads
For closely spaced identical loads (such as joist loads), it is customary to treat them as a uniformly
distributed load rather than as discrete loads, Fig. 2.1
2.2.1
Dead Load
7 Dead loads (DL) consist of the weight of the structure itself, and other permanent fixtures (such as
walls, slabs, machinery).
For analysis purposes, dead loads can easily be determined from the structures dimensions and density,
Table 2.1
22
LOADS
Draft
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
REPETITIVE JOIST LOADS

ACTUAL DISCRETE LOADS ON SUPPORT BEAM
w LB/FT = TOTAL LOAD / SPAN
SUPPORT BEAM
SPAN
ASSUMED EQUIVALENT UNIFORM LOAD

TYPICAL SYSTEM OF JOISTS
Figure 2.1: Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads

Material
Aluminum
Brick
Concrete
Steel
Wood (pine)
lb/ft3
173
120
145
490
40
kN/m3
27.2
18.9
33.8
77.0
6.3
Table 2.1: Unit Weight of Materials

For steel structures, the weight per unit length of rolled sections is given in the AISC Manual of Steel
Construction.
10 For design purposes, dead loads must be estimated and verified at the end of the design cycle. This
makes the design process iterative.
11
Weights for building materials is given in Table 2.2
12
For preliminary design purposes the average dead loads of Table 2.3 can be used:
2.2.2
Live Loads
13 Contrarily to dead loads which are fixed and vertical, live loads (LL) are movable or moving and may
be horizontal.
14 Occupancy load may be due to people, furniture, equipment. The loads are essentially variable point
loads which can be placed anywhere.
15
In analysis load placement should be such that their effect (shear/moment) are maximized.
16 A statistical approach is used to determine a uniformly distributed static load which is equivalent to
the weight of the maximum concentration of occupants. These loads are defined in codes such as the
Uniform Building Code or the ANSI Code, Table 2.4.
17
For small areas (30 to 50 sq ft) the effect of concentrated load should be considered separately.
18 Since there is a small probability that the whole floor in a building be fully loaded, the UBC code
specifies that the occupancy load for members supporting an area A larger than 150 ft2 (i.e. a column
with a total tributary area, including floors above it, larger than 150 ft2 ) may be reduced by R where
R = r(A 150) 23.1 1 +
Victor Saouma
DL
LL
(2.1)
2.2 Vertical Loads
Draft
23
lb/ft2
Material
Ceilings
Channel suspended system
Acoustical fiber tile
Floors
Steel deck
Concrete-plain 1 in.
Linoleum 1/4 in.
Hardwood
Roofs
Copper or tin
5 ply felt and gravel
Shingles asphalt
Clay tiles
Sheathing wood
Insulation 1 in. poured in place
Partitions
Clay tile 3 in.
Clay tile 10 in.
Gypsum Block 5 in.
Wood studs 2x4 (12-16 in. o.c.)
Plaster 1 in. cement
Plaster 1 in. gypsum
Walls
Bricks 4 in.
Bricks 12 in.
Hollow concrete block (heavy aggregate)
4 in.
8 in.
12 in.
Hollow concrete block (light aggregate)
4 in.
8 in.
12 in.
1
1
2-10
12
1
4
1-5
6
3
9-14
3
2
17
40
14
2
10
5
40
120
30
55
80
21
38
55
Table 2.2: Weights of Building Materials

Material
Timber
Steel
Reinforced concrete
lb/ft2
40-50
50-80
100-150
Table 2.3: Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings

Use or Occupancy
Assembly areas
Cornices, marquees, residential balconies
Corridors, stairs
Garage
Office buildings
Residential
Storage
lb/ft2
50
60
100
50
50
40
125-250
Table 2.4: Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, (UBC 1995)

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24
LOADS
Draft
where r = .08 for floors, A is the supported area ( ft2 ) DL and LL are the dead and live loads per unit
area supported by the member. R can not exceed 40% for horizontal members and 60% for vertical ones.
Example 2-1: Live Load Reduction

In a 10 story office building with a column spacing of 16 ft in both directions, the total dead load
is 60 psf, snow load 20 psf and live load 80 psf. what is the total live load and total load for which a
column must be designed on the ground floor
Solution:
1. The tributary area is 16 16 = 256f t2 > 150

2. The reduction R is R = .08(16 16 150) = 8.48%
3. Maximum allowable reduction Rmax = 23.1 1 +
60
80
= 40.4% which is less than 60%
4. The reduced cumulative load for the column of each floor is

Floor
Cumulative R (%)
Cumulative LL
Cumulative R LL
Roof
8.48
20
18.3
10
16.96
80
66.4
9
25.44
80
59.6
8
33.92
80
52.9
7
42.4
80
46.08
6
51.32
80
38.9
5
59.8
80
32.2
4
60
80
32
3
60
80
32
2
60
80
32
Total
740
410
The resulting design live load for the bottom column has been reduced from 740 Kips to 410 Kips .
5. The total dead load is DL = (10)(60) = 600 Kips, thus the total reduction in load is
740410
740+600
100= 25% .
2.2.3
Snow
19 Roof snow load vary greatly depending on geographic location and elevation. They range from
20 to 45 psf, Fig. 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Snow Map of the United States, ubc
20
Snow loads are always given on the projected length or area on a slope, Fig. 2.3.
Victor Saouma
2.2 Vertical Loads
25
Draft
LIVE LOAD
DEAD LOAD
LE
N
TH
RISE
WIND
LOAD
RUN
Figure 2.3: Loads on Projected Dimensions

21 The steeper the roof, the lower the snow retention. For snow loads greater than 20 psf and roof pitches
more than 20 the snow load p may be reduced by
R = ( 20)
22
p
0.5
40
(psf)
(2.2)
Other examples of loads acting on inclined surfaces are shown in Fig. 2.4.
L1
w1
w3
w1 Snow Load
w2 Wind Load
w3 Roof Dead Load

L
L2 = 1
cos
Figure 2.4: Vertical and Normal Loads Acting on Inclined Surfaces
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26
LOADS
Draft
2.3
2.3.1
Lateral Loads
Wind
Wind load depend on: velocity of the wind, shape of the building, height, geographical
location, texture of the building surface and stiffness of the structure.
23
24
Wind loads are particularly significant on tall buildings1 .
When a steady streamline airflow of velocity V is completely stopped by a rigid body, the stagnation
pressure (or velocity pressure) qs was derived by Bernouilli (1700-1782)
25
1 2
V
2
qs =
(2.3)
where the air mass density is the air weight divided by the acceleration of gravity g = 32.2 ft/sec2 . At
sea level and a temperature of 15o C (59o F), the air weighs 0.0765 lb/ft3 this would yield a pressure of
3
qs =
1 (0.0765)lb/ft
2 (32.2)ft/sec2
(5280)ft/mile
V
(3600)sec/hr
(2.4)
or
qs = 0.00256V 2
(2.5)
where V is the maximum wind velocity (in miles per hour) and qs is in psf. V can be obtained from
wind maps (in the United States 70 V 110), Fig. 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Wind Map of the United States, (UBC 1995)

26 During storms, wind velocities may reach values up to or greater than 150 miles per hour, which
corresponds to a dynamic pressure qs of about 60 psf (as high as the average vertical occupancy load in
buildings).
27
28
Wind pressure increases with height, Table 2.5.

Wind load will cause suction on the leeward sides, Fig. 2.7
1 The
primary design consideration for very high rise buildings is the excessive drift caused by lateral load (wind and
possibly earthquakes).
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2.3 Lateral Loads
27
Draft
Height Zone
(in feet)
<30
30 to 49
50 to 99
100 to 499
500 to 1199
>1,200
20
15
20
25
30
35
40
Wind-Velocity
25 30 35
20 25 25
25 30 35
30 40 45
40 45 55
45 55 60
50 60 70
Map
40
30
40
50
60
70
80
Area
45
35
45
55
70
80
90
50
40
50
60
75
90
100
Table 2.5: Wind Velocity Variation above Ground
Figure 2.6: Effect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996)
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28
LOADS
Draft
29 This magnitude must be modified to account for the shape and surroundings of the building. Thus,
the design pressure p (psf) is given by
(2.6)
p = Ce Cq Iqs
The pressure is assumed to be normal to all walls and roofs and
Ce Velocity Pressure Coefficient accounts for height, exposure and gust factor. It accounts for the
fact that wind velocity increases with height and that dynamic character of the airflow (i.e the
wind pressure is not steady), Table 2.6.
Ce
1.39-2.34
1.06-2.19
Exposure
D
C
0.62-1.80
Open, flat terrain facing large bodies of water

Flat open terrain, extending one-half mile or open from the site in
any full quadrant
Terrain with buildings, forest, or surface irregularities 20 ft or more
in height
Table 2.6: Ce Coefficients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995)

Cq Pressure Coefficient is a shape factor which is given in Table 2.7 for gabled frames.
Windward Side
Gabled Frames (V:H)
Roof Slope
<9:12
0.7
9:12 to 12:12
0.4
>12:12
0.7
Walls
0.8
Buildings (height < 200 ft)
Vertical Projections
height < 40 ft
1.3
height > 40 ft
1.4
Horizontal Projections
0.7
Leeward Side
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.5
1.3
1.4
0.7
Table 2.7: Wind Pressure Coefficients Cq , (UBC 1995)

I Importance Factor as given by Table 2.8. where
I
II
III
IV
Occupancy Category
Essential facilities
Hazardous facilities
Special occupancy structures
Standard occupancy structures
Importance Factor I
Earthquake Wind
1.25
1.15
1.25
1.15
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Table 2.8: Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995)
I Essential Facilities: Hospitals; Fire and police stations; Tanks; Emergency vehicle shelters,
standby power-generating equipment; Structures and equipment in government. communication centers.
II Hazardous Facilities: Structures housing, supporting or containing sufficient quantities of
toxic or explosive substances to be dangerous to the safety of the general public if released.
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2.3 Lateral Loads
29
Draft
III Special occupancy structure: Covered structures whose primary occupancy is public assembly, capacity > 300 persons.
Buildings for schools through secondary or day-care centers, capacity > 250 persons.
Buildings for colleges or adult education schools, capacity > 500 persons.
Medical facilities with 50 or more resident incapacitated patients, but not included above
Jails and detention facilities
All structures with occupancy >5,000 persons.
Structures and equipment in power generating stations and other public utility facilities not
included above, and required for continued operation.
IV Standard occupancy structure: All structures having occupancies or functions not listed
above.
30
For the preliminary design of ordinary buildings Ce = 1.0 and Cq = 1.3 may be assumed, yielding
p = (1.3).020256V 2 = .00333V 2
(2.7)
which corresponds to a pressure of 21 psf for a wind speed of 80 mph, Fig. 2.7, Table 2.9.
Height
Above
Grade (ft)
0-15
20
25
30
40
60
80
100
120
160
200
300
400
Exposure
B
C
Basic Wind Speed (mph)
70
80
70
80
10
13
17
23
11
14
18
24
12
15
19
25
12
16
20
26
14
18
21
28
17
22
25
33
18
24
27
35
20
26
28
37
21
28
29
38
23
30
31
41
25
33
33
43
29
37
36
47
32
41
38
50
Table 2.9: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures
Example 2-2: Wind Load

Determine the wind forces on the building shown on below which is built in St Louis and is surrounded
by trees.
Solution:
1. From Fig. 2.5 the maximum wind velocity is St. Louis is 70 mph, since the building is protected
we can take Ce = 0.7, I = 1.. The base wind pressure is qs = 0.00256 (70)2 = 12.54 psf.
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210
LOADS
Draft
400
Exposure B, 70 mph
Exposure B, 80 mph
Exposure C, 70 mph
Exposure C, 80 mph
350
Height Above Grade (ft)
300
250
200
150
100
50
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Approximate Design Wind Pressure (psf)
45
50
Figure 2.7: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures
2. The slope of the roof is 8:15=6.4:12 which gives Cq = 0.7 for both the windward and leeward
sides. The vertical walls have Cq = 0.8 for the windward side and Cq = 0.5 for the leeward one.
3. Thus the applied pressure on the roof is p = 0.7 (0.7) 12.54 = -6.14 psf that is the roof is
subjected to uplift.
4. The winward wall, the pressure is 0.7 0.8 12.54 = 7.02 psf , and for the leeward wall 0.7
(0.5) 12.54 = -4.39 psf (suction) ,
5. The direction of the wind can change and hence each structural component must be designed to
resist all possible load combinations.
6. For large structures which may be subjected to large wind loads, testing in a wind tunnel of the
structure itself and its surroundings is often accomplished.
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2.3 Lateral Loads
211
Draft
2.3.2
31
Earthquakes
Buildings should be able to resist
Minor earthquakes without damage

Moderate earthquakes without structural damage but possibly with some nonstructural damages
Major earthquakes without collapse but possibly with some structural damage as well as nonstructural damage.
This is achieved through an appropriate dynamic analysis.
For preliminary designs or for small structures an equivalent horizontal static load can be determined.
32
33
Actual loads depend on the following

1. Intensity of the ground acceleration (including soil/rock properties).
2. Dynamic properties of the building, such as its mode shapes and periods of vibration and its
damping characteristics.
3. Mass of the building.
34 A critical factor in the dynamic response of a structure is the fundamental period of the structures
vibration (or first mode of vibration). This is the time required for one full cycle of motion, Fig. 2.8. If
the earthquake excitation has a frequency close to the one of the building, then resonance may occur.
This should be avoided.
Figure 2.8: Vibrations of a Building

Earthquake load manifests itself as a horizontal force due to the (primarily) horizontal inertia force
(F = ma).
35
36
The horizontal force at each level is calculated as a portion of the base shear force V
V =
Victor Saouma
ZIC
W
RW
(2.8)
212
LOADS
Draft
where:
Z: Zone Factor: to be determined from Fig. 2.9 and Table 2.10.
Figure 2.9: Seismic Zones of the United States, (UBC 1995)
Seismic Zone
Z
0
0
1
0.075
2A
0.15
2B
0.2
3
0.3
4
0.4
Table 2.10: Z Factors for Different Seismic Zones, ubc

I: Importance Factor: which was given by Table 2.8.
C: Design Response Spectrum given by
C=
1.25S
2.75
T 2/3
(2.9)
T is the fundamental period of vibration of the building in seconds. This can be determined from
either the free vibration analysis of the building, or estimated from the following empirical formula
T = Ct (hn )3/4
(2.10)
where:
hn is the building height above base in ft.
and
Ct 0.035 steel moment resisting frames
Ct 0.030 reinforced concrete moment resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames S: Site
Ct 0.020 all other buildings
Coefficient given by Table 2.11 Note that most of the damages in the 1990? earthquake in San
Francisco occurred in the marina where many houses were built on soft soil.
and
C
0.075
RW
Victor Saouma
(2.11)
2.3 Lateral Loads
213
Draft
Type
S1
S2
S3
S4
Description
A soil profile with either rock-like material or stiff/dense soil less
than 200 ft.
Dense or stiff soil exceeding 200 ft
70 ft or more soil containing more than 20 ft of soft to medium stiff
clay but not more than 40 ft. of soft clay.
Soil containing more than 40 ft of soft clay
S Factor
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
Table 2.11: S Site Coefficients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995)
Structural System
RW
Bearing wall system
Light-framed walls with shear panels
Plywood walls for structures three stories or less
8
All other light-framed walls
6
Shear walls
Concrete
8
Masonry
8
Building frame system using trussing or shear walls)
Steel eccentrically braced ductiel frame
10
Light-framed walls with shear panels
Plywood walls for structures three stories or less
9
All other light-framed walls
7
Shear walls
Concrete
8
Masonry
8
Concentrically braced frames
Steel
8
Concrete (only for zones I and 2)
8
Heavy timber
8
Moment-resisting frame system
Special moment-resisting frames (SMRF)
Steel
12
Concrete
12
Concrete intermediate moment-resisting frames (IMRF)only for zones 1 and 2 8
Ordinary moment-resisting frames (OMRF)
Steel
6
Concrete (only for zone 1)
5
Dual systems (selected cases are for ductile rigid frames only)
Shear walls
Concrete with SMRF
12
Masonry with SMRF
8
Steel eccentrically braced ductile frame
6-12
Concentrically braced frame
12
Steel with steel SMRF
10
Steel with steel OMRF
6
Concrete with concrete SMRF (only for zones 1 and 2)
9
H (ft)
65
65
240
160
240
65
65
240
160
160
65
N.L.
N.L.
160
-
N.L.
160
160-N.L.
N. L.
N.L.
160
-
Table 2.12: Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995)
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214
LOADS
Draft
RW is given by Table 2.12.
W Load total structure load.

37 The horizontal force V is distributed over the height of the building in two parts. The first (applied
only if T 0.7 sec.) is a concentrated force F1 equal to
Ft = 0.07T V 0.25V
(2.12)
is applied at the top of the building due to whiplash. The balance of the force V Ft is distributed as
a triangular load diminishing to zero at the base.
38
Assuming a floor weight constant for every floor level, then the force acting on each one is given by
Fx =
(V Ft )hx
(V Ft )hx
=
h1 + h2 + + hn
ni=1 hi
(2.13)
where hi and hn are the height in ft above the base to level i, n or x respectively
Example 2-3: Earthquake Load on a Frame

Determine the approximate earthquake forces for the ductile hospital frame structure shown below.
The DL for each floor is 200 lb/ft and the LL is 400 lb/ft. The structure is built on soft soil. Use DL
plus 50%LL as the weight of each floor. The building is in zone 3.
Solution:
1. The fundamental period of vibration is
T = Ct (hn )3/4 = (0.030)(24)3/4 = 0.32 sec.
2. The C coefficient is
C=
(1.25)(2.0)
1.25S
=
= 5.344 > 2.75
T 2/3
(0.32)2/3
(2.14)
(2.15)
use C = 2.75.
3. The other coefficients are: Z =0.3; I=1.25; RW =12
4. Check
2.75
C
= 0.23 > 0.075
=
RW
12
(2.16)
W = 2 ((200 + 0.5(400)) (20) = 16000 lbs
(2.17)
5. The total vertical load is
Victor Saouma
2.3 Lateral Loads
215
Draft
6. The total seismic base shear is

V
(0.3)(1.25)(2.75)
ZIC
= 0.086W
=
RW
12
(2.18-a)
(0.086)(16000) = 1375 lbs
(2.18-b)
7. Since T < 0.7 sec. there is no whiplash.

8. The load on each floor is thus given by
F2
F1
(1375)(24)
= 916.7 lbs
12 + 24
(1375)(12)
= 458.3 lbs
12 + 24
(2.19-a)
(2.19-b)
Example 2-4: Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller 1996)

Determine the approximate critical lateral loading for a 25 storey, ductile, rigid space frame concrete
structure in the short direction. The rigid frames are spaced 25 ft apart in the cross section and 20
ft in the longitudinal direction. The plan dimension of the building is 175x100 ft, and the structure is
25(12)=300 ft high. This office building is located in an urban environment with a wind velocity of 70
mph and in seismic zone 4. For this investigation, an average building total dead load of 192 psf is used.
Soil conditions are unknown.
470 k
25(12)=300
2638 k
2(300)/3=200
300/2=150
1523 k
7(25)=175
84000 k
3108 k
5(20)=100
Solution:
1. The total building weight is
W = (0.1926) psf(100 175) ft2 25 storeys = 84, 000 k
Victor Saouma
(2.20)
216
LOADS
Draft
2. the fundamental period of vibration for a rigid frame is

T = Ct (hn )3/4 = 0.030(300)3/4 = 2.16 sec. > 0.7 sec.
3. The C coefficient is
(1.25)(1.5)
1.25S
=
= 1.12 2.75
T 2/3
(2.16)2/3
C=
(2.21)
(2.22)
4. The other coefficients are Z=0.4; I=1, RW =12

5. We check
1.12
C
= 0.093 0.075
=
RW
12
(2.23)
6. The total seismic base shear along the critical short direction is
V
ZIC
(0.4)(1)(1.12)
W = 0.037W
W =
RW
(12)
(2.24-a)
(0.037)(84000) = 3108 kip
(2.24-b)
7. Since T > 0.7 sec., the whiplash effect must be considered

Ft
0.07T V = (0.07)(2.16)(3108) = 470 k
(2.25-a)
(2.25-b)
le 0.25V = (0.25)(3108) = 777 k

Hence the total triangular load is
V Ft = 3108 470 = 2638 k
(2.26)
8. let us check if wind load governs. From Table xx we conservatively assume a uniform wind pressure
of 29 psf resulting in a total lateral force of
PW = (0.029) psf(175 300) ft2 = 1523 k < 3108 k
(2.27)
The magnitude of the total seismic load is clearly larger than the total wind force.
2.4
2.4.1
39
Other Loads
Hydrostatic and Earth
Structures below ground must resist lateral earth pressure.

(2.28)
q = Kh
where is the soil density, K =
1sin
1+sin
is the pressure coefficient, h is the height.
40
For sand and gravel = 120 lb/ ft3 , and 30 .
41
If the structure is partially submerged, it must also resist hydrostatic pressure of water, Fig. 2.10.
q = W h
(2.29)
where W = 62.4 lbs/ft3 .
Example 2-5: Hydrostatic Load

Victor Saouma
2.4 Other Loads
217
Draft
Figure 2.10: Earth and Hydrostatic Loads on Structures

The basement of a building is 12 ft below grade. Ground water is located 9 ft below grade, what
thickness concrete slab is required to exactly balance the hydrostatic uplift?
Solution:
The hydrostatic pressure must be countered by the pressure caused by the weight of concrete. Since p =
h we equate the two pressures and solve for h the height of the concrete slab (62.4) lbs/ft3 (12 9) ft =
(150) lbs/ft3 h h =
water
(62.4) lbs/ft
3
(150) lbs/ft
(3) ft(12) in/ft = 14.976 in
15.0 inch
concrete
2.4.2
Thermal
42 If a member is uniformly heated (or cooled) without restraint, then it will expand (or contract).
This expansion is given by
l = lT
(2.30)
where is the coefficient of thermal expansion, Table 2.13
Steel
Concrete
(/F )
6.5 106
5.5 106
Table 2.13: Coefficients of Thermal Expansion
43
If the member is restrained against expansion, then a compressive stress = ET is developed.
44
To avoid excessive stresses due to thermal loading expansion joints are used in bridges and buildings.
Example 2-6: Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996)

A low-rise building is enclosed along one side by a 100 ft-long clay masonry ( = 3.6106 in./in./o F,
E = 2, 400, 000 psi) bearing wall. The structure was built at a temperature of 60o F and is located in
the northern part of the United States where the temperature range is between -20o and +120o F.
Solution:
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218
LOADS
Draft
1. Assuming that the wall can move freely with no restraint from cross-walls and foundation, the wall
expansion and contraction (summer and winter) are given by
LSummer
LWinter
T L = (3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (120 60)o F (100) ft(12) in/ft = 0.26 (2.31-a)
in
T L = (3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (20 60)o F (100) ft(12) in/ft = -0.35(2.31-b)
in
2. We now assume (conservatively) that the free movement cannot occur (L = 0) hence the resulting
T L
= ET
stress would be equal to = E = E L
L =E
L
Summer
ET = (2, 400, 000)
Winter
ET = (2, 400, 000)
lbs
2 (3.6
in
lbs
in2
106 ) in/ in/o F (120 60)o F = 518
lbs
Tension
(2.32-a)
in2
lbs
(3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (20 60)o F = -691
in2
Compression
(2.32-b)
(2.32-c)
Note that the tensile stresses being beyond the masonry capacity, cracking will occur.
2.4.3
Bridge Loads
For highway bridges, design loads are given by the AASHTO (Association of American State Highway
Transportation Officials). The HS-20 truck is used for the design of bridges on main highways, Fig. 6.5.
Either the design truck with specified axle loads and spacing must be used or the equivalent uniform
load and concentrated load. This loading must be placed such that maximum stresses are produced.
Figure 2.11: Truck Load
2.4.4
2.5
2.5.1
45
Impact Load
Other Important Considerations

Load Combinations
Live loads specified by codes represent the maximum possible loads.
Victor Saouma
2.5 Other Important Considerations
219
Draft
46 The likelihood of all these loads occurring simultaneously is remote.

Hence, building codes allow
certain reduction when certain loads are combined together.
47
Furthermore, structures should be designed to resist a combination of loads.
48 Denoting D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature;
H= soil:
49 For the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method of concrete structures, the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building design code (318) (318 n.d.) requires that the following load combinations
be considered:
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
5. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
6. 1.4(D+T)
whereas for steel structures, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) code, (of Steel COnstruction 1986) requires that the following combinations be verified
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S)
3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S)
4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W
5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
50 Analysis can be separately performed for each of the basic loads (L, D, W, etc) and then using the
principle of superposition the loads can be linearly combined (unless the elastic limit has been reached).
51
Loads are often characterized as Usual, Unusual and Extreme.
2.5.2
Load Placement
52 Only the dead load is static. The live load on the other hand may or may not be applied on a given
component of a structure. Hence, the load placement arrangement resulting in the highest internal forces
(moment +ve or -ve, shear) at different locations must be considered, Fig. 2.12.
2.5.3
Structural Response
53 Under the action of the various forces and loadings described above, the structure must be able to
respond with proper behavior, Fig. 7.1.
Victor Saouma
220
LOADS
Draft
Figure 2.12: Load Placement to Maximize Moments
Figure 2.13: Load Life of a Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
221
Draft
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000000
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00000000000
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00000000000
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00000000000
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00000000000
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00000000000
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00000
00000
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11111
00000
0000011111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
0000011111
11111
00000
11111
0000011111
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00000
0000011111
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00000
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00000
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00000000000
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00000000000
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00000000000
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11
00
000011
1111
00
00
11
0000
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
001111
11
000011
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
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00
000000
11
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00
11
Figure 2.14: Concept of Tributary Areas for Structural Member Loading
b
a/b > 2
one way slab
b
a/b <2
Two way slab
Figure 2.15: One or Two Way actions in Slabs
Victor Saouma
222
Draft
2.5.4
LOADS
Tributary Areas
54 For preliminary analysis, the tributary area of a structural component will determine the total applied
load.
55 For a slab simply supported over four linear supports, we may have a one way or tow way action if
the ratio a/b is greater or smaller than two respectively, Fig. 2.15.
56 Whereas we will be focusing on the design of a reinforced concrete or steel section, we must keep in
mind the following:
1. The section is part of a beam or girder.

2. The beam or girder is really part of a three dimensional structure in which load is transmitted
from any point in the structure to the foundation through any one of various structural forms.
Load transfer in a structure is accomplished through a hierarchy of simple flexural elements which
are then connected to the columns, Fig. 2.16 or by two way slabs as illustrated in Fig. 2.17.
57
58
An example of load transfer mechanism is shown in Fig. 2.18.
Victor Saouma
Draft
223
Figure 2.16: Load Transfer in R/C Buildings
Victor Saouma
224
LOADS
Draft
Figure 2.17: Two Way Actions
D
b=12; a=4; b/a=12/4=3>2 One way slab
2
(40) lb/ft (4) ft= 160 lb/ft=0.16 k/ft

b
B
G
(0.16)(12)/2=0.96 k
0.96 k
LL=40
lbs/ft 2
12 ft
H
0.96 k
0.96 k
G
a
F
a
0.48 k
0.48 k
B
A
4 ft
4 ft
4 ft
0.48+0.96=1.44 k
1.44 k
2
(2)(40)lb/ft (3)ft=0.24 k/ft
b=10; a=6; b/a<2 Two way slab

A
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
0000
1111
00000000
11111111
G
H 11111111
00000000
0000
1111
3
3
(0.24)(2+3/2)=0.84k
0.84 k
0.84k
0.84k
0.42k
A
1.8k
(40)lb/ft (3)ft=0.12k/ft
0.42k
B
3
C
3
1.8k
(0.42)+(0.84)+(0.12)[6/2+3/2]=1.8k
Figure 2.18: Example of Load Transfer
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Proper understanding of structural materials is essential to both structural analysis and to structural
design.
Characteristics of the most commonly used structural materials will be highlighted.
3.1
3.1.1
Steel
Structural Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Its properties can be greatly varied by altering the carbon content
(always less than 0.5%) or by adding other elements such as silicon, nickel, manganese and copper.
Practically all grades of steel have a Young Modulus equal to 29,000 ksi, density of 490 lb/cu ft, and
a coefficient of thermal expansion equal to 0.65 105 /deg F.
The yield stress of steel can vary from 40 ksi to 250 ksi. Most commonly used structural steel are A36
(yld = 36 ksi) and A572 (yld = 50 ksi), Fig. 3.6
Figure 3.1: Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel

Structural steel can be rolled into a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Usually the most desirable
members are those which have a large section moduli (S) in proportion to their area (A), Fig. 3.2.
32
Draft
Figure 3.2: Standard Rolled Sections
Steel can be bolted, riveted or welded.
Sections are designated by the shape of their cross section, their depth and their weight. For example
W 27 114 is a W section, 27 in. deep weighing 114 lb/ft.
Common sections are:
S sections were the first ones rolled in America and have a slope on their inside flange surfaces of 1 to
6.
W or wide flange sections have a much smaller inner slope which facilitates connections and rivetting.
W sections constitute about 50% of the tonnage of rolled structural steel.
C are channel sections
MC Miscellaneous channel which can not be classified as a C shape by dimensions.
HP is a bearing pile section.
M is a miscellaneous section.
L are angle sections which may have equal or unequal sides.
WT is a T section cut from a W section in two.
Properties of structural steel are tabulated in Table 3.1.
Rolled sections, Fig. 3.3 and welded ones, Fig 3.4 have residual stresses. Those originate during
the rolling or fabrication of a member. The member is hot just after rolling or welding, it cools unevenly
because of varying exposure. The area that cool first become stiffer, resist contraction, and develop
compressive stresses. The remaining regions continue to cool and contract in the plastic condition and
develop tensile stresses.
10
11 Due to those residual stresses, the stress-strain curve of a rolled section exhibits a non-linear segment
prior to the theoretical yielding, Fig. 3.5. This would have important implications on the flexural and
axial strength of beams and columns.
3.1.2
Reinforcing Steel
12 Steel is also used as reinforcing bars in concrete, Table 3.2. Those bars have a deformation on their
surface to increase the bond with concrete, and usually have a yield stress of 60 ksi1 .
1 Stirrups
which are used as vertical reinforcement to resist shear usually have a yield stress of only 40 ksi.
Victor Saouma
3.1 Steel
33
Draft
ASTM
Desig.
A36
Shapes Available
A500
Cold formed welded

seamless sections;
A501
Hot formed welded and seamless sections;

Plates and bars 12 in and less
thick;
A529
Shapes and bars

and
A606
Hot and cold rolled sheets;
A611
Cold rolled sheet in cut

lengths
Structural shapes, plates and
bars
A 709
Use
y (ksi)
Riveted, bolted, welded;

Buildings and bridges
General structural purpose Riveted, welded or
bolted;
Bolted and welded
36 up through 8 in. (32 above

8.)
Grade A: 33; Grade B: 42;
Grade C: 46
Building frames and

trusses;
Bolted and
welded
Atmospheric corrosion
resistant
Cold formed sections
42
Bridges
u (ksi)
36
45-50
Grade C 33; Grade D 40;
Grade E 80
Grade 36: 36 (to 4 in.); Grade
50: 50; Grade 100: 100 (to
2.5in.) and 90 (over 2.5 to 4
in.)
Table 3.1: Properties of Major Structural Steels
Maximum compressive
stress, say 12 ksi average
Compression (-)
(-)
Tension (+)
(+)
Figure 3.3: Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections

say 20 ksi
say 12 ksi
+
+
say 40 ksi
20 ksi
say 35 ksi
tension
Welded H
say 20 ksi
compression
Welded box
Figure 3.4: Residual Stresses in Welded Sections

Victor Saouma
34
Draft
Ideal coupon containing
no residual stress
.3
Average stress P/A
Fy
.2
Fp
Maximum
residual
compressive
stress
.1
Members with
residual stress
2
Average copressive strain
Shaded portion indicates area

which has achieved a stress Fy
Figure 3.5: Influence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain Curve of a Rolled Section
Bar Designation
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8
No. 9
No. 10
No. 11
No. 14
No. 18
Diameter
(in.)
2/8=0.250
3/8=0.375
4/8=0.500
5/8=0.625
6/8=0.750
7/8=0.875
8/8=1.000
9/8=1.128
10/8=1.270
11/8=1.410
14/8=1.693
18/8=2.257
Area
( in2 )
0.05
0.11
0.20
0.31
0.44
0.60
0.79
1.00
1.27
1.56
2.25
4.00
Perimeter
in
0.79
1.18
1.57
1.96
2.36
2.75
3.14
3.54
3.99
4.43
5.32
7.09
Weight
lb/ft
0.167
0.376
0.668
1.043
1.5202
2.044
2.670
3.400
4.303
5.313
7.650
13.60
Table 3.2: Properties of Reinforcing Bars
Victor Saouma
3.2 Aluminum
35
Draft
13 Steel loses its strength rapidly above 700 deg. F (and thus must be properly protected from fire), and
becomes brittle at 30 deg. F2 .
14 Steel is also used as wire strands and ropes for suspended roofs, cable-stayed bridges, fabric roofs and
other structural applications. A strand is a helical arrangement of wires around a central wire. A rope
consists of multiple strands helically wound around a central plastic core, and a modulus of elasticity of
20,000 ksi, and an ultimate strength of 220 ksi.
15
Prestressing Steel cables have an ultimate strength up to 270 ksi.
3.2
Aluminum
16 Aluminum is used whenever light weight combined with strength is an important factor. Those
properties, along with its resistance to corrosion have made it the material of choice for airplane
structures, light roof framing.
17
Aluminum members can be connected by riveting, bolting and to a lesser extent by welding.
Aluminum has a modulus of elasticity equal to 10,000 ksi (about three times lower than steel),
a coefficient of thermal expansion of 2.4 105 and a density of 173 lbs/ft3 .
18
19 The ultimate strength of pure aluminum is low (13,000 psi) but with the addition of alloys it can go
up.
20 When aluminum is in contact with other metals in the presence of an electrolyte, galvanic corrosion
may cause damage. Thus, steel and aluminum in a structure must be carefully separated by means of
painting or a nonconductive material.
3.3
Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement3 , water, and aggregates (usually sand and crushed stone).
An ideal mixture is one in which:
21
1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to fill the interstices between the particles of
aggregates.
2. A minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement.
In such a mixture, about 3/4 of the volume is constituted by the aggregates, and the remaining 1/4
being the cement paste.
22 Smaller particles up to 1/4 in. in size are called fine aggregates, and the larger ones being coarse
aggregates.
23
Contrarily to steel to modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the strength and is given by
E = 57, 000
fc
(3.1)
E = 33 1.5
fc
(3.2)
or
3
where both fc and E are in psi and is in lbs/ft .

24 Typical concrete (compressive) strengths range from 3,000 to 6,000 psi; However high strength
concrete can go up to 14,000 psi.
25
26
All concrete fail at an ultimate strain of 0.003, Fig. 3.6.

Pre-peak nonlinearity is caused by micro-cracking Fig. 3.7.
2 This
brittleness is even more accentuated in high strength steel, and has been the cause of some bridge collapses during
winter nights. (CVEN 6831 Fracture Mechanics)
3 Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials which are calcined in a kiln and then pulverized.
When mixed with water, cement hardens through a process called hydration.
Victor Saouma
36
Draft
Figure 3.6: Concrete Stress-Strain curve
fc
non-linear
.5fc
linear
Figure 3.7: Concrete microcracking
Victor Saouma
3.4 Masonry
37
Draft
27
The tensile strength of concrete ft is about 10% of the compressive strength.
28
Density of normal weight concrete is 145 lbs/ft3 and 100 lbs/ft3 for lightweight concrete.
29
Coefficient of thermal expansion is 0.65 105 /deg F for normal weight concrete.
30 When concrete is poured (or rather placed), the free water not needed for the hydration process
evaporates over a period of time and the concrete will shrink. This shrinkage is about 0.05% after one
year (strain). Thus if the concrete is restrained, then cracking will occur4 .
31 Concrete will also deform with time due to the applied load, this is called creep. This should be taken
into consideration when computing the deflections (which can be up to three times the instantaneous
elastic deflection).
3.4
Masonry
32 Masonry consists of either natural materials, such as stones, or of manufactured products such as
bricks and concrete blocks5 , stacked and bonded together with mortar.
33 As for concrete, all modern structural masonry blocks are essentially compression members with low
tensile resistance.
34
The mortar used is a mixture of sand, masonry cement, and either Portland cement or hydrated lime.
3.5
Timber
35 Timber is one of the earliest construction materials, and one of the few natural materials with good
tensile properties.
36
The properties of timber vary greatly, and the strength is time dependent.
37
Timber is a good shock absorber (many wood structures in Japan have resisted repeated earthquakes).
38 The most commonly used species of timber in construction are Douglas fir, southern pine, hemlock
and larch.
39 Members can be laminated together under good quality control, and flexural strengths as high as
2,500 psi can be achieved.
3.6
40
Steel Section Properties
Dimensions and properties of rolled sections are tabulated in the following pages, Fig. 3.8.
4 For this reason a minimum amount of reinforcement is always necessary in concrete, and a 2% reinforcement, can
reduce the shrinkage by 75%.
5 Mud bricks were used by the Babylonians, stones by the Egyptians, and ice blocks by the Eskimos...
Victor Saouma
38
Draft
Figure 3.8: W and C sections
Victor Saouma
3.6 Steel Section Properties
Draft
Designation
W 44x285
W 44x248
W 44x224
W 44x198
W 40x328
W 40x298
W 40x268
W 40x244
W 40x221
W 40x192
W 40x655
W 40x593
W 40x531
W 40x480
W 40x436
W 40x397
W 40x362
W 40x324
W 40x297
W 40x277
W 40x249
W 40x215
W 40x199
W 40x183
W 40x167
W 40x149
W 36x848
W 36x798
W 36x720
W 36x650
W 36x588
W 36x527
W 36x485
W 36x439
W 36x393
W 36x359
W 36x328
W 36x300
W 36x280
W 36x260
W 36x245
W 36x230
W 36x256
W 36x232
W 36x210
W 36x194
W 36x182
W 36x170
W 36x160
W 36x150
W 36x135
W 33x619
W 33x567
W 33x515
W 33x468
W 33x424
W 33x387
W 33x354
W 33x318
W 33x291
W 33x263
W 33x241
W 33x221
W 33x201
W 33x169
W 33x152
W 33x141
W 33x130
W 33x118
W 30x581
W 30x526
W 30x477
W 30x433
W 30x391
W 30x357
W 30x326
W 30x292
W 30x261
W 30x235
W 30x211
W 30x191
W 30x173
W 30x148
W 30x132
W 30x124
W 30x116
W 30x108
W 30x 99
W 30x 90
39
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
44.02
43.62
43.31
42.91
40.00
39.69
39.37
39.06
38.67
38.20
43.62
42.99
42.34
41.81
41.34
40.95
40.55
40.16
39.84
39.69
39.38
38.98
38.67
38.98
38.59
38.20
42.45
41.97
41.19
40.47
39.84
39.21
38.74
38.26
37.80
37.40
37.09
36.74
36.52
36.26
36.08
35.90
37.43
37.12
36.69
36.49
36.33
36.17
36.01
35.85
35.55
38.47
37.91
37.36
36.81
36.34
35.95
35.55
35.16
34.84
34.53
34.18
33.93
33.68
33.82
33.49
33.30
33.09
32.86
35.39
34.76
34.21
33.66
33.19
32.80
32.40
32.01
31.61
31.30
30.94
30.68
30.44
30.67
30.31
30.17
30.01
29.83
29.65
29.53
in
1.025
0.865
0.785
0.710
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.710
0.710
0.710
1.970
1.790
1.610
1.460
1.340
1.220
1.120
1.000
0.930
0.830
0.750
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.630
2.520
2.380
2.165
1.970
1.790
1.610
1.500
1.360
1.220
1.120
1.020
0.945
0.885
0.840
0.800
0.760
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.765
0.725
0.680
0.650
0.625
0.600
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.775
0.715
0.670
0.635
0.605
0.580
0.550
1.970
1.790
1.630
1.500
1.360
1.240
1.140
1.020
0.930
0.830
0.775
0.710
0.655
0.650
0.615
0.585
0.565
0.545
0.520
0.470
in
11.810
11.810
11.810
11.810
17.910
17.830
17.750
17.710
17.710
17.710
16.870
16.690
16.510
16.360
16.240
16.120
16.020
15.905
15.825
15.830
15.750
15.750
15.750
11.810
11.810
11.810
18.130
17.990
17.775
17.575
17.400
17.220
17.105
16.965
16.830
16.730
16.630
16.655
16.595
16.550
16.510
16.470
12.215
12.120
12.180
12.115
12.075
12.030
12.000
11.975
11.950
16.910
16.750
16.590
16.455
16.315
16.200
16.100
15.985
15.905
15.805
15.860
15.805
15.745
11.500
11.565
11.535
11.510
11.480
16.200
16.020
15.865
15.725
15.590
15.470
15.370
15.255
15.155
15.055
15.105
15.040
14.985
10.480
10.545
10.515
10.495
10.475
10.450
10.400
in
1.770
1.575
1.415
1.220
1.730
1.575
1.415
1.260
1.065
0.830
3.540
3.230
2.910
2.640
2.400
2.200
2.010
1.810
1.650
1.575
1.420
1.220
1.065
1.220
1.025
0.830
4.530
4.290
3.900
3.540
3.230
2.910
2.680
2.440
2.200
2.010
1.850
1.680
1.570
1.440
1.350
1.260
1.730
1.570
1.360
1.260
1.180
1.100
1.020
0.940
0.790
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.400
1.275
1.150
1.220
1.055
0.960
0.855
0.740
3.540
3.230
2.950
2.680
2.440
2.240
2.050
1.850
1.650
1.500
1.315
1.185
1.065
1.180
1.000
0.930
0.850
0.760
0.670
0.610
83.8
72.8
65.8
58.0
96.4
87.6
78.8
71.7
64.8
56.5
192.0
174.0
156.0
140.0
128.0
116.0
106.0
95.3
87.4
81.3
73.3
63.3
58.4
53.7
49.1
43.8
249.0
234.0
211.0
190.0
172.0
154.0
142.0
128.0
115.0
105.0
96.4
88.3
82.4
76.5
72.1
67.6
75.4
68.1
61.8
57.0
53.6
50.0
47.0
44.2
39.7
181.0
166.0
151.0
137.0
124.0
113.0
104.0
93.5
85.6
77.4
70.9
65.0
59.1
49.5
44.7
41.6
38.3
34.7
170.0
154.0
140.0
127.0
114.0
104.0
95.7
85.7
76.7
69.0
62.0
56.1
50.8
43.5
38.9
36.5
34.2
31.7
29.1
26.4
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
3.3
3.7
4.2
4.8
5.2
5.7
6.3
7.0
8.3
10.7
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.0
5.5
6.5
7.4
4.8
5.8
7.1
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.2
4.5
5.0
5.3
5.7
6.1
6.5
3.5
3.9
4.5
4.8
5.1
5.5
5.9
6.4
7.6
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.3
3.6
3.8
4.2
4.6
5.0
5.7
6.2
6.8
4.7
5.5
6.0
6.7
7.8
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.7
4.1
4.6
5.0
5.7
6.3
7.0
4.4
5.3
5.7
6.2
6.9
7.8
8.5
hc
tw
38.0
44.9
49.4
54.9
37.6
41.2
45.6
48.1
48.1
48.1
17.4
19.1
21.2
23.4
25.5
28.0
30.5
34.2
36.8
41.2
45.6
52.6
52.6
52.6
52.6
54.3
12.5
13.2
14.5
16.0
17.6
19.6
21.0
23.1
25.8
28.1
30.9
33.3
35.6
37.5
39.4
41.4
33.8
37.3
39.1
42.4
44.8
47.8
50.0
52.0
54.1
15.2
16.6
18.2
19.7
21.7
23.8
25.8
28.8
31.2
34.5
36.1
38.7
41.9
44.7
47.2
49.6
51.7
54.5
13.7
15.1
16.6
18.0
19.9
21.8
23.7
26.5
29.0
32.5
34.9
38.0
41.2
41.5
43.9
46.2
47.8
49.6
51.9
57.5
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
24600
21400
19200
16700
26800
24200
21500
19200
16600
13500
56500
50400
44300
39500
35400
32000
28900
25600
23200
21900
19500
16700
14900
13300
11600
9780
67400
62600
55300
48900
43500
38300
34700
31000
27500
24800
22500
20300
18900
17300
16100
15000
16800
15000
13200
12100
11300
10500
9750
9040
7800
41800
37700
33700
30100
26900
24300
21900
19500
17700
15800
14200
12800
11500
9290
8160
7450
6710
5900
33000
29300
26100
23200
20700
18600
16800
14900
13100
11700
10300
9170
8200
6680
5770
5360
4930
4470
3990
3620
in3
1120
983
889
776
1340
1220
1090
983
858
708
2590
2340
2090
1890
1710
1560
1420
1280
1170
1100
992
858
769
682
599
512
3170
2980
2690
2420
2180
1950
1790
1620
1450
1320
1210
1110
1030
953
895
837
895
809
719
664
623
580
542
504
439
2170
1990
1810
1630
1480
1350
1230
1110
1010
917
829
757
684
549
487
448
406
359
1870
1680
1530
1380
1250
1140
1030
928
827
746
663
598
539
436
380
355
329
299
269
245
in
17.1
17.2
17.1
16.9
16.7
16.6
16.5
16.4
16.0
15.5
17.2
17.0
16.9
16.8
16.6
16.6
16.5
16.4
16.3
16.4
16.3
16.2
16.0
15.7
15.3
14.9
16.4
16.4
16.2
16.0
15.9
15.8
15.6
15.6
15.5
15.4
15.3
15.2
15.1
15.0
15.0
14.9
14.9
14.8
14.6
14.6
14.5
14.5
14.4
14.3
14.0
15.2
15.1
14.9
14.8
14.7
14.7
14.5
14.4
14.4
14.3
14.1
14.1
14.0
13.7
13.5
13.4
13.2
13.0
13.9
13.8
13.7
13.5
13.5
13.4
13.2
13.2
13.1
13.0
12.9
12.8
12.7
12.4
12.2
12.1
12.0
11.9
11.7
11.7
in4
490
435
391
336
1660
1490
1320
1170
988
770
2860
2520
2200
1940
1720
1540
1380
1220
1090
1040
926
796
695
336
283
229
4550
4200
3680
3230
2850
2490
2250
1990
1750
1570
1420
1300
1200
1090
1010
940
528
468
411
375
347
320
295
270
225
2870
2580
2290
2030
1800
1620
1460
1290
1160
1030
932
840
749
310
273
246
218
187
2530
2230
1970
1750
1550
1390
1240
1100
959
855
757
673
598
227
196
181
164
146
128
115
in3
83
74
66
57
185
167
149
132
112
87
339
302
266
237
212
191
173
153
138
132
118
101
88
57
48
39
501
467
414
367
328
289
263
235
208
188
171
156
144
132
123
114
86
77
68
62
58
53
49
45
38
340
308
276
247
221
200
181
161
146
131
118
106
95
54
47
43
38
33
312
278
249
222
198
179
162
144
127
114
100
90
80
43
37
34
31
28
24
22
in
2.42
2.44
2.44
2.41
4.15
4.12
4.09
4.04
3.90
3.69
3.86
3.81
3.75
3.72
3.67
3.65
3.61
3.57
3.54
3.58
3.56
3.54
3.45
2.50
2.40
2.29
4.27
4.24
4.18
4.12
4.07
4.02
3.98
3.95
3.90
3.87
3.84
3.83
3.81
3.78
3.75
3.73
2.65
2.62
2.58
2.56
2.55
2.53
2.50
2.47
2.38
3.98
3.94
3.89
3.85
3.81
3.79
3.74
3.71
3.69
3.66
3.63
3.59
3.56
2.50
2.47
2.43
2.39
2.32
3.86
3.80
3.75
3.71
3.68
3.65
3.61
3.58
3.54
3.52
3.49
3.46
3.43
2.28
2.25
2.23
2.19
2.15
2.10
2.09
in3
1310.0
1150.0
1030.0
902.0
1510.0
1370.0
1220.0
1100.0
967.0
807.0
3060.0
2750.0
2450.0
2180.0
1980.0
1790.0
1630.0
1460.0
1330.0
1250.0
1120.0
963.0
868.0
781.0
692.0
597.0
3830.0
3570.0
3190.0
2840.0
2550.0
2270.0
2070.0
1860.0
1660.0
1510.0
1380.0
1260.0
1170.0
1080.0
1010.0
943.0
1040.0
936.0
833.0
767.0
718.0
668.0
624.0
581.0
509.0
2560.0
2330.0
2110.0
1890.0
1700.0
1550.0
1420.0
1270.0
1150.0
1040.0
939.0
855.0
772.0
629.0
559.0
514.0
467.0
415.0
2210.0
1990.0
1790.0
1610.0
1430.0
1300.0
1190.0
1060.0
941.0
845.0
749.0
673.0
605.0
500.0
437.0
408.0
378.0
346.0
312.0
283.0
in3
135.0
118.0
105.0
90.0
286.0
257.0
229.0
203.0
172.0
135.0
541.0
481.0
422.0
374.0
334.0
300.0
270.0
239.0
215.0
204.0
182.0
156.0
137.0
89.6
76.0
62.2
799.0
743.0
656.0
580.0
517.0
454.0
412.0
367.0
325.0
292.0
265.0
241.0
223.0
204.0
190.0
176.0
137.0
122.0
107.0
97.7
90.7
83.8
77.3
70.9
59.7
537.0
485.0
433.0
387.0
345.0
312.0
282.0
250.0
226.0
202.0
182.0
164.0
147.0
84.4
73.9
66.9
59.5
51.3
492.0
438.0
390.0
348.0
310.0
279.0
252.0
223.0
196.0
175.0
154.0
138.0
123.0
68.0
58.4
54.0
49.2
43.9
38.6
34.7
in4
60.0
40.7
30.0
20.1
74.2
56.3
41.1
30.4
21.2
13.7
596.0
451.0
329.0
245.0
186.0
142.0
109.0
79.4
61.2
51.1
37.7
24.4
18.1
19.6
14.0
9.6
1269.0
1073.0
804.0
600.0
453.0
330.0
260.0
195.0
143.0
109.0
84.5
64.2
52.6
41.5
34.6
28.6
53.3
39.8
28.0
22.2
18.4
15.1
12.4
10.1
7.0
567.0
444.0
338.0
256.0
193.0
149.0
115.0
84.4
65.0
48.5
35.8
27.5
20.5
17.7
12.4
9.7
7.4
5.3
537.0
405.0
307.0
231.0
174.0
134.0
103.0
74.9
53.8
40.0
27.9
20.6
15.3
14.6
9.7
8.0
6.4
5.0
3.8
2.9
310
Draft
Designation
W 27x539
W 27x494
W 27x448
W 27x407
W 27x368
W 27x336
W 27x307
W 27x281
W 27x258
W 27x235
W 27x217
W 27x194
W 27x178
W 27x161
W 27x146
W 27x129
W 27x114
W 27x102
W 27x 94
W 27x 84
W 24x492
W 24x450
W 24x408
W 24x370
W 24x335
W 24x306
W 24x279
W 24x250
W 24x229
W 24x207
W 24x192
W 24x176
W 24x162
W 24x146
W 24x131
W 24x117
W 24x104
W 24x103
W 24x 94
W 24x 84
W 24x 76
W 24x 68
W 24x 62
W 24x 55
W 21x402
W 21x364
W 21x333
W 21x300
W 21x275
W 21x248
W 21x223
W 21x201
W 21x182
W 21x166
W 21x147
W 21x132
W 21x122
W 21x111
W 21x101
W 21x 93
W 21x 83
W 21x 73
W 21x 68
W 21x 62
W 21x 57
W 21x 50
W 21x 44
W 18x311
W 18x283
W 18x258
W 18x234
W 18x211
W 18x192
W 18x175
W 18x158
W 18x143
W 18x130
W 18x119
W 18x106
W 18x 97
W 18x 86
W 18x 76
W 18x 71
W 18x 65
W 18x 60
W 18x 55
W 18x 50
W 18x 46
W 18x 40
W 18x 35
W 16x100
W 16x 89
W 16x 77
W 16x 67
W 16x 57
W 16x 50
W 16x 45
W 16x 40
W 16x 36
W 16x 31
W 16x 26
W 14x730
W 14x665
W 14x605
W 14x550
W 14x500
W 14x455
W 14x426
W 14x398
W 14x370
W 14x342
W 14x311
W 14x283
W 14x257
W 14x233
W 14x211
W 14x193
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
32.52
31.97
31.42
30.87
30.39
30.00
29.61
29.29
28.98
28.66
28.43
28.11
27.81
27.59
27.38
27.63
27.29
27.09
26.92
26.71
29.65
29.09
28.54
27.99
27.52
27.13
26.73
26.34
26.02
25.71
25.47
25.24
25.00
24.74
24.48
24.26
24.06
24.53
24.31
24.10
23.92
23.73
23.74
23.57
26.02
25.47
25.00
24.53
24.13
23.74
23.35
23.03
22.72
22.48
22.06
21.83
21.68
21.51
21.36
21.62
21.43
21.24
21.13
20.99
21.06
20.83
20.66
22.32
21.85
21.46
21.06
20.67
20.35
20.04
19.72
19.49
19.25
18.97
18.73
18.59
18.39
18.21
18.47
18.35
18.24
18.11
17.99
18.06
17.90
17.70
16.97
16.75
16.52
16.33
16.43
16.26
16.13
16.01
15.86
15.88
15.69
22.42
21.64
20.92
20.24
19.60
19.02
18.67
18.29
17.92
17.54
17.12
16.74
16.38
16.04
15.72
15.48
in
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.060
0.980
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.725
0.660
0.605
0.610
0.570
0.515
0.490
0.460
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.810
0.750
0.705
0.650
0.605
0.550
0.500
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.440
0.415
0.430
0.395
1.730
1.590
1.460
1.320
1.220
1.100
1.000
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.720
0.650
0.600
0.550
0.500
0.580
0.515
0.455
0.430
0.400
0.405
0.380
0.350
1.520
1.400
1.280
1.160
1.060
0.960
0.890
0.810
0.730
0.670
0.655
0.590
0.535
0.480
0.425
0.495
0.450
0.415
0.390
0.355
0.360
0.315
0.300
0.585
0.525
0.455
0.395
0.430
0.380
0.345
0.305
0.295
0.275
0.250
3.070
2.830
2.595
2.380
2.190
2.015
1.875
1.770
1.655
1.540
1.410
1.290
1.175
1.070
0.980
0.890
in
15.255
15.095
14.940
14.800
14.665
14.545
14.445
14.350
14.270
14.190
14.115
14.035
14.085
14.020
13.965
10.010
10.070
10.015
9.990
9.960
14.115
13.955
13.800
13.660
13.520
13.405
13.305
13.185
13.110
13.010
12.950
12.890
12.955
12.900
12.855
12.800
12.750
9.000
9.065
9.020
8.990
8.965
7.040
7.005
13.405
13.265
13.130
12.990
12.890
12.775
12.675
12.575
12.500
12.420
12.510
12.440
12.390
12.340
12.290
8.420
8.355
8.295
8.270
8.240
6.555
6.530
6.500
12.005
11.890
11.770
11.650
11.555
11.455
11.375
11.300
11.220
11.160
11.265
11.200
11.145
11.090
11.035
7.635
7.590
7.555
7.530
7.495
6.060
6.015
6.000
10.425
10.365
10.295
10.235
7.120
7.070
7.035
6.995
6.985
5.525
5.500
17.890
17.650
17.415
17.200
17.010
16.835
16.695
16.590
16.475
16.360
16.230
16.110
15.995
15.890
15.800
15.710
in
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.930
1.770
1.610
1.500
1.340
1.190
1.080
0.975
1.100
0.930
0.830
0.745
0.640
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.460
1.340
1.220
1.090
0.960
0.850
0.750
0.980
0.875
0.770
0.680
0.585
0.590
0.505
3.130
2.850
2.620
2.380
2.190
1.990
1.790
1.630
1.480
1.360
1.150
1.035
0.960
0.875
0.800
0.930
0.835
0.740
0.685
0.615
0.650
0.535
0.450
2.740
2.500
2.300
2.110
1.910
1.750
1.590
1.440
1.320
1.200
1.060
0.940
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.810
0.750
0.695
0.630
0.570
0.605
0.525
0.425
0.985
0.875
0.760
0.665
0.715
0.630
0.565
0.505
0.430
0.440
0.345
4.910
4.520
4.160
3.820
3.500
3.210
3.035
2.845
2.660
2.470
2.260
2.070
1.890
1.720
1.560
1.440
158.0
145.0
131.0
119.0
108.0
98.7
90.2
82.6
75.7
69.1
63.8
57.0
52.3
47.4
42.9
37.8
33.5
30.0
27.7
24.8
144.0
132.0
119.0
108.0
98.4
89.8
82.0
73.5
67.2
60.7
56.3
51.7
47.7
43.0
38.5
34.4
30.6
30.3
27.7
24.7
22.4
20.1
18.2
16.2
118.0
107.0
97.9
88.2
80.8
72.8
65.4
59.2
53.6
48.8
43.2
38.8
35.9
32.7
29.8
27.3
24.3
21.5
20.0
18.3
16.7
14.7
13.0
91.5
83.2
75.9
68.8
62.1
56.4
51.3
46.3
42.1
38.2
35.1
31.1
28.5
25.3
22.3
20.8
19.1
17.6
16.2
14.7
13.5
11.8
10.3
29.4
26.2
22.6
19.7
16.8
14.7
13.3
11.8
10.6
9.1
7.7
215.0
196.0
178.0
162.0
147.0
134.0
125.0
117.0
109.0
101.0
91.4
83.3
75.6
68.5
62.0
56.8
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
2.2
2.3
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.7
5.2
5.9
6.5
7.2
4.5
5.4
6.0
6.7
7.8
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.1
4.4
4.8
5.3
5.9
6.7
7.5
8.5
4.6
5.2
5.9
6.6
7.7
6.0
6.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.4
6.0
6.5
7.1
7.7
4.5
5.0
5.6
6.0
6.7
5.0
6.1
7.2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.3
6.0
6.4
7.2
8.1
4.7
5.1
5.4
6.0
6.6
5.0
5.7
7.1
5.3
5.9
6.8
7.7
5.0
5.6
6.2
6.9
8.1
6.3
8.0
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.1
5.5
hc
tw
12.3
13.4
14.7
15.9
17.6
19.2
20.9
22.9
24.7
26.6
29.2
32.3
33.4
36.7
40.0
39.7
42.5
47.0
49.4
52.7
10.9
11.9
13.1
14.2
15.6
17.1
18.6
20.7
22.5
24.8
26.6
28.7
30.6
33.2
35.6
39.2
43.1
39.2
41.9
45.9
49.0
52.0
50.1
54.6
10.8
11.8
12.8
14.2
15.4
17.1
18.8
20.6
22.6
24.9
26.1
28.9
31.3
34.1
37.5
32.3
36.4
41.2
43.6
46.9
46.3
49.4
53.6
10.6
11.5
12.5
13.8
15.1
16.7
18.0
19.8
21.9
23.9
24.5
27.2
30.0
33.4
37.8
32.4
35.7
38.7
41.2
45.2
44.6
51.0
53.5
24.3
27.0
31.2
35.9
33.0
37.4
41.2
46.6
48.1
51.6
56.8
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.2
5.7
6.1
6.4
6.9
7.4
8.1
8.8
9.7
10.7
11.6
12.8
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
25500
22900
20400
18100
16100
14500
13100
11900
10800
9660
8870
7820
6990
6280
5630
4760
4090
3620
3270
2850
19100
17100
15100
13400
11900
10700
9600
8490
7650
6820
6260
5680
5170
4580
4020
3540
3100
3000
2700
2370
2100
1830
1550
1350
12200
10800
9610
8480
7620
6760
5950
5310
4730
4280
3630
3220
2960
2670
2420
2070
1830
1600
1480
1330
1170
984
843
6960
6160
5510
4900
4330
3870
3450
3060
2750
2460
2190
1910
1750
1530
1330
1170
1070
984
890
800
712
612
510
1490
1300
1110
954
758
659
586
518
448
375
301
14300
12400
10800
9430
8210
7190
6600
6000
5440
4900
4330
3840
3400
3010
2660
2400
in3
1570
1440
1300
1170
1060
970
884
811
742
674
624
556
502
455
411
345
299
267
243
213
1290
1170
1060
957
864
789
718
644
588
531
491
450
414
371
329
291
258
245
222
196
176
154
131
114
937
846
769
692
632
569
510
461
417
380
329
295
273
249
227
192
171
151
140
127
111
94
82
624
564
514
466
419
380
344
310
282
256
231
204
188
166
146
127
117
108
98
89
79
68
58
175
155
134
117
92
81
73
65
56
47
38
1280
1150
1040
931
838
756
707
656
607
559
506
459
415
375
338
310
in
12.7
12.6
12.5
12.3
12.2
12.1
12.0
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.4
11.2
11.0
11.0
10.9
10.7
11.5
11.4
11.3
11.1
11.0
10.9
10.8
10.7
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.5
10.4
10.3
10.2
10.1
10.1
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.2
9.1
10.2
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.5
9.5
9.4
9.4
9.2
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.0
8.7
8.7
8.6
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.2
8.1
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.1
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.4
7.4
7.2
7.2
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.0
7.0
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
8.2
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.5
7.3
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.6
6.5
in4
2110
1890
1670
1480
1310
1170
1050
953
859
768
704
618
555
497
443
184
159
139
124
106
1670
1490
1320
1160
1030
919
823
724
651
578
530
479
443
391
340
297
259
119
109
94
82
70
34
29
1270
1120
994
873
785
694
609
542
483
435
376
333
305
274
248
93
81
71
65
58
31
25
21
795
704
628
558
493
440
391
347
311
278
253
220
201
175
152
60
55
50
45
40
22
19
15
186
163
138
119
43
37
33
29
24
12
10
4720
4170
3680
3250
2880
2560
2360
2170
1990
1810
1610
1440
1290
1150
1030
931
in3
277
250
224
200
179
161
146
133
120
108
100
88
79
71
64
37
32
28
25
21
237
214
191
170
152
137
124
110
99
89
82
74
68
60
53
46
41
26
24
21
18
16
10
8
189
168
151
134
122
109
96
86
77
70
60
54
49
44
40
22
20
17
16
14
9
8
6
132
118
107
96
85
77
69
61
56
50
45
39
36
32
28
16
14
13
12
11
7
6
5
36
31
27
23
12
10
9
8
7
4
3
527
472
423
378
339
304
283
262
241
221
199
179
161
145
130
119
in
3.66
3.61
3.57
3.52
3.48
3.45
3.42
3.40
3.37
3.33
3.32
3.29
3.26
3.24
3.21
2.21
2.18
2.15
2.12
2.07
3.41
3.36
3.33
3.28
3.23
3.20
3.17
3.14
3.11
3.08
3.07
3.04
3.05
3.01
2.97
2.94
2.91
1.99
1.98
1.95
1.92
1.87
1.38
1.34
3.27
3.23
3.19
3.15
3.12
3.09
3.05
3.02
3.00
2.98
2.95
2.93
2.92
2.90
2.89
1.84
1.83
1.81
1.80
1.77
1.35
1.30
1.26
2.95
2.91
2.88
2.85
2.82
2.79
2.76
2.74
2.72
2.70
2.69
2.66
2.65
2.63
2.61
1.70
1.69
1.69
1.67
1.65
1.29
1.27
1.22
2.51
2.49
2.47
2.46
1.60
1.59
1.57
1.57
1.52
1.17
1.12
4.69
4.62
4.55
4.49
4.43
4.38
4.34
4.31
4.27
4.24
4.20
4.17
4.13
4.10
4.07
4.05
in3
1880.0
1710.0
1530.0
1380.0
1240.0
1130.0
1020.0
933.0
850.0
769.0
708.0
628.0
567.0
512.0
461.0
395.0
343.0
305.0
278.0
244.0
1550.0
1410.0
1250.0
1120.0
1020.0
922.0
835.0
744.0
676.0
606.0
559.0
511.0
468.0
418.0
370.0
327.0
289.0
280.0
254.0
224.0
200.0
177.0
153.0
134.0
1130.0
1010.0
915.0
816.0
741.0
663.0
589.0
530.0
476.0
432.0
373.0
333.0
307.0
279.0
253.0
221.0
196.0
172.0
160.0
144.0
129.0
110.0
95.4
753.0
676.0
611.0
549.0
490.0
442.0
398.0
356.0
322.0
291.0
261.0
230.0
211.0
186.0
163.0
145.0
133.0
123.0
112.0
101.0
90.7
78.4
66.5
198.0
175.0
150.0
130.0
105.0
92.0
82.3
72.9
64.0
54.0
44.2
1660.0
1480.0
1320.0
1180.0
1050.0
936.0
869.0
801.0
736.0
672.0
603.0
542.0
487.0
436.0
390.0
355.0
in3
437.0
394.0
351.0
313.0
279.0
252.0
227.0
206.0
187.0
168.0
154.0
136.0
122.0
109.0
97.5
57.6
49.3
43.4
38.8
33.2
375.0
337.0
300.0
267.0
238.0
214.0
193.0
171.0
154.0
137.0
126.0
115.0
105.0
93.2
81.5
71.4
62.4
41.5
37.5
32.6
28.6
24.5
15.7
13.3
296.0
263.0
237.0
210.0
189.0
169.0
149.0
133.0
119.0
108.0
92.6
82.3
75.6
68.2
61.7
34.7
30.5
26.6
24.4
21.7
14.8
12.2
10.2
207.0
185.0
166.0
149.0
132.0
119.0
106.0
94.8
85.4
76.7
69.1
60.5
55.3
48.4
42.2
24.7
22.5
20.6
18.5
16.6
11.7
9.9
8.1
54.9
48.1
41.1
35.5
18.9
16.3
14.5
12.7
10.8
7.0
5.5
816.0
730.0
652.0
583.0
522.0
468.0
434.0
402.0
370.0
338.0
304.0
274.0
246.0
221.0
198.0
180.0
in4
499.0
391.0
297.0
225.0
169.0
131.0
101.0
78.8
61.0
46.3
37.0
26.5
19.5
14.7
10.9
11.2
7.3
5.3
4.0
2.8
456.0
357.0
271.0
205.0
154.0
119.0
91.7
67.3
51.8
38.6
31.0
24.1
18.5
13.4
9.5
6.7
4.7
7.1
5.3
3.7
2.7
1.9
1.7
1.2
298.0
225.0
174.0
130.0
101.0
75.2
54.9
41.3
31.1
23.9
15.4
11.3
9.0
6.8
5.2
6.0
4.3
3.0
2.5
1.8
1.8
1.1
0.8
177.0
135.0
104.0
79.7
59.3
45.2
34.2
25.4
19.4
14.7
10.6
7.5
5.9
4.1
2.8
3.5
2.7
2.2
1.7
1.2
1.2
0.8
0.5
7.7
5.4
3.6
2.4
2.2
1.5
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.3
1450.0
1120.0
870.0
670.0
514.0
395.0
331.0
273.0
222.0
178.0
136.0
104.0
79.1
59.5
44.6
34.8
Draft
Designation
W 8x 67
W 8x 58
W 8x 48
W 8x 40
W 8x 35
W 8x 31
W 8x 28
W 8x 24
W 8x 21
W 8x 18
W 8x 15
W 8x 13
W 8x 10
W 6x 25
W 6x 20
W 6x 15
W 6x 16
W 6x 12
W 6x 9
W 5x 19
W 5x 16
W 4x 13
M 14x 18
M 12x 12
M 12x 11
M 12x 10
M 10x 9
M 10x 8
M 10x 8
M 8x 6
M 6x 4
M 5x 19
S 24x121
S 24x106
S 24x100
S 24x 90
S 24x 80
S 20x 96
S 20x 86
S 20x 75
S 20x 66
S 18x 70
S 18x 55
S 15x 50
S 15x 43
S 12x 50
S 12x 41
S 12x 35
S 12x 32
S 10x 35
S 10x 25
S 8x 23
S 8x 18
S 7x 20
S 7x 15
S 6x 17
S 6x 12
S 5x 15
S 5x 10
S 4x 10
S 4x 8
S 3x 8
S 3x 6
311
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
9.00
8.75
8.50
8.25
8.12
8.00
8.06
7.93
8.28
8.14
8.11
7.99
7.89
6.38
6.20
5.99
6.28
6.03
5.90
5.15
5.01
4.16
14.00
12.00
11.97
11.97
10.00
9.95
9.99
8.00
6.00
5.00
24.50
24.50
24.00
24.00
24.00
20.30
20.30
20.00
20.00
18.00
18.00
15.00
15.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
10.00
10.00
8.00
8.00
7.00
7.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
3.00
3.00
in
0.570
0.510
0.400
0.360
0.310
0.285
0.285
0.245
0.250
0.230
0.245
0.230
0.170
0.320
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.230
0.170
0.270
0.240
0.280
0.215
0.177
0.160
0.149
0.157
0.141
0.130
0.135
0.114
0.316
0.800
0.620
0.745
0.625
0.500
0.800
0.660
0.635
0.505
0.711
0.461
0.550
0.411
0.687
0.462
0.428
0.350
0.594
0.311
0.441
0.271
0.450
0.252
0.465
0.232
0.494
0.214
0.326
0.193
0.349
0.170
in
8.280
8.220
8.110
8.070
8.020
7.995
6.535
6.495
5.270
5.250
4.015
4.000
3.940
6.080
6.020
5.990
4.030
4.000
3.940
5.030
5.000
4.060
4.000
3.065
3.065
3.250
2.690
2.690
2.690
2.281
1.844
5.003
8.050
7.870
7.245
7.125
7.000
7.200
7.060
6.385
6.255
6.251
6.001
5.640
5.501
5.477
5.252
5.078
5.000
4.944
4.661
4.171
4.001
3.860
3.662
3.565
3.332
3.284
3.004
2.796
2.663
2.509
2.330
in
0.935
0.810
0.685
0.560
0.495
0.435
0.465
0.400
0.400
0.330
0.315
0.255
0.205
0.455
0.365
0.260
0.405
0.280
0.215
0.430
0.360
0.345
0.270
0.225
0.210
0.180
0.206
0.182
0.173
0.189
0.171
0.416
1.090
1.090
0.870
0.870
0.870
0.920
0.920
0.795
0.795
0.691
0.691
0.622
0.622
0.659
0.659
0.544
0.544
0.491
0.491
0.426
0.426
0.392
0.392
0.359
0.359
0.326
0.326
0.293
0.293
0.260
0.260
19.7
17.1
14.1
11.7
10.3
9.1
8.2
7.1
6.2
5.3
4.4
3.8
3.0
7.3
5.9
4.4
4.7
3.5
2.7
5.5
4.7
3.8
5.1
3.5
3.2
2.9
2.7
2.3
2.2
1.9
1.3
5.6
35.6
31.2
29.3
26.5
23.5
28.2
25.3
22.0
19.4
20.6
16.1
14.7
12.6
14.7
12.0
10.3
9.4
10.3
7.5
6.8
5.4
5.9
4.5
5.1
3.7
4.3
2.9
2.8
2.3
2.2
1.7
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
4.4
5.1
5.9
7.2
8.1
9.2
7.0
8.1
6.6
8.0
6.4
7.8
9.6
6.7
8.2
11.5
5.0
7.1
9.2
5.8
6.9
5.9
7.4
6.8
7.3
9.1
6.5
7.4
7.8
6.0
5.4
6.0
3.7
3.6
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
4.0
3.9
4.5
4.3
4.5
4.4
4.2
4.0
4.7
4.6
5.0
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.9
4.7
5.0
4.6
5.0
4.6
4.8
4.5
4.8
4.5
hc
tw
11.1
12.4
15.8
17.6
20.4
22.2
22.2
25.8
27.5
29.9
28.1
29.9
40.5
15.5
19.1
21.6
19.1
21.6
29.2
14.0
15.8
10.6
60.3
62.5
63.6
68.0
58.4
59.3
65.0
53.8
47.0
11.2
26.4
34.1
28.3
33.7
42.1
21.6
26.2
27.1
34.1
21.8
33.6
23.2
31.0
13.9
20.7
23.4
28.6
13.8
26.4
14.5
23.7
12.3
21.9
9.9
19.9
7.5
17.4
8.7
14.7
5.6
11.4
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
272
228
184
146
127
110
98
83
75
62
48
40
31
53
41
29
32
22
16
26
21
11
148
72
65
62
39
34
33
18
7
24
3160
2940
2390
2250
2100
1670
1580
1280
1190
926
804
486
447
305
272
229
218
147
124
65
58
42
37
26
22
15
12
7
6
3
3
in3
60
52
43
36
31
28
24
21
18
15
12
10
8
17
13
10
10
7
6
10
9
5
21
12
11
10
8
7
7
5
2
10
258
240
199
187
175
165
155
128
119
103
89
65
60
51
45
38
36
29
25
16
14
12
10
9
7
6
5
3
3
2
2
in
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.2
2.1
1.7
5.4
4.6
4.6
4.6
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.1
2.4
2.1
9.4
9.7
9.0
9.2
9.5
7.7
7.9
7.6
7.8
6.7
7.1
5.8
5.9
4.6
4.8
4.7
4.8
3.8
4.1
3.1
3.3
2.7
2.9
2.3
2.5
1.9
2.0
1.6
1.6
1.1
1.2
in4
89
75
61
49
43
37
22
18
10
8
3
3
2
17
13
9
4
3
2
9
8
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
8
83
77
48
45
42
50
47
30
28
24
21
16
14
16
14
10
9
8
7
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
0
in3
21
18
15
12
11
9
7
6
4
3
2
1
1
6
4
3
2
2
1
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
3
21
20
13
13
12
14
13
9
9
8
7
6
5
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
in
2.12
2.10
2.08
2.04
2.03
2.02
1.62
1.61
1.26
1.23
0.88
0.84
0.84
1.52
1.50
1.46
0.97
0.92
0.90
1.28
1.27
1.00
0.72
0.53
0.54
0.58
0.48
0.43
0.47
0.42
0.36
1.19
1.53
1.57
1.27
1.30
1.34
1.33
1.36
1.16
1.19
1.08
1.14
1.03
1.07
1.03
1.06
0.98
1.00
0.90
0.95
0.80
0.83
0.73
0.77
0.68
0.70
0.62
0.64
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.52
in3
70.2
59.8
49.0
39.8
34.7
30.4
27.2
23.2
20.4
17.0
13.6
11.4
8.9
18.9
14.9
10.8
11.7
8.3
6.2
11.6
9.6
6.3
24.9
14.3
13.2
12.2
9.2
8.2
7.7
5.4
2.8
11.0
306.0
279.0
240.0
222.0
204.0
198.0
183.0
153.0
140.0
125.0
105.0
77.1
69.3
61.2
53.1
44.8
42.0
35.4
28.4
19.3
16.5
14.5
12.1
10.6
8.5
7.4
5.7
4.0
3.5
2.4
2.0
in3
32.7
27.9
22.9
18.5
16.1
14.1
10.1
8.6
5.7
4.7
2.7
2.2
1.7
8.6
6.7
4.8
3.4
2.3
1.7
5.5
4.6
2.9
2.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.3
5.0
36.2
33.2
23.9
22.3
20.7
24.9
23.0
16.7
15.3
14.4
12.1
10.0
9.0
10.3
8.9
6.8
6.4
6.2
5.0
3.7
3.2
3.0
2.4
2.4
1.9
1.9
1.4
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.7
in4
5.1
3.3
2.0
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
12.8
10.1
7.6
6.0
4.9
8.4
6.6
4.6
3.6
4.2
2.4
2.1
1.5
2.8
1.8
1.1
0.9
1.3
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0
312
Draft
Designation
C 15.x 50
C 15.x 40
C 15.x 34
C 12.x 30
C 12.x 25
C 12.x 21
C 10.x 30
C 10.x 25
C 10.x 20
C 10.x 15
C 9.x 20
C 9.x 15
C 9.x 13
C 8.x 19
C 8.x 14
C 8.x 12
C 7.x 15
C 7.x 12
C 7.x 10
C 6.x 13
C 6.x 11
C 6.x 8
C 5.x 9
C 5.x 7
C 4.x 7
C 4.x 5
C 3.x 6
C 3.x 5
C 3.x 4
MC18.x 58
MC18.x 52
MC18.x 46
MC18.x 43
MC13.x 50
MC13.x 40
MC13.x 35
MC13.x 32
MC12.x 50
MC12.x 45
MC12.x 40
MC12.x 35
MC12.x 31
MC12.x 11
MC10.x 41
MC10.x 34
MC10.x 29
MC10.x 25
MC10.x 22
MC10.x 8
MC10.x 7
MC 9.x 25
MC 9.x 24
MC 8.x 23
MC 8.x 21
MC 8.x 20
MC 8.x 19
MC 8.x 9
MC 7.x 23
MC 7.x 19
MC 6.x 18
MC 6.x 15
MC 6.x 16
MC 6.x 15
MC 6.x 12
A
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
15.
15.
15.
12.
12.
12.
10.
10.
10.
10.
9.
9.
9.
8.
8.
8.
7.
7.
7.
6.
6.
6.
5.
5.
4.
4.
3.
3.
3.
18.
18.
18.
18.
13.
13.
13.
13.
12.
12.
12.
12.
12.
12.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
9.
9.
8.
8.
8.
8.
8.
7.
7.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
in
0.716
0.520
0.400
0.510
0.387
0.282
0.673
0.526
0.379
0.240
0.448
0.285
0.233
0.487
0.303
0.220
0.419
0.314
0.210
0.437
0.314
0.200
0.325
0.190
0.321
0.184
0.356
0.258
0.170
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.450
0.787
0.560
0.447
0.375
0.835
0.712
0.590
0.467
0.370
0.190
0.796
0.575
0.425
0.380
0.290
0.170
0.152
0.450
0.400
0.427
0.375
0.400
0.353
0.179
0.503
0.352
0.379
0.340
0.375
0.316
0.310
in
3.716
3.520
3.400
3.170
3.047
2.942
3.033
2.886
2.739
2.600
2.648
2.485
2.433
2.527
2.343
2.260
2.299
2.194
2.090
2.157
2.034
1.920
1.885
1.750
1.721
1.584
1.596
1.498
1.410
4.200
4.100
4.000
3.950
4.412
4.185
4.072
4.000
4.135
4.012
3.890
3.767
3.670
1.500
4.321
4.100
3.950
3.405
3.315
1.500
1.127
3.500
3.450
3.502
3.450
3.025
2.978
1.874
3.603
3.452
3.504
3.500
3.000
2.941
2.497
in
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.501
0.501
0.501
0.436
0.436
0.436
0.436
0.413
0.413
0.413
0.390
0.390
0.390
0.366
0.366
0.366
0.343
0.343
0.343
0.320
0.320
0.296
0.296
0.273
0.273
0.273
0.625
0.625
0.625
0.625
0.610
0.610
0.610
0.610
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.309
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.280
0.202
0.550
0.550
0.525
0.525
0.500
0.500
0.311
0.500
0.500
0.475
0.385
0.475
0.475
0.375
14.7
11.8
10.0
8.8
7.3
6.1
8.8
7.3
5.9
4.5
5.9
4.4
3.9
5.5
4.0
3.4
4.3
3.6
2.9
3.8
3.1
2.4
2.6
2.0
2.1
1.6
1.8
1.5
1.2
17.1
15.3
13.5
12.6
14.7
11.8
10.3
9.4
14.7
13.2
11.8
10.3
9.1
3.1
12.1
9.9
8.4
7.3
6.4
2.5
1.9
7.5
7.0
6.7
6.3
5.9
5.5
2.5
6.7
5.6
5.3
4.5
4.8
4.4
3.5
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
hc
tw
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
404.0
349.0
315.0
162.0
144.0
129.0
103.0
91.2
78.9
67.4
60.9
51.0
47.9
44.0
36.1
32.6
27.2
24.2
21.3
17.4
15.2
13.1
8.9
7.5
4.6
3.8
2.1
1.9
1.7
676.0
627.0
578.0
554.0
314.0
273.0
252.0
239.0
269.0
252.0
234.0
216.0
203.0
55.4
158.0
139.0
127.0
110.0
103.0
32.0
22.1
88.0
85.0
63.8
61.6
54.5
52.5
23.3
47.5
43.2
29.7
25.4
26.0
25.0
18.7
in3
53.8
46.5
42.0
27.0
24.1
21.5
20.7
18.2
15.8
13.5
13.5
11.3
10.6
11.0
9.0
8.1
7.8
6.9
6.1
5.8
5.1
4.4
3.6
3.0
2.3
1.9
1.4
1.2
1.1
75.1
69.7
64.3
61.6
48.4
42.0
38.8
36.8
44.9
42.0
39.0
36.1
33.8
9.2
31.5
27.8
25.3
22.0
20.5
6.4
4.4
19.6
18.9
16.0
15.4
13.6
13.1
5.8
13.6
12.3
9.9
8.5
8.7
8.3
6.2
in
5.24
5.44
5.62
4.29
4.43
4.61
3.42
3.52
3.66
3.87
3.22
3.40
3.48
2.82
2.99
3.11
2.51
2.60
2.72
2.13
2.22
2.34
1.83
1.95
1.47
1.56
1.08
1.12
1.17
6.29
6.41
6.56
6.64
4.62
4.82
4.95
5.06
4.28
4.36
4.46
4.59
4.71
4.22
3.61
3.75
3.89
3.87
3.99
3.61
3.40
3.43
3.48
3.09
3.13
3.05
3.09
3.05
2.67
2.77
2.37
2.38
2.33
2.37
2.30
in4
11.
9.23
8.13
5.14
4.47
3.88
3.94
3.36
2.81
2.28
2.42
1.93
1.76
1.98
1.53
1.32
1.38
1.17
0.97
1.05
0.87
0.69
0.63
0.48
0.43
0.32
0.31
0.25
0.20
17.80
16.40
15.10
14.40
16.50
13.70
12.30
11.40
17.40
15.80
14.30
12.70
11.30
0.38
15.80
13.20
11.40
7.35
6.50
0.33
0.11
7.65
7.22
7.07
6.64
4.47
4.20
0.63
7.29
6.11
5.93
4.97
3.82
3.51
1.87
in3
3.78
3.37
3.11
2.06
1.88
1.73
1.65
1.48
1.32
1.16
1.17
1.01
0.96
1.01
0.85
0.78
0.78
0.70
0.63
0.64
0.56
0.49
0.45
0.38
0.34
0.28
0.27
0.23
0.20
5.32
5.07
4.82
4.69
4.79
4.26
3.99
3.81
5.65
5.33
5.
4.67
4.39
0.31
4.88
4.38
4.02
3.
2.80
0.27
0.12
3.02
2.93
2.84
2.74
2.05
1.97
0.43
2.85
2.57
2.48
2.03
1.84
1.75
1.04
in
0.87
0.89
0.90
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.67
0.68
0.69
0.71
0.64
0.66
0.67
0.60
0.62
0.63
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.49
0.49
0.45
0.45
0.42
0.41
0.40
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.07
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.11
1.09
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
0.35
1.14
1.16
1.17
1.
1.
0.37
0.24
1.01
1.01
1.03
1.03
0.87
0.87
0.50
1.05
1.04
1.06
1.05
0.89
0.89
0.73
in3
68.20
57.20
50.40
33.60
29.20
25.40
26.60
23.
19.30
15.80
16.80
13.50
12.50
13.80
10.90
9.55
9.68
8.40
7.12
7.26
6.15
5.13
4.36
3.51
2.81
2.26
1.72
1.50
1.30
94.60
86.50
78.40
74.40
60.50
50.90
46.20
43.10
56.10
51.70
47.30
42.80
39.30
11.60
38.90
33.40
29.60
25.80
23.60
7.86
5.73
23.20
22.20
18.80
18.
16.20
15.40
6.91
16.20
14.30
11.50
9.82
10.20
9.69
7.38
in3
8.17
6.87
6.23
4.33
3.84
3.49
3.78
3.19
2.71
2.35
2.47
2.05
1.95
2.17
1.73
1.58
1.64
1.43
1.26
1.36
1.15
0.99
0.92
0.76
0.70
0.57
0.54
0.47
0.40
9.94
9.13
8.42
8.10
10.10
8.57
7.95
7.60
10.20
9.35
8.59
7.91
7.44
0.64
8.71
7.51
6.83
5.21
4.86
0.55
0.25
5.23
5.05
4.88
4.71
3.57
3.44
0.88
4.86
4.34
4.14
3.28
3.18
3.
1.79
in4
2.67
1.46
1.02
0.87
0.54
0.37
1.23
0.69
0.37
0.21
0.43
0.21
0.17
0.44
0.19
0.13
0.27
0.16
0.10
0.24
0.13
0.08
0.11
0.06
0.08
0.04
0.07
0.04
0.03
2.81
2.03
1.45
1.23
2.98
1.57
1.14
0.94
3.24
2.35
1.70
1.25
1.01
0.06
2.27
1.21
0.79
0.64
0.51
0.04
0.02
0.69
0.60
0.57
0.50
0.44
0.38
0.06
0.63
0.41
0.38
0.22
0.34
0.29
0.15
Draft
Designation
WT18.x180.
WT18.x164.
WT18.x150.
WT18.x140.
WT18.x130.
WT18.x123.
WT18.x115.
WT18.x128.
WT18.x116.
WT18.x105.
WT18.x 97.
WT18.x 91.
WT18.x 85.
WT18.x 80.
WT18.x 75.
WT18.x 68.
WT17.x177.
WT17.x159.
WT17.x146.
WT17.x132.
WT17.x121.
WT17.x111.
WT17.x101.
WT17.x 85.
WT17.x 76.
WT17.x 71.
WT17.x 65.
WT17.x 59.
WT15.x118.
WT15.x106.
WT15.x 96.
WT15.x 87.
WT15.x 74.
WT15.x 66.
WT15.x 62.
WT15.x 58.
WT15.x 54.
WT15.x 50.
WT14.x109.
WT14.x 97.
WT14.x 89.
WT14.x 81.
WT14.x 73.
WT14.x 65.
WT14.x 57.
WT14.x 51.
WT14.x 47.
WT14.x 42.
WT12.x 88.
WT12.x 81.
WT12.x 73.
WT12.x 66.
WT12.x 59.
WT12.x 52.
WT12.x 52.
WT12.x 47.
WT12.x 42.
WT12.x 38.
WT12.x 34.
WT12.x 31.
WT12.x 28.
WT11.x 83.
WT11.x 74.
WT11.x 66.
WT11.x 61.
WT11.x 56.
WT11.x 51.
WT11.x 47.
WT11.x 42.
WT11.x 37.
WT11.x 34.
WT11.x 31.
WT11.x 29.
WT11.x 25.
WT11.x 22.
WT 9.x 72.
WT 9.x 65.
WT 9.x 60.
WT 9.x 53.
WT 9.x 49.
WT 9.x 43.
WT 9.x 38.
WT 9.x 36.
WT 9.x 33.
WT 9.x 30.
WT 9.x 28.
WT 9.x 25.
WT 9.x 23.
WT 9.x 20.
WT 9.x 18.
313
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
18.70
18.54
18.37
18.26
18.13
18.04
17.95
18.71
18.56
18.34
18.25
18.17
18.08
18.00
17.92
17.77
17.77
17.58
17.42
17.26
17.09
16.97
16.84
16.91
16.75
16.65
16.55
16.43
15.65
15.47
15.34
15.22
15.34
15.15
15.09
15.01
14.91
14.82
14.22
14.06
13.90
13.80
13.69
13.81
13.65
13.55
13.46
13.35
12.63
12.50
12.37
12.24
12.13
12.03
12.26
12.15
12.05
11.96
11.86
11.87
11.78
11.24
11.03
10.91
10.84
10.76
10.68
10.81
10.72
10.62
10.56
10.49
10.53
10.41
10.33
9.74
9.63
9.48
9.36
9.30
9.19
9.10
9.23
9.18
9.12
9.06
8.99
9.03
8.95
8.85
in
1.120
1.020
0.945
0.885
0.840
0.800
0.760
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.765
0.725
0.680
0.650
0.625
0.600
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.775
0.715
0.670
0.635
0.605
0.580
0.550
0.830
0.775
0.710
0.655
0.650
0.615
0.585
0.565
0.545
0.520
0.830
0.750
0.725
0.660
0.605
0.610
0.570
0.515
0.490
0.460
0.750
0.705
0.650
0.605
0.550
0.500
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.440
0.415
0.430
0.395
0.750
0.720
0.650
0.600
0.550
0.500
0.580
0.515
0.455
0.430
0.400
0.405
0.380
0.350
0.730
0.670
0.655
0.590
0.535
0.480
0.425
0.495
0.450
0.415
0.390
0.355
0.360
0.315
0.300
in
16.730
16.630
16.655
16.595
16.550
16.510
16.470
12.215
12.120
12.180
12.115
12.075
12.030
12.000
11.975
11.950
16.100
15.985
15.905
15.805
15.860
15.805
15.745
11.500
11.565
11.535
11.510
11.480
15.055
15.105
15.040
14.985
10.480
10.545
10.515
10.495
10.475
10.450
14.115
14.035
14.085
14.020
13.965
10.010
10.070
10.015
9.990
9.960
12.890
12.955
12.900
12.855
12.800
12.750
9.000
9.065
9.020
8.990
8.965
7.040
7.005
12.420
12.510
12.440
12.390
12.340
12.290
8.420
8.355
8.295
8.270
8.240
6.555
6.530
6.500
11.220
11.160
11.265
11.200
11.145
11.090
11.035
7.635
7.590
7.555
7.530
7.495
6.060
6.015
6.000
in
2.010
1.850
1.680
1.570
1.440
1.350
1.260
1.730
1.570
1.360
1.260
1.180
1.100
1.020
0.940
0.790
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.400
1.275
1.150
1.220
1.055
0.960
0.855
0.740
1.500
1.315
1.185
1.065
1.180
1.000
0.930
0.850
0.760
0.670
1.500
1.340
1.190
1.080
0.975
1.100
0.930
0.830
0.745
0.640
1.340
1.220
1.090
0.960
0.850
0.750
0.980
0.875
0.770
0.680
0.585
0.590
0.505
1.360
1.150
1.035
0.960
0.875
0.800
0.930
0.835
0.740
0.685
0.615
0.650
0.535
0.450
1.320
1.200
1.060
0.940
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.810
0.750
0.695
0.630
0.570
0.605
0.525
0.425
52.7
48.2
44.1
41.2
38.2
36.0
33.8
37.7
34.1
30.9
28.5
26.8
25.0
23.5
22.1
19.9
52.1
46.7
42.8
38.7
35.4
32.5
29.5
24.8
22.4
20.8
19.2
17.3
34.5
31.0
28.1
25.4
21.7
19.4
18.2
17.1
15.9
14.5
31.9
28.5
26.1
23.7
21.5
18.9
16.8
15.0
13.8
12.4
25.8
23.9
21.5
19.3
17.2
15.3
15.1
13.8
12.4
11.2
10.0
9.1
8.1
24.4
21.6
19.4
17.9
16.3
14.9
13.7
12.2
10.7
10.0
9.1
8.4
7.4
6.5
21.0
19.1
17.5
15.6
14.3
12.7
11.2
10.4
9.6
8.8
8.1
7.3
6.8
5.9
5.2
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
hc
tw
14.1
15.4
16.7
17.8
18.7
19.7
20.7
16.9
18.7
19.6
21.2
22.4
23.9
25.0
26.0
27.1
12.9
14.4
15.6
17.2
18.1
19.3
21.0
22.4
23.6
24.8
25.8
27.3
16.2
17.4
19.0
20.6
20.8
22.0
23.1
23.9
24.8
26.0
14.6
16.2
16.7
18.4
20.0
19.9
21.3
23.5
24.7
26.3
14.4
15.3
16.6
17.8
19.6
21.6
19.6
20.9
22.9
24.5
26.0
25.1
27.3
12.4
13.0
14.4
15.6
17.1
18.8
16.2
18.2
20.6
21.8
23.5
23.2
24.7
26.8
11.0
11.9
12.3
13.6
15.0
16.7
18.9
16.2
17.8
19.3
20.6
22.6
22.3
25.5
26.8
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
1500.0
1350.0
1230.0
1140.0
1060.0
995.0
934.0
1200.0
1080.0
985.0
901.0
845.0
786.0
740.0
698.0
637.0
1320.0
1160.0
1050.0
943.0
871.0
799.0
725.0
649.0
592.0
552.0
513.0
469.0
674.0
610.0
549.0
497.0
466.0
421.0
396.0
373.0
349.0
322.0
502.0
444.0
414.0
372.0
336.0
323.0
289.0
258.0
239.0
216.0
319.0
293.0
264.0
238.0
212.0
189.0
204.0
186.0
166.0
151.0
137.0
131.0
117.0
226.0
204.0
181.0
166.0
150.0
135.0
144.0
127.0
110.0
103.0
93.8
90.4
80.3
71.1
142.0
127.0
119.0
104.0
93.8
82.4
71.8
78.2
70.7
64.7
59.5
53.5
52.1
44.8
40.1
in3
104.0
94.1
86.1
80.0
75.1
71.0
67.0
87.4
78.5
73.1
67.0
63.1
58.9
55.8
53.1
49.7
96.8
85.8
78.3
70.2
65.8
60.8
55.5
51.1
47.4
44.7
42.1
39.2
55.1
50.5
45.7
41.7
40.6
37.4
35.3
33.7
32.0
30.0
45.2
40.3
38.2
34.4
31.2
31.0
28.3
25.3
23.8
21.9
32.2
29.9
27.2
24.8
22.3
20.0
22.0
20.3
18.3
16.9
15.6
15.6
14.1
25.5
23.7
21.1
19.3
17.5
15.8
17.9
15.7
13.8
12.9
11.9
11.8
10.7
9.7
18.5
16.7
15.9
14.1
12.7
11.2
9.8
11.2
10.1
9.3
8.6
7.8
7.8
6.7
6.2
in
5.33
5.29
5.27
5.25
5.26
5.26
5.25
5.66
5.63
5.65
5.62
5.62
5.61
5.61
5.62
5.66
5.03
4.99
4.97
4.94
4.96
4.96
4.95
5.12
5.14
5.15
5.18
5.20
4.42
4.43
4.42
4.42
4.63
4.66
4.66
4.67
4.69
4.71
3.97
3.95
3.98
3.96
3.95
4.13
4.15
4.14
4.16
4.18
3.51
3.50
3.50
3.52
3.51
3.51
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.68
3.70
3.79
3.80
3.04
3.08
3.06
3.04
3.03
3.01
3.25
3.22
3.21
3.20
3.21
3.29
3.30
3.31
2.60
2.58
2.60
2.59
2.56
2.55
2.54
2.74
2.72
2.71
2.71
2.70
2.77
2.76
2.79
in4
786.00
711.00
648.00
599.00
545.00
507.00
470.00
264.00
234.00
206.00
187.00
174.00
160.00
147.00
135.00
113.00
729.00
645.00
581.00
517.00
466.00
420.00
375.00
155.00
136.00
123.00
109.00
93.60
427.00
378.00
336.00
299.00
113.00
98.00
90.40
82.10
73.00
63.90
352.00
309.00
278.00
248.00
222.00
92.20
79.40
69.60
62.00
52.80
240.00
221.00
195.00
170.00
149.00
130.00
59.70
54.50
47.20
41.30
35.20
17.20
14.50
217.00
188.00
166.00
152.00
137.00
124.00
46.40
40.70
35.30
32.40
28.70
15.30
12.50
10.30
156.00
139.00
126.00
110.00
100.00
87.60
76.20
30.10
27.40
25.00
22.50
20.00
11.30
9.55
7.67
in3
94.00
85.50
77.80
72.20
65.90
61.40
57.10
43.20
38.60
33.80
30.90
28.80
26.60
24.60
22.50
18.90
90.60
80.70
73.10
65.50
58.80
53.20
47.60
27.00
23.60
21.30
18.90
16.30
56.80
50.10
44.70
39.90
21.70
18.60
17.20
15.70
13.90
12.20
49.90
44.10
39.40
35.40
31.70
18.40
15.80
13.90
12.40
10.60
37.20
34.20
30.30
26.50
23.20
20.30
13.30
12.00
10.50
9.18
7.85
4.90
4.15
35.00
30.00
26.70
24.60
22.20
20.20
11.00
9.75
8.51
7.83
6.97
4.67
3.82
3.18
27.70
24.90
22.50
19.70
18.00
15.80
13.80
7.89
7.22
6.63
5.97
5.35
3.72
3.17
2.56
in
3.86
3.84
3.83
3.81
3.78
3.75
3.73
2.65
2.62
2.58
2.56
2.55
2.53
2.50
2.47
2.38
3.74
3.71
3.69
3.66
3.63
3.59
3.56
2.50
2.47
2.43
2.39
2.32
3.52
3.49
3.46
3.43
2.28
2.25
2.23
2.19
2.15
2.10
3.32
3.29
3.26
3.24
3.21
2.21
2.18
2.15
2.12
2.07
3.04
3.05
3.01
2.97
2.94
2.91
1.99
1.98
1.95
1.92
1.87
1.38
1.34
2.98
2.95
2.93
2.92
2.90
2.89
1.84
1.83
1.81
1.80
1.77
1.35
1.30
1.26
2.72
2.70
2.69
2.66
2.65
2.63
2.61
1.70
1.69
1.69
1.67
1.65
1.29
1.27
1.22
in3
187.00
168.00
153.00
142.00
133.00
125.00
118.00
156.00
140.00
131.00
120.00
113.00
105.00
100.00
95.50
94.30
174.00
154.00
140.00
125.00
116.00
107.00
97.70
90.80
84.50
79.80
75.60
74.80
98.20
89.50
80.80
73.40
72.20
66.80
63.10
60.40
57.70
57.40
81.10
71.80
67.60
60.80
55.00
55.10
50.40
45.00
42.40
39.20
57.80
53.30
48.20
43.90
39.20
35.10
39.20
36.10
32.50
30.10
27.90
28.40
25.60
46.30
42.40
37.60
34.30
31.00
27.90
31.80
28.00
24.40
22.90
21.10
21.20
20.80
17.60
34.00
30.50
28.70
25.20
22.60
19.90
17.30
20.00
18.00
16.50
15.30
13.80
13.90
12.00
12.00
in3
146.00
132.00
120.00
112.00
102.00
94.90
88.10
68.60
61.00
53.50
48.90
45.40
41.90
38.60
35.50
29.80
141.00
125.00
113.00
101.00
90.90
82.10
73.40
42.20
37.00
33.50
29.70
25.70
87.50
77.20
68.90
61.40
34.00
29.20
27.00
24.60
22.00
19.30
77.00
67.90
60.80
54.50
48.80
28.80
24.70
21.70
19.40
16.60
57.30
52.60
46.60
40.70
35.70
31.20
20.70
18.80
16.30
14.30
12.30
7.87
6.67
53.90
46.30
41.10
37.80
34.10
30.90
17.40
15.30
13.30
12.20
10.90
7.42
6.09
5.09
42.70
38.30
34.60
30.20
27.60
24.20
21.10
12.30
11.20
10.30
9.27
8.29
5.85
4.97
4.03
in4
54.30
42.10
32.00
26.20
20.70
17.30
14.30
26.60
19.80
13.90
11.10
9.19
7.51
6.17
5.04
3.48
57.20
42.10
32.40
24.20
17.90
13.70
10.20
8.80
6.16
4.84
3.67
2.64
19.90
13.90
10.30
7.61
7.30
4.85
3.98
3.21
2.49
1.88
18.50
13.20
9.74
7.31
5.44
5.60
3.65
2.64
2.01
1.40
12.00
9.22
6.70
4.74
3.35
2.35
3.50
2.62
1.84
1.34
0.93
0.85
0.59
11.90
7.69
5.62
4.47
3.40
2.60
3.01
2.16
1.51
1.22
0.51
0.88
0.57
0.38
9.70
7.30
5.30
3.73
2.92
2.04
1.41
1.74
1.36
1.08
0.83
0.61
0.61
0.40
0.25
314
Draft
Designation
WT 8.x 50.
WT 8.x 45.
WT 8.x 39.
WT 8.x 34.
WT 8.x 29.
WT 8.x 25.
WT 8.x 23.
WT 8.x 20.
WT 8.x 18.
WT 8.x 16.
WT 8.x 13.
WT 7.x365.
WT 7.x333.
WT 7.x303.
WT 7.x275.
WT 7.x250.
WT 7.x228.
WT 7.x213.
WT 7.x199.
WT 7.x185.
WT 7.x171.
WT 7.x156.
WT 7.x142.
WT 7.x129.
WT 7.x117.
WT 7.x106.
WT 7.x 97.
WT 7.x 88.
WT 7.x 80.
WT 7.x 73.
WT 7.x 66.
WT 7.x 60.
WT 7.x 55.
WT 7.x 50.
WT 7.x 45.
WT 7.x 41.
WT 7.x 37.
WT 7.x 34.
WT 7.x 31.
WT 7.x 27.
WT 7.x 24.
WT 7.x 22.
WT 7.x 19.
WT 7.x 17.
WT 7.x 15.
WT 7.x 13.
WT 7.x 11.
WT 6.x168.
WT 6.x153.
WT 6.x140.
WT 6.x126.
WT 6.x115.
WT 6.x105.
WT 6.x 95.
WT 6.x 85.
WT 6.x 76.
WT 6.x 68.
WT 6.x 60.
WT 6.x 53.
WT 6.x 48.
WT 6.x 44.
WT 6.x 40.
WT 6.x 36.
WT 6.x 33.
WT 6.x 29.
WT 6.x 27.
WT 6.x 25.
WT 6.x 23.
WT 6.x 20.
WT 6.x 18.
WT 6.x 15.
WT 6.x 13.
WT 6.x 11.
WT 6.x 10.
WT 6.x 8.
WT 6.x 7.
WT 5.x 56.
WT 5.x 50.
WT 5.x 44.
WT 5.x 39.
WT 5.x 34.
WT 5.x 30.
WT 5.x 27.
WT 5.x 25.
WT 5.x 23.
WT 5.x 20.
WT 5.x 17.
WT 5.x 15.
WT 5.x 13.
WT 5.x 11.
WT 5.x 10.
WT 5.x 9.
WT 5.x 8.
WT 5.x 6.
tw
bf
tf
in2
in
8.48
8.38
8.26
8.16
8.22
8.13
8.06
8.01
7.93
7.94
7.84
11.21
10.82
10.46
10.12
9.80
9.51
9.34
9.15
8.96
8.77
8.56
8.37
8.19
8.02
7.86
7.74
7.61
7.49
7.39
7.33
7.24
7.16
7.08
7.01
7.16
7.09
7.02
6.95
6.96
6.89
6.83
7.05
6.99
6.92
6.95
6.87
8.41
8.16
7.93
7.70
7.53
7.36
7.19
7.01
6.86
6.70
6.56
6.45
6.36
6.26
6.19
6.13
6.06
6.09
6.03
6.09
6.03
5.97
6.25
6.17
6.11
6.16
6.08
5.99
5.95
5.68
5.55
5.42
5.30
5.20
5.11
5.05
4.99
5.05
4.96
4.86
5.24
5.16
5.09
5.12
5.05
4.99
4.93
in
0.585
0.525
0.455
0.395
0.430
0.380
0.345
0.305
0.295
0.275
0.250
3.070
2.830
2.595
2.380
2.190
2.015
1.875
1.770
1.655
1.540
1.410
1.290
1.175
1.070
0.980
0.890
0.830
0.745
0.680
0.645
0.590
0.525
0.485
0.440
0.510
0.450
0.415
0.375
0.370
0.340
0.305
0.310
0.285
0.270
0.255
0.230
1.775
1.625
1.530
1.395
1.285
1.180
1.060
0.960
0.870
0.790
0.710
0.610
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.430
0.390
0.360
0.345
0.370
0.335
0.295
0.300
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.235
0.220
0.200
0.755
0.680
0.605
0.530
0.470
0.420
0.370
0.340
0.350
0.315
0.290
0.300
0.260
0.240
0.250
0.240
0.230
0.190
in
10.425
10.365
10.295
10.235
7.120
7.070
7.035
6.995
6.985
5.525
5.500
17.890
17.650
17.415
17.200
17.010
16.835
16.695
16.590
16.475
16.360
16.230
16.110
15.995
15.890
15.800
15.710
15.650
15.565
15.500
14.725
14.670
14.605
14.565
14.520
10.130
10.070
10.035
9.995
8.060
8.030
7.995
6.770
6.745
6.730
5.025
5.000
13.385
13.235
13.140
13.005
12.895
12.790
12.670
12.570
12.480
12.400
12.320
12.220
12.160
12.125
12.080
12.040
12.000
10.010
9.995
8.080
8.045
8.005
6.560
6.520
6.490
4.030
4.005
3.990
3.970
10.415
10.340
10.265
10.190
10.130
10.080
10.030
10.000
8.020
7.985
7.960
5.810
5.770
5.750
4.020
4.010
4.000
3.960
in
0.985
0.875
0.760
0.665
0.715
0.630
0.565
0.505
0.430
0.440
0.345
4.910
4.520
4.160
3.820
3.500
3.210
3.035
2.845
2.660
2.470
2.260
2.070
1.890
1.720
1.560
1.440
1.310
1.190
1.090
1.030
0.940
0.860
0.780
0.710
0.855
0.785
0.720
0.645
0.660
0.595
0.530
0.515
0.455
0.385
0.420
0.335
2.955
2.705
2.470
2.250
2.070
1.900
1.735
1.560
1.400
1.250
1.105
0.990
0.900
0.810
0.735
0.670
0.605
0.640
0.575
0.640
0.575
0.515
0.520
0.440
0.380
0.425
0.350
0.265
0.225
1.250
1.120
0.990
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.615
0.560
0.620
0.530
0.435
0.510
0.440
0.360
0.395
0.330
0.270
0.210
14.7
13.1
11.3
9.8
8.4
7.4
6.6
5.9
5.3
4.6
3.8
107.0
97.8
88.9
80.9
73.5
66.9
62.6
58.5
54.4
50.3
45.7
41.6
37.8
34.2
31.0
28.4
25.9
23.4
21.3
19.4
17.7
16.0
14.6
13.2
12.0
10.9
10.0
9.0
7.8
7.1
6.3
5.6
5.0
4.4
3.8
3.3
49.4
44.8
41.0
37.0
33.9
30.9
27.9
25.0
22.4
20.0
17.6
15.6
14.1
12.8
11.6
10.6
9.5
8.5
7.8
7.3
6.6
5.9
5.2
4.4
3.8
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.1
16.5
14.7
12.9
11.3
10.0
8.8
7.9
7.2
6.6
5.7
4.8
4.4
3.8
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
1.8
Victor Saouma
bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
hc
tw
12.1
13.5
15.6
18.0
16.5
18.7
20.6
23.3
24.1
25.8
28.4
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.9
5.3
5.8
6.4
6.9
7.7
8.4
8.8
9.7
10.9
11.8
13.0
11.2
12.7
13.7
15.2
15.4
16.8
18.7
19.8
21.5
22.7
24.1
26.7
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.1
4.6
5.1
5.6
6.1
6.8
8.0
8.8
9.4
10.3
11.3
12.4
13.5
14.1
13.1
14.5
16.5
18.1
20.9
23.6
20.9
23.1
24.7
27.2
5.2
5.8
6.5
7.4
8.4
9.4
10.6
11.6
11.2
12.5
13.6
14.8
17.0
18.4
17.7
18.4
19.2
23.3
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
in4
76.8
67.2
56.9
48.6
48.7
42.3
37.8
33.1
30.6
27.4
23.5
739.0
622.0
524.0
442.0
375.0
321.0
287.0
257.0
229.0
203.0
176.0
153.0
133.0
116.0
102.0
89.8
80.5
70.2
62.5
57.8
51.7
45.3
40.9
36.4
41.2
36.0
32.6
28.9
27.6
24.9
21.9
23.3
20.9
19.0
17.3
14.8
190.0
162.0
141.0
121.0
106.0
92.1
79.0
67.8
58.5
50.6
43.4
36.3
32.0
28.9
25.8
23.2
20.6
19.1
17.7
18.7
16.6
14.4
16.0
13.5
11.7
11.7
10.1
8.7
7.7
28.6
24.5
20.8
17.4
14.9
12.9
11.1
10.0
10.2
8.8
7.7
9.3
7.9
6.9
6.7
6.1
5.4
4.3
in3
11.4
10.1
8.6
7.4
7.8
6.8
6.1
5.3
5.1
4.6
4.1
95.4
82.1
70.6
60.9
52.7
45.9
41.4
37.6
33.9
30.4
26.7
23.5
20.7
18.2
16.2
14.4
13.0
11.4
10.2
9.6
8.6
7.6
6.9
6.2
7.1
6.3
5.7
5.1
4.9
4.5
4.0
4.2
3.8
3.5
3.3
2.9
31.2
27.0
24.1
20.9
18.5
16.4
14.2
12.3
10.8
9.5
8.2
6.9
6.1
5.6
5.0
4.5
4.1
3.8
3.5
3.8
3.4
3.0
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.6
2.3
2.0
1.8
6.4
5.6
4.8
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.6
2.4
2.5
2.2
1.9
2.2
1.9
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.2
in
2.28
2.27
2.24
2.22
2.41
2.40
2.39
2.37
2.41
2.45
2.47
2.62
2.52
2.43
2.34
2.26
2.19
2.14
2.10
2.05
2.01
1.96
1.92
1.88
1.84
1.81
1.78
1.76
1.73
1.71
1.73
1.71
1.68
1.67
1.66
1.85
1.82
1.81
1.80
1.88
1.87
1.86
2.04
2.04
2.07
2.12
2.14
1.96
1.90
1.86
1.81
1.77
1.73
1.68
1.65
1.62
1.59
1.57
1.53
1.51
1.50
1.49
1.48
1.47
1.50
1.51
1.60
1.58
1.57
1.76
1.75
1.75
1.90
1.90
1.92
1.92
1.32
1.29
1.27
1.24
1.22
1.21
1.19
1.18
1.24
1.24
1.26
1.45
1.44
1.46
1.54
1.56
1.57
1.57
in4
93.10
81.30
69.20
59.50
21.60
18.60
16.40
14.40
12.20
6.20
4.80
2360.00
2080.00
1840.00
1630.00
1440.00
1280.00
1180.00
1090.00
994.00
903.00
807.00
722.00
645.00
576.00
513.00
466.00
419.00
374.00
338.00
274.00
247.00
223.00
201.00
181.00
74.20
66.90
60.70
53.70
28.80
25.70
22.60
13.30
11.70
9.79
4.45
3.50
593.00
525.00
469.00
414.00
371.00
332.00
295.00
259.00
227.00
199.00
172.00
151.00
135.00
120.00
108.00
97.50
87.20
53.50
47.90
28.20
25.00
22.00
12.20
10.20
8.66
2.33
1.88
1.41
1.18
118.00
103.00
89.30
76.80
66.80
58.10
51.70
46.70
26.70
22.50
18.30
8.35
7.05
5.71
2.15
1.78
1.45
1.09
in3
17.90
15.70
13.40
11.60
6.06
5.26
4.67
4.12
3.50
2.24
1.74
264.00
236.00
211.00
189.00
169.00
152.00
141.00
131.00
121.00
110.00
99.40
89.70
80.70
72.50
65.00
59.30
53.50
48.10
43.70
37.20
33.70
30.60
27.60
25.00
14.60
13.30
12.10
10.70
7.16
6.40
5.65
3.94
3.45
2.91
1.77
1.40
88.60
79.30
71.30
63.60
57.50
51.90
46.50
41.20
36.40
32.10
28.00
24.70
22.20
19.90
17.90
16.20
14.50
10.70
9.58
6.97
6.21
5.51
3.73
3.12
2.67
1.16
0.94
0.71
0.59
22.60
20.00
17.40
15.10
13.20
11.50
10.30
9.34
6.65
5.64
4.60
2.87
2.44
1.99
1.07
0.89
0.72
0.55
in
2.51
2.49
2.47
2.46
1.60
1.59
1.57
1.57
1.52
1.17
1.12
4.69
4.62
4.55
4.49
4.43
4.38
4.34
4.31
4.27
4.24
4.20
4.17
4.13
4.10
4.07
4.05
4.02
4.00
3.98
3.76
3.74
3.73
3.71
3.70
2.48
2.48
2.46
2.45
1.92
1.91
1.89
1.55
1.53
1.49
1.08
1.04
3.47
3.42
3.38
3.34
3.31
3.28
3.25
3.22
3.19
3.16
3.13
3.11
3.09
3.07
3.05
3.04
3.02
2.51
2.48
1.96
1.94
1.93
1.54
1.52
1.51
0.85
0.82
0.77
0.75
2.68
2.65
2.63
2.60
2.59
2.57
2.56
2.54
2.01
1.98
1.94
1.37
1.36
1.33
0.87
0.84
0.81
0.79
in3
20.70
18.10
15.30
13.00
13.80
12.00
10.80
9.43
8.93
8.27
8.12
211.00
182.00
157.00
136.00
117.00
102.00
91.70
82.90
74.40
66.20
57.70
50.40
43.90
38.20
33.40
29.40
26.30
22.80
20.20
18.60
16.50
14.40
12.90
11.50
13.20
11.50
10.40
9.16
8.87
8.00
7.05
7.45
6.74
6.25
5.89
5.20
68.40
59.10
51.90
44.80
39.40
34.50
29.80
25.60
22.00
19.00
16.20
13.60
11.90
10.70
9.49
8.48
7.50
6.97
6.46
6.90
6.12
5.30
5.71
4.83
4.20
4.63
4.11
3.72
3.32
13.40
11.40
9.65
8.06
6.85
5.87
5.05
4.52
4.65
3.99
3.48
4.01
3.39
3.02
3.10
2.90
3.03
2.50
in3
27.40
24.00
20.50
17.70
9.43
8.16
7.23
6.37
5.42
3.52
2.74
408.00
365.00
326.00
292.00
261.00
234.00
217.00
201.00
185.00
169.00
152.00
137.00
123.00
110.00
99.00
90.20
81.40
73.00
66.30
56.60
51.20
46.40
41.80
37.80
22.40
20.30
18.50
16.40
11.00
9.82
8.66
6.07
5.32
4.49
2.77
2.19
137.00
122.00
110.00
97.90
88.40
79.70
71.30
63.00
55.60
49.00
42.70
37.50
33.70
30.20
27.20
24.60
22.00
16.30
14.60
10.70
9.50
8.41
5.73
4.78
4.08
1.83
1.49
1.13
0.95
34.60
30.50
26.50
22.90
20.00
17.50
15.70
14.20
10.10
8.59
7.01
4.42
3.75
3.05
1.68
1.40
1.15
0.87
in4
3.85
2.72
1.78
1.19
1.10
0.76
0.65
0.40
0.27
0.23
0.13
714.00
555.00
430.00
331.00
255.00
196.00
164.00
135.00
110.00
88.30
67.50
51.80
39.30
29.60
22.20
17.30
13.20
9.84
7.56
6.13
4.67
3.55
2.68
2.03
2.53
1.94
1.51
1.10
0.97
0.73
0.52
0.40
0.28
0.19
0.18
0.10
120.00
92.00
70.90
53.50
41.60
32.20
24.40
17.70
12.80
9.22
6.43
4.55
3.42
2.54
1.92
1.46
1.09
1.05
0.79
0.89
0.66
0.48
0.37
0.23
0.15
0.15
0.09
0.05
0.04
7.50
5.41
3.75
2.55
1.78
1.23
0.91
0.69
0.75
0.49
0.29
0.31
0.20
0.12
0.12
0.08
0.05
0.03
Draft
Designation
315
bf
2tf
tw
bf
tf
in2
9.8
8.6
7.1
5.9
5.1
4.6
4.1
3.5
3.1
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
3.7
2.9
2.2
2.4
1.8
1.3
2.8
2.3
1.9
in
4.50
4.38
4.25
4.13
4.06
4.00
4.03
3.96
4.14
4.07
4.05
3.99
3.94
3.19
3.10
2.99
3.14
3.02
2.95
2.58
2.51
2.08
in
0.570
0.510
0.400
0.360
0.310
0.285
0.285
0.245
0.250
0.230
0.245
0.230
0.170
0.320
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.230
0.170
0.270
0.240
0.280
in
8.280
8.220
8.110
8.070
8.020
7.995
6.535
6.495
5.270
5.250
4.015
4.000
3.940
6.080
6.020
5.990
4.030
4.000
3.940
5.030
5.000
4.060
in
0.935
0.810
0.685
0.560
0.495
0.435
0.465
0.400
0.400
0.330
0.315
0.255
0.205
0.455
0.365
0.260
0.405
0.280
0.215
0.430
0.360
0.345
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9.
6.
5.
3.
2.
9.
2.5
1.7
1.3
1.0
0.6
2.8
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.50
0.215
0.177
0.157
0.135
0.114
0.316
4.000
3.065
2.690
2.281
1.844
5.003
0.270
0.225
0.206
0.189
0.171
0.416
ST12.x 61.
ST12.x 53.
ST12.x 50.
ST12.x 45.
ST12.x 40.
ST10.x 48.
ST10.x 43.
ST10.x 38.
ST10.x 33.
ST 9.x 35.
ST 9.x 27.
ST 8.x 25.
ST 8.x 21.
ST 6.x 25.
ST 6.x 20.
ST 6.x 18.
ST 6.x 16.
ST 5.x 18.
ST 5.x 13.
ST 4.x 12.
ST 4.x 9.
ST 4.x 10.
ST 4.x 8.
ST 3.x 9.
ST 3.x 6.
ST 3.x 7.
ST 3.x 5.
ST 2.x 5.
ST 2.x 4.
ST 2.x 4.
ST 2.x 3.
17.8
15.6
14.7
13.2
11.7
14.1
12.7
11.0
9.7
10.3
8.0
7.3
6.3
7.3
6.0
5.2
4.7
5.2
3.7
3.4
2.7
2.9
2.3
2.5
1.8
2.2
1.5
1.4
1.1
1.1
0.8
12.25
12.25
12.00
12.00
12.00
10.15
10.15
10.00
10.00
9.00
9.00
7.50
7.50
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
3.50
3.50
3.00
3.00
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
0.800
0.620
0.745
0.625
0.500
0.800
0.660
0.635
0.505
0.711
0.461
0.550
0.411
0.687
0.462
0.428
0.350
0.594
0.311
0.441
0.271
0.450
0.252
0.465
0.232
0.494
0.214
0.326
0.193
0.349
0.170
8.050
7.870
7.245
7.125
7.000
7.200
7.060
6.385
6.225
6.251
6.001
5.640
5.501
5.477
5.252
5.078
5.000
4.944
4.661
4.171
4.001
3.860
3.662
3.565
3.332
3.284
3.004
2.796
2.663
2.509
2.330
HP14.x117.
HP14.x102.
HP14.x 89.
HP14.x 73.
HP13.x100.
HP13.x 87.
HP13.x 73.
HP13.x 60.
HP12.x 84.
HP12.x 74.
HP12.x 63.
HP12.x 53.
HP10.x 57.
HP10.x 42.
HP 8.x 36.
34.4
30.0
26.1
21.4
29.4
25.5
21.6
17.5
24.6
21.8
18.4
15.5
16.8
12.4
10.6
14.21
14.01
13.83
13.61
13.15
12.95
12.75
12.54
12.28
12.13
11.94
11.78
9.99
9.70
8.02
0.805
0.705
0.615
0.505
0.765
0.665
0.565
0.460
0.685
0.605
0.515
0.435
0.565
0.415
0.445
14.885
14.785
14.695
14.585
13.205
13.105
13.005
12.900
12.295
12.215
12.125
12.045
10.225
10.075
8.155
WT 4.x 34.
WT 4.x 29.
WT 4.x 24.
WT 4.x 20.
WT 4.x 18.
WT 4.x 16.
WT 4.x 14.
WT 4.x 12.
WT 4.x 11.
WT 4.x 9.
WT 4.x 8.
WT 4.x 7.
WT 4.x 5.
WT 3.x 13.
WT 3.x 10.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 3.x 6.
WT 3.x 5.
WT 3.x 10.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 2.x 7.
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT
7.x
6.x
5.x
4.x
3.x
3.x
Victor Saouma
hc
tw
Ix
Sx
rx
Iy
Sy
ry
Zx
Zy
5.6
6.2
7.9
8.8
10.2
11.1
11.1
12.9
13.8
15.0
14.0
15.0
20.2
7.8
9.6
10.8
9.6
10.8
14.6
7.0
7.9
5.3
in4
10.9
9.1
6.8
5.7
4.8
4.3
4.2
3.5
3.9
3.4
3.3
2.9
2.2
2.3
1.8
1.4
1.7
1.3
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.5
in3
3.0
2.6
2.0
1.7
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.0
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3
in
1.05
1.03
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.97
1.01
1.00
1.12
1.14
1.22
1.23
1.20
0.79
0.77
0.80
0.84
0.86
0.84
0.61
0.60
0.52
in4
44.30
37.50
30.50
24.50
21.30
18.50
10.80
9.14
4.89
3.98
1.70
1.37
1.05
8.53
6.64
4.66
2.21
1.50
1.10
4.56
3.75
1.93
in3
10.70
9.13
7.52
6.08
5.31
4.64
3.31
2.81
1.85
1.52
0.85
0.68
0.53
2.81
2.21
1.56
1.10
0.75
0.56
1.82
1.50
0.95
in
2.12
2.10
2.08
2.04
2.03
2.02
1.62
1.61
1.26
1.23
0.88
0.84
0.84
1.52
1.50
1.45
0.97
0.92
0.90
1.28
1.27
1.00
in3
6.29
5.25
3.94
3.25
2.71
2.39
2.38
1.98
2.11
1.86
1.91
1.74
1.27
1.68
1.29
1.03
1.25
1.01
0.72
0.97
0.80
0.62
in3
16.30
13.90
11.40
9.25
8.06
7.04
5.05
4.29
2.84
2.33
1.33
1.08
0.83
4.28
3.36
2.37
1.70
1.16
0.86
2.76
2.29
1.46
in4
2.52
1.66
0.98
0.56
0.38
0.27
0.27
0.17
0.14
0.09
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.23
0.12
0.05
0.11
0.05
0.02
0.15
0.09
0.08
0
0
0
0
0
0
30.1
31.3
29.2
26.9
23.5
5.6
13.1
6.6
3.5
1.6
0.6
1.0
2.7
1.6
1.0
0.6
0.3
0.5
2.27
1.95
1.62
1.28
0.94
0.62
1.32
0.49
0.31
0.17
0.08
3.93
0.66
0.32
0.23
0.15
0.09
1.57
0.72
0.53
0.48
0.42
0.36
1.19
4.88
2.89
1.81
1.01
0.52
1.03
1.16
0.58
0.41
0.26
0.16
2.66
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.17
1.090
1.090
0.870
0.870
0.870
0.920
0.920
0.795
0.795
0.691
0.691
0.622
0.622
0.659
0.659
0.545
0.544
0.491
0.491
0.425
0.425
0.392
0.392
0.359
0.359
0.326
0.326
0.293
0.293
0.260
0.260
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13.2
17.0
14.1
16.8
21.1
10.8
13.1
13.6
17.0
10.9
16.8
11.6
15.5
7.0
10.3
11.7
14.3
6.9
13.2
7.3
11.8
6.1
10.9
5.0
10.0
3.8
8.7
4.3
7.3
2.8
5.7
259.0
216.0
215.0
190.0
162.0
143.0
125.0
109.0
93.1
84.7
62.4
40.6
33.0
25.2
18.9
17.2
14.9
12.5
7.8
5.0
3.5
3.4
2.2
2.1
1.3
1.3
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
30.1
24.1
26.3
22.6
18.7
20.3
17.2
15.8
12.9
14.0
9.6
7.7
6.0
6.1
4.3
4.0
3.3
3.6
2.1
1.8
1.1
1.4
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
3.82
3.72
3.83
3.79
3.72
3.18
3.14
3.15
3.10
2.87
2.79
2.35
2.29
1.85
1.78
1.83
1.78
1.56
1.45
1.22
1.14
1.07
0.99
0.92
0.83
0.76
0.68
0.58
0.53
0.43
0.38
41.70
38.50
23.80
22.50
21.10
25.10
23.40
14.90
13.80
12.10
10.40
7.85
7.19
7.85
6.78
4.94
4.68
4.18
3.39
2.15
1.86
1.59
1.32
1.15
0.91
0.83
0.61
0.45
0.38
0.29
0.23
10.40
9.80
6.58
6.31
6.04
6.97
6.63
4.66
4.43
3.86
3.47
2.78
2.61
2.87
2.58
1.95
1.87
1.69
1.46
1.03
0.93
0.82
0.72
0.65
0.55
0.51
0.41
0.32
0.29
0.23
0.19
1.53
1.57
1.27
1.30
1.34
1.33
1.36
1.16
1.19
1.08
1.14
1.03
1.07
1.03
1.06
0.98
1.00
0.90
0.95
0.80
0.83
0.73
0.77
0.68
0.70
0.62
0.64
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.52
54.50
43.30
47.50
41.10
33.60
36.90
31.10
28.60
23.40
25.10
17.30
14.00
10.80
11.00
7.71
7.12
5.94
6.58
3.70
3.19
2.07
2.47
1.48
1.85
1.01
1.34
0.65
0.59
0.38
0.35
0.20
18.10
16.60
12.00
11.20
10.40
12.50
11.60
8.37
7.70
7.21
6.07
5.01
4.54
5.19
4.45
3.41
3.22
3.11
2.49
1.84
1.59
1.48
1.23
1.18
0.93
0.94
0.69
0.57
0.48
0.41
0.33
6.38
5.04
3.76
3.01
2.43
4.15
3.30
2.28
1.78
2.05
1.18
1.05
0.77
1.39
0.87
0.54
0.45
0.63
0.30
0.27
0.17
0.22
0.12
0.18
0.08
0.16
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.805
0.705
0.615
0.505
0.765
0.665
0.565
0.460
0.685
0.610
0.515
0.435
0.565
0.420
0.445
9.2
10.5
11.9
14.4
8.6
9.9
11.5
14.0
9.0
10.0
11.8
13.8
9.0
12.0
9.2
14.2
16.2
18.5
22.6
13.6
15.7
18.4
22.7
14.2
16.0
18.9
22.3
13.9
18.9
14.2
1220.0
1050.0
904.0
729.0
886.0
755.0
630.0
503.0
650.0
569.0
472.0
393.0
294.0
210.0
119.0
172.0
150.0
131.0
107.0
135.0
117.0
98.8
80.3
106.0
93.8
79.1
66.8
58.8
43.4
29.8
5.96
5.92
5.88
5.84
5.49
5.45
5.40
5.36
5.14
5.11
5.06
5.03
4.18
4.13
3.36
443.00
380.00
326.00
261.00
294.00
250.00
207.00
165.00
213.00
186.00
153.00
127.00
101.00
71.70
40.30
59.50
51.40
44.30
35.80
44.50
38.10
31.90
25.50
34.60
30.40
25.30
21.10
19.70
14.20
9.88
3.59
3.56
3.53
3.49
3.16
3.13
3.10
3.07
2.94
2.92
2.88
2.86
2.45
2.41
1.95
194.00
169.00
146.00
118.00
153.00
131.00
110.00
89.00
120.00
105.00
88.30
74.00
66.50
48.30
33.60
91.40
78.80
67.70
54.60
68.60
58.50
48.80
39.00
53.20
46.60
38.70
32.20
30.30
21.80
15.20
8.02
5.40
3.60
2.01
6.25
4.12
2.54
1.39
4.24
2.98
1.83
1.12
1.97
0.81
0.77
316
Draft
Designation
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
8.0x8.0x1.125
8.0x8.0x1.000
8.0x8.0x0.875
8.0x8.0x0.750
8.0x8.0x0.625
8.0x8.0x0.563
8.0x8.0x0.500
8.0x6.0x1.000
8.0x6.0x0.875
8.0x6.0x0.750
8.0x6.0x0.625
8.0x6.0x0.563
8.0x6.0x0.500
8.0x6.0x0.438
8.0x4.0x1.000
8.0x4.0x0.750
8.0x4.0x0.563
8.0x4.0x0.500
7.0x4.0x0.750
7.0x4.0x0.625
7.0x4.0x0.500
7.0x4.0x0.375
6.0x6.0x1.000
6.0x6.0x0.875
6.0x6.0x0.750
6.0x6.0x0.625
6.0x6.0x0.563
6.0x6.0x0.500
6.0x6.0x0.438
6.0x6.0x0.375
6.0x6.0x0.313
6.0x4.0x0.875
6.0x4.0x0.750
6.0x4.0x0.625
6.0x4.0x0.563
6.0x4.0x0.500
6.0x4.0x0.438
6.0x4.0x0.375
6.0x4.0x0.313
6.0x3.5x0.500
6.0x3.5x0.375
6.0x3.5x0.313
5.0x5.0x0.875
5.0x5.0x0.750
5.0x5.0x0.625
5.0x5.0x0.500
5.0x5.0x0.438
5.0x5.0x0.375
5.0x5.0x0.313
5.0x3.5x0.750
5.0x3.5x0.625
5.0x3.5x0.500
5.0x3.5x0.438
5.0x3.5x0.375
5.0x3.5x0.313
5.0x3.5x0.250
5.0x3.0x0.625
5.0x3.0x0.500
5.0x3.0x0.438
5.0x3.0x0.375
5.0x3.0x0.313
5.0x3.0x0.250
4.0x4.0x0.750
4.0x4.0x0.625
4.0x4.0x0.500
4.0x4.0x0.438
4.0x4.0x0.375
4.0x4.0x0.313
4.0x4.0x0.250
4.0x3.5x0.500
4.0x3.5x0.438
4.0x3.5x0.375
4.0x3.5x0.313
4.0x3.5x0.250
4.0x3.0x0.500
4.0x3.0x0.438
4.0x3.0x0.375
4.0x3.0x0.313
4.0x3.0x0.250
3.5x3.5x0.500
3.5x3.5x0.438
3.5x3.5x0.375
3.5x3.5x0.313
3.5x3.5x0.250
3.5x3.0x0.500
3.5x3.0x0.438
3.5x3.0x0.375
3.5x3.0x0.313
3.5x3.0x0.250
3.5x2.5x0.500
3.5x2.5x0.438
3.5x2.5x0.375
3.5x2.5x0.313
3.5x2.5x0.250
3.0x3.0x0.500
3.0x3.0x0.438
3.0x3.0x0.375
3.0x3.0x0.313
3.0x3.0x0.250
3.0x3.0x0.188
3.0x2.5x0.500
3.0x2.5x0.438
3.0x2.5x0.375
3.0x2.5x0.313
3.0x2.5x0.250
3.0x2.5x0.188
3.0x2.0x0.500
3.0x2.0x0.438
3.0x2.0x0.375
3.0x2.0x0.313
3.0x2.0x0.250
3.0x2.0x0.188
2.5x2.5x0.500
2.5x2.5x0.375
2.5x2.5x0.313
2.5x2.5x0.250
2.5x2.5x0.188
2.5x2.0x0.375
2.5x2.0x0.313
Victor Saouma
A
in2
16.70
15.00
13.20
11.40
9.61
8.68
7.75
13.00
11.50
9.94
8.36
7.56
6.75
5.93
11.00
8.44
6.43
5.75
7.69
6.48
5.25
3.98
11.00
9.73
8.44
7.11
6.43
5.75
5.06
4.36
3.65
7.98
6.94
5.86
5.31
4.75
4.18
3.61
3.03
4.50
3.42
2.87
7.98
6.94
5.86
4.75
4.18
3.61
3.03
5.81
4.92
4.00
3.53
3.05
2.56
2.06
4.61
3.75
3.31
2.86
2.40
1.94
5.44
4.61
3.75
3.31
2.86
2.40
1.94
3.50
3.09
2.67
2.25
1.81
3.25
2.87
2.48
2.09
1.69
3.25
2.87
2.48
2.09
1.69
3.00
2.65
2.30
1.93
1.56
2.75
2.43
2.11
1.78
1.44
2.75
2.43
2.11
1.78
1.44
1.09
2.50
2.21
1.92
1.62
1.31
1.00
2.25
2.00
1.73
1.46
1.19
0.90
2.25
1.73
1.46
1.19
0.90
1.55
1.31
wgt
k/f t
56.90
51.00
45.00
38.90
32.70
29.60
26.40
44.20
39.10
33.80
28.50
25.70
23.00
20.20
37.40
28.70
21.90
19.60
26.20
22.10
17.90
13.60
37.40
33.10
28.70
24.20
21.90
19.60
17.20
14.90
12.40
27.20
23.60
20.00
18.10
16.20
14.30
12.30
10.30
15.30
11.70
9.80
27.20
23.60
20.00
16.20
14.30
12.30
10.30
19.80
16.80
13.60
12.00
10.40
8.70
7.00
15.70
12.80
11.30
9.80
8.20
6.60
18.50
15.70
12.80
11.30
9.80
8.20
6.60
11.90
10.60
9.10
7.70
6.20
11.10
9.80
8.50
7.20
5.80
11.10
9.80
8.50
7.20
5.80
10.20
9.10
7.90
6.60
5.40
9.40
8.30
7.20
6.10
4.90
9.40
8.30
7.20
6.10
4.90
3.71
8.50
7.60
6.60
5.60
4.50
3.39
7.70
6.80
5.90
5.00
4.10
3.07
7.70
5.90
5.00
4.10
3.07
5.30
4.50
Ix
in4
98.0
89.0
79.6
69.7
59.4
54.1
48.6
80.8
72.3
63.4
54.1
49.3
44.3
39.2
69.6
54.9
42.8
38.5
37.8
32.4
26.7
20.6
35.5
31.9
28.2
24.2
22.1
19.9
17.7
15.4
13.0
27.7
24.5
21.1
19.3
17.4
15.5
13.5
11.4
16.6
12.9
10.9
17.8
15.7
13.6
11.3
10.0
8.7
7.4
13.9
12.0
10.0
8.9
7.8
6.6
5.4
11.4
9.4
8.4
7.4
6.3
5.1
7.7
6.7
5.6
5.0
4.4
3.7
3.0
5.3
4.8
4.2
3.6
2.9
5.1
4.5
4.0
3.4
2.8
3.6
3.3
2.9
2.5
2.0
3.5
3.1
2.7
2.3
1.9
3.2
2.9
2.6
2.2
1.8
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.2
1.0
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.4
1.2
0.9
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.8
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.9
0.8
Sx
in3
17.5
15.8
14.0
12.2
10.3
9.3
8.4
15.1
13.4
11.7
9.9
8.9
8.0
7.1
14.1
10.9
8.4
7.5
8.4
7.1
5.8
4.4
8.6
7.6
6.7
5.7
5.1
4.6
4.1
3.5
3.0
7.2
6.3
5.3
4.8
4.3
3.8
3.3
2.8
4.2
3.2
2.7
5.2
4.5
3.9
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.0
4.3
3.7
3.0
2.6
2.3
1.9
1.6
3.5
2.9
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.2
1.0
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.8
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.8
1.4
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.5
rx
in
2.42
2.44
2.45
2.47
2.49
2.50
2.50
2.49
2.51
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
2.52
2.55
2.58
2.59
2.22
2.24
2.25
2.27
1.80
1.81
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
1.86
1.88
1.90
1.90
1.91
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.92
1.94
1.95
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.55
1.56
1.58
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.57
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.61
1.62
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.25
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.06
1.07
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.09
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.94
0.95
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.77
0.78
Iy
in4
98.00
89.00
79.60
69.70
59.40
54.10
48.60
38.80
34.90
30.70
26.30
24.00
21.70
19.30
11.60
9.36
7.43
6.74
9.05
7.84
6.53
5.10
35.50
31.90
28.20
24.20
22.10
19.90
17.70
15.40
13.00
9.75
8.68
7.52
6.91
6.27
5.60
4.90
4.18
4.25
3.34
2.85
17.80
15.70
13.60
11.30
10.00
8.74
7.42
5.55
4.83
4.05
3.63
3.18
2.72
2.23
3.06
2.58
2.32
2.04
1.75
1.44
7.67
6.66
5.56
4.97
4.36
3.71
3.04
3.79
3.40
2.95
2.55
2.09
2.42
2.18
1.92
1.65
1.36
3.64
3.26
2.87
2.45
2.01
2.33
2.09
1.85
1.58
1.30
1.36
1.23
1.09
0.94
0.78
2.22
1.99
1.76
1.51
1.24
0.96
1.30
1.18
1.04
0.90
0.74
0.58
0.67
0.61
0.54
0.47
0.39
0.31
1.23
0.98
0.85
0.70
0.55
0.51
0.45
Sy
in3
17.50
15.80
14.00
12.20
10.30
9.34
8.36
8.92
7.94
6.92
5.88
5.34
4.79
4.23
3.94
3.07
2.38
2.15
3.03
2.58
2.12
1.63
8.57
7.63
6.66
5.66
5.14
4.61
4.08
3.53
2.97
3.39
2.97
2.54
2.31
2.08
1.85
1.60
1.35
1.59
1.23
1.04
5.17
4.53
3.86
3.16
2.79
2.42
2.04
2.22
1.90
1.56
1.39
1.21
1.02
0.83
1.39
1.15
1.02
0.89
0.75
0.61
2.81
2.40
1.97
1.75
1.52
1.29
1.05
1.52
1.35
1.16
0.99
0.81
1.12
0.99
0.87
0.73
0.60
1.49
1.32
1.15
0.98
0.79
1.10
0.98
0.85
0.72
0.59
0.76
0.68
0.59
0.50
0.41
1.07
0.95
0.83
0.71
0.58
0.44
0.74
0.66
0.58
0.49
0.40
0.31
0.47
0.42
0.37
0.32
0.26
0.20
0.72
0.57
0.48
0.39
0.30
0.36
0.31
ry
in
2.42
2.44
2.45
2.47
2.49
2.50
2.50
1.73
1.74
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.79
1.80
1.03
1.05
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.13
1.80
1.81
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.17
0.97
0.99
1.00
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
0.98
0.99
1.01
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
0.81
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.85
0.86
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.04
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.07
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
1.06
1.07
1.07
1.08
1.09
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.55
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.57
0.58
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.58
0.58
Zx
in3
31.60
28.50
25.30
22.00
18.60
16.80
15.10
27.30
24.20
21.10
17.90
16.20
14.50
12.80
24.30
18.90
14.50
13.00
14.80
12.60
10.30
7.87
15.50
13.80
12.00
10.20
9.26
8.31
7.34
6.35
5.35
12.70
11.20
9.51
8.66
7.78
6.88
5.97
5.03
7.50
5.76
4.85
9.33
8.16
6.95
5.68
5.03
4.36
3.68
7.65
6.55
5.38
4.77
4.14
3.49
2.83
6.27
5.16
4.57
3.97
3.36
2.72
5.07
4.33
3.56
3.16
2.74
2.32
1.88
3.50
3.11
2.71
2.29
1.86
3.41
3.03
2.64
2.23
1.82
2.68
2.38
2.08
1.76
1.43
2.63
2.34
2.04
1.73
1.41
2.53
2.26
1.97
1.67
1.36
1.93
1.72
1.50
1.27
1.04
0.79
1.88
1.68
1.47
1.25
1.02
0.78
1.78
1.59
1.40
1.19
0.97
0.75
1.31
1.02
0.87
0.71
0.55
0.99
0.84
Zy
in3
31.60
28.50
25.30
22.00
18.60
16.80
15.10
16.20
14.40
12.50
10.50
9.52
8.51
7.50
7.72
5.81
4.38
3.90
5.65
4.74
3.83
2.90
15.50
13.80
12.00
10.20
9.26
8.31
7.34
6.35
5.35
6.31
5.47
4.62
4.19
3.75
3.30
2.85
2.40
2.91
2.20
1.85
9.33
8.16
6.95
5.68
5.03
4.36
3.68
4.10
3.47
2.83
2.49
2.16
1.82
1.47
2.61
2.11
1.86
1.60
1.35
1.09
5.07
4.33
3.56
3.16
2.74
2.32
1.88
2.73
2.42
2.11
1.78
1.44
2.03
1.79
1.56
1.31
1.06
2.68
2.38
2.08
1.76
1.43
1.98
1.76
1.53
1.30
1.05
1.40
1.24
1.07
0.91
0.74
1.93
1.72
1.50
1.27
1.04
0.79
1.35
1.20
1.05
0.89
0.72
0.55
0.89
0.79
0.68
0.58
0.47
0.36
1.31
1.02
0.87
0.71
0.55
0.66
0.56
J
in4
7.13
5.08
3.46
2.21
1.30
0.96
0.68
4.35
2.96
1.90
1.12
0.82
0.58
0.40
3.68
1.61
0.70
0.50
1.47
0.87
0.46
0.20
3.68
2.51
1.61
0.95
0.70
0.50
0.34
0.22
0.13
2.07
1.33
0.79
0.58
0.42
0.28
0.18
0.11
0.40
0.17
0.10
2.07
1.33
0.79
0.42
0.28
0.18
0.11
1.11
0.66
0.35
0.24
0.15
0.09
0.05
0.61
0.32
0.22
0.14
0.08
0.04
1.02
0.61
0.32
0.22
0.14
0.08
0.04
0.30
0.21
0.13
0.08
0.04
0.28
0.19
0.12
0.07
0.04
0.28
0.19
0.12
0.07
0.04
0.26
0.18
0.11
0.07
0.04
0.23
0.16
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.23
0.16
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.21
0.15
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.19
0.13
0.09
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.19
0.08
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.07
0.04
Draft
3.6.1
317
ASCII File with Steel Section Properties
Available is an ASCII file (PC/DOS or Sun/UNIX (/usr/src/public/aisc) containing the following

section properties (All dimensions are inches and kips).
A
Area
BF
Width of flange
BTF
bf/2tf the ratio of the flange width to twice the flange thickness
CW
Cw, warping constant
D
Depth, actual
DAF
d/Af the ratio of the depth to the compression flange area
DI
Inner diameter of pipe
DN
Nominal depth
DSG
Shape designation i.e. W or C
DTW
d/tw the ratio of the depth to the web thickness
EO
eo distance from outside face of web to shear center
FYP
Fy the theoretical maximum yield stress based on the width-thickness ratio of 1/2 the
unstiffened compression flange, beyond which a particular shape is not compact. (Specified
as 0 if greater than 65 ksi)
FYPPPA Fy (ASD) the theoretical maximum yield stress based on the depth-thickness ratio of
the web below which a particular shape may be considered compact for any condition of
combined bending and axial stresses. (Specified as 0 if greater than 65 ksi)
FYPPPL Fy (LRFD) see above
H
H flexural constant LRFD Formula (A-E3-9)
H38
H flexural constant, double angles 3/8 back to back
H34
H flexural constant, double angles 3/4 back to back
HL
Horizontal leg or side dimension
HTW
hc/tw, ratio of assumed web depth for stability to thickess of web
JSHP
JUMBO SHAPE (J) see note below
NT
Tensile group number per ASTM A6
NX1
X1 beam buckling factor LRFD Formula (F1-8)
OD
Outer diameter of pipe
QF
Qf statical moment at point in flange
QW
Qw statical moment at mid-depth
Victor Saouma
318
Draft
RA
RI
RO
RO38
RO34
RT
RX
RY
RY38
RY34
RZ
SX
SY
SW
T
TF
TW
VL
WGT
WNO
XB
XI
XJ
XK
X2
YB
YI
ZX
ZY
Minimum fillet radius, detailing value (in.); flange toe value for M, S, C, MC shapes
Minimum fillet radius, design
ro shear center coordinate
ro double angles 3/8 back to back
ro double angles 3/4 back to back
The radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression flange plus 1/3 of the compression web area, taken about an axis in the plane of the web
rx radius of gyration about axis XX
ry radius of gyration about axis YY
ry double angles 3/8 back to back
ry double angles 3/4 back to back
rz radius of gyration about principal axis
Sx elastic section modulus about axis XX
Sy elastic section modulus about axis YY
Sw warping statical moment
Thickness of leg or wall
Thickness of flange
Thickness of web
Vertical leg or side dimension
Nominal weight
Wno normalized warping function
x centroid of section in X direction from outer web
Ix moment of inertia about axis XX
J torsional constant
k distance from outer face of flange to web toe fillet of rolled shape
X2 beam buckling factor LRFD Formula (F1-9)
y centroid of section in Y direction from outer top flange face
Iy moment of inertia about axis YY
Zx plastic modulus about axis XX
Zy plastic modulus about axis YY
program form
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
test program to open the AISC1.PRN file, read a single record

and print the data from that record to the screen.
aisc1.bin contains contains 658 records (sections) with
38 variables in each record.
character*2 dsg, jshp
real dn, wgt, a, d, tw, bf, tf, xk,
1
btf, fyp, htw, dtw, fypppl, fypppa, x1, x2, rt, daf,
2
ri, ra, nt, xi, sx, rx, yi, sy, ry, zx, zy, xj, cw,
3
wno, sw, qf, qw, ro
c
c
c
c
c
c
100
c
c
c
--------------------------------open aisc file

--------------------------------open(unit=1,file=aisc1.bin,
1
status=old,access=direct,recl=152)
----------------------------------prompt user to select record (line)
----------------------------------write(*,*) Enter line number to read: (0 to quit) >
read(*,*) line
if(line .eq. 0) stop
if(line.gt.658)then
write(*,*) Invalid line number, must be less than 658
goto 100
endif
-----------------------------------read a single record from aisc file
------------------------------------
Victor Saouma
3.7 Joists
319
Draft
read(1,rec=line) dsg, dn, wgt, jshp, a, d, tw, bf, tf, xk,

btf, fyp, htw, dtw, fypppl, fypppa, x1, x2, rt,
ri, ra, nt, xi, sx, rx, yi, sy, ry, zx, zy, xj,
wno, sw, qf, qw, ro
c
------------------------c
write data to screen
c
------------------------write(*,999,err=1000) dsg, dn, wgt, jshp, a, d, tw, bf, tf,
1
btf, fyp, htw, dtw, fypppl, fypppa, x1, x2, rt,
2
ri, ra, nt, xi, sx, rx, yi, sy, ry, zx, zy, xj,
3
wno, sw, qf, qw, ro
c
-----c
goto beginning
c
-----goto 100
c--------------------------------------------------------c error message if read attempt is past last record (658)
c--------------------------------------------------------1000 write(*,*) line number is past last record (658)
goto 100
999
format(a2,2x,f3.0,2x,f4.0,a2,6(2x,1pe10.3))
1
2
3
daf,
cw,
xk,
daf,
cw,
end
3.7
41
Joists
Table 3.3 list the Joist properties.
Victor Saouma
320
4"
4"
Span
[Design Length = Span 0.33 FT.]
4"
Draft
Figure 3.9: prefabricated Steel Joists
Victor Saouma
3.7 Joists
321
Draft
Joint 8K1
Desig.
Depth 8
(in.)
W 5.1
(lbs/ft)
Span
(ft.)
8
550
550
9
550
550
10
550
480
11
532
377
12
444
288
13
377
225
14
324
179
15
281
145
16
246
119
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
10K1 12K1 12K3 12K5 14K1 14K3 14K4 14K6 16K2 16K3 16K4 16K5 16K6 16K7 16K9
10
12
12
12
14
14
14
14
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
5.7
7.1
5.2
6.7
7.7
5.5
6.3
7.5
8.1
8.6
10.0
550
550
550
510
500
425
434
344
380
282
336
234
299
197
268
167
241
142
218
123
199
106
181
93
166
81
550
550
550
510
550
463
543
428
476
351
420
291
374
245
335
207
302
177
273
153
249
132
227
116
208
101
550
550
550
510
550
463
550
434
550
396
550
366
507
317
454
269
409
230
370
198
337
172
308
150
282
132
550
550
511
475
448
390
395
324
352
272
315
230
284
197
257
170
234
147
214
128
196
113
180
100
166
88
154
79
143
70
550
550
550
507
550
467
495
404
441
339
395
287
356
246
322
212
293
184
268
160
245
141
226
124
209
110
193
98
180
88
550
550
550
507
550
467
550
443
530
397
475
336
428
287
388
248
353
215
322
188
295
165
272
145
251
129
233
115
216
103
550
550
550
507
550
467
550
443
550
408
550
383
525
347
475
299
432
259
395
226
362
199
334
175
308
56
285
139
265
124
550
550
512
488
456
409
408
347
368
297
333
255
303
222
277
194
254
170
234
150
216
133
200
119
186
106
173
95
161
86
151
78
142
71
550
550
550
526
508
456
455
386
410
330
371
285
337
247
308
216
283
189
260
167
240
148
223
132
207
118
193
106
180
96
168
87
158
79
550
550
550
526
550
490
547
452
493
386
447
333
406
289
371
252
340
221
313
195
289
173
268
155
249
138
232
124
216
112
203
101
190
92
550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
503
373
458
323
418
282
384
248
353
219
326
194
302
173
281
155
261
139
244
126
228
114
214
103
550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
548
405
498
351
455
307
418
269
384
238
355
211
329
188
306
168
285
151
266
137
249
124
233
112
550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
550
406
550
385
507
339
465
298
428
263
395
233
366
208
340
186
317
167
296
151
277
137
259
124
550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
550
406
550
385
550
363
550
346
514
311
474
276
439
246
408
220
380
198
355
178
332
161
311
147
550
550
550
542
550
455
479
363
412
289
358
234
313
192
277
159
246
134
221
113
199
97
Table 3.3: Joist Properties
Victor Saouma
322
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 4
EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Newtons third law of motion
4.1
Introduction
In the analysis of structures (hand calculations), it is often easier (but not always necessary) to start
by determining the reactions.
Once the reactions are determined, internal forces are determined next; finally, deformations (deflections and rotations) are determined last1 .
Reactions are necessary to determine foundation load.
Depending on the type of structures, there can be different types of support conditions, Fig. 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Types of Supports

1 This
is the sequence of operations in the flexibility method which lends itself to hand calculation. In the stiffness
method, we determine displacements firsts, then internal forces and reactions. This method is most suitable to computer
implementation.
42
Draft
Roller: provides a restraint in only one direction in a 2D structure, in 3D structures a roller may provide
restraint in one or two directions. A roller will allow rotation.
Hinge: allows rotation but no displacements.

Fixed Support: will prevent rotation and displacements in all directions.
4.2
Equilibrium
Reactions are determined from the appropriate equations of static equilibrium.
Summation of forces and moments, in a static system must be equal to zero2 .
In a 3D cartesian coordinate system there are a total of 6 independent equations of equilibrium:

Fx = Fy = Fz = 0
(4.1)
Mx = My = Mz = 0
In a 2D cartesian coordinate system there are a total of 3 independent equations of equilibrium:
Fx
10
Fy
Mz
(4.2)
For reaction calculations, the externally applied load may be reduced to an equivalent force3 .
Summation of the moments can be taken with respect to any arbitrary point.
11 Whereas forces are represented by a vector, moments are also vectorial quantities and are represented
by a curved arrow or a double arrow vector.
12
Not all equations are applicable to all structures, Table 4.1

Structure Type
Beam, no axial forces
2D Truss, Frame, Beam
Grid
3D Truss, Frame
Beams, no axial Force
2 D Truss, Frame, Beam
Equations
Fx
Fy
Fy
Fz
Fx
Fy
Fz
Alternate Set
MzA MzB
Fx
MzA MzB
A
Mz
MzB MzC
Mz
Mz
Mx
Mx
My
My
Mz
Table 4.1: Equations of Equilibrium

13 The three conventional equations of equilibrium in 2D: Fx , Fy and Mz can be replaced by the
independent moment equations MzA , MzB , MzC provided that A, B, and C are not colinear.
14
It is always preferable to check calculations by another equation of equilibrium.
15
Before you write an equation of equilibrium,

1. Arbitrarily decide which is the +ve direction
2. Assume a direction for the unknown quantities
3. The right hand side of the equation should be zero
2 In
a dynamic system F = ma where m is the mass and a is the acceleration.

for internal forces (shear and moment) we must use the actual load distribution.
3 However
Victor Saouma
4.3 Equations of Conditions
43
Draft
If your reaction is negative, then it will be in a direction opposite from the one assumed.
16 Summation of all external forces (including reactions) is not necessarily zero (except at hinges and at
points outside the structure).
17 Summation of external forces is equal and opposite to the internal ones. Thus the net force/moment
is equal to zero.
18
The external forces give rise to the (non-zero) shear and moment diagram.
4.3
Equations of Conditions
19 If a structure has an internal hinge (which may connect two or more substructures), then this will
provide an additional equation (M = 0 at the hinge) which can be exploited to determine the reactions.
20 Those equations are often exploited in trusses (where each connection is a hinge) to determine reactions.
21 In an inclined roller support with Sx and Sy horizontal and vertical projection, then the reaction
R would have, Fig. 4.2.
Sy
Rx
=
Ry
Sx
(4.3)
Figure 4.2: Inclined Roller Support
4.4
Static Determinacy
22 In statically determinate structures, reactions depend only on the geometry, boundary conditions and
loads.
23 If the reactions can not be determined simply from the equations of static equilibrium (and equations
of conditions if present), then the reactions of the structure are said to be statically indeterminate.
the degree of static indeterminacy is equal to the difference between the number of reactions and
the number of equations of equilibrium, Fig. 4.3.
24
25 Failure of one support in a statically determinate system results in the collapse of the structures.
Thus a statically indeterminate structure is safer than a statically determinate one.
For statically indeterminate structures4 , reactions depend also on the material properties (e.g. Youngs
and/or shear modulus) and element cross sections (e.g. length, area, moment of inertia).
26
4 Which
will be studied in CVEN3535.
Victor Saouma
44
Draft
Figure 4.3: Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures

Example 4-1: Statically Indeterminate Cable Structure
A rigid plate is supported by two aluminum cables and a steel one. Determine the force in each
cable5 .
If the rigid plate supports a load P, determine the stress in each of the three cables. Solution:
1. We have three unknowns and only two independent equations of equilibrium. Hence the problem
is statically indeterminate to the first degree.
right
left
= PAl
Mz = 0; PAl
Fy = 0; 2PAl + PSt = P
Thus we effectively have two unknowns and one equation.

2. We need to have a third equation to solve for the three unknowns. This will be derived from the
compatibility of the displacements in all three cables, i.e. all three displacements must be
equal:
= P
A
PL
L =
= L
L
AE
=indeterminate
5 This example problem will be the only statically
E
problem analyzed in CVEN3525.
Victor Saouma
4.5 Geometric Instability
Draft
45
PSt L
PAl
(EA)Al
PAl L
=
=
EAl AAl
ESt ASt
PSt
(EA)St
Al
St
or (EA)St PAl + (EA)Al PSt = 0

3. Solution of this system of two equations with two unknowns yield:
PAl
P
2
1
=
PSt
0
(EA)St (EA)Al
1
2
1
P
PAl
=
PSt
(EA)St (EA)Al
0
1
P
(EA)Al 1
=
0
2(EA)Al + (EA)St (EA)St 2
Determinant
4.5
Geometric Instability
27 The stability of a structure is determined not only by the number of reactions but also by their
arrangement.
28
Geometric instability will occur if:

1. All reactions are parallel and a non-parallel load is applied to the structure.
2. All reactions are concurrent, Fig. ??.
Figure 4.4: Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions

3. The number of reactions is smaller than the number of equations of equilibrium, that is a mechanism is present in the structure.
29 Mathematically, this can be shown if the determinant of the equations of equilibrium is equal to
zero (or the equations are inter-dependent).
4.6
Examples
30 Examples of reaction calculation will be shown next. Each example has been carefully selected as it
brings a different twist from the preceding one. Some of those same problems will be revisited later
for the determination of the internal forces and/or deflections. Many of those problems are taken from
Prof. Gerstle textbok Basic Structural Analysis.
Example 4-2: Simply Supported Beam

Victor Saouma
46
Draft
Determine the reactions of the simply supported beam shown below.
Solution:
The beam has 3 reactions, we have 3 equations of static equilibrium, hence it is statically determinate.
(+ ) Fx = 0;
(+ ) Fy = 0;
M c = 0;
(+ )
or
1
0
0
Rax 36 k = 0
Ray + Rdy 60 k (4) k/ft(12) ft = 0
12Ray 6Rdy (60)(6) = 0
0
0
Rax 36
Rax 36 k
1
1
Ray
Ray
56 k
108
=
Rdy
Rdy
52 k
12 6
360
Alternatively we could have used another set of equations:

M a = 0; (60)(6) + (48)(12) (R )(18) = 0 R = 52 k
(+ )
dy
dy
Mzd = 0; (R )(18) (60)(12) (48)(6) = 0 R = 56 k

(+ )
ay
ay
z
Check:
(+ ) Fy = 0; ; 56 52 60 48 = 0
Example 4-3: Parabolic Load

Determine the reactions of a simply supported beam of length L subjected to a parabolic load
x 2
w = w0 L
Victor Saouma
4.6 Examples
47
Draft
Solution:
Since there are no axial forces, there are two unknowns and two equations of equilibrium. Considering
an infinitesimal element of length dx, weight dW , and moment dM :
x=L
(+ )
Ma = 0;
w0
x=0
x
L
dx x (Rb )(L)
=0
w
dW
dM
Rb =
(+ ) Fy = 0;
M
1
L w0
1
Ra + w0 L
4
Rb
w0 L3
L2 3
Ra =
L4
4L2
x=L
= 14 w0 L
w0
x=0
14 w0 L
x
L
dx
=0
=
1
12 w0 L
Example 4-4: Three Span Beam

Determine the reactions of the following three spans beam
Solution:
We have 4 unknowns (Rax , Ray , Rcy and Rdy ), three equations of equilibrium and one equation of
condition (Mb = 0), thus the structure is statically determinate.
Victor Saouma
48
Draft
1. Isolating ab:
M b = 0; (9)(Ray ) (40)(5) = 0 Ray = 22.2 k

M = 0; (40)(4) (S)(9) = 0
(+ )
S = 17.7 k
a
Fx = 0;
Rax = 30 k
2. Isolating bd:
M = 0;
(+ )
(17.7)(18) (40)(15) (4)(8)(8) (30)(2) + Rcy (12) = 0

Rcy = 1,236
12 = 103 k
M = 0; (17.7)(6)
(+ )
(40)(3) + (4)(8)(4) + (30)(10) Rdy (12) = 0
c
Rdy = 201.3
12 = 16.7 k
3. Check
Fy = 0; ; 22.2 40 40 + 103 32 30 + 16.7 = 0
Example 4-5: Three Hinged Gable Frame

The three-hinged gable frames spaced at 30 ft. on center. Determine the reactions components on the
frame due to: 1) Roof dead load, of 20 psf of roof area; 2) Snow load, of 30 psf of horizontal projection;
3) Wind load of 15 psf of vertical projection. Determine the critical design values for the vertical and
horizontal reactions.
Victor Saouma
4.6 Examples
49
Draft
Solution:
1. Due to symmetry, we will consider only the dead load on one side of the frame.
2. Due to symmetry, there is no vertical force transmitted by the hinge for snow and dead load.
3. Roof dead load per frame is
DL = (20) psf(30) ft
302 + 152
ft
1
lbs/k = 20.2 k
1, 000
4. Snow load per frame is

SL = (30) psf(30) ft(30) ft
1
lbs/k = 27. k
1, 000
5. Wind load per frame (ignoring the suction) is

W L = (15) psf(30) ft(35) ft
1
lbs/k = 15.75 k
1, 000
6. There are 4 reactions, 3 equations of equilibrium and one equation of condition statically
determinate.
7. The horizontal reaction H due to a vertical load V at midspan of the roof, is obtained by taking
moment with respect to the hinge
M = 0;
(+ )
C
15(V ) 30(V ) + 35(H) = 0 H =
15V
35
= .429V
Substituting for roof dead and snow load we obtain

A
VDL
A
HDL
A
VSL
A
HSL
=
=
=
=
B
VDL
B
HDL
B
VSL
B
HSL
=
=
=
=
(.429)(20.2)
(.429)(27.)
20.2 k
8.66 k
27. k
= 11.58 k
=
8. The reactions due to wind load are

M = 0; (15.75)( 20+15 ) V B (60) = 0
(+ )
A
WL
2
B
(+ )
MC = 0; HW
L (35) (4.6)(30) = 0
A
(+ ) Fx = 0; 15.75 3.95 HW
L =0
B
A
(+ ) Fy = 0; VW L VW L = 0
Victor Saouma
B
VW
L = 4.60 k
B
HW
L = 3.95 k
A
HW
=
11.80
k
L
A
VW L = 4.60 k
410
Draft
9. Thus supports should be designed for

H = 8.66 k + 11.58 k + 3.95 k
V = 20.7 k + 27.0 k + 4.60 k
= 24.19 k
= 52.3 k
Example 4-6: Inclined Supports

Determine the reactions of the following two spans beam resting on inclined supports.
Solution:
A priori we would identify 5 reactions, however we do have 2 equations of conditions (one at each inclined
support), thus with three equations of equilibrium, we have a statically determinate system.
(+ )
Mb = 0;
(Ray )(20) (40)(12) (30)(6) + (44.72)(6) (Rcy )(12) = 0

20Ray = 12Rcy + 391.68
(+ ) Fx = 0; 34 Ray 22.36 43 Rcy = 0
Rcy = 0.5625Ray 16.77
Solving for those two equations:
20
0.5625
12
1
Ray
Rcy
391.68
16.77
Ray
Rcy
14.37 k
8.69 k
The horizontal components of the reactions at a and c are

Rax
Rcx
=
=
3
4 14.37
4
3 8.69
= 10.78 k
= 11.59 k
Finally we solve for Rby

M = 0;
(+ )
a
(40)(8) + (30)(14) (Rby )(20) + (44.72)(26) + (8.69)(32) = 0

Rby = 109.04 k
We check our results

(+ ) Fy = 0;
(+ ) Fx = 0;
Victor Saouma
14.37 40 30 + 109.04 44.72 8.69

10.78 22.36 + 11.59
= 0
=0
4.7 Arches
Draft
4.7
31
411
Arches
See Section ??.
Victor Saouma
412
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 5
TRUSSES
5.1
Introduction
5.1.1
Assumptions
Cables and trusses are 2D or 3D structures composed of an assemblage of simple one dimensional
components which transfer only axial forces along their axis.
Cables can carry only tensile forces, trusses can carry tensile and compressive forces.
Cables tend to be flexible, and hence, they tend to oscillate and therefore must be stiffened.
Trusses are extensively used for bridges, long span roofs, electric tower, space structures.
For trusses, it is assumed that

1. Bars are pin-connected
2. Joints are frictionless hinges1 .
3. Loads are applied at the joints only.
6 A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord under
compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Depending on the orientation of the
diagonals, they can be under either tension or compression.
Fig. 5.1 illustrates some of the most common types of trusses.
It can be easily determined that in a Pratt truss, the diagonal members are under tension, while in
a Howe truss, they are in compression. Thus, the Pratt design is an excellent choice for steel whose
members are slender and long diagonal member being in tension are not prone to buckling. The vertical
members are less likely to buckle because they are shorter. On the other hand the Howe truss is often
preferred for for heavy timber trusses.
In a truss analysis or design, we seek to determine the internal force along each member, Fig. 5.2
5.1.2
Basic Relations
Sign Convention: Tension positive, compression negative. On a truss the axial forces are indicated as
forces acting on the joints.
Stress-Force: =
P
A
Stress-Strain: = E
1 In practice the bars are riveted, bolted, or welded directly to each other or to gusset plates, thus the bars are not free
to rotate and so-called secondary bending moments are developed at the bars. Another source of secondary moments
is the dead weight of the element.
52
TRUSSES
Draft
Figure 5.1: Types of Trusses
Figure 5.2: Bridge Truss
Victor Saouma
5.2 Trusses
53
Draft
Force-Displacement: =
L
L
Equilibrium: F = 0
5.2
5.2.1
Trusses
Determinacy and Stability
10 Trusses are statically determinate when all the bar forces can be determined from the equations
of statics alone. Otherwise the truss is statically indeterminate.
11 A truss may be statically/externally determinate or indeterminate with respect to the reactions (more
than 3 or 6 reactions in 2D or 3D problems respectively).
12
A truss may be internally determinate or indeterminate, Table 5.1.
13 If we refer to j as the number of joints, R the number of reactions and m the number of members,
then we would have a total of m + R unknowns and 2j (or 3j) equations of statics (2D or 3D at each
joint). If we do not have enough equations of statics then the problem is indeterminate, if we have too
many equations then the truss is unstable, Table 5.1.
2D
3D
Static Indeterminacy
External
R>3
R>6
Internal
m + R > 2j m + R > 3j
Unstable m + R < 2j m + R < 3j
Table 5.1: Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses
14 If m < 2j 3 (in 2D) the truss is not internally stable, and it will not remain a rigid body when it is
detached from its supports. However, when attached to the supports, the truss will be rigid.
Since each joint is pin-connected, we can apply M = 0 at each one of them. Furthermore, summation
of forces applied on a joint must be equal to zero.
15
16 For 2D trusses the external equations of equilibrium which can be used to determine the reactions
are FX = 0, FY = 0 and MZ = 0. For 3D trusses the available equations are FX = 0, FY = 0,
FZ = 0 and MX = 0, MY = 0, MZ = 0.
17 For a 2D truss we have 2 equations of equilibrium FX = 0 and FY = 0 which can be applied at
each joint. For 3D trusses we would have three equations: FX = 0, FY = 0 and FZ = 0.
18 Fig. 5.3 shows a truss with 4 reactions, thus it is externally indeterminate. This truss has 6 joints
(j = 6), 4 reactions (R = 4) and 9 members (m = 9). Thus we have a total of m + R = 9 + 4 = 13
unknowns and 2 j = 2 6 = 12 equations of equilibrium, thus the truss is statically indeterminate.
19
There are two methods of analysis for statically determinate trusses

1. The Method of joints
2. The Method of sections
5.2.2
20
Method of Joints
The method of joints can be summarized as follows

1. Determine if the structure is statically determinate
2. Compute all reactions
Victor Saouma
54
TRUSSES
Draft
Figure 5.3: A Statically Indeterminate Truss

3. Sketch a free body diagram showing all joint loads (including reactions)
4. For each joint, and starting with the loaded ones, apply the appropriate equations of equilibrium
(Fx and Fy in 2D; Fx , Fy and Fz in 3D).
5. Because truss elements can only carry axial forces, the resultant force (F = Fx + Fy ) must be
along the member, Fig. 5.4.
Fx
Fy
F
=
=
L
Lx
Ly
(5.1)
21 Always keep track of the x and y components of a member force (Fx , Fy ), as those might be needed
later on when considering the force equilibrium at another joint to which the member is connected.
Figure 5.4: X and Y Components of Truss Forces

22
This method should be used when all member forces must be determined.
In truss analysis, there is no sign convention. A member is assumed to be under tension (or
compression). If after analysis, the force is found to be negative, then this would imply that the wrong
assumption was made, and that the member should have been under compression (or tension).
23
24 On a free body diagram, the internal forces are represented by arrow acting on the joints and
not as end forces on the element itself. That is for tension, the arrow is pointing away from the joint,
and for compression toward the joint, Fig. 5.5.
Victor Saouma
5.2 Trusses
55
Draft
Figure 5.5: Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces
Example 5-1: Truss, Method of Joints

Using the method of joints, analyze the following truss
Solution:
1. R = 3, m = 13, 2j = 16, and m + R = 2j
2. We compute the reactions
(+ ) ME = 0; (20 + 12)(3)(24) + (40 + 8)(2)(24) + (40)(24) RAy (4)(24) = 0

RAy = 58 k
(+ ) Fy = 0; 20 + 12 + 40 + 8 + 40 58 REy = 0
Victor Saouma
REy = 62 k
56
TRUSSES
Draft
3. Consider each joint separately:

Node A: Clearly AH is under compression, and AB under tension.
FAHy + 58 = 0
FAH = lly (FAHy )
ly = 32
FAH = 40
32 (58) = 72.5 k Compression
(+ ) Fx = 0; FAHx + FAB = 0
24
x
FAB = L
Ly (FAHy ) = 32 (58) = 43.5 k Tension
(+ ) Fy = 0;
l=
322 + 242 = 40
Node B:
(+ ) Fx = 0;
(+ ) Fy = 0;
FBC
FBH
=
=
43.5 k Tension
20 k Tension
Node H:
(+ ) Fx = 0;
(+ ) Fy = 0;
FAHx FHCx FHGx = 0

43.5 2424
(FHC ) 2424
(FHG ) = 0
2 +322
2 +102
FAHy + FHCy 12 FHGy 20 = 0
58 + 2432
(FHC ) 12 2410
(FHG ) 20 = 0
2 +322
2 +102
This can be most conveniently written as

0.6
0.8
0.921
0.385
FHC
FHG
7.5
52
(5.2)
Solving we obtain
FHC
FHG
Victor Saouma
=
=
7.5 k Tension
52 k Compression
5.2 Trusses
57
Draft
Node E:
Fy = 0;
Fx = 0;
FEFy = 62
FED = FEFx
FEF =
FED =
242 +322
(62)
32
24
24
(F
)
EFy = 32 (62)
32
= 77.5 k
= 46.5 k
The results of this analysis are summarized below
4. We could check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of forces at a node not previously used,
such as D
5.2.2.1
Matrix Method
25
This is essentially the method of joints cast in matrix form2 .
26
We seek to determine the Statics Matrix [B] such that

BF F
BRF
27
BF R
BRR
F
R
P
0
(5.3)
This method can be summarized as follows

1. Select a coordinate system
2. Number the joints and the elements separately
2 Writing
a computer program for this method, would be an acceptable project.
Victor Saouma
58
TRUSSES
Draft
3. Assume
(a) All member forces to be positive (i.e. tension)

(b) All reactions to be positive
4. Compute the direction cosines at each node j and for each element e, Fig. 5.6
Y
- ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
X
- ve
- ve
+ ve
- ve
Figure 5.6: Direction Cosines

je
je
=
=
Lx
L
Ly
L
5. Write the two equations of equilibrium at each joint j in terms of the unknowns (member forces
and reactions), Fig. 5.7
e
e
e
Fy = L y F = F
L
e
e
e
Fx = Lx F = F
L
Figure 5.7: Forces Acting on Truss Joint

(+ ) Fx = 0;
(+ ) Fy = 0;
elements e
#of
j Fe + Rxj + Pxj = 0
e=1
elements e
#of
j Fe + Ryj + Pyj = 0
e=1
6. Invert the matrix to compute {F } and {R}

28 The advantage of this method, is that once the [B] matrix has been inverted, we can readily reanalyze
the same structure for different load cases. With the new design codes in which dead loads and live
loads are separately factored (Chapter 7), this method can save substantial reanalysis effort. Furthermore, when deflections are determined by the virtual force method (Chapter 13), two analysis with two
different loads are required.
29 This method may be the only one appropriate to analyze statically determinate trusses which solutions defy the previous two methods, Fig. 5.8.
30
Element e connecting joint i to j will have ie = je , and ie = je
The matrix [B] will have 2j rows and m + r columns. It can only be inverted if ti is symmetric (i.e
2j = m + r, statically determinate).
31
32
An algorithm to implement this method in simple computer programs:
Victor Saouma
5.2 Trusses
59
Draft
Figure 5.8: Complex Statically Determinate Truss

1. Prepare input data:
(a) Nodal information:
Node
1
2
3
x(1)
0.
10.
5.
x(2)
0.
0.
5.
P (1)
0.
0.
0.
P (2)
0.
0.
-10.
R(1)
1
0
0
R(2)
1
1
0
where x(1), x(2), P (1), and P (2) are the x and y coordinates; the x and y component of
applied nodal load. R(1), R(2) correspond to the x and y boundary conditions, they will be
set to 1 if there is a corresponding reaction, and 0 otherwise.
(b) Element Connectivity
Element
1
2
3
Node(1)
1
2
3
Node(2)
2
3
1
2. Determine the size of the matrix (2 times the number of joints) and initialize a square matrix of
this size to zero.
3. Assemble the first submnatrix of the Statics matrix
(a) Loop over each element (e), determine Lix , Liy (as measured from the first node), L, ie =
ie =
Liy
e
e
e
e
L , j = i , j = i , where
ie in row 2i 1 column e, ie in
(b) Store
2j column e.
Lix
L
i and j are the end nodes of element e.

row 2i column e, je in row 2j 1 column e, je in row
4. Loop over each node:

(a) Store Rxi (reaction boundary condition for node i along x) in row 2i 1 column e + 2i 1.
Similarly, store Ryi (reaction boundary condition for node i along y) in row 2i column e + 2i.
(b) Store Pxi (Load at node i along x axis) in vector P row 2i 1, similarly, store Pyi in row 2i.
5. Invert the matrix B, multiply it with the load vector P and solve for the unknown member forces
and reactions.
%
% Initialize the statics matrix
%
b(1:2*npoin,1:2*npoin)=0.;
%
Victor Saouma
510
Draft
TRUSSES
% Determine direction cosines and insert them in b

%
for ielem=1:nelem
nod1=lnods(ielem,1);
nod2=lnods(ielem,2);
lx=coord(nod2,1)-coord(nod1,1);
ly=coord(nod2,2)-coord(nod1,2);
l_elem(ielem)=
alpha_i=...
beta_i=...
b(...,...)=...;
b(...,...)=...;
alpha_j=...
beta_j=...
b(...,...)=...
b(...,...)=...
end
%
% Boundary conditions
%
nbc=0;
for inode=1:npoin
for ibc=1:2
if id(inode,ibc)==1
nbc=nbc+1;
b(...,...)=1.;
end
end
end
Example 5-2: Truss I, Matrix Method

Determine all member forces for the following truss
Solution:
1. We first determine the directions cosines
Victor Saouma
5.2 Trusses
Draft
511
Member
1
Nodes
1-2
11 = 1
2
2-3
3-1
Node 2
21 = 1
21 = 0
Node 3
32 = .707 32 = .707
Node 1
13 = .707
13 = .707
Node 1
11 = 0
Node 2
22 = .7071
22 = .707
Node 3
33 = .707 33 = .707
2. Next we write the equations of equilibrium
Node 1
Node 2
Node 3
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
F1
11
11
1
2
1
2
0
0
F2
0
0
22
22
32
32
F3
13
13
0
0
33
33
R1x
1
0
0
0
0
0
R1y
0
1
0
0
0
0
R2y
F1
F2
F3
R 1x
R 1y
R 2y
{F }
0
0
0
0
0
10
=0
{P }
Or
Node 1
Fx
Fy
Node 2 Fx
Fy
Node 3 Fx
Fy
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
0
1
0
0
1 .707
0
.707
0
.707
0 .707
.707
.707
0
0
.707
.707
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
[B]
Inverting [B] we obtain from F = [B]1 P
F1
F2
F3
R
1x
R 1y
R 2y
F1
F2
F3
R 1x
R 1y
R 2y
{F }
0
0
0
0
0
10
=0
{P }
7.07
7.07
=
0
Example 5-3: Truss II, Matrix Method

Set up the statics matrix for the truss of Example 5-1 using the matrix method
Solution:
First we number the joints and the elements as shown below.
Victor Saouma
512
TRUSSES
Draft
Then we determine the direction cosines

24
242 +322
32
242 +322
10
242 +102
24
242 +102
# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6
# 7
# 8
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
1
1
=
=
=
=
3
5
4
5
10
26
24
26
= 0.6
= 0.8
= 0.38
= 0.92
.6
.8
1
1
1
1
1
.6
.8
1
1
.6
.8
1
1
1
.6
.8
.6
.8
.6
.8
.6
.8
1
1
.6
.8
.92
.38
.92
.38
.92
.38
.92
.38
[B]
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10
F11
F12
F13
R1
x
R1
y
R5
y
0
0
0
20
0
40
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
12
Using Mathematica we would have

b={
{ 1, 0., 0., 0.,0.6, 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0.,0.8, 0., 0., 0.,
{-1, 1, 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0.,0., 0., 0., 0.,
1, 0., 0.,
{0.,-1,
1, 0., 0., 0.,-0.6, 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.8, 1.,
{0., 0., -1,
1, 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., -1, 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1,
{0., 0., 0., 0., -0.6, 0., 0.6, 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0.,-0.8, -1,-0.8, 0.,
}
p={0, 0, 0, -20, 0, -40 , 0, -40,
m=Inverse[b].p
0., 0., 0.,

0.,
0., 1, 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 1, 0.},
0., 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0.6, 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0.8, 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 1., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0.,-0.6,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.8,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 1.},
-0.6, 0., 0.6,
0.,-0.92, 0., 0., 0.},
-0.8,-1.,-0.8,
0., 0.38, 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,-0.92, 0.92, 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,-0.38,-0.38, 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0., 0.92,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0., 0.38,
0., 0., 0., 0.}
0, 0,
0, 0, 0, -8,
0, -12}
And the result will be
Victor Saouma
=0
5.2 Trusses
513
Draft
Out[3]= {-43.5, -43.5, -46.5, -46.5, 72.5, -20., -7.66598, -31.7344,

>
-14
-2.66598, -40., 77.5, 52.2822, 52.2822, -1.22125 10
, -58., -62.}
which correspond to the unknown element internal forces and external reactions.
5.2.3
Method of Sections
When only forces in selected members (away from loaded joints) is to be determined, this method
should be used.
33
34
This method can be summarized as follows

1. Cut the truss into two substructures by an imaginary line (not necessarily straight) such that it
will at least intersect the member for which force is to be determined.
2. Consider either one of the two substructures as the free body
3. Each substructure must remain in equilibrium. Apply the equations of equilibrium
(a) Summation of moments about a particular point (usually the intersection of 2 cut members)
would permit the determination of other member forces
(b) Summation of forces is usually used to determine forces in inclined members
Example 5-4: Truss, Method of Sections

Determine FBC and FHG in the previous example.
Solution:
Cutting through members HG, HC and BC, we first take the summation of forces with respect to H:
Victor Saouma
514
TRUSSES
Draft
M = 0
(+ )
RAy (24) FBC (32) = 0

FBC = 24
32 (58) = 43.5 k Tension
(+ )
MC = 0; (58)(24)(2) (20 + 12)(24) FHGx (32) FHGy (24) = 0
2770 768 (32)(FHG ) 2424
(24)(FHG ) 2410
=0
2 +102
2 +102
2, 000 (29.5)FHG (9.2)FHG = 0
FHG = 52 k Compression
5.3
Case Study: Stadium

B
3m
D
C
1m
E
2m
G
F
3m
0.5 m
7.5 m
Figure 5.9: Florence Stadium, Pier Luigi Nervi (?)
Victor Saouma
5.3 Case Study: Stadium
515
Draft
800 kN
1
j=6
3m
m=9
r=3
3
6
1m
4
4
8
2m
7
9
5
111
000
000
111
3m
0.5 m
6
1111
0000
0000
1111
7.5 m
Figure 5.10: Florence Stadioum, Pier Luigi Nervi (?)
Victor Saouma
516
Draft
TRUSSES
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 6
CABLES
6.1
Funicular Polygons
A cable is a slender flexible member with zero or negligible flexural stiffness, thus it can only transmit
tensile forces1 .
The tensile force at any point acts in the direction of the tangent to the cable (as any other component
will cause bending).
Its strength stems from its ability to undergo extensive changes in slope at the point of load application.
Cables resist vertical forces by undergoing sag (h) and thus developing tensile forces. The horizontal
component of this force (H) is called thrust.
The distance between the cable supports is called the chord.
The sag to span ratio is denoted by

r=
h
l
(6.1)
When a set of concentrated loads is applied to a cable of negligible weight, then the cable deflects into
a series of linear segments and the resulting shape is called the funicular polygon.
If a cable supports vertical forces only, then the horizontal component H of the cable tension T remains
constant.
Example 6-1: Funicular Cable Structure

Determine the reactions and the tensions for the cable structure shown below.
1 Due
to the zero flexural rigidity it will buckle under axial compressive forces.
62
CABLES
Draft
Solution:
We have 4 external reactions, however the horizontal ones are equal and we can use any one of a number
of equations of conditions in addition to the three equations of equilibrium. First, we solve for Ay ,
Dy and H = Ax = Dx . For this problem we could use the following 3 equations of static equilibrium
Fx = Fy = M = 0, however since we do not have any force in the x direction, the second equation
is of no avail. Instead we will consider the following set Fy = MA = MD = 0
1. First we solve for Dy
M = 0; 12(30) + 6(70) D (100) = 0 D = 7.8 k
(+ )
A
y
y
(6.2)
2. Then we solve for Ay

(+ ) Fy = 0; Ay 12 6 + 7.8 = 0 Ay = 10.2 k
3. Solve for the horizontal force
M = 0; A (30) H(6) = 0 H = 51 k
(+ )
B
y
(6.3)
(6.4)
4. Now we can solve for the sag at point C

M = 0 D (30) + H(h ) = 0 h = 30Dy = 30(7.8) = 4.6 ft
(+ )
C
Y
c
c
H
51
5. We now solve for the cable internal forces or tractions in this case
6
= 0.200 A = 11.31 deg
tan A =
TAB ;
30
H
51
= 51.98 k
=
=
cos A
0.981
6 4.6
= 0.035 B = 2 deg
TBC ;
tan B =
40
H
51
= 51.03 k
=
=
cos B
0.999
4.6
= 0.153 C = 8.7 deg
tan C =
TCD ;
30
H
51
= 51.62 k
=
=
cos C
0.988
Victor Saouma
(6.5)
(6.6-a)
(6.6-b)
(6.6-c)
(6.6-d)
(6.6-e)
(6.6-f)
6.2 Uniform Load
63
Draft
6.2
6.2.1
Uniform Load
qdx; Parabola
Whereas the forces in a cable can be determined from statics alone, its configuration must be derived
from its deformation. Let us consider a cable with distributed load p(x) per unit horizontal projection of the cable length2 . An infinitesimal portion of that cable can be assumed to be a straight line,
Fig. 6.1 and in the absence of any horizontal load we have H =constant. Summation of the vertical
9
T
V
q(x)
x q(x)
y(x)
dy
ds
dx
ds
L
dx
y
V+dV
H
T+dT
x
h
x
y
L/2
Figure 6.1: Cable Structure Subjected to q(x)

forces yields
(+ ) Fy = 0 V + qdx + (V + dV ) = 0
dV + qdx = 0
(6.7-a)
(6.7-b)
where V is the vertical component of the cable tension at x3 . Because the cable must be tangent to T ,
we have
V
(6.8)
tan =
H
10
Substituting into Eq. 6.7-b yields

d(H tan ) + qdx = 0
(6.9)
or
d
(H tan ) = q
dx
Since H is constant (no horizontal load is applied), this last equation can be rewritten as
d
(tan ) = q
dx
(6.11)
dy
dx
which when substituted in Eq. 6.11 yields
Written in terms of the vertical displacement y, tan =

the governing equation for cables
11
2 Thus
3 Note
(6.10)
q
d2 y
=
dx2
H
(6.12)
neglecting the weight of the cable

that if the cable was subjected to its own weight then we would have qds instead of pdx.
Victor Saouma
64
CABLES
Draft
12 For a cable subjected to a uniform load p. we can determine its shape by double integration of Eq.
6.12
Hy
Hy
qx + C1
qx2
+ C1 x + C2
2
(6.13-a)
(6.13-b)
To solve for C1 and C2 this last equation must satisfy the boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0 and at
x = L C2 = 0 and C1 = qL
2 . Thus
q
(6.14)
Hy = x(L x)
2
13 This equation gives the shape y(x) in terms of the horizontal force H, it can be rewritten in terms of
the maximum sag h which occurs at midspan, hence at x = L2 we would have4
qL2
8
Hh =
14
(6.15)
This relation clearly shows that the horizontal force is inversely proportional to the sag h, as h
. Furthermore, this equation can be rewritten as
8h
qL
=
H
L
(6.16)
and combining this equation with Eq. 6.1 we obtain
15
(6.17)
4hx
(L x)
L2
(6.18)
Combining Eq. 6.14 and 6.15 we obtain

y=
16
qL
= 8r
H
If we shift the origin to midspan, and reverse y, then
y=
4h 2
x
L2
(6.19)
Thus the cable assumes a parabolic shape (as the moment diagram of the applied load).
The maximum tension occurs at the support where the vertical component is equal to V =
the horizontal one to H, thus
17
Tmax =
V 2 + H2 =
qL
2
+ H2 = H
1+
qL/2
H
qL
2
and
(6.20)
Combining this with Eq. 6.17 we obtain5 .
Tmax = H
4 Note
M =
1 + 16r2 H(1 + 8r2 )
(6.21)
the analogy between this equation and the maximum moment in a simply supported uniformly loaded beam
qL2
.
8
5 Recalling
that (a + b)n = an + nan1 b +
1
2
Thus for b << 1, 1 + b = (1 + b) 2 1 + 2b
Victor Saouma
n(n1) n2 2
a
b
2!
+ or (1 + b)n = 1 + nb +
n(n1)b2
2!
n(n1)(n2)b3
3!
+ ;
6.2 Uniform Load
65
Draft
6.2.2
qds; Catenary
18 Let us consider now the case where the cable is subjected to its own weight (plus ice and wind if any).
We would have to replace qdx by qds in Eq. 6.7-b
dV + qds = 0
(6.22)
The differential equation for this new case will be derived exactly as before, but we substitute qdx by
qds, thus Eq. 6.12 becomes
q ds
d2 y
=
2
dx
H dx
19
(6.23)
But ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 , hence:

q
d2 y
=
2
dx
H
1+
dy
dx
(6.24)
solution of this differential equation is considerably more complicated than for a parabola.
20
We let dy/dx = p, then

q
dp
=
dx
H
1 + p2
(6.25)
rearranging
dp
1+
p2
q
dx
H
(6.26)
From Mathematica (or handbooks), the left hand side is equal to

dp
1 + p2
= loge (p +
1 + p2 )
(6.27)
Substituting, we obtain
loge (p +
1 + p2 )
qx
+ C1
H
(6.28-a)
p+
1+
= e
p2
= p + e
= p2 2peA + e2A
e2A 1
eA eA
= sinh A
=
=
2eA
2
dy
qx
=
= sinh
+ C1
dx
H
qx
qx
H
+ C1 dx = cosh
+ C1 + C2
=
sinh
H
q
H
1+
1 + p2
p
21
p2
(6.28-b)
A
(6.28-c)
(6.28-d)
(6.28-e)
(6.28-f)
(6.28-g)
To determine the two constants, we set

dy
dx
dy
dx
0
y
Victor Saouma
L
2
q H
qx
=
sinh
+ C1
H q
H
q L
q L
+ C1 C1 =
= sinh
H 2
H 2
H
q L
x + C2
= cosh
q
H 2
=
at x =
(6.29-a)
(6.29-b)
(6.29-c)
(6.29-d)
66
CABLES
Draft
At midspan, the sag is equal to h, thus
22
C2
L L
2
2
H
q
cosh
q
H
H
h+
q
+ C2
(6.30-a)
(6.30-b)
If we move the origin at the lowest point along the cable at x = x L/2 and y = h y, we obtain
q
q
y = cosh
x 1
H
H
23
(6.31)
This equation is to be contrasted with 6.19, we can rewrite those two equations as:
2
1 q
q
y=
x
Parabola
H
2 H
q
q
y = cosh
x 1 Catenary
H
H
(6.32-a)
(6.32-b)
The hyperbolic cosine of the catenary can be expanded into a Taylor power series as
1
qy
=
H
2
qx
H
1
24
qx
H
1
720
qx
H
+ ...
(6.33)
The first term of this development is identical as the formula for the parabola, and the other terms
constitute the difference between the two. The difference becomes significant only for large qx/H, that
is for large sags in comparison with the span, Fig. 6.3.
3
Parabola
Catenary
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
2
1.5
0.5
0
qx/H
0.5
1.5
Figure 6.2: Catenary versus Parabola Cable Structures
6.2.2.1
Historical Note
24 It should be mentioned that solution of this problem constitued one of the major mathematical/Mechanics
challenges of the early 18th century. Around 1684, differential and integral calculus took their first effective forms, and those powerful new techniques allowed scientists to tackle complex problems for the first
time, (Penvenuto 1991). One of these problems was the solution to the catenary problem as presented by
Jakob Bernouilli. Immediately thereafter, Leibniz presented a solution based on infinitesimal calculus,
another one was presented by Huygens. Finally, the brother of the challenger, Johann Bernoulli did also
present a solution.
Victor Saouma
6.2 Uniform Load
67
Draft
25 Huygens solution was complex and relied on geometrical arguments. The one of Leibniz was ellegant
and correct (y/a = (bx/a + bx/a )/2 (we recognize Eq. 6.31 albeit written in slightly different form, Fig.
6.3. Finally, Bernoulli presented two correct solution, and in his solution he did for the first time express
Figure 6.3: Leipnizs Figure of a catenary, 1690

equations of equilibrium in differential form.
Example 6-2: Design of Suspension Bridge
Design the following 4 lanes suspension bridge by selecting the cable diameters assuming an allowable
cable strength all of 190 ksi. The bases of the tower are hinged in order to avoid large bending moments.
The total dead load is estimated at 200 psf. Assume a sag to span ratio of
Solution:
1
5
1
=
1. The dead load carried by each cable will be one half the total dead load or p1 = 12 (200) psf(50) ft 1,000
5.0 k/ft
Victor Saouma
68
CABLES
Draft
2. Using the HS 20 truck, the uniform additional load per cable is

p2 = (2)lanes/cable(.64)k/ft/lane = 1.28 k/ft/cable. Thus, the total design load is p1 + p2 =
5 + 1.28 = 6.28 k/ft
3. The thrust H is determined from Eq. 6.15
H
pl2
8h
(6.28) k/ft(300)2 ft2
(8) 300
5 ft
=
=
=
(6.34-a)
(6.34-b)
1, 177 k
(6.34-c)
4. From Eq. 6.21 the maximum tension is

=
Tmax
1 + 16r2
(1, 177) k
1, 507 k
(6.35-a)
1
5
1 + (16)
(6.35-b)
(6.35-c)
5. Note that if we used the approximate formula in Eq. 6.21 we would have obtained
H(1 + 8r2 )
Tmax
1, 177 1 + 8
(6.36-a)
1
5
(6.36-b)
1, 554 k
(6.36-c)
or 3% difference!
6. The required cross sectional area of the cable along the main span should be equal to
A=
1, 507 k
Tmax
=
= 7.93 in2
all
190 ksi
which corresponds to a diameter

d=
4A
=
(4)(7.93)
= 3.18 in
7. We seek next to determine the cable force in AB. Since the pylon can not take any horizontal
force, we should have the horizontal
component of Tmax (H) equal and opposite to the horizontal
component of TAB or
TAB
H
TAB = H
(100)2 +(120)2
100
thus
(100)2 + (120)2
= (1, 177)(1.562) = 1, 838 k
100
the cable area should be

A=
(6.37)
1, 838 k
= 9.68 in2
190 ksi
which corresponds to a diameter

d=
(4)(9.68)
= 3.51 in
8. To determine the vertical load acting on the pylon, we must add the vertical components of Tmax
and of TAB (VBC and VAB respectively). We can determine VBC from H and Tmax , thus
120
(1, 177) + (1, 507)2 (1, 177)2 = 1, 412 + 941 = 2, 353 k
(6.38)
100
Using A36 steel with an allowable stress of 21 ksi, the cross sectional area of the tower should be
2
A = 2,353
21 = 112 in . Note that buckling of such a high tower might govern the final dimensions.
P =
Victor Saouma
69
Draft
9. If the cables were to be anchored to a concrete block, the volume of the block should be at least
equal to
(1, 412) k(1, 000)
= 9, 413 ft3
V =
150 lbs/ft3
or a cube of approximately 21 ft
6.3
Case Study: George Washington Bridge
Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)

26 The George Washington bridge, is a suspension bridge spanning the Hudson river from New York
City to New Jersey. It was completed in 1931 with a central span of 3,500 ft (at the time the worlds
longest span). The bridge was designed by O.H. Amman, who had emigrated from Switzerland. In 1962
the deck was stiffened with the addition of a lower deck.
6.3.1
27
Geometry
A longitudinal and plan elevation of the bridge is shown in Fig. 6.4. For simplicity we will assume in
??
377 ft
610 ft
327 ft
3,500 ft
650 ft
4,760 ft
ELEVATION
N.J.
HUDSON RIVER
N.Y.
PLAN
Figure 6.4: Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge
our analysis that the two approaching spans are equal to 650 ft.
28 There are two cables of three feet diameter on each side of the bridge. The centers of each pair are 9
ft apart, and the pairs themselves are 106 ft apart. We will assume a span width of 100 ft.
29 The cables are idealized as supported by rollers at the top of the towers, hence the horizontal components of the forces in each side of the cable must be equal (their vertical components will add up).
30 The cables support the road deck which is hung by suspenders attached at the cables. The cables are
made of 26,474 steel wires, each 0.196 inch in diameter. They are continuous over the tower supports
and are firmly anchored in both banks by huge blocks of concrete, the anchors.
Because the cables are much longer than they are thick (small LI ), they can be idealized as perfectly
flexible members with no shear/bending resistance but with high axial strength.
31
Victor Saouma
610
CABLES
Draft
32 The towers are 578 ft tall and rest on concrete caissons in the river.
Because of our assumption
regarding the roller support for the cables, the towers will be subjected only to axial forces.
6.3.2
Loads
33 The dead load is composed of the weight of the deck and the cables and is estimated at 390 and 400
psf respectively for the central and side spans respectively. Assuming an average width of 100 ft, this
would be equivalent to
DL = (390) psf(100) ft
(1, 000) lbs
= 39 k/ft
(6.39)
for the main span and 40 k/ft for the side ones.
34 For highway bridges, design loads are given by the AASHTO (Association of American State Highway
Transportation Officials). The HS-20 truck is often used for the design of bridges on main highways, Fig.
6.5. Either the design truck with specified axle loads and spacing must be used or the equivalent uniform
load and concentrated load. This loading must be placed such that maximum stresses are produced.
Figure 6.5: Truck Load
35
With two decks, we estimate that there is a total of 12 lanes or

LL = (12)Lanes(.64) k/ ft/Lane = 7.68 k/ft 8 k/ft
(6.40)
We do not consider earthquake, or wind loads in this analysis.

36
Final DL and LL are, Fig. 6.6: T L = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft
6.3.3
37
Cable Forces
The thrust H (which is the horizontal component of the cable force) is determined from Eq. 6.15
H
Victor Saouma
wL2cs
8h
(47) k/ft(3, 500)2 ft2
=
(8)(327) ft
= 220, 000 k
=
(6.41-a)
(6.41-b)
(6.41-c)
611
Draft
wD,S = 40 k/ft
wD = 39 k/ft
wD,S = 40 k/ft
DEAD LOADS
wL = 8 k/ft
Figure 6.6: Dead and Live Loads

From Eq. 6.21 the maximum tension is
6.3.4
38
327
h
=
= 0.0934
Lcs
3, 500
Tmax
1 + 16r2
(6.42-a)
(6.42-b)
(16)(0.0934)2
(220, 000) k
(220, 000) k(1.0675) = 235,000 k
1+
(6.42-c)
(6.42-d)
Reactions
Cable reactions are shown in Fig. 6.7.

POINTS WITH
REACTIONS TO
CABLES
Figure 6.7: Location of Cable Reactions

39
The vertical force in the columns due to the central span (cs) is simply the support reaction, 6.8
Vcs =
Victor Saouma
1
1
wLcs = (47) k/ft(3, 500) ft = 82, 250 k
2
2
(6.43)
612
CABLES
Draft
wTOT = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft
B
REACTIONS AT
TOP OF TOWER
POINT OF NO
MOMENT
L = 3,500 FT
Figure 6.8: Vertical Reactions in Columns Due to Central Span Load

Note that we can check this by determining the vector sum of H and V which should be equal to Tmax :
2 + H2 =
Vcs
(82, 250)2 + (220, 000)2 = 235, 000 k
(6.44)
40 Along the side spans (ss), the total load is T L = 40 + 8 = 48 k/ft. We determine the vertical reaction
by taking the summation of moments with respect to the anchor:
Lss
Vss Lss
MD = 0; +;
hss H + (wss Lss )
2
(650) ft
= (377) k(220, 000) k + (48) k/ft(650) ft
650Vss
2
Vss
(6.45-a)
(6.45-b)
143, 200 k
(6.45-c)
Note: that we have used equilibrium to determine the vertical component of the cable force. It would
have been wrong to determine Vss from Vss = 220, 000 377
650 as we did in the previous example, because
the cable is now loaded. We would have to determine the shape of the cable and the tangent at the
support. Beginiing with Eq. 6.13-b:
41
Hy
1 2
wx + C1 x + C2
2
C1
C2
w x2
+
x+
H 2
H
H
(6.46-a)
(6.46-b)
(6.46-c)
At x = 0, y = 0, thus C2 = 0; and at x = 650, y = 377; with H = 220, 000 k and w = 48

y
y|x=650
C1
y
dy
dx
dy
dx
C1
(48) k
x2
x
ft(220, 000) k
(220, 000) k
= 1.091 104 x2 4.545 106 C1 x

= 377 = 1.091 104 (650)2 4.545 106 C1 (650)
(6.47-b)
(6.47-c)
= 112, 000
= 1.091 104 x2 0.501x
(6.47-d)
(6.47-e)
2.182 104 x 0.501
0.1418 0.501 = 0.6428 =
(220, 000)(0.6428) = 141, 423 k
x=650
(6.47-a)
(6.47-f)
V
H
(6.47-g)
(6.47-h)
which is only 1% different.

42
Hence the total axial force applied on the column is

V = Vcs + Vss = (82, 250) k + (143, 200) k = 225,450 k
Victor Saouma
(6.48)
613
Draft
43
The vertical reaction at the anchor is given by summation of the forces in the y direction, Fig. 6.9:
(+ ) Fy = 0; (wss Lss ) + Vss + Ranchor
(48) k/ft(650) ft + (143, 200) k + Ranchor
Ranchor
= 0
= 0
=
(6.49-a)
(6.49-b)
112,000 k
(6.49-c)
(6.49-d)
225,450 k
220,000 k
112,000 k
Figure 6.9: Cable Reactions in Side Span
44
45
The axial force in the side cable is determined the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical reactions.
ss
Tanchor
R2
+ H2 =
anchor
ss
Ttower
2 + H2 =
Vss
(112, 000)2 + (220, 000)2 = 247, 000 k
(143, 200)2 + (220, 000)2 = 262,500 k
(6.50-a)
(6.50-b)
The cable stresses are determined last, Fig. 6.10:

Awire
Atotal
Central Span
ss
Side Span Tower tower
ss
Side Span Anchor tower
(3.14)(0.196)2
D2
=
= 0.03017 in2
4
4
(4)cables(26, 474)wires/cable(0.03017) in2 /wire = 3, 200
(220, 000) k
H
=
= 68.75 ksi
A
(3, 200) in2
ss
Ttower
(262, 500) in2
=
= 82 ksi
A
(3, 200) in2
ss
Tanchor
(247, 000) in2
=
= 77.2 ksi
A
(3, 200) in2
73.4 ksi
(6.51-a)
2
in
(6.51-b)
(6.51-c)
(6.51-d)
(6.51-e)
81.9 ksi
68.75 ksi
77.2 ksi
Figure 6.10: Cable Stresses

Victor Saouma
614
CABLES
Draft
If the cables were to be anchored to a concrete block, the volume of the block should be at least equal
to V = (112,000) k(1,000)3 lbs/ k = 747, 000 ft3 or a cube of approximately 91 ft
46
150
lbs/ft
47 The deck, for all practical purposes can be treated as a continuous beam supported by elastic springs
with stiffness K = AL/E (where L is the length of the supporting cable). This is often idealized as
a beam on elastic foundations, and the resulting shear and moment diagrams for this idealization are
shown in Fig. 6.11.
K=AL/E
Shear
Moment
Figure 6.11: Deck Idealization, Shear and Moment Diagrams
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 7
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI

and AISC CODES
7.1
Safety Provisions
Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some reserve load above what is
expected under normal use. This is to account for
Variability in Resistance: The actual strengths (resistance) of structural elements will differ from
those assumed by the designer due to:
1. Variability in the strength of the material (greater variability in concrete strength than in
steel strength).
2. Differences between the actual dimensions and those specified (mostly in placement of steel
rebars in R/C).
3. Effect of simplifying assumptions made in the derivation of certain formulas.
Variability in Loadings: All loadings are variable. There is a greater variation in the live loads than
in the dead loads. Some types of loadings are very difficult to quantify (wind, earthquakes).
Consequences of Failure: The consequence of a structural component failure must be carefully assessed. The collapse of a beam is likely to cause a localized failure. Alternatively the failure of a
column is likely to trigger the failure of the whole structure. Alternatively, the failure of certain
components can be preceded by warnings (such as excessive deformation), whereas other are sudden and catastrophic. Finally, if no redistribution of load is possible (as would be the case in a
statically determinate structure), a higher safety factor must be adopted.
2 The purpose of safety provisions is to limit the probability of failure and yet permit economical
structures.
The following items must be considered in determining safety provisions:

1. Seriousness of a failure, either to humans or goods.
2. Reliability of workmanship and inspection.
3. Expectation of overload and to what magnitude.
4. Importance of the member in the structure.
5. Chance of warning prior to failure.
Two major design philosophies have emerged

1. Working Stress Method
2. Ultimate Strength Method
72
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI and AISC CODES
Draft
7.2
Working Stress Method
This is the simplest of the two methods, and the one which has been historically used by structural
engineers.
Structural elements are designed for their service loads, and are dimensioned such that the stresses
do not exceed some predesignated allowable strength, Fig. 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Load Life of a Structure

In R/C this method was the one adopted by the ACI (American Concrete institute) code up to 1971,
Working Stress Design Method (WSD).
The AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction) code refers to it as the Allowable Stress
Design (ASD) and was used until 1986.
In this method:
1. All loads are assumed to have the same average variability.
2. The entire variation of the loads and the strengths is placed on the strength side of the equation.
< all =
yld
F.S.
(7.1)
where F.S. is the factor of safety.

10
Major limitations of this method

1. An elastic analysis can not easily account for creep and shrinkage of concrete.
2. For concrete structures, stresses are not linearly proportional to strain beyond 0.45fc .
3. Safety factors are not rigorously determined from a probabilistic approach, but are the result of
experience and judgment.
11
Allowable strengths are given in Table 7.1.
7.3
7.3.1
Ultimate Strength Method

The Normal Distribution
12 The normal distribution has been found to be an excellent approximation to a large class of distributions, and has some very desirable mathematical properties:
Victor Saouma
7.3 Ultimate Strength Method
Draft
73
Steel, AISC/ASD
Tension, Gross Area
Ft = 0.6Fy
Tension, Effective Net Area
Ft = 0.5Fu
Bending
Fb = 0.66Fy
Shear
Fv = 0.40Fy
Concrete, ACI/WSD
Tension
0
Compression
0.45fc
Effective net area will be defined in section 9.2.1.2.

Table 7.1: Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete
1. f (x) is symmetric with respect to the mean .
2. f (x) is a bell curve with inflection points at x = .
3. f (x) is a valid probability distribution function as:
f (x) = 1
(7.2)
4. The probability that xmin < x < xmax is given by:

xmax
P (xmin < x < xmax ) =
f (x)dx
(7.3)
xmin
13
The general normal

(or2.5
Gauss)
is given
Fig. 1.0
30.1: 1.5
3.0
2.0distribution
1.5 1.0 0.5
0.0by,0.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.40
0.35
0.30
PDF
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
CDF
0.00
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
x
Figure 7.2: Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function
(x) =
Victor Saouma
1 x 2
1
e 2 [ ]
2
(7.4)
74
Draft
14
A normal distribution N (, 2 ) can be normalized by defining
y=
(7.5)
and y would have a distribution N (0, 1):

y2
1
(y) = e 2
2
7.3.2
(7.6)
Reliability Index
15
In this approach, it is assumed that the load Q and the resistance R are random variables.
16
Typical frequency distributions of such random variables are shown in Fig. 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Frequency Distributions of Load Q and Resistance R
17
The safety margin is defined as Y = R Q. Failure would occur if Y < 0
18
Q and R can be combined and the result expressed logarithmically, Fig. 7.4.
X = ln
R
Q
(7.7)
Failure would occur for negative values of X

19 The probability of failure Pf is equal to the ratio of the shaded area to the total area under the
curve in Fig. 7.4.
R
If X is assumed to follow a Normal Distribution than it has a mean value X = ln Q
standard deviation .
20
21
We define the safety index (or reliability index) as =
and a
1
For standard distributions and for = 3.5, it can be shown that the probability of failure is Pf = 9,091
or 1.1 104 . That is 1 in every 10,000 structural members designed with = 3.5 will fail because of
either excessive load or understrength sometime in its lifetime.
22
23 Reliability indices are a relative measure of the current condition and provide a qualitative estimate
of the structural performance.
24 Structures with relatively high reliable indices will be expected to perform well. If the value is too
low, then the structure may be classified as a hazard.
Victor Saouma
7.3 Ultimate Strength Method
75
Draft
Figure 7.4: Definition of Reliability Index
Probability of Failure in terms of
10
Good
10
Below Average
Poor
10
Unsatisfactory
10
Hazardous
1/(Probability of Failure)
10
Above Average
10
10
10
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Figure 7.5: Probability of Failure in terms of
25
Target values for are shown in Table 30.2, and in Fig. 30.3
26 Because the strengths and the loads vary independently, it is desirable to have one factor to account
for variability in resistance, and another one for the variability in loads.
These factors are referred to as resistance factor and Load Factor respectively. The resistance
factor is defined as
Rm
exp(0.55VR )
(7.8)
=
Rn
27
where RM RN and VR are the mean resistance, the nominal resistance (to be defined later), and the
coefficient of variation of the resistance.
7.3.3
Discussion
ACI refers to this method as the Strength Design Method, (previously referred to as the Ultimate
Strength Method).
28
Victor Saouma
76
Draft
Type of Load/Member
AISC
DL + LL; Members
DL + LL; Connections
DL + LL + WL; Members
DL + LL +EL; Members
ACI
Ductile Failure
Sudden Failures
3.0
4.5
3.5
1.75
3-3.5
3.5-4
Table 7.2: Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures
29
AISC refers to it as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).
30 Terms such as failure load should be avoided; it is preferable to refer to a structures Limit State
load.
31
The general form is (LRFD-A4.1)1

Rn i Qi
(7.9)
where
is a strength reduction factor, less than 1, and must account for the type of structural element,
Table 7.3.
Type of Member
ACI
Axial Tension
Flexure
Axial Compression, spiral reinforcement
Axial Compression, other
Shear and Torsion
Bearing on concrete
AISC
Tension, yielding
Tension, fracture
Compression
Beams
Fasteners, Tension
Fasteners, Shear
0.9
0.9
0.75
0.70
0.85
0.70
0.9
0.75
0.85
0.9
0.75
0.65
Table 7.3: Strength Reduction Factors,

Rn is the nominal resistance (or strength).
Rn is the design strength.
i is the load factor corresponding to Qi and is greater than 1.
i Qi is the required strength based on the factored load:
i is the type of load
32
The various factored load combinations which must be considered are

1 Throughout
the notes we will refer by this symbol the relevant design specification in the AISC code.
Victor Saouma
7.4 Example
77
Draft
AISC
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S)
3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S)
4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W
5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
ACI
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.05D+1.275W
5. 0.9D+1.7H
6. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
7. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
8. 1.4(D+T)
where D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature; H= soil.
We must select the one with the largest limit state load.
33 Thus, in this method, we must perform numerous analysis, one for each load, of a given structure.
For trusses, this is best achieved if we use the matrix method, invert the statics matrix [B], and multiply
[B]1 by each one of the load cases, (Refer to Section 5.2.2.1). For the WSD method, we need not
perform more than one analysis in general.
Serviceability Limit States must be assessed under service loads (not factored). The most important ones being
34
1. Deflections
2. Crack width (for R/C)
3. Stability
35
Most code requirements on strength are written as:
x Rn > Qu
(7.10)
where Rn is the nominal strength of the member, Qu is the ultimate (factored) load effect (force, moment,
shear, torque). Design load is also at times defined as
Rd =
7.4
Qu
x
(7.11)
Example
Example 7-1: LRFD vs ASD

Victor Saouma
78
Draft
To illustrate the differences between the two design approaches, let us consider the design of an axial
member, subjected to a dead load of 100 k and live load of 80 k. Use A36 steel.
ASD: We consider the total load P = 100 + 80 = 180 k. From Table 7.1, the allowable stress is
0.6yld = 0.6 36 = 21.6 ksi. Thus the required cross sectional area is
A=
180
= 8.33 in2
21.6
USD we consider the largest of the two load combinations

i Qi :
1.4D
= 1.4(100)
1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(100) + 1.6(80)
= 140 k
= 248 k
From Table 7.3 = 0.9, and Rn = (0.9)Ayld . Hence, applying Eq. 7.9 the cross sectional area
should be
248
i Qi
= 7.65 in2
=
A=
yld
(0.9)(36)
Note that whereas in this particular case the USD design required a smaller area, this may not be the
case for different ratios of dead to live loads.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 8
DESIGN I
8.1
Case Study: Eiffel Tower
8.1.1
Materials, & Geometry
The tower was built out of wrought iron, less expensive than steel,and Eiffel had more experience with
this material, Fig. 8.1
Figure 8.1: Eiffel Tower (Billington and Mark 1983)

The structure is essentially a tower, subjected to gravity and wind load. It is a relatively light
structure, so dead load is small compared to the wind load.
To avoid overturning
M gravity
M wind
had to be much higher than 1. This can be achieved either by:
1. Increase self weight (as in Washingtons monument)

2. Increase the width of the base
82
DESIGN I
Draft
3. Design support to resist tension.

4. Post-tension the support.
The tower is 984 feet high, and 328 feet wide at the base. The large base was essential to provide
adequate stability in the presence of wind load.
We can assume that the shape of the tower is parabolic. If we take the x axis to be along the vertical
axis of symmetry and y the half width, then we know that at x = 984 the (half) width y = 0 and at
x = 0 the half width is 328/2 = 164, thus the equation of the half width is given by
y = 164
984 x
984
(8.1)
av(x)2
We recall from calculus that for y = v(x)
dy
dx
dy dv
dv dx
(8.2-a)
d
ax2
dx
2ax
(8.2-b)
Thus for our problem

dy
dx
2(164)
984 x
984
dy
dv
1
984
(8.3-a)
dv
dx
984 x
2, 952
(8.3-b)
Also
dy
dy
= tan = tan1
dx
dx
where is the angle measured from the x axis to the tangent to the curve.
7
(8.4)
We now can tabulate the width and slope at various elevations

Location
Support
First platform
second platform
Intermediate platform
Top platform
Top
Height
0
186
380
644
906
984
Width/2
164
108
62
20
1
0
Width
Estimated Actual
328
216
240
123
110
40
2
0
dy
dx
.333
.270
.205
.115
.0264
0.000
18.4o
15.1o
11.6o
6.6o
1.5o
0o
2
8 The tower is supported by four inclined supports, each with a cross section of 800 in . An idealization
of the tower is shown in Fig. 8.2.
8.1.2
9
10
Loads
The total weight of the tower is 18, 800 k.

The dead load is not uniformly distributed, and is approximated as follows, Fig. 8.3:
Location
Ground- second platform
Second platform-intermediate platform
intermediate platform - top
Victor Saouma Total
Height
380 ft
264 ft
340 ft
984 ft
Dead Weight
15, 500 k
2, 200 k
1, 100 k
18,Structural
800 k
Engineering
8.1 Case Study: Eiffel Tower
83
Draft
ACTUAL
CONTINUOUS
CONNECTION
IDEALIZED
CONTINUOUS
CONNECTION
ACTUAL
POINTS OF
CONNECTION
Figure 8.2: Eiffel Tower Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Figure 8.3: Eiffel Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
84
DESIGN I
Draft
11 From the actual width of the lower two platforms we can estimate the live loads (the intermediate
and top platforms would have negligible LL in comparison):
1st platform:
kip
(50) psf(240)2 ft2 (1,000)
lbs
2nd platform:
Total:
(50) psf(110) ft
2, 880 k
(1,000)
600 k
3, 480 k
lbs
Hence the total vertical load is Pvert = DL + LL = 18, 800 + 3, 480 = 22, 280 k.
12 The wind pressure is known to also have a parabolic distribution (maximum at the top), the cross
sectional area over which the wind is acting is also parabolic (maximum at the base). Hence we will
simplify our analysis by considering an equivalent wind force obtained from a constant wind pressure
(force/length) and constant cross section Fig. 8.4: The pressure is assumed to be 2.6 k/ft, thus the
Figure 8.4: Eiffel Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)
lateral wind force is, Fig. 8.5
LOADS
TOTAL
LOADS
P=2560k
00000
11111
L/2
H0
00000
11111
Q=22,280k
00000
11111
00
11
00
11
00
11
V0 11
00
REACTIONS
11
00
00
11
00
11
M0
Figure 8.5: Eiffel Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Plat = (2.6) k/ft(984) ft = 2,560 k
Victor Saouma
acting at
984
= 492 ft
2
(8.5)
85
Draft
8.1.3
Reactions
13 Simplifying the three dimensional structure with 4 supports into a two dimensional one with two
supports, the reactions can be easily determined for this statically determinate structure, Fig. 8.6.
WINDWARD
SIDE
VERTICAL
FORCES
WIND
FORCES
LEEWARD
SIDE
TOTAL
Figure 8.6: Eiffel Tower, Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983)

Gravity Load
Pvert
grav
Rvert
22, 280
22, 280
= 11,140 k
2
(8.6-a)
(8.6-b)
Lateral Load
Lateral Moment (we essentially have a cantilevered beam subjected to a uniform load). The
moment at a distance x from the support along the cantilevered beam subjected to a uniform
pressure p is given by
Mlat = p(L x)
Lx
2
=p
(L x)2
2
(8.7)
Force Moment arm

Thus the lateral moment caused by the wind is parabolic. At the base (x = 0), the maximum
moment is equal to
Mlat = p
(L x)2
(984 0)2 2
= (2.6) k/ft
ft = 1,260,000 k.ft
2
2
(8.8)
We observe that the shape of the moment diagram is also parabolic, just like the tower itself.
This is not accidental, as nearly optimum structures have a shape which closely approximate
their moment diagram (such as the varying depth of continuous long span bridges).
To determine the resulting internal forces caused by the lateral (wind) moment, and since we
have two supports (one under tension and the other under compression) we use
wind
=
Rvert
1, 260, 000 k.ft

M
=
= 3,850 k
d
328 ft
(8.9)
Lateral Forces to be resisted by each of the two pairs. By symmetry, the lateral force will be
equally divided among the two pairs of supports and will be equal to
wind
=
Rlat
Victor Saouma
(2, 560) k
= 1,280 k
2
(8.10)
86
DESIGN I
Draft
8.1.4
14
Internal Forces
First, a brief reminder
Fy
cos
sin
tan
Fx
(8.11-a)
F
Fy
(8.11-b)
F
Fy
(8.11-c)
Fx
Fx
15
Internal forces are first determined at the base.
16 Gravity load are first considered, remember those are caused by the dead load and the live load,
Fig. 8.7:
=18.40
=18.4
INCLINED
INTERNAL
FORCE: N
CONSEQUENT
HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT: H
KNOWN VERTICAL
COMPONENT: V
H
FORCE POLYGON
Figure 8.7: Eiffel Tower, Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983)
cos
tan
V
V
N =
N
cos
11, 140 k
= 11,730 kip
cos 18.4o
H
H = V tan
V
11, 140 k(tan 18.4o ) = 3,700 kip
(8.12-a)
(8.12-b)
(8.12-c)
(8.12-d)
The horizontal forces which must be resisted by the foundations, Fig. 8.8.
3700 k
3700 k
Figure 8.8: Eiffel Tower, Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983)
17
Because the vertical load decreases with height, the axial force will also decrease with height.
18
At the second platform, the total vertical load is Q = 1, 100 + 2, 200 = 3, 300 k and at that height the
Victor Saouma
87
Draft
angle is 11.6o thus the axial force (per pair of columns) will be
Nvert
3,300
2
= 1, 685 k
(8.13-a)
cos 11.6o
3, 300 k
(tan 11.6o ) = 339 k
(8.13-b)
Hvert =
2
Note that this is about seven times smaller than the axial force at the base, which for a given axial
strength, would lead the designer to reduce (or taper) the cross-section.
The horizontal force will be resisted by the axial forces in the second platform itself.
19 Wind Load: We now have determined at each pair of support the vertical and the horizontal forces
caused by the wind load, the next step is to determine their axial components along the inclined leg,
Fig. 8.9:
18.4
3,850 k
3,850 cos 18.4
18.4
1,280 sin 18.4
1,280 k
Figure 8.9: Eiffel Tower, Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983)
Nc
Nt
wind
wind
= Rvert
cos Rlat
sin
o
= (3, 850) k(cos 18.4 ) (1, 280) k(sin 18.40 )
(8.14-a)
(8.14-b)
(8.14-c)
=
=
=
8.1.5
20
-4,050 k Leeward
R
wind
vert
cos + R
wind
lat
sin
(8.14-d)
0
(3, 850) k(cos 18.4 ) + (1, 280) k(sin 18.4 )
(8.14-e)
4,050 k Winward
(8.14-f)
Internal Stresses
The total forces caused by both lateral and gravity forces can now be determined:
NLTotal
(11, 730) k (4, 050) k = -15,780 k Leeward side

gravity
N Total
W
lateral
(11, 730) k +(4, 050) k = -7,630 k Winward side

gravity
(8.15-a)
(8.15-b)
lateral
We observe that even under wind load, the windward side is still under compression.
In the idealization of the towers geometry, the area of each pair of the simplified columns is 1, 600 in2 .
and thus the maximum stresses will be determined from
21
comp =
22
15, 780 k
NLT
=
= -9.9 ksi
A
1, 600 in2
(8.16)
The strength of wrought iron is 45 ksi, hence the safety factor is

Safety Factor =
Victor Saouma
45 ksi
ultimate stress
=
= 4.5
actual stress
9.9 ksi
(8.17)
88
DESIGN I
Draft
8.2
Magazini Generali by Maillart
8.2.1
Geometry
23 This storage house, built by Maillart in Chiasso in 1924, provides a good example of the marriage
between aesthetic and engineering.
24 The most striking feature of the Magazini Generali is not the structure itself, but rather the shape of
its internal supporting frames, Fig. 8.10.
HINGE IDEALIZATION
OF THIN SECTIONS
ACTUAL FRAME
ABSTRACTION OF MID SECTIONAS A SIMPLE BEAM
9.2 ft
63.6 ft
Figure 8.10: Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
25 The frame can be idealized as a simply supported beam hung from two cantilever column supports.
Whereas the beam itself is a simple structural idealization, the overhang is designed in such a way as to
minimize the net moment to be transmitted to the supports (foundations), Fig. 8.11.
8.2.2
Loads
26 The load applied on the frame is from the weights of the roof slab, and the frame itself. Given the
space between adjacent frames is 14.7 ft, and that the roof load is 98 psf, and that the total frame
weight is 13.6 kips, the total uniform load becomes, Fig. 8.12:
Victor Saouma
qroof
qf rame
qtotal
(98) psf(14.7) ft = 1.4 k/ft

(13.6) k
= 0.2 k/ft
(63.6) ft
1.4 + 0.2 = 1.6 k/ft
(8.18-a)
(8.18-b)
(8.18-c)
8.2 Magazini Generali by Maillart
89
Draft
B
P
MB =B*d1
MP =P*d 2
d2
d1
B
MR=MB -M P
Figure 8.11: Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983)
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft + q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft
+ q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft
Figure 8.12: Magazzini Generali; Loads (Billington and Mark 1983)
8.2.3
27
Reactions
Reactions for the beam are determined first taking advantage of symmetry, Fig. 8.13:
W
(1.6) k/ft(63.6) ft = 102 k

102
W
=
= 51 k
2
2
(8.19-a)
(8.19-b)
We note that these reactions are provided by the internal shear forces.
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft
63.6 ft
51 k
51 k
Figure 8.13: Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
810
DESIGN I
Draft
8.2.4
Forces
28 The internal forces are primarily the shear and moments.

Those can be easily determined for a
simply supported uniformly loaded beam. The shear varies linearly from 51 kip to -51 kip with zero at
the center, and the moment diagram is parabolic with the maximum moment at the center, Fig. 8.14,
equal to:
(1.6) k/ft(63.6) ft2
qL2
=
= 808 k.ft
(8.20)
Mmax =
8
8
SHEAR FORCE
51 K
25 K
L
L/2
25 K
MOMENT
51 K
Mmax
L
0
L/2
L/4
3L/4
Figure 8.14: Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983)
29 The externally induced moment at midspan must be resisted by an equal and opposite internal
moment. This can be achieved through a combination of compressive force on the upper fibers, and
tensile ones on the lower. Thus the net axial force is zero, however there is a net internal couple, Fig.
8.15.
q TOTAL
C
d
VA
T
Figure 8.15: Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
Mext
d
Mext
Cd C =
T =C
(808) k.ft
= 88 k
(9.2) ft
(8.21-a)
(8.21-b)
8.2 Magazini Generali by Maillart
811
Draft
30 Because the frame shape (and thus d(x)) is approximately parabolic, and the moment is also parabolic,
then the axial forces are constants along the entire frame, Fig. 8.16.
FRAME
MOMENT DIAGRAM
CABLE :
FRAME :
CURVE OF DIAGRAM
SHAPE OF DIAGRAM
Figure 8.16: Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram,
(Billington and Mark 1983)
31 The axial force at the end of the beam is not balanced, and the 88 kip compression must be transmitted
to the lower chord, Fig. 8.17. Fig. 8.18 This is analogous to the forces transmitted to the support by a
88 k
Tension
88 k
88 k
88 k
Compression
Horizontal Component
Tied Arch
Cable Force
Axial Force
Vertical Reaction
Figure 8.17: Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark
1983)
tied arch.
32 It should be mentioned that when a rigorous computer analysis was performed, it was determined
that the supports are contributing a compression force of about 8 kips which needs to be superimposed
over the central values, Fig. 8.18.
8.2.5
33
Internal Stresses
The net compressive stress, for a top chord with a cross sectional area of 75 in2 is equal to
=
(88) k
P
=
= 1.17 ksi
A
(75) in2
(8.22)
this is much lower than the allowable compressive stress of concrete which is about 1,350 ksi. It should
be noted that if the frame was cast along with the roof (monolithic construction), than this stress would
be even lower.
Victor Saouma
812
DESIGN I
Draft
FRAME ACTS AS A
UNIT, UNLIKE THE
ABSTRACTION
-88 k - 8 k = -96 k
16 k
88 k - 8 k = 80 k
16 k
Figure 8.18: Magazzini Generali; Effect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983)
34 Since concrete has practically no tensile strength, the tensile force in the lower chord must be resisted
by steel. The lower chord has 4 bars with 0.69 in2 and 6 other bars with 0.58 in2 , thus we have a total
of
(8.23)
As = 4(0.69) + 6(0.58) = 6.24 in2
Thus the steel stresses will be

=
(88) k
P
=
= 14.1 ksi
A
(6.24) in2
(8.24)
which is lower than the allowable steel stress.
8.3
8.3.1
35
Buildings
Buildings Structures
There are three primary types of building systems:
Wall Subsystem: in which very rigid walls made up of solid masonry, paneled or braced timber, or
steel trusses constitute a rigid subsystem. This is only adequate for small rise buildings.
Vertical Shafts: made up of four solid or trussed walls forming a tubular space structure. The tubular
structure may be interior (housing elevators, staircases) and/or exterior. Most efficient for very
high rise buildings.
Rigid Frame: which consists of linear vertical components (columns) rigidly connected to stiff horizontal ones (beams and girders). This is not a very efficient structural form to resist lateral
(wind/earthquake) loads.
8.3.1.1
Wall Subsystems
36 Whereas exterior wall provide enclosure and interior ones separation, both of them can also have a
structural role in transferring vertical and horizontal loads.
Victor Saouma
8.3 Buildings
813
Draft
37
Walls are constructed out of masonry, timber concrete or steel.
38 If the wall is braced by floors, then it can provide an excellent resistance to horizontal load in the
plane of the wall (but not orthogonal to it).
39 When shear-walls subsystem are used, it is best if the center of orthogonal shear resistance is close
to the centroid of lateral loads as applied. If this is not the case, then there will be torsional design
problems.
8.3.1.1.1
Example: Concrete Shear Wall
From (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
40 We consider a reinforced concrete wall 20 ft wide, 1 ft thick, and 120 ft high with a vertical load of
400 k acting on it at the base. As a result of wind, we assume a uniform horizontal force of 0.8 kip/ft
of vertical height acting on the wall. It is required to compute the flexural stresses and the shearing
stresses in the wall to resist the wind load, Fig. 8.19.
w=0.8 k/ft
20
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
W 1111
0000
0000
400 k 1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
H=96 k;
M =5760 k
60
120
V
-f
HORIZONTAL
+f
2/(3d)
+F
- FM
VERTICAL
+ FDL
11111
00000
00000
11111
+140
+ 740 PSI
+ 600
7.7 IN TENSION
Figure 8.19: Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
1. Maximum shear force and bending moment at the base
Vmax
Mmax
wL = (0.8) k.ft(120) ft = 96 k
(0.8) k.ft(120)2 ft2
wL2
=
= 5, 760 k.ft
2
2
(8.25-a)
(8.25-b)
2. The resulting eccentricity is

eActual =
(5, 760) k.ft

M
=
= 14.4 ft
P
(400) k
(8.26)
3. The critical eccentricity is

ecr =
(20) ft
L
=
= 3.3 ft < eActual N.G.
6
6
(8.27)
thus there will be tension at the base.

Victor Saouma
814
DESIGN I
Draft
4. The moment of inertia of the wall is

(1) ft(20) ft3
bh3
=
= 667 ft4
12
12
I=
(8.28)
5. The maximum flexural stresses will be

max =
(5, 760) k.ft(10) ft

Mc
=
= (86.5) ksf = (600) psi
I
(667) ft4
(8.29)
6. The average shearing stress is

=
(96) k
V
=
= 4.8 ksf = 33.3 psi
A
(1)(20) ft2
(8.30)
A concrete with nominal shear reinforcement can carry at least 100 psi in shear, those computed
shear stresses are permissible.
7. At the base of the wall, the axial stresses will be
=
(400) k
= (20) ksf = 140 psi
(1)(20) ft2
(8.31-a)
8. The maximum stresses will thus be:

1
140 + 600 = 460 psi
140 600 = 740 psi
(Tension)
(8.32-a)
(Compression)
(8.32-b)
9. The compressive stress of 740 psi can easily be sustained by concrete, as to the tensile stress of
460 psi, it would have to be resisted by some steel reinforcement.
10. Given that those stresses are service stresses and not factored ones, we adopt the WSD approach,
and use an allowable stress of 20 ksi, which in turn will be increased by 4/3 for seismic and wind
load,
4
(8.33)
all = (20) = 26.7 ksi
3
11. The stress distribution is linear, compression at one end, and tension at the other. The length of
the tension area is given by (similar triangles)
20
460
x
=
x=
(20) = 7.7 ft
460
460 + 740
460 + 740
(8.34)
12. The total tensile force inside this triangular stress block is
T =
1
(460) ksi(7.7 12) in (12) in = 250 k
2
(8.35)
width
13. The total amount of steel reinforcement needed is

As =
(250) k
= 9.4 in2
(26.7) ksi
(8.36)
This amount of reinforcement should be provided at both ends of the wall since the wind or
earthquake can act in any direction. In addition, the foundations should be designed to resist
tensile uplift forces (possibly using piles).
Victor Saouma
8.3 Buildings
815
Draft
120
20
W
400 k
60
H=96 k
24
1
1.2
~1.6
V
+FM
-F
Figure 8.20: Trussed Shear Wall

8.3.1.1.2
Example: Trussed Shear Wall
41 We consider the same problem previously analyzed, but use a trussed shear wall instead of a concrete
one, Fig. 8.20.
1. Using the maximum moment of 5, 760 kip-ft (Eq. 8.25-b), we can compute the compression and
tension in the columns for a lever arm of 20 ft.
F =
(5, 760) k.ft

= 288 k
(20) ft
(8.37)
2. If we now add the effect of the 400 kip vertical load, the forces would be
C
T
(400) k
288 = 488 k
2
(400) k
+ 288 = 88 k
=
2
(8.38-a)
(8.38-b)
3. The force in the diagonal which must resist a base shear of 96 kip is (similar triangles)
F
=
96
(20)2 + (24)2
F =
20
(20)2 + (24)2
(96) = 154 k
20
(8.39)
4. The design could be modified to have no tensile forces in the columns by increasing the width of
the base (currently at 20 ft).
8.3.1.2
Shaft Systems
42 Vertical shear-resisting shafts in buildings act as a tubular section and generally have a rectangular
cross section. If there is only one shaft, it is generally located in the center and houses the elevators. If
there are many shafts, then they should be symmetrically arranged.
43 If the shaft is relatively short and wide, with an aspect ratio under 1 or 2, then the dominant structural
action is that of a stiff shear resisting tube. If the aspect ratio is between 3 and 5, then the shear forces
may not be the controlling criterion, and flexure dominates.
Victor Saouma
816
DESIGN I
Draft
8.3.1.2.1
44
Example: Tube Subsystem
With reference to Fig. 8.21, the reinforced concrete shaft is 20 ft square, 120 ft high, and with 1 ft
~ 20
20
20
11111111111
000000
00000
00000011111
111111
00000
000000
111111
00000
00000011111
111111
00000
11111
00000011111
111111
00000
000000
111111
00000
00000011111
111111
00000
11111
000000
111111
00000
00000011111
111111
00000
11111
00000011111
111111
00000
000000
111111
00000
00000011111
111111
00000
11111
000000
111111
00000
00000011111
111111
00000
11111
00000011111
111111
00000
000000
111111
00000
00000011111
111111
00000
11111
000000
111111
00000
00000011111
111111
00000
11111
00000011111
111111
00000
w = 0.8 k/ft
H = 96 k
60
~ 20
120
N.A.
Figure 8.21: Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
thick walls. It is subjected to a lateral force of 0.8 k/ft.
1. Comparing this structure with the one analyzed in Sect. 8.3.1.1.1 the total vertical load acting on
the base is now increased to
(8.40)
V = 4(400) = 1, 600 k
2. As previously, the maximum moment and shear are 5, 760 k.ft and 96 k respectively.
3. The moment of inertia for a tubular section is
I=
(20)(20)3
(18)(18)3
bd3
=
= 4, 600 ft4
12
12
12
4. The maximum flexural stresses:

(5, 760) k.ft(20/2) ft
MC
=
= 12.5 ksf = 87 psi
f l =
I
(4, 600) ft4
(8.41)
(8.42)
5. The average shear stress is

=
(96) k
V
=
= 2.4 ksf = 17 psi
A
2(20)(1) ft2
(8.43)
6. The vertical load of 1,600 k produces an axial stress of

ax =
(1, 600) k
P
=
= 20 ksf = 140 psi
A
(4(20)(1) ft2
(8.44)
7. The total stresses are thus
ax + f l
(8.45-a)
140 + 87 = 53 psi
(8.45-b)
140 87 = 227 psi
(8.45-c)
thus we do not have any tensile stresses, and those stresses are much better than those obtained
from a single shear wall.
Victor Saouma
8.4 Design of a Three Hinged Arch
817
Draft
8.3.1.3
Rigid Frames
45 Rigid frames can carry both vertical and horizontal loads, however their analysis is more complex
than for tubes.
46 The rigorous and exact analysis of a rigid frame can only be accomplished through a computer analysis.
However, for preliminary design it is often sufficient to perform approximate analysis.
47 There are two approximate methods for the analysis of rigid frames subjected to lateral loads: 1)
Portal and 2) Cantilever method.
48
The portal frame method is based on the following major assumptions, Fig. 8.22:
L
P
L/2
h/2
PI
H 1=P/2
H 2=P/2
h/2
V1 =P/(2L)
V2 =P/(2L)
Figure 8.22: A Basic Portal Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

1. Each bay of a bent acts as a separate portal frame consisting of two adjacent columns and the
connecting girder.
2. The point of inflection (zero moment) for all columns is at midheight
3. The point of inflection for all girders is at midspan.
4. For a multibay frame, the shears on the interior columns are equal and the shear in each exterior
column is half the shear of an interior column.
8.4
Design of a Three Hinged Arch
adapted from (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

A long arch 100 ft high and spanning 510 ft is to be designed for a garage and hotel building, using
air rights over roads and highways.
100
Garage and hotel Building
510
It is necessary to determine preliminary dimensions for the size of the arch section. The arches are
spaced 60 ft on centers and carry four-story loading totaling 27 k/ft along each arch.
1. To the initial DL and LL of 27 k/ft we add the arch own weight estimated to be 25% of the
load, thus the total load is
(8.46)
w = (1 + .25)27 = 33.7 33 k/ft
Victor Saouma
818
DESIGN I
Draft
2. We next determine the various forces:

H
(33)(510)2
wL2
=
= 10, 700 k
8h
8(100)
(33)(510)
wL
=
= 8, 400 k
2
2
H 2 + V 2 = (10, 700)2 + (8, 400)2 = 13, 600 k
(8.47-a)
(8.47-b)
(8.47-c)
3. If we use concrete-filled steel pipe for arch section, and selecting a pipe diameter of 6 ft with a
thickness of 1/2 inch, then the steel cross sectional area is
As = 2rt = Dt = (3.14)(6) ft(12) in/ ft(0.5) in = 113 in2
(8.48)
4. The concrete area is

Ac =
(6)2 2
D2
= (3.14)
ft (144) in2 /f tsq = 4, 070 in2
4
4
(8.49)
5. Assuming that the steel has an allowable stress of 20 ksi and the concrete 2.5 ksi (noting that the
strength of confined concrete can be as high as three times the one of fc ), then the load carrySteel Ac
(113)(20)ksi
=
2,260 k
ing capacity of each component is Concrete As (4, 070)(2.5)ksi = 10,180 k
Total
12,440 kip
which is o.k. for the crown section (H=10,700 k) but not quite for the abutments at R=13,600 k.
6. This process of trial and error can be repeated until a satisfactory preliminary design is achieved.
Furthermore, a new estimate for the arch self weight should be undertaken.
8.5
Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)
8.5.1
Geometry
49 The Salginatobel bridge, perhaps the most famous and influential structure of Maillart is located in
high up in the Swiss Alps close to Shuders.
50 It is a three hinged pedestrian bridge which crosses a deep valley with a most beautiful shape which
blends perfectly with its surrounding, Fig. 8.23
51 The load supporting structure is the arch itself, whereas the bridge deck and the piers are transferring
the vertical load into the arch.
52
The arch cross section is not constant, and can be idealized as in Fig. 8.24
53
The basic shape of the supporting structure is a three hinged arch as shown in Fig. 8.25
54 The arch is parabolic (which as we saw an the optimal shape which minimizes flexure), and the cross
section at the quarter point has an area of
At = 2[(0.62)(12.46) + (0.59)(12.17)] = 29.8 ft2 = 4, 291 in2

55
(8.50)
Each flange has an area of

AF = (0.62)(12.46) = 7.73 ft2 = 1, 113 in2
(8.51)
and the effective depth of the section is d = 12.79 ft, Fig. 8.26.
56
At the crown/hinge the section is rectangular with

Acr = (1.05)(11.48) = 12.05 ft2 = 1, 735 in2
Victor Saouma
(8.52)
8.5 Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)
Draft
20 ft
20 ft
87.5 ft
87.5 ft
20 ft
20 ft
20 ft
42.6 ft
20 ft
819
295 ft
Figure 8.23: Salginatobel Bridge; Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
42.6 ft
ACTUAL ARCH WITH

CENTROID (DOTTED LINE)
IDEALIZATION
(ONE DEMENSIONAL)
295 ft
Figure 8.24: Salginatobel Bridge; Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983)
CONCRETE
CORK PADS
HINGE
ACTUAL SPRINGING HINGE
IDEALIZATION
CORK PAD
CONCRETE
HINGE
HARD WOOD
ACTUAL CROWN HINGE
IDEALIZATION
Figure 8.25: Salginatobel Bridge; Hinges, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Victor Saouma
820
DESIGN I
42.6 ft
Draft
ACTUAL ARCH
295 ft
SECTIONS
12.46 ft
0.59 ft
12.17 ft
d=12.79 ft
13.41 ft
0.62 ft
0.62 ft
Figure 8.26: Salginatobel Bridge; Sections, (Billington and Mark 1983)
8.5.2
Loads
57 The dead load WD is assumed to be linearly distributed (even though it is greater where the arch is
deeper, and the vertical members longer) and is equal to 1,680 kips, Fig. 8.27.
wD =
(1, 680) k
WD
=
= 5.7 k/ft
L
(295) ft
(8.53)
wD = 5.7 k/ft
WD = 1680 k
L = 295 ft
Figure 8.27: Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
58 For the sake of simplicity we will neglect the snow load (which is actually negligible compared to the
dead load).
59 The live load is caused by traffic, and we consider the case in which two trucks, each weighing 55
kips, are placed at the quarter-point, Fig. 8.28. This placement of the load actually corresponds to one
Victor Saouma
821
Draft
of the most critical loading arrangement. The total vertical load is shown in Fig. 8.29
8.5.3
60
Reactions
Reactions are easily determined from equilibrium, Fig. 8.33

1, 680
2
110
VL =
2
M
(+ )
c
(840)(147.5) (840)(73.75) HD (42.6)
840 k
(8.54-a)
55 k
(8.54-b)
= 0
= 0
(8.54-c)
(8.54-d)
HD
(8.54-e)
(55)(147.5) (55)(73.75) HL (42.6)
HL
95 k
(8.54-g)
(1, 455)2
1, 680 k
(8.54-h)
(55)2 + (95)2
110 k
(8.54-i)
VD =
RD =
(840)2
RL =
8.5.4
1, 455 k
0
(8.54-f)
Internal Forces
61
The shear diagrams for the dead, live and combined load is shown in Fig. 8.31.
62
At the quarter point the axial force can be expressed as:

N = H cos + V sin
(8.55)
where
2d
(8.56)
L
and = 16.1o at this location. The horizontal force for the dead and live loads was determined previously
as 1, 455 and 95 kips respectively, and the vertical forces are obtained from the shear diagram, thus
tan =
qr
ND
NLqr
(1, 455) cos 16.1o + (420) sin 16.1o = 1, 514 k
(8.57-a)
(95) cos 16.1 + (55) sin 16.1 = 106 k
(8.57-b)
and at the crown where there is no vertical force (and = 0)

cr
ND
(1, 455) cos 0o + (420) sin 0o = 1, 455 k
(8.58-a)
NLcr
(95) cos 0o + (55) sin 0o = 95 k
(8.58-b)
63
The uniform dead load will not produce a moment on the parabolic arch.
64
The (point) live load will create a moment which can be decomposed into two parts,
1. Vertical load will cause a trapezoidal moment diagram, and the max moment is
MLV =
11o 295
PL
=
= 4, 050 k.ft
2 4
2 4
(8.59)
2. The second is caused by the horizontal reaction, and the resulting moment is MLH = Hd(x), since
d varies parabolically, and H is constant, that second moment is parabolic with a peak value equal
to
(8.60)
MLV = Hdmax = (95)(32.6) = 4, 050 k.ft
Victor Saouma
822
DESIGN I
Draft
PLAN
P = 55 k
ROADWAY
295 ft
P = 55 k
ARCH ABUTMENT
42.5 ft
Figure 8.28: Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
823
Draft
P = 55 k
B
VB,D = 840 k
VA,D = 840 k
P = 55 k
DEAD LOAD
42.6 ft
Q D = 1680 k
VA,L = 55 k
LIVE LOAD
VB,L = 55 k
295 ft
Figure 8.29: Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
d=42.6 ft
A
l/4=73.75 ft
V
l/2=147.5 ft
Figure 8.30: Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
840 k
3L/4
L/4
295 ft
L/2
55 k
SHEAR FORCE
SHEAR FORCE
420 k
420 k
840 k
295 ft
SHEAR FORCE
+ 895 k
L/2
L
-55 k
295 ft
=
+ 475 k
+ 420 k
L
- 420 k
- 475 k
- 895 k
295 ft
Figure 8.31: Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Victor Saouma
824
DESIGN I
Draft
at the quarter point

MLV = Hd1/4 = (95)
3(32.6)
= 3, 040 k.ft
4
(8.61)
65 The overall bending moment diagram from the live loads is determined by simply adding those two
components, Fig. 8.32.
L/4
-4,050 k-ft
BENDING
MOMENT
BENDING
L/4
-3,040 k-ft
MOMENT
L/4
L/2
x
3L/4
295 ft
+ PL/4 = 4,050 k-ft
4,050 ft.k-3,040 ft.k = 1,010 ft.k
MOMENT
BENDING
295 ft
Figure 8.32: Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983)
66 We observe that the actual shape of the arch follows this bending moment diagram for one of the
most critical live load case.
67
The maximum moment at midspan is

MLmax = 4, 050 3, 040 = 1, 010 k.ft
(8.62)
which would produce internal forces in the upper and lower flanges equal to:
Fint =
8.5.5
(1, 010) k.ft

MLmax
=
= 79 k
d
(12.8) ft
(8.63)
Internal Stresses
The axial stresses at the springlines were determined to be 1, 680 and 110 kips for the dead and
live loads respectively.
68
69
At the support the area of concrete is Ac = 2, 240 in2 , thus the axial stresses are
D
sp
L
sp
s spT otal
(1, 680) k
1, 000 = 750 psi
(2, 240) in2
(110) k
1, 000 = 49 psi
(2, 240) in2
750 49 = 799 psi
(8.64-a)
(8.64-b)
(8.64-c)
70 At the crown, we repeat the same calculations, where the axial force is equal to the horizontal
component of the reactions
D
cr
Victor Saouma
(1, 455) k
1, 000 = 839 psi
(1, 735) in2
(8.65-a)
Draft
825
L
cr
(95) k
1, 000 = 55 psi
(1, 735) in2
(8.65-b)
s crT otal
839 55 = 894 psi
(8.65-c)
71 The stresses at the quarter point are determined next. Note that we must include the effect of both
axial and flexural stresses
top
qr
(1, 514) k
(106) k
(79) k
2 1, 000 +
2 1, 000
(4, 291) in
(4, 291) in
(1, 113) in2
DeadLoad
LiveLoad
(8.66-a)
Flexural
AxialStresses
= 353 25 71 449 psi

bot
qr
(8.66-b)
(1, 514) k
(106) k
(79) k
2 1, 000 +
2 1, 000
(4, 291) in
(4, 291) in
(1, 113) in2
DeadLoad
LiveLoad
(8.66-c)
Flexural
AxialStresses
= 353 25 + 71 307 psi
8.5.6
(8.66-d)
Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiffened Arches
From (Billington 1979)

INCOMPLETE
72 The issue of unsymmetrical live load on a stiffened or unstiffened arch was also addressed by Maillart.
As discussed in (Billington 1979) and illustrated by Fig. 8.33
wL
/10
wL
wL a
wL
Unstiffened Arch
wL
wL
wL a
2
wL a
2
Stiffened Arch
Figure 8.33: Structural Behavior of Stiffened Arches, (Billington 1979)
Victor Saouma
826
Draft
DESIGN I
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 9
STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

This will be your first exposure to structural design. Contrarily to structural analysis where you have
one and only one exact solution, there are typically many acceptable and correct alternative designs.
Another important difference, is that in analysis you have so far focused on the application of one
equation (such as the flexural stress in a beam) or of a single very well defined sequential process (such
as truss analysis). In design, (and very much so in the design of tension steel members), you will have
to satisfy more than one equation.
2
In almost all cases, design is governed by a code. In this course we adopt the LRFD method of the
AISC code. Hence, a design would have to simultaneously satisfy all the relevant code provisions.
In analysis you did not have to concern yourself with details on how the structure is put together,
evidently in design you would have to take this into account. To complicate matters, you would have to
use some form of common sense to make certain decisions which govern the design process.
Finally, design is loosely defined as a process in which you either select new members, or you verify
whether an existing design is satisfactory.
9.1
Introduction
Tension members are encountered mostly in truss structures (bridges, roof trusses, transmission towers,
wind bracing of multistoried buildings).
We will separately cover the design of compression members due to the possibility of buckling.
Structural elements are connected together to form a structure. Connections fall into one of two
categories With fasteners, bolts, rivets; or without fasteners, welds. Fasteners require drilling or punching
a hole.
It can be shown that a circular hole in a uniformly stressed plate under , will have a stress concentration factor equal to 3, Fig. 9.1. That is around the hole, max = 3 1 .
9.2
10
Geometric Considerations
Before we consider the design of tension members, due consideration must be given to
1. The definition of the cross sectional area which will be used to dimension our design
2. Stiffness of the member
1 If
the circle becomes an ellipse, than the stress concentration factor becomes greater than three; At the limit if the
ellipse collapses into a crack, then we would have theoretically an infinite stress. This is why one should always avoid sharp
corners in a structure.
92
Draft
Figure 9.1: Stress Concentration Around Circular Hole
9.2.1
Areas
11 The presence of a hole, and the resulting stress concentration must be accounted for in design. This
is accomplished by introducing the concept of effective areas.
12 The effective area Ae is defined in terms of the net area An when the load is transmitted by bolts
or rivets, and gross area Ag for welded members:
Ae
Ae
=
=
U An
U Ag
Bolts, Rivets
Welds
(9.1)
where U is a reduction factor, and Ag is the gross area of the member.

9.2.1.1
Net Area, An
13
The net area must be defined whenever we have holes due to bolts or rivets.
14
Holes are usually punched 1/16 in. larger than the diameter of the bolt or rivet.
1
When holes are punched, a small zone (R 32
in) around it is damaged, thus the total width to
1
in.
be deducted in determining the net area is D = 16
15
Thus with respect to the fastener of diameter D we punched a hole of diameter D +

1
was damaged by the process, thus for net area calculation we must subtract
additional 16
fastener diameter, Fig. 9.2.
16
1
16 , and an
1
8 from the
17 Accordingly, for a plate of width w and thickness t, and with a single hole which accomodates a bolt
of diameter D, the net area would be
An = wt D +
1
8
(9.2)
18 Whenever there is a need for more than two rivets or bolts, the holes are not aligned but rather
staggered. Thus there is more than one potential failure line which can be used to determine the net
area.
19
For staggered holes, we define the net are in terms of, Fig. 9.3,
pitch s, longitudinal center to center spacing between two consecutive holes.

gage g, transverse center to center spacing between two adjacent holes.
Victor Saouma
9.2 Geometric Considerations
93
Draft
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Hole size
D+
1
16
D+
1
8
Bolt size
Effective hole size
Figure 9.2: Hole Sizes
Figure 9.3: Effect of Staggered Holes on Net Area
Victor Saouma
94
Draft
The net area is determined as above, however we subtract

Length Correction
s2
4g
An
1
# of holes
D+
Ag 1
8
(9.3)
2
# of correct. s
t + 1
t (9.4)
4g
In this example the two possible failure lines have the following net lengths:
1
A-B =Length of A-B (width of hole + 16
in.)
1
in.) +
A-C =Length of A-B 2(width of hole + 16
s2
4g
The minimum net area will obviously be equal to the net length multiplied by the plate thickness.
When holes are staggered on two legs of an angle, the gage length g is obtained by using a length
between the centers of the holes measured along the centerline of the angle thickness, i.e., the distance
t
t
A-B in Fig. 9.4. Thus the gage distance is g = ga + gb or
2
2
20
Figure 9.4: Gage Distances for an Angle
g = ga + gb t
(9.5)
21 It should be mentioned that every rolled angle has a standard value for the location of holes (i.e.
gage distances ga and gb ) depending on the length of the leg, Table 9.1.
Example 9-1: Net Area

Determine the minimum net area of the plate shown below assuming
as shown.
Victor Saouma
15
16
in.-diameter holes are located
95
Draft
Leg
g
g1
g2
8
1
42
3
3
7
4
1
22
3
6
1
32
1
24
1
22
5
3
2
3
14
4
1
22
32
2
3
3
14
22
3
18
2
1
18
14
1
12
18
14
7
8
7
8
3
4
5
8
Table 9.1: Usual Gage Lengths g, g1 , g2

Solution:
We consider various paths:
AD :
12 2
15
16
1
16
= 2.50 in2
(9.6-a)
(0.25)
= 2.43 in2
(9.6-b)
(0.25)
= 2.4 in2
(9.6-c)
(0.25)
2
ABD :
12 3
15
16
1
16
(2.125)
4(2.5)
ABC :
12 3
15
16
1
16
(2.125)2
4(2.5)
(2.125)
4(4)
(1.875)2
4(4)
Thus path A-B-C controls.
Example 9-2: Net Area, Angle

Determine the net area An for the angle shown below if
15
16
in. diameter holes are used.
Solution:
For the net area calculation, the angle may be visualized as being flattened into a plate as shown below.
Victor Saouma
96
Draft
and
An = Ag Dt +
s2
t
4g
(9.7)
Where D is the width to be deducted for the hole, We consider the following paths:
AC :
ABC :
9.2.1.2
4.75 2
4.75 3
15
16
1
16
15
16
0.5 +
1
16
= 3.75 in2
0.5
2
(3)
4(2.5)
(3)
4(4.25)
0.5
= 3.96 in
(9.8-a)
(9.8-b)
Effective Net Area, Ae
22 Often tension members are connected at the end by connection to some but not all of the cross sectional
elements. For instance, an angle section may be connected through one leg only. Thus, away from the
connection we used the gross or net area to resist the full tensile load, but right at the connection, only
one leg is connected and the other is for all practical purposes unstressed.
To account for this, the AISC code stipulates that the net area must be reduced by U , Table 9.2
where Ae = U An or Ae = U Ag .
23
Example 9-3: Reduction Factor

Determine the reduction factor U to be used in computing the effective net area of a W14x82 section
connected by plates at its two flanges. There are three bolts along each connection line.
Solution:
Since only two (the flanges) of the three elements (the third one being the web) are connected, U < 1.
b
We first check for the profile ratio2 df .
10.13
bf
=
= 0.71 > 0.67
d
14.31
(9.9)
Thus from Table 9.2, U = 0.9
9.2.2
24
Stiffness
Tension members which are too long may be

1. Too flexible during erection of the structure (excessive and possibly permanent deformations when
carried due to their own weight).
2 Section
properties are taken from Sect. 3.6.
Victor Saouma
97
Draft
Type of members
Minimum Number
of Fasteners/line
Fastened Rolled Sections
Members having all cross sectional elements con1 (or welds)
Special
Requirements
Ae
An
nected to transmit tensile force

W, M, or S shapes with flange widths not less
than 2/3 the depth, and structural tees cut from
3 (or welds)
b
d
0.67
0.9An
these shapes, provided the connection is to the

flanges. Bolted or riveted connections shall have
no fewer than three fasteners per line in the direction of stress
W, M, or S not meeting above conditions, structural tees cut from these shapes and all other
3 (or welds)
0.85An
shapes, including built-up cross-sections. Bolted

or riveted connections shall have no fewer than
three fasteners per line in the direction of stress
Structural tees cut from W, M, or S connected at
flanges only
3 (or welds)
All members with bolted or riveted connections

having only two fasteners per line in the direction
b
d
0.67
0.9An
0.75An
of stress
Welded Plates
Welds
Welds
Welds
l > 2w
2w > l > 1.5w
l/w.1
Ag
0.87Ag
0.75Ag
b Flange width; d section depth; l Weld length; w Plate width;

Table 9.2: Effective Net Area Ae for Bolted and Welded Connections
Victor Saouma
98
Draft
2. Subjected to excessive lateral deflections and vibrations once assembled.
25
To limit this, the AISC code imposes a constraint on the element stiffness.
P
Recall that stiffness is defined as K =
, and for flexural member it will be shown later that
M
4EI
Kf = = L where I is the moment of inertia.
26
27
Since for steel E, the elastic modulus is constant, and given the definition of the radius of gyration
I
A,
r=
the AISC code (LRFD-B7) specifies that the slenderness ratio
L
rmin
should not exceed 300
L
< 300
rmin
(9.10)
This limitation does not apply to rods in tension.

28 In applying this requirement, the higher slenderness ratio based on the two principal axes must be
used, i.e. rLx and rLy .
9.3
29
LRFD Design of Tension Members
Recall the general form of the structural safety requirement under LRFD (Eq. 7.9):
Rn i Qi
(9.11)
t Tn Tu
(9.12)
For tension members, this equation becomes
where
30
=
=
=
resistance factor relating to tensile strength

nominal strength of a tension member
factored load on a tension member
From Table 7.3, t is 0.75 and 0.9 for fracture and yielding failure respectively.
9.3.1
31
t
Tn
Tu
Tension Failure
The design strength t Tn is the smaller of that based on, Fig. 9.5
1. Yielding in the gross section: We can not allow yielding of the gross section, because this will
result in unacceptable elongation of the entire member.
t Tn = t Fy Ag = 0.90Fy Ag
(9.13)
or
2. Fracture in the net section: Yielding is locally allowed, because Ae is applicable only on a small
portion of the element. Local excessive elongation is allowed, however fracture must be prevented.
This mode of failure usually occurs if there is insufficient distance behind the pin.
t Tn = t Fu Ae = 0.75Fu Ae
Victor Saouma
(9.14)
9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members
Draft
99
o o
o o
o o
o o
o
o
o o
o o
o o
o o
o
0.75FuA e
0.9FyA g
o o
o
0.75FuA e
Figure 9.5: Net and Gross Areas
9.3.2
Block Shear Failure
32
For bolted connections, tearing failure may occur and control the strength of the tension member.
33
For instance, with reference to Fig. 9.6 the angle tension member attached to the gusset plate3 may
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
Figure 9.6: Tearing Failure Limit State

have a tearing failure along a-b-c. In this case the shear strength along a-b plus the tensile strength
along bc contribute to resist this particular failure mode.
34 This mode of failure is uncommon in tension members; However this failure mode commonly controls
the design of bolted end connections to the thin webs of beams.
35 LRFD-J4 indicates that the following two equations must be considered to account for either one of
the two combinations
Shear yielding-tension fracture: fracture on the net area in tension followed by yielding on the gross
3A
gusset plate is a plate at the intersection of members to which they are connected.
Victor Saouma
910
Draft
section in shear
(9.15)
t Tn = 0.75(0.6Fy Avg + Fu Ant )
Shear fracture -tension yielding: Fracture on the net section in shear followed by yielding on the
gross section in tension.
(9.16)
t Tn = 0.75(0.6Fu Ans + Fy Atg )

Avg =
Atg =
Ans =
Ant =
and the largest
where
36
gross area subjected to shear yielding

gross area subjected to tensile yielding
net (gross - area of holes) area subjected to shear fracture
net (gross - area of holes) area subjected to tensile fracture
of the two will control.
Note that a conservative simplification of the above two equations is given below
(9.17)
t Tn = 0.75(0.6Fu )Ans
In this equation Ans is the area along the entire failure path (including both tension and shear failure),
whereas in Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 Ans is the net area where actual shear failure occurs (not including tension
failure).
37 Note that in the preceding equation, we assumed the shear yield stress y = 0.6Fy , and the shear
tensile strength u = 0.6Fu .
9.3.3
38
Summary
The design procedure for tension member can be summarized as follows

1. Determine the net area An from Section 9.2.1.1; if there are staggered holes, use Eq. 9.3.
2. Determine the effective area Ae from Section 9.2.1.2, and U from Table 9.2.
3. The limit load will be the lowest of the following
Tension Failure: by taking the lowest of the following
(a) Yielding (yld ) in the gross section, Eq. 9.13
(b) Fracture (u ) in the effective section, Eq. 9.14
Tearing: By checking either one of the following
(a) Eq. 9.17
(b) Eq. 9.15 and 9.16, take the largest value.
4. Check for slenderness, Eq. 9.10
Example 9-4: Load Capacity of Angle

Determine the service load capacity in tension for an L6x4x 12 of A572 grade 50 steel connected with
in. diameter bolts as shown below. Assume a live load to dead load ratio of 3.0. Since there are many
fasteners, there is no need to check for shear failure.
7
8
Victor Saouma
911
Draft
Solution:
1. The net area is given by
(a) Section 1-1:
7 1
+
8 8
An = Ag 1 hole = 4.75
0.50 = 4.25 in2
(9.18)
(b) Section 1-2:

An
Ag 2 holes +
4.75 2
s2
4g
7 1
+
8 8
0.50 +
(9.19-a)
(2)2
(0.5) = 3.95 in2
4(2.5)
(9.19-b)
2. Since not both legs are connected, From Table 9.2 U = 0.85 and
Ae = U An = (0.85)(3.95) = 3.36 in2
(9.20)
3. Checking yielding failure of the gross area (Eq. 9.13)

t Tn
= t Fy Ag
= 0.90(50)(4.75) = 214 k
(9.21-a)
(9.21-b)
4. Checking for fracture in the net section, Eq. 9.14

t T n
t Fu Ae
(9.22-a)
0.75(65)(3.36) = 163.8 k
(9.22-b)
5. Thus the controlling t Tn is 163.8 Kips

6. Next we must determine the factored load, From Section 7.3.3 we consider Tn = 1.2D + 1.6L,
since L = 3D, this reduces to Tn = 1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6.0D or
Tn
L =
Victor Saouma
163.8 = 6.0D
27.3 k
(3)(27.3) = 81.9 k
(9.23-a)
(9.23-b)
(9.23-c)
912
Draft
Example 9-5: Shear Rupture
Investigate the shear rupture failure mode on the angle L4x4x 14 attached with three
bolts to a 38 in. gusset plate. The material is A36 steel.
7
8
in. diameter
Solution:
t Tn
t Fy Ag
(9.24-a)
= 0.90(36)(1.94)
= 62.9 k
(9.24-b)
(9.24-c)
2. Checking for fracture in the net section, Eq. (9.14)

t T n
=
=
=
t Fu Ae = t Fu U An
(9.25-a)
7 1
0.75(58)(0.85)[1.94 ( + )(0.25)]
8 8
62.5 k
(9.25-b)
(9.25-c)
3. Thus the controlling t Tn is 62.5 Kips

4. The block shear failure along path a-b-c investigated according to LRFD-J4 using Eq. 9.17 gives
Ans
=
=
=
t Tn
(length a-b-c less three holes)thickness

7 1
7.5 + 1.5 (3)( + ) 0.25
8 8
1.5 in2
(9.26-b)
(9.26-c)
= (0.6Fu )Ans
= 0.75(0.6)(58)(1.5)
=
(9.26-a)
(9.26-d)
(9.26-e)
39.15 k
(9.26-f)
Thus, block shear gives a lower design strength than yielding or fracture.
5. Had we instead used the larger of Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 we would have obtained
Victor Saouma
913
Draft
(a) Shear yielding-tension fracture:

t Tn
=
=
=
t (0.6Fy Avg + Fu Ant )
(9.27-a)
1 7 1
0.75 (0.6)(36) [(2 3) + 1.5] (0.25) + (58) 1.5 ( + ) (0.25) (9.27-b)
2 8 8
41.25 k
(9.27-c)
(b) Shear fracture -tension yielding:

t Tn
= t (0.6Fu Ans + Fy Atg )
(9.28-a)
7 1
= 0.75 (0.6)(58) 7.5 ( + )(2.5) (0.25) + (36)(1.5)(0.25)
8 8
(9.28-b)
(9.28-c)
42.75 k
6. Hence, when the more correct equations are used, the strength is controlled by block shear; t Tn =
43.8 k which is less than the fracture strength of 62.5 k.
7. This general result is expected when minimum number of connectors are used along with thin
elements such as 14 in. or less.
Example 9-6: Shear Rupture

Determine the service load that can be carried by this C15x33.9 section (Ag = 9.96 in2 ), assuming
that the load is 20% dead load, and 80% live load. A36 steel with 3/4 in. diameter bolts.
C15X33.9
3"
15"
t =0.4"
w
3"
3"
1.5"
3"
3"
Solution:
t Tn
t Fy Ag
(9.29-a)
0.90(36)(9.96) = 322 k
(9.29-b)
(9.29-c)
2. Checking for fracture in the net section, Eq. (9.14)
Victor Saouma
3 1
= 9.96 4( + )(0.4) = 9.96 4(0.875)(0.4) = 8.56 in2
4 8
U An = 0.85(8.56) = 7.276 in2
(9.30-b)
t Fu Ae = t Fu U An
(9.30-c)
0.75(58)(0.85)(7.276)] = 269. k
(9.30-d)
An
Ae
t Tn
(9.30-a)
914
Draft
3. Thus the controlling t Tn is 269 Kips
4. The block shear failure according to LRFD-J4 using Eq. 9.17 gives
Ans
t Tn
= [2(7.5) + 9 8(0.875)]0.4 = 6.80 in2

= (0.6Fu )Ans
= 0.75(0.6)(58)(6.8)
(9.31-a)
(9.31-b)
(9.31-c)
177.5 k
(9.31-d)
Thus, block shear gives a lower design strength than yielding or fracture.
5. Had we instead used the larger of Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 we would have obtained
(a) Shear yielding-tension fracture:
Avg
2(7.5)(0.4) = 6.00 in2
(9.32-a)
Ant
t Tn
=
=
[9 3(0.875)](0.4) = 2.55 in2

t (0.6Fy Avg + Fu Ant )
(9.32-b)
(9.32-c)
0.75[(0.6)(36)(6.0) + (58)(2.55)] = 208 in2
(9.32-d)
(9.32-e)
(b) Shear fracture -tension yielding:

Ans
Atg
t Tn
= 2[7.5 (2.5)(0.875)](0.4) = 4.25 in2
(9.33-a)
= (9)(0.4) = 3.60 in2

= t (0.6Fu Ans + Fy Atg )
(9.33-b)
(9.33-c)
= 0.75[(0.6)(58)(4.25) + (36)(3.6)] = 208 k
(9.33-d)
6. Thus the design tension T d is 208 kips

7. Finally we determine the service loads
DL =
LL =
0.2P
0.8P
(9.34-a)
(9.34-b)
1.4DL = (1.4)(0.2)P = 0.28P

1.2DL + 1.6LL = (1.2)(0.2P ) + (1.6)(0.8P ) = 1.52P
t Tn = 208 k = 1.52P P = 137 k
(9.34-c)
(9.34-d)
(9.34-e)
DL =
(0.2)(137) = 27 k
(9.34-f)
LL =
(0.8)(137) = 109 k
(9.34-g)
Note that P is the sum of the service loads (DL +LL).
Example 9-7: Complete Analysis/Design of a Truss

Design the tension members of a welded roof truss for the industrial building made of A36 steel.
Trusses are space 20 ft center to center.
Roof loads: 1) Built-up roofing: 5.5 psf; 2) Decking: 2.5 psf; 3) Purlins: 3.0 psf; 4) Truss (estimate)
3.0 psf.
Snow load 40 psf.
Trolley load on bottom chord: 6.4 k at L2 and L2 ; and 12.3 k at L5 .
Victor Saouma
915
Draft
Solution:
Loading: First we must determine the joint load in order to analyze the truss.
1. The total roof load is
(9.35)
5.5 + 2.5 + 3.0 + 3.0 = 14.0 psf

Top chord loads:
D
(14.0) psf(20) ft = 280 lbs/ft

(40.0) psf(20) ft = 800 lbs/ft
(9.36-a)
(9.36-b)
2. Next we must translate this vertical uniform load into joint loads on the truss
U0 , U0 : Snow Load:
Roof Load:
U1 , U1 : Snow Load:
Roof Load:
U2 , U2 , U3 , U3 , U4 , U4 , U4 : Snow Load:
Roof Load:
1
1
2 (6.42)(800) 1,000
1
1
2 (6.42)(280) 1,000
1
2 (6.42
1
2 (6.42
1
+ 6.00)(800) 1,000
1
+ 6.00)(280) 1,000
1
(6.00)(800) 1,000
1
(6.00)(280) 1,000
= 2.57 k (9.37-a)
= 0.9 k (9.37-b)
= 4.97 k (9.37-c)
= 1.74 k (9.37-d)
= 4.80 k (9.37-e)
= 1.68 k (9.37-f)
Analysis: With the load defined, we are now ready to perform a structural analysis of the truss:
1. We have three types of loads (Dead, Snow, and Live), and according to the AISC code (Sect.
7.3.3 we must consider the following three load conditions:
(a) 1.4 D
(b) 1.2D+1.6L+0.5S
(c) 1.2D+1.6S+0.5L
2. We have 22 joints, 3 reactions and 41 members; 22(2) = 41 + 3 thus the truss is statically
determinate.
3. In this case, the structure is symmetrical. That is there is no horizontal displacements at joints
L5 and U5 , however those joints undergo a vertical displacement. Hence, we can analyze the
left half of the truss, and assume that we do have roller supports along the y axis at joints
Victor Saouma
916
Draft
L5 and U5 . This substructure will have 3 reactions, 21 elements, and 12 joints. Thus, it is
statically determinate.
Note that at joint U5 we will apply only one half of the load due to symmetry.
4. Hence, we shall analyze the structure for each load (D, S, and L), and then determine the
various load combinations. This is best achieved by the Matrix method described in Sect.
5.2.2.1.
5. We renumber the truss as shown below.
6. Let us determine the direction cosines for each member4 .

Member
joint
Joint
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
6.42
0
6.42
6.42
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
0.
4.50
-4.50
0.54
5.04
0.
-5.04
.501
5.54
0.
-5.54
.501
6.04
0.
-6.04
.501
6.54
0.
-6.54
.501
7.04
6.42
4.50
7.84
6.44
5.04
6.0
7.84
6.02
5.54
6.0
8.17
6.02
6.04
6.0
8.51
6.02
6.54
6.0
8.88
6.02
7.04
1.0
0.
.82
1.0
0.
1.0
.77
1.0
0.
1.0
.73
1.0
0.
1.0
.71
1.0
0.
1.0
.68
1.0
0.
0.
1.0
-.57
.08
1.0
0.
-.64
.08
1.0
0.
-.68
.08
1.0
0.
-.71
.08
1.0
0.
-.74
.08
1.0
3
2
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
-6.42
0.
-6.42
-6.42
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
0.
-4.50
4.50
-0.54
-5.04
0.
5.04
-.501
-5.54
0.
5.54
-.501
-6.04
0.
6.04
-.501
-6.54
0.
6.54
-.501
-7.04
-1.0
0.
-.82
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.77
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.73
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.71
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.68
-1.0
0.
0.
-1.0
.57
-.08
-1.0
0.
.64
-.08
-1.0
0.
.68
-.08
-1
0.
.71
-.08
-1.0
0.
.74
-.08
-1.0
7. Having determined the directions cosines,and assuming all members under tension, the statics
[B] matrix can be assembled5 .
[B] = [BL |BR ]
4 Note
that the upper chord have an elevation of y = 4.5 + .08356x with respect to L0 .
that in assembling the matrix, each column corresponds to an unknown internal element force, or an external
reaction. Each row corresponds to an equation of equilibrium. To facilitate the construction of the matrix, equations of
equilibrium at each joint are lumped into a row containing two lines. The first line corresponds to Fx , and the second
u
one to Fy . Thus, the first line contains u
j , and the second j where the subscript corresponds to the joint (or row
number). The superscript corresponds to the column number or unknown quantity (member force or reaction). u
j and
ju are taken from the table above.
5 Note
Victor Saouma
917
Draft
or
# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6
[BL ] =
# 7
# 8
# 9
# 10
# 11
# 12
# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6
[BR ] =
# 7
# 8
# 9
# 10
# 11
# 12
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
1.
0.
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
0.
.82
.57
.82
.57
1.
.08
1.
.08
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
0.
.77
.64
.77
.64
1.
0.
1.
.08
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
.08
1.
0.
.73
.68
.73
.68
1.
0.
1.
.08
1.
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
0.
1.
0.
.71
.71
.71
.71
1.
.08
1.
.08
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
0.
1.
0.
.68
.74
.68
.74
1.0
.08
1.
.08
8. We will have three vectors of joint loads
1x
0.
P1
0.
0.
P
2x
P2
0.9 k
0.
P3
0.
PP43y
0.
1.74 k
P4
0.
0.
P55xy
0.
P6
1.68 k
x
=
P6
1
0.
y
0.
P7
0.
P7
k
1.68
P8
0.
P8
0.
P9
x
0.
P9
1.68 k
P10
x
0.
P10
y
0.
P
0.
12x
P12
y
1.
.08
0.84
+2
0.
0.
0.
2.57
0.
0.
0.
4.97
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
2.4
0.
1.
0.
1.
+3
1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
6.4
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
6.15
0.
0.
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
F16
F17
F18
F19
F20
F21
R1
y
R11
x
R12
x
Crane (Live Load)

Roof
Snow
9. There are many tools available to solve this problem. We will use Mathematica. Below is a
listing of our input file.
(* define the statics matrix
*)
b={
{ 1., 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 1. , 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0. , .82, 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., -1.,-.57, .08, 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{-1., 0.,-.82, 0., 0. , 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., .57, 0., 1. , 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
Victor Saouma
918
Draft
{ 0., 0., 0., -1., 0. , 0.,-.77, 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0.,

0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0.,-.08, -1., 0., .64, .08, 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1., .77, 0., 0. , 1. , 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-.64, 0., 1. , 0. , 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-1. , 0. , 0.,.73 , 1.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-.08, -1., 0.,-.68, .08,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1.,-.73, 0.,
0., 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0. ,.68 , 0.,
1., 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1.,
0., 0., .71, 1., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-.08,
-1., 0.,-.71,.08 , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., -1.,-.71, 0., 0. , 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0. , .71, 0., 1. , 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., -1., 0. , 0.,.68 , 1.0, 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0.,-.08, -1., 0.,-.74, .08, 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1.,-.68, 0., 0. , 0., 1. , 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0. , .74, 0., 1. , 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-1. , 0. , 0., 0., 1.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-.08, -1., 0., 0., 0.}
}
(* define the joint load vectors (roof, snow, and live)
*)
r=-{0., 0., 0., -0.9, 0., 0., 0., -1.74, 0., 0., 0., -1.68,
0., 0., 0., -1.68, 0., 0., 0., -1.68, 0., 0.,
0., -0.84}
s=-{0., 0., 0., -2.57, 0., 0., 0., -4.97, 0., 0., 0., -4.8,
0., 0., 0., -4.8 , 0., 0., 0., -4.8 , 0., 0.,
0., -2.4}
l=-{0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0.,
-6.4,
0.,
0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0.,-6.15, 0., 0.}
(* Invert the statics matrix b
*)
bm1=Inverse[b]
(* Solve for the roof, snow, and live load forces
*)
rf=N[bm1.r,2]
sf=N[bm1.s,2]
lf=N[bm1.l,2]
Print[" Dead (roof) Load Forces/Reactions"]
Print[rf]
Print[" Live (Crane) Load Forces/Reactions"]
Print[lf]
Print[" Snow Load Forces/Reactions"]
Print[sf]
(* Consider various load combinations ber AISC code
*)
lc1=N[1.4 rf,2]
lc2=N[1.2 rf + 1.6 lf +0.5 sf,2]
lc3=N[1.2 rf + 0.5 lf + 1.6 sf,2]
Print[" Load Combination 1: 1.4 D"]
Print[lc1]
Print[" Load Combination 2: 1.2 D + 1.6 L +0.5 S"]
Print[lc2]
Print[" Load Combination 3: 1.2 D +0.5 L +1.6 S"]
Print[lc3]
Print[" Get the Maximum load of each member"]
maxvec=Map[Max,Transpose[{lc1,lc2,lc3}]]
Print[" Get the Minimum load of each member"]
minvec=Map[Min,Transpose[{lc1,lc2,lc3}]]
(* Function definitions to prune results
*)
pos[x_]:=If[x>0,x,0]
neg[x_]:=If[x<0,x,0]
(* Get the vector with Maximum and Minimum forces
*)
tension=Map[pos,maxvec]
compression=Map[neg,minvec]
Victor Saouma
919
Draft
Print[" Vector of Tensile Forces"]

Print[tension]
Print[" Vector of Compressive Forces"]
Print[compression]
(* Define a function which will give the cross sectional area
*)
area[x_]:=If[x>0,x/(0.9*36),"-"]
(* Det ermine the area for each element which is under tension *)
xarea=N[Map[area,tempos],2]
Print[" Cross sectional areas for elements under tension"]
Print[xarea]
10. The following reactions are obtained

Load
Roof
Snow
Crane
R 1y
8.5
24
13.
R11x
19.
53.
38
R12x
-19.
-53.
-38
We observe that Fx = 0 , we check for Fy = 0 for the roof load (Never ever trust any
computer analysis unless you check at least equilibrium, and the order of magnitude
of the
deflections). The external joint load is 0.9 + 1.74 + 1.68 + 1.68 + 1.68 + 0.84 = 8.52 .
Design:
1. The above results can now be summarized in the following table

Member
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
L0 L1
U0 L0
U0 L1
U0 U1
U1 L1
L1 L2
U1 L2
U1 U2
U2 L2
L2 L3
U2 L3
U2 U3
U3 L3
L3 L4
U3 L4
U3 U4
U4 L4
L4 L5
U4 L5
U4 U5
U5 L5
Roof
0.
-8.5
12.
-9.8
-6.8
9.8
7.3
-15.
-4.6
15.
4.
-18.
-2.7
18.
1.4
-19.
-0.97
19.
-0.89
-19.
0.66
Load
Snow
0.
-24.
34.
-28.
-20.
28.
21.
-44.
-13.
44.
11.
-52.
-7.8
52.
3.9
-55.
-2.8
55.
-2.5
-53.
1.9
Live
0.
-13.
20.
-16.
-11.
16.
16.
-29.
-3.9
29.
5.2
-32.
-3.6
32.
4.6
-36.
-3.3
36.
4.2
-38.
3.1
Load Cases
1
2
3
0.
0.
0.
-12. -35. -55.
17.
52.
79.
-14. -43. -65.
-9.6 -30. -45.
14.
43.
65.
10.
38.
50.
-22. -72. -100.
-6.5 -14. -29.
22.
72.
100.
5.6
15.
26.
-26. -83. -120.
-3.8 -10. -18.
26.
83.
120.
1.9
9.8
10.
-27. -90. -130.
-1.4 -6.9 -7.3
27.
90.
130.
-1.2 5.1
-3.1
-26. -93. -130.
0.92
6.
5.3
Design Load
Compr. Tens.
0
0
-55.
0
0
79.
-65.
0
-45.
0
0.
65.
0.
50.
-100.
0
-29.
0
0
100.
0
26.
-120.
0
-18.
0
0
120.
0
10.
-130.
0
-7.3
0
0
130.
-3.1
5.1
-130.
0
0
6.
2. We now focus on the design of members with tensile forces (Note that member U4 L5 ) can
be subjected to both tensile and compressive forces).
Victor Saouma
920
Draft

Member
L0 L1
L1 L2
L2 L3
L3 L4
L4 L5
U0 L1
U1 L2
U2 L3
U3 L4
U4 L5
U5 L5
Des. Load
kip
65.
100.
120.
130.
79.
50.
26.
10.
5.1
6.
Reqd. Area
in2
2.01
3.09
3.70
4.01
2.44
1.54
0.80
0.31
0.16
0.19
Section
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
1
2L3x2 2 x 14
2L2x2x 14
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16
Area
in2
4.42
4.42
4.42
4.42
4.42
2.63
1.88
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43
L
in.
77.
72.
72.
72
72
94.
94.
98.
102.
107
84
rmin
in.
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
0.75
0.61
0.62
0.62
0.62
0.62
L
rmin
52
48
48
48
48
125
154
158
165
172
135
Comments:
1. We designed only the members under tension (Note that U4 L5 ) would also have to be
designed for compression.
2. The same size section was used for the entire lower chord. A smaller section could have been
used for L0 L2 , however the cost saving in steel would probably be offset by the additional
labor cost.
3. Similarly, additional savings would result in using different sections for the inclined members.
3
, for instance 2L2x2x 18 , however it is
4. Again we could have used angles smaller than 2L2x2x 16
3
preferable to avoid thicknesses smaller than 16 in. because of welding.
5. Angles with legs smaller than 2 in. could have been used, however those may not always be
available, and they may result in a slenderness ratio exceeding 300.
6. The joint details of a truss of this kind are usually worked out by the fabricator. How to
review them and approve them, the Engineer must know how to design them.
7. Design of steel connections will be covered in subsequent courses (note that however we have
seen above how to review some aspects of this design).
9.4
Computer Aided Analysis
In more advanced Structural Analysis courses (CVEN4525), you will be exposed to the computer aided
analysis of structures.
Using such a program (which will be made available later to you), following is the input data file:
*TITLE
Design of Welded truss
*CONTROL
12 21
1 0 6 2
*COORD
1
0.0
0.0
2
0.0
4.5
3
6.42
0.0
4
6.42
5.04
5 12.42
0.0
6 12.42
5.54
7 18.42
0.0
8 18.42
6.04
9 24.42
0.0
10 24.42
6.54
11 30.42
0.0
12 30.42
7.04
*BOUND
1 0 1
11 1 0
12 1 0
*ELEM
1 1 3 1
2 1 2 1
Victor Saouma
9.4 Computer Aided Analysis
921
Draft
3 2 3 1
4 2 4 1
5 3 4 1
6 3 5 1
7 4 5 1
8 4 6 1
9 5 6 1
10 5 7 1
11 6 7 1
12 6 8 1
13 7 8 1
14 7 9 1
15 8 9 1
16 8 10 1
17 9 10 1
18 9 11 1
19 10 11 1
20 10 12 1
21 11 12 1
*PROP
1 30000. 1.
*LOAD
3
3
Roof Load
6
0
0
2
0. -0.9
4
0. -1.74
6
0. -1.68
8
0. -1.68
10
0. -1.68
12
0. -0.84
Snow Load
6
0
0
2
0. -2.57
4
0. -4.97
6
0. -4.8
8
0. -4.8
10
0. -4.8
12
0. -2.4
Crane load
2
0
0
5
0. -6.4
11
0. -6.15
*COMB
LC 1
1
1 1.4
LC 2
3
1 1.2
2 0.5
3 1.6
LC 3
3
1 1.2
2 1.6
3 0.5
The output of such an analysis would be as follow. Compare those results with the one obtained by
inverting the statics matrix.
***********************************
I S D S
INTEGRATED STRUCTURAL DESIGN SYSTEM
***********************************
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIV. OF COLORADO, BOULDER, CO
Version 0.2
July 1991
NUMBER
OF
JOINTS
-----12
NUMBER
OF
MEMBERS
------21
NUMBER OF
PROPERTY
GROUPS
--------1
NUMBER OF
ELASTIC
SPRINGS
--------0
NUMBER OF
LOADING
CASES
--------6
ASSOCIATED D.O.F. NUMBERS AND COORDINATES

----------------------------------------JOINT DELTA-X DELTA-Y GLOBAL GLOBAL
NUMBER D.O.F.# D.O.F.# X-COOR Y-COOR
------ ------- ------- ------ -----1
1
0
0.0
0.0
2
2
3
0.0
4.5
3
4
5
6.4
0.0
4
6
7
6.4
5.0
5
8
9
12.4
0.0
6
10
11
12.4
5.5
7
12
13
18.4
0.0
8
14
15
18.4
6.0
9
16
17
24.4
0.0
Victor Saouma
STRUCTURE
TYPE CODE
NUMBER
--------2
LOAD CASE:
DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-6.8194E-02 0.0000E+00
2
4.6579E-02 -6.3711E-03
3
-6.8194E-02 -1.9852E-01
4
5.2197E-02 -2.0454E-01
5
-5.7975E-02 -3.5366E-01
6
4.7734E-02 -3.5703E-01
7
-4.0982E-02 -4.6059E-01
8
3.6636E-02 -4.6314E-01
9
-2.1247E-02 -5.2493E-01
10
2.0455E-02 -5.2659E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -5.4697E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -5.4536E-01
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 4.247E+01
11
1.090E+02 0.000E+00
12
-1.090E+02 0.000E+00
922
Draft
10
11
12
18
0
0
19
20
21
24.4
30.4
30.4
6.5
0.0
7.0
LOAD CASE:
MEMBER INCIDENCES AND PROPERTY GROUP ID NUMBERS

----------------------------------------------MEMBER START END PROPERTY
NUMBER JOINT JOINT GROUP #
------ ----- ----- -------1
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
3
2
3
1
4
2
4
1
5
3
4
1
6
3
5
1
7
4
5
1
8
4
6
1
9
5
6
1
10
5
7
1
11
6
7
1
12
6
8
1
13
7
8
1
14
7
9
1
15
8
9
1
16
8
10
1
17
9
10
1
18
9
11
1
19
10
11
1
20
10
12
1
21
11
12
1
REACTIONS
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 5.544E+01
11
1.251E+02 0.000E+00
12
-1.251E+02 0.000E+00
MEMBER LOADS
-----------MEMBER LOAD JOINT
AXIAL
NUMBER CASE NUMBER
LOAD
------ ---- ------ ---------
MEMBER PROPERTY GROUP DEFINITIONS

--------------------------------PROPERTY YOUNG"S
AREA OF
GROUP # MODULUS X-SECTION
-------- --------- --------1
3.0000E+04 1.0000E+00
1
2
NUMBER OF
APPLIED
LOAD CASES
---------3
NUMBER OF
COMBINED
LOAD CASES
---------3
3
4
5
6
load case:
Roof Load
1
2
APPLIED JOINT LOADS

------------------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
------ ---------- ---------2
0.000E+00 -9.000E-01
4
0.000E+00 -1.740E+00
6
0.000E+00 -1.680E+00
8
0.000E+00 -1.680E+00
10
0.000E+00 -1.680E+00
12
0.000E+00 -8.400E-01
1
2
3
4
5
6
3
load case:
Snow Load
1
2
3
APPLIED JOINT LOADS

------ ---------- ---------2
0.000E+00 -2.570E+00
4
0.000E+00 -4.970E+00
6
0.000E+00 -4.800E+00
8
0.000E+00 -4.800E+00
10
0.000E+00 -4.800E+00
12
0.000E+00 -2.400E+00
4
5
6
1
2
3
load case:
Crane load
4
5
APPLIED JOINT LOADS

------ ---------- ---------5
0.000E+00 -6.400E+00
11
0.000E+00 -6.150E+00
1
2
3
R E S U L T
OF
M E S H
O P T I M I Z A T I O N
4
INITIAL MESH
2
21
BANDWIDTH
PROFILE
OPTIMIZED MESH
2
21
5
6
OLD NODES :
NEW NODES :
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
1
2
SKYLINE SOLVER STATISTICS

AVERAGE BANDWIDTH...............................
NUMBER OF EQUATIONS.............................
NUMBER OF NON-ZERO ELEMENTS IN STIFFNESS MATRIX.
MAXIMUM CAPACITY OF EACH BLOCK..................
Victor Saouma
DISPLACEMENTS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-8.2746E-02 0.0000E+00
2
5.5835E-02 -8.3164E-03
3
-8.2746E-02 -2.4162E-01
4
6.2249E-02 -2.4915E-01
5
-6.9944E-02 -4.2656E-01
6
5.6902E-02 -4.3183E-01
7
-4.9587E-02 -5.5737E-01
8
4.3305E-02 -5.6085E-01
9
-2.5489E-02 -6.3314E-01
10
2.3701E-02 -6.3466E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -6.5504E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -6.5373E-01
3
4
21
101
101
4
5
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
8.520E+00
-8.520E+00
2.434E+01
-2.434E+01
1.255E+01
-1.255E+01
1.193E+01
-1.193E+01
4.247E+01
-4.247E+01
5.544E+01
-5.544E+01
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
-1.185E+01
1.185E+01
-3.386E+01
3.386E+01
-1.952E+01
1.952E+01
-1.659E+01
1.659E+01
-6.239E+01
6.239E+01
-7.817E+01
7.817E+01
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
9.741E+00
-9.741E+00
2.783E+01
-2.783E+01
1.604E+01
-1.604E+01
1.364E+01
-1.364E+01
5.127E+01
-5.127E+01
6.424E+01
-6.424E+01
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
6.804E+00
-6.804E+00
1.944E+01
-1.944E+01
1.121E+01
-1.121E+01
9.525E+00
-9.525E+00
3.581E+01
-3.581E+01
4.487E+01
-4.487E+01
3
5
3
5
3
5
3
5
3
5
-9.706E+00
9.706E+00
-2.773E+01
2.773E+01
-1.599E+01
1.599E+01
-1.359E+01
1.359E+01
-5.109E+01
5.109E+01
9.4 Computer Aided Analysis
Draft
NUMBER OF BLOCK(S)..............................
MAXIM. CAPACITY FOR CONTROL INFORMATION.........
ESTIMATE OF UNUSED STORAGE FOR EACH BLOCK.......
1
21
11
LENGTH OF STIFFNESS ARRAY.......................

TOTAL LENGTH OF ARRAY AVAILABLE.................
TOTAL NUMBER OF I/O PERFORMED...................
101
49106
0
923
3
5
-6.401E+01
6.401E+01
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
-7.173E+00
7.173E+00
-2.049E+01
2.049E+01
-1.587E+01
1.587E+01
-1.004E+01
1.004E+01
-4.424E+01
4.424E+01
-4.933E+01
4.933E+01
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6
1.525E+01
-1.525E+01
4.357E+01
-4.357E+01
2.823E+01
-2.823E+01
2.135E+01
-2.135E+01
8.526E+01
-8.526E+01
1.021E+02
-1.021E+02
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
4.613E+00
-4.613E+00
1.318E+01
-1.318E+01
3.805E+00
-3.805E+00
6.459E+00
-6.459E+00
1.822E+01
-1.822E+01
2.853E+01
-2.853E+01
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7
-1.520E+01
1.520E+01
-4.342E+01
4.342E+01
-2.814E+01
2.814E+01
-2.128E+01
2.128E+01
-8.497E+01
8.497E+01
-1.018E+02
1.018E+02
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
-3.966E+00
3.966E+00
-1.133E+01
1.133E+01
-5.145E+00
5.145E+00
-5.553E+00
5.553E+00
-1.866E+01
1.866E+01
-2.546E+01
2.546E+01
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
1.818E+01
-1.818E+01
5.193E+01
-5.193E+01
3.203E+01
-3.203E+01
2.545E+01
-2.545E+01
9.902E+01
-9.902E+01
1.209E+02
-1.209E+02
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
2.691E+00
-2.691E+00
7.688E+00
-7.688E+00
3.490E+00
-3.490E+00
3.767E+00
-3.767E+00
1.266E+01
-1.266E+01
1.727E+01
-1.727E+01
7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9
-1.811E+01
1.811E+01
-5.175E+01
5.175E+01
-3.192E+01
3.192E+01
-2.536E+01
2.536E+01
-9.867E+01
9.867E+01
-1.205E+02
1.205E+02
8
9
8
9
8
9
-1.316E+00
1.316E+00
-3.759E+00
3.759E+00
-4.544E+00
4.544E+00
2
3
4
load case:
LC 1
4
5
6
NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------1
1
2
LOAD CASE COMBINATION

ID NUMBER
FACTOR
--------- ----------1
1.400
3
4
5
6
load case:
LC 2
5
9
NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------3

ID NUMBER
FACTOR
--------- ----------1
1.200
2
0.500
3
1.600
3
4
10
1
2
load case:
LC 3
3
4
NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------3
5
6
11
ID NUMBER
FACTOR
--------- ----------1
1.200
2
1.600
3
0.500
1
2
3
4
5
LOAD CASE:
DISPLACEMENTS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-1.2412E-02 0.0000E+00
2
8.3395E-03 -1.2780E-03
3
-1.2412E-02 -3.6280E-02
4
9.2804E-03 -3.7423E-02
5
-1.0470E-02 -6.3848E-02
6
8.4821E-03 -6.4700E-02
7
-7.4305E-03 -8.3526E-02
8
6.4357E-03 -8.4067E-02
9
-3.8080E-03 -9.4769E-02
10
3.4968E-03 -9.4973E-02
11
0.0000E+00 -9.7803E-02
12
0.0000E+00 -9.7640E-02
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
13
1
2
3
REACTIONS
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 8.520E+00
11
1.840E+01 0.000E+00
12
-1.840E+01 0.000E+00
4
5
6
14
1
2
LOAD CASE:
2
3
DISPLACEMENTS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-3.5460E-02 0.0000E+00
2
2.3826E-02 -3.6510E-03
3
-3.5460E-02 -1.0365E-01
4
2.6515E-02 -1.0692E-01
5
-2.9914E-02 -1.8242E-01
6
2.4234E-02 -1.8485E-01
7
-2.1229E-02 -2.3864E-01
8
1.8387E-02 -2.4018E-01
Victor Saouma
4
5
6
15
1
2
3
924
Draft
9
10
11
12
-1.0880E-02
9.9907E-03
0.0000E+00
0.0000E+00
-2.7076E-01
-2.7134E-01
-2.7943E-01
-2.7896E-01
4
5
6
REACTIONS
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 2.434E+01
11
5.258E+01 0.000E+00
12
-5.258E+01 0.000E+00
16
1
2
3
4
5
LOAD CASE:
3
6
DISPLACEMENTS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-2.2231E-02 0.0000E+00
2
1.5411E-02 -1.8825E-03
3
-2.2231E-02 -6.4475E-02
4
1.7377E-02 -6.6357E-02
5
-1.9034E-02 -1.1615E-01
6
1.5899E-02 -1.1685E-01
7
-1.3407E-02 -1.5065E-01
8
1.2325E-02 -1.5136E-01
9
-7.0236E-03 -1.7239E-01
10
7.0396E-03 -1.7310E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -1.8119E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -1.8045E-01
17
3
4
5
6
18
3
4
5
6
19
4
DISPLACEMENTS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-1.7376E-02 0.0000E+00
2
1.1675E-02 -1.7892E-03
3
-1.7376E-02 -5.0792E-02
4
1.2993E-02 -5.2392E-02
5
-1.4658E-02 -8.9387E-02
6
1.1875E-02 -9.0580E-02
7
-1.0403E-02 -1.1694E-01
8
9.0100E-03 -1.1769E-01
9
-5.3311E-03 -1.3268E-01
10
4.8956E-03 -1.3296E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -1.3692E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -1.3670E-01
REACTIONS
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 1.193E+01
11
2.576E+01 0.000E+00
12
-2.576E+01 0.000E+00
Victor Saouma
1
2
REACTIONS
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 1.255E+01
11
3.787E+01 0.000E+00
12
-3.787E+01 0.000E+00
LOAD CASE:
1
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
21
1
2
8
9
8
9
8
9
-1.842E+00
1.842E+00
-1.073E+01
1.073E+01
-9.865E+00
9.865E+00
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
1.911E+01
-1.911E+01
5.459E+01
-5.459E+01
3.524E+01
-3.524E+01
2.675E+01
-2.675E+01
1.066E+02
-1.066E+02
1.279E+02
-1.279E+02
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9.333E-01
-9.333E-01
2.667E+00
-2.667E+00
3.224E+00
-3.224E+00
1.307E+00
-1.307E+00
7.611E+00
-7.611E+00
6.999E+00
-6.999E+00
9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11
-1.904E+01
1.904E+01
-5.440E+01
5.440E+01
-3.512E+01
3.512E+01
-2.666E+01
2.666E+01
-1.062E+02
1.062E+02
-1.274E+02
1.274E+02
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
9.413E-01
-9.413E-01
2.689E+00
-2.689E+00
-4.064E+00
4.064E+00
1.318E+00
-1.318E+00
-4.028E+00
4.028E+00
3.400E+00
-3.400E+00
10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12
1.847E+01
-1.847E+01
5.276E+01
-5.276E+01
3.800E+01
-3.800E+01
2.585E+01
-2.585E+01
1.093E+02
-1.093E+02
1.256E+02
-1.256E+02
11
12
11
12
-6.936E-01
6.936E-01
-1.982E+00
1.982E+00
Draft
Chapter 10
INTERNAL FORCES IN
STRUCTURES
This chapter will start as a review of shear and moment diagrams which you have studied in both
Statics and Strength of Materials, and will proceed with the analysis of statically determinate frames,
arches and grids.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to draw the shear, moment and torsion (when applicable)
diagrams for each member of a structure.
Those diagrams will subsequently be used for member design. For instance, for flexural design, we will
consider the section subjected to the highest moment, and make sure that the internal moment is equal
and opposite to the external one. For the ASD method, the basic beam equation (derived in Strength of
Materials) = MIC , (where M would be the design moment obtained from the moment diagram) would
have to be satisfied.
3
Some of the examples first analyzed in chapter 4 (Reactions), will be revisited here. Later on, we will
determine the deflections of those same problems.
10.1
Design Sign Conventions
Before we (re)derive the Shear-Moment relations, let us arbitrarily define a sign convention.
The sign convention adopted here, is the one commonly used for design purposes1 .
With reference to Fig. 10.1
2D:
Load Positive along the beams local y axis (assuming a right hand side convention), that is
positive upward.
Axial: tension positive.
Flexure A positive moment is one which causes tension in the lower fibers, and compression in
the upper ones. Alternatively, moments are drawn on the compression side (useful to keep in
mind for frames).
Shear A positive shear force is one which is up on a negative face, or down on a positive one.
Alternatively, a pair of positive shear forces will cause clockwise rotation.
Torsion Counterclockwise positive
3D: Use double arrow vectors (and NOT curved arrows). Forces and moments (including torsions) are
defined with respect to a right hand side coordinate system, Fig. ??.
1 Later
on, in more advanced analysis courses we will use a different one.
102
INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES
Draft
+ Axial Force
+ve Load
+
+ve Shear
+ve Moment
Figure 10.1: Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design
My
Tx
Mz
My
Mz
Tx
Figure 10.2: Sign Conventions for 3D Frame Elements
Victor Saouma
10.2 Load, Shear, Moment Relations
103
Draft
10.2
Load, Shear, Moment Relations
Let us (re)derive the basic relations between load, shear and moment. Considering an infinitesimal
length dx of a beam subjected to a positive load2 w(x), Fig. 10.3. The infinitesimal section must also
Figure 10.3: Free Body Diagram of an Infinitesimal Beam Segment

be in equilibrium.
9 There are no axial forces, thus we only have two equations of equilibrium to satisfy Fy = 0 and
Mz = 0.
10 Since dx is infinitesimally small, the small variation in load along it can be neglected, therefore we
assume w(x) to be constant along dx.
To denote that a small change in shear and moment occurs over the length dx of the element, we add
the differential quantities dVx and dMx to Vx and Mx on the right face.
11
12
Next considering the first equation of equilibrium

(+ ) Fy = 0 Vx + wx dx (Vx + dVx ) = 0
or
dV
= w(x)
dx
(10.1)
The slope of the shear curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by the load
curve at that point.
13
Similarly
dx
(Mx + dMx ) = 0
(+ )
MO = 0 Mx + Vx dx wx dx
2
Neglecting the dx2 term, this simplifies to

dM
= V (x)
dx
(10.2)
The slope of the moment curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by the shear
at that point.
14
Alternative forms of the preceding equations

V
w(x)dx
V21
Vx2 Vx1 =
(10.3)
x2
w(x)dx
(10.4)
x1
2 In
this derivation, as in all other ones we should assume all quantities to be positive.
Victor Saouma
104
Draft
The change in shear between 1 and 2, V12 , is equal to the area under the load between
x1 and x2 .
and
M
V (x)dx
M21
M2 M1 =
(10.5)
x2
V (x)dx (10.6)
x1
The change in moment between 1 and 2, M21 , is equal to the area under the shear curve
between x1 and x2 .
15
Note that we still need to have V1 and M1 in order to obtain V2 and M2 .
Similar relations will be determined later (Chapter 12) between curvature

12.30).
16
M
EI
and rotation (Eq.
17 Fig. 10.4 and 10.5 further illustrates the variation in internal shear and moment under uniform and
concentrated forces/moment.
Figure 10.4: Shear and Moment Forces at Different Sections of a Loaded Beam
10.3
18
Moment Envelope
For design, we often must consider different load combinations.
19 For each load combination, we should draw the shear, moment diagrams. and then we should use the
Moment envelope for design purposes.
10.4
Examples
10.4.1
Beams
Example 10-1: Simple Shear and Moment Diagram

Victor Saouma
10.4 Examples
Draft
105
Positive Constant
Negative Constant
Positive Increasing Positive Decreasing Negative Increasing Negative Decreasing
Positive Constant
Negative Constant
Positive Increasing Positive Decreasing Negative Increasing Negative Decreasing
Load
Shear
Shear
Moment
Figure 10.5: Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment
Draw the shear and moment diagram for the beam shown below
Solution:
The free body diagram is drawn below
Victor Saouma
106
Draft
Reactions are determined from the equilibrium equations

(+
) Fx = 0;
M = 0;
(+ )
A
(+ ) Fy = 0;
RAx + 6 = 0 RAx = 6 k
(11)(4) + (8)(10) + (4)(2)(14 + 2) RFy (18) = 0 RFy = 14 k
RAy 11 8 (4)(2) + 14 = 0 RAy = 13 k
Shear are determined next.

1. At A the shear is equal to the reaction and is positive.
2. At B the shear drops (negative load) by 11 k to 2 k.
3. At C it drops again by 8 k to 6 k.
4. It stays constant up to D and then it decreases (constant negative slope since the load is
uniform and negative) by 2 k per linear foot up to 14 k.
5. As a check, 14 k is also the reaction previously determined at F .
Moment is determined last:
1. The moment at A is zero (hinge support).
2. The change in moment between A and B is equal to the area under the corresponding shear
diagram, or MBA = (13)(4) = 52.
3. etc...
Example 10-2: Sketches of Shear and Moment Diagrams

Victor Saouma
10.4 Examples
Draft
107
For each of the following examples, sketch the shear and moment diagrams.
10.4.2
Frames
20 Inclined loads on inclined members are often mishandled. With reference to Fig. 10.6 we would have
the following relations
Victor Saouma
108
Draft
L
w1
ly
lx
LX
w4
w2
LY
w3
lx
lx
Figure 10.6: Inclined Loads on Inclined Members
lx
l
ly
l
ly
lx
ly
lx
+ w2 + w3 + w4
l
l
l
l
ly
lx
ly
lx
w1 L + w2 L + w3 LY + w4 LX
l
l
l
l
w1
(10.7)
(10.8)
cos
(10.9)
sin
(10.10)
Example 10-3: Frame Shear and Moment Diagram

Draw the shear and moment diagram of the following frame
Solution:
Victor Saouma
10.4 Examples
109
Draft
Reactions are determined first

(+
) Fx = 0;
M = 0;
(+ )
A
4
RAx (3)(15) = 0
5
load
RAx = 36 k
9
3
(3)(30)( 30
2 ) + 5 (3)(15) 30 + 2
CDY
12
4
(3)(15) 39RDy = 0
5
2
CDX
RDy = 52.96 k
(+ ) Fy = 0; RAy (3)(30) 35 (3)(15) + 52.96 = 0
RAy = 64.06 k
Victor Saouma
1010
Draft
Shear:
1. For A B, the shear is constant, equal to the horizontal reaction at A and negative according
to our previously defined sign convention, VA = 36 k
2. For member B C at B, the shear must be equal to the vertical force which was transmitted
along A B, and which is equal to the vertical reaction at A, VB = 64.06.
3. Since B C is subjected to a uniform negative load, the shear along B C will have a slope
equal to 3 and in terms of x (measured from B to C) is equal to
VBC (x) = 64.06 3x
4. The shear along C D is obtained by decomposing the vertical reaction at D into axial and
shear components. Thus at D the shear is equal to 35 52.96 = 31.78 k and is negative. Based
on our sign convention for the load, the slope of the shear must be equal to 3 along C D.
Thus the shear at point C is such that Vc 53 9(3) = 31.78 or Vc = 13.22. The equation for
the shear is given by (for x going from C to D)
V = 13.22 3x
5. We check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of node C
) Fx = 0
(+
(+ ) Fy = 0
3
5 (42.37)
4
5 (42.37)
+ 45 (13.22) = 25.42 + 10.58 = 36

35 (13.22) = 33.90 7.93 = 25.97
Moment:
1. Along A B, the moment is zero at A (since we have a hinge), and its slope is equal to the
shear, thus at B the moment is equal to (36)(12) = 432 k.ft
2. Along B C, the moment is equal to
x
MBC
VBC (x)dx = 432 +
MB +
0
432 + 64.06x 3 x2
(64.06 3x)dx
0
which is a parabola. Substituting for x = 30, we obtain at node C: MC = 432 + 64.06(30)

2
3 302 = 139.8 k.ft
BC
3. If we need to determine the maximum moment along B C, we know that dMdx
= 0 at the
64.06
point where VBC = 0, that is VBC (x) = 64.06 3x = 0 x = 3 = 25.0 ft. In other
words, maximum moment occurs where the shear is zero.
2
max
= 432 + 64.06(25.0) 3 (25.0)
= 432 + 1, 601.5 937.5 = 232 k.ft
Thus MBC
2
4. Finally along C D, the moment varies quadratically (since we had a linear shear), the
moment first increases (positive shear), and then decreases (negative shear). The moment
along C D is given by
MCD
= MC + 0 VCD (x)dx = 139.8 +

2
= 139.8 + 13.22x 3 x2
x
(13.22
0
3x)dx
which is a parabola.
2
Substituting for x= 15, we obtain at node C MC = 139.8 + 13.22(15) 3 152 = 139.8 +
198.3 337.5 = 0
Example 10-4: Frame Shear and Moment Diagram; Hydrostatic Load

Victor Saouma
10.4 Examples
1011
Draft
The frame shown below is the structural support of a flume. Assuming that the frames are spaced 2
ft apart along the length of the flume,
1. Determine all internal member end actions
2. Draw the shear and moment diagrams
3. Locate and compute maximum internal bending moments
4. If this is a reinforced concrete frame, show the location of the reinforcement.
Solution:
The hydrostatic pressure causes lateral forces on the vertical members which can be treated as
cantilevers fixed at the lower end.
The pressure is linear and is given by p = h. Since each frame supports a 2 ft wide slice of the
flume, the equation for w (pounds/foot) is
w
= (2)(62.4)(h)
= 124.8h lbs/ft
At the base w = (124.8)(6) = 749 lbs/ft = .749 k/ft Note that this is both the lateral pressure on the
end walls as well as the uniform load on the horizontal members.
Victor Saouma
1012
Draft
End Actions
1. Base force at B is FBx = (.749) 62 = 2.246 k
2. Base moment at B is MB = (2.246) 63 = 4.493 k.ft
3. End force at B for member B E are equal and opposite.
4. Reaction at C is RCy = (.749) 16
2 = 5.99 k
Shear forces
1. Base at B the shear force was determined earlier and was equal to 2.246 k. Based on the
orientation of the x y axis, this is a negative shear.
2. The vertical shear at B is zero (neglecting the weight of A B)
3. The shear to the left of C is V = 0 + (.749)(3) = 2.246 k.
4. The shear to the right of C is V = 2.246 + 5.99 = 3.744 k
Moment diagrams
1. At the base: B M = 4.493 k.ft as determined above.
2. At the support C, Mc = 4.493 + (.749)(3)( 32 ) = 7.864 k.ft
3. The maximum moment is equal to Mmax = 7.864 + (.749)(5)( 52 ) = 1.50 k.ft
Victor Saouma
10.4 Examples
Draft
1013
Design: Reinforcement should be placed along the fibers which are under tension, that is on the side
of the negative moment3 . The figure below schematically illustrates the location of the flexural4
reinforcement.
Example 10-5: Shear Moment Diagrams for Frame

3 That is why in most European countries, the sign convention for design moments is the opposite of the one commonly
used in the U.S.A.; Reinforcement should be placed where the moment is postive.
4 Shear reinforcement is made of a series of vertical stirrups.
Victor Saouma
1014
Draft
12
10
2k/ft
30k
5k/ft
Vba
C
Hbd
M ba
Vbc
10k
5
20k
VA
Vbd
52.5k
M bc
M bd
30k
15
0
0
0
650k
450k
HD
4k/ft
200k
82.5k
VD
CHECK
30k
2k/ft 10k
5k/ft
B
Hba
M ba
Vba
17.5k
Hbc
M bc
C
Vbc
(10)+(2)(10) 30k
17.5-5x=0
-22.5k
3.5
-22.5+(-30)
10k
Vbc
17.5k
M bc
-200k
17.5-(5)(8)
(10)(10)+(2)(10)(10)/2
Vba
-52.5k
30.6k
(17.5)(3.5)/2
-20k
(17.5)(3.5)/2+(-22.5)(8-3.5)/2
(-52.5)(12)+(-20)
-650k
M ba
Vbd
M bd
50k
20k
450k
(50)(15)-[(4)(5)/2][(2)(15)/3)]
(50)-(4)(15)/2
450k
Hbd
20k
4k/ft
50k
82.5k
Example 10-6: Shear Moment Diagrams for Inclined Frame

Victor Saouma
10.4 Examples
1015
Draft
26k
26k
10
13
10
13
13
20k
C
13
5
12
15
B
2k/ft
20
Ha
36
20
Ve
48.8k
2k/ft
60k
Fx
800k
0k
60k
2
7.69k
1k
20k
(20)(15)/13=7.7
0k
0k
39.1k
CD
7
29.3k
48.9k
1
800k
9 B-C
13
11 C-D
777k
130k
-16 k
7k
1,130-(.58)(13)
k
800+(25.4)(13)
1122
3.1
8 B-C
77
-2
.1k
-2 39.
1,122-(26.6)(13)
k 26.6k
-0.58 6 - -0.6-26
25.42
(39.1)(12.5)
488k
12 C-D
14
-23
.1
k 6.6k k
8
5
.
-0
-2
-39
.
0k
113
1k
2k
112
(20)(12)/(13)=18.46
(19.2)(5)/(13)=7.38
(19.2)(12)/(13)=17.72
(26)(12)/(13)=24
(26.6)(13)/(12)=28.8
(26.6)(5)/(12)=11.1
(28.8)(4)/(5)=23.1
(28.8)(3)/(5)=17.28
(20)(4)/(5)=16
(20)(3)/(5)=12
(39.1)(5)/(4)=48.9
(39.1)(3)/(4)=29.3
777k
48
800k
+60k
+20k
+25.4
10
-23
488+(23.1)(12.5)
+25
8k
12k
778k
BC
19.2k
7.7
17.7+ .4k
16k
11.1k
28.8k
20k
18.46k
7.38k
17.2
23.
0k
26.6k
800k
48.8k
28.8k
778k
10k
24k
24k
20-10-10
26k
26k
10k
17.72k
F/Fy=z/x
F/Fx=z/y
Fx/Fy=y/x
ED
1
y
x
AB
19.2k
Fy
20k
60-(2)(20)
20k
(20)(20)+(60-20)(20)/2
19.2k
800k
(60)(20)-(2)(20)(20)/2
Va
10.4.3
3D Frame
Example 10-7: 3D Frame
Victor Saouma
1016
Draft
1. The frame has a total of 6 reactions (3 forces and 3 moments) at the support, and we have a total
of 6 equations of equilibrium, thus it is statically determinate.
2. Each member has the following internal forces (defined in terms of the local coordinate system of
each member x y z )
Member
Member
C D
BC
AB
Axial
Nx
Internal Forces
Shear
Moment
Vy
Vz
My
Mz
Torsion
Tx
3. The numerical calculations for the analysis of this three dimensional frame are quite simple, however
the main complexity stems from the difficulty in visualizing the inter-relationships between internal
forces of adjacent members.
4. In this particular problem, rather than starting by determining the reactions, it is easier to determine the internal forces at the end of each member starting with member C D. Note that
temporarily we adopt a sign convention which is compatible with the local coordinate systems.
C-D
Fy
Fz
My
Mz
=0
=0
=0
=0
VyC = (20)(2) = +40kN

VzC
= +60kN
MyC
= (60)(2) = 120kN.m
C
Mz
= (20)(2) 22 = +40kN.m
Fx
Fy
My
Mz
Tx
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
NxB
VyB
MyB
MzB
TxB
B-C
Victor Saouma
= VzC
= VyC
= MyC
C
= V y (4)
= MzC
= 60kN
= +40kN
= 120kN.m
= (40)(4) = +160kN.m
= 40kN.m
10.4 Examples
1017
Draft
A-B
Fx
Fy
My
Mz
Tx
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
NxA
VyA
MyA
MzA
TxA
= VyB
= NxB
= TxB
= MzB + NxB (4) = 160 + (60)(4)
= MyB
= +40kN
= +60kN
= +40kN.m
= +400kN.m
= 120kN.m
The interaction between axial forces N and shear V as well as between moments M and torsion
T is clearly highlighted by this example.
120 kN-m
60
C
B
40 kN
160
kN
m
-m
40 kN
N- kN
k
40 60
120 kN-m
40 kN N
120 kN-m
k
60
-m
kN
40
160
kN
m
160 -m
kN
0
4
kN
-m
N
40
kN
k
60
120 kN-m
120 kN-m
120 kN-m -m
kN
40
kN
60
-m
N
0k
kN
60
kN
40
120 kN-m 40 kN
40 kN
60
kN
40
20 kN/m
kN
-m
60
kN
kN
120 kN-m
40 kN kN
60
-m
40
kN
160
kN
-m
-m
N
0k
Victor Saouma
400
kN
N 120 kN-m-m
k
60
40 kN
1018
Draft
y
C
40
z
40
160
120
60
D
M
x
V
40
40
120
D
x
x
60
40
A
y
A
z
V
10.5
21
x
B
160
120
A
400
z
M
Arches
See section ??.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 11
ARCHES and CURVED

STRUCTURES
1
This chapter will concentrate on the analysis of arches.
The concepts used are identical to the ones previously seen, however the major (and only) difference
is that equations will be written in polar coordinates.
Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moment in long span structures. Essentially,
an arch can be considered as an inverted cable, and is transmits the load primarily through axial
compression, but can also resist flexure through its flexural rigidity.
A parabolic arch uniformly loaded will be loaded in compression only.
A semi-circular arch unifirmly loaded will have some flexural stresses in addition to the compressive
ones.
11.1
Arches
In order to optimize dead-load efficiency, long span structures should have their shapes approximate the
coresponding moment diagram, hence an arch, suspended cable, or tendon configuration in a prestressed
concrete beam all are nearly parabolic, Fig. 20.1.
Long span structures can be built using flat construction such as girders or trusses. However, for spans
in excess of 100 ft, it is often more economical to build a curved structure such as an arch, suspended
cable or thin shells.
Since the dawn of history, mankind has tried to span distances using arch construction. Essentially
this was because an arch required materials to resist compression only (such as stone, masonary, bricks),
and labour was not an issue.
The basic issues of static in arch design are illustrated in Fig. 20.2 where the vertical load is per unit
horizontal projection (such as an external load but not a self-weight). Due to symmetry, the vertical
reaction is simply V = wL
2 , and there is no shear across the midspan of the arch (nor a moment). Taking
moment about the crown,
wL L L
=0
(11.1)
M = Hh
2
2
4
9
Solving for H
H=
wL2
8h
(11.2)
We recall that a similar equation was derived for arches., and H is analogous to the C T forces in a
beam, and h is the overall height of the arch, Since h is much larger than d, H will be much smaller
112
ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES
Draft
2
M = w L /8
L
w=W/L
IDEALISTIC ARCH
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
C
RISE = h
-C
BEAM
+T
W/2
M-ARM small
C C-T large
BEAM
T
-C
+T
SAG = h
W/2
IDEALISTIC SUSPENSION
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
NOTE THAT THE "IDEAL" SHAPE FOR AN ARCH OR SUSPENSION

SYSTEM IS EQUIVILENT TO THE DESIGN LOAD MOMENT DIAGRAM
Figure 11.1: Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981)
wL/2
H
h
H = wL2 /8h
L/2
R
R
V = wL/2
R = V 2+ H
V = wL/2
2
MCROWN = VL/2 - wL /8 - H h = 0
M BASE
= wL2 /8 - H h = 0
Figure 11.2: Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
11.1 Arches
113
Draft
than C T in a beam.
Since equilibrium requires H to remain constant across thee arch, a parabolic curve would theoretically
result in no moment on the arch section.
10
11 Three-hinged arches are statically determinate structures which shape can acomodate support settlements and thermal expansion without secondary internal stresses. They are also easy to analyse through
statics.
12 An arch carries the vertical load across the span through a combination of axial forces and flexural
ones. A well dimensioned arch will have a small to negligible moment, and relatively high normal
compressive stresses.
13 An arch is far more efficient than a beam, and possibly more economical and aesthetic than a truss
in carrying loads over long spans.
14 If the arch has only two hinges, Fig. 20.3, or if it has no hinges, then bending moments may exist
either at the crown or at the supports or at both places.
h
M base
H=wl 2/8h<
wl /8h
H
2
APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE
APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
H<H H<H
M crown
M base
L
V
Figure 11.3: Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

15 Since H varies inversely to the rise h, it is obvious that one should use as high a rise as possible. For
a combination of aesthetic and practical considerations, a span/rise ratio ranging from 5 to 8 or perhaps
as much as 12, is frequently used. However, as the ratio goes higher, we may have buckling problems,
and the section would then have a higher section depth, and the arch advantage diminishes.
16 In a parabolic arch subjected to a uniform horizontal load there is no moment. However, in practice
an arch is not subjected to uniform horizontal load. First, the depth (and thus the weight) of an arch
is not usually constant, then due to the inclination of the arch the actual self weight is not constant.
Finally, live loads may act on portion of the arch, thus the line of action will not necessarily follow the
arch centroid. This last effect can be neglected if the live load is small in comparison with the dead load.
17 Since the greatest total force in the arch is at the support, (R =

V 2 + H 2 ), whereas at the crown
we simply have H, the crown will require a smaller section than the support.
h
M base
H=wl 2/8h<
wl /8h
H
2
APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE
APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
H<H H<H
V
M crown
M base
L
V
Figure 11.4: Arch Rib Stiffened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
114
Draft
11.1.1
Statically Determinate
Example 11-1: Three Hinged Arch, Point Loads. (Gerstle 1974)

Determine the reactions of the three-hinged arch shown in Fig. 20.5
Figure 11.5:
Solution:
Four unknowns, three equations of equilibrium, one equation of condition statically determinate.
M C
(+ )
z
0;
(+ ) Fx
) Fy
(+
M B
(+ )
=
=
=
0;
0;
0;
(RAy )(140) + (80)(3.75) (30)(80) (20)(40) + RAx (26.25)

140RAy + 26.25RAx
80 RAx RCx
RAy + RCy 30 20
(Rax )(60) (80)(30) (30)(20) + (RAy )(80)
80RAy + 60RAx
Solving those four equations simultaneously we have:

140 26.25 0 0
RAy
2, 900
R
80
1
0
1
Ax
=
1
R
0
1 0
Cy

50
RCx
3, 000
80
60
0 0
RAy
RAx
RCy
RCx
15.1
29.8
=

34.9
50.2
k
k
k
k
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
2.900
0
0
0
3, 000
(11.3)
We can check our results by considering the summation with respect to b from the right:
(+ ) MzB = 0; (20)(20) (50.2)(33.75) + (34.9)(60) = 0
(11.4)
(11.5)
Example 11-2: Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974)

Determine the reactions of the three hinged statically determined semi-circular arch under its own
dead weight w (per unit arc length s, where ds = rd). 20.6
Solution:
I Reactions The reactions can be determined by integrating the load over the entire structure
Victor Saouma
11.1 Arches
115
Draft
dP=wRd
R cos
Figure 11.6: Semi-Circular three hinged arch

1. Vertical Reaction is determined first:
(+ )
MA
0; (Cy )(2R) +
wRd R(1 + cos ) = 0

=0
(11.6-a)
dP
moment arm
wR
[ sin ] |=
(1 + cos )d =
=0
2
=0
=
Cy
=
=
=
wR
2
wR
[( sin ) (0 sin 0)]
2
2 wR
(11.6-b)
2. Horizontal Reactions are determined next
(+ ) MB
0; (Cx )(R) + (Cy )(R)
=
2
wRd
R cos
dP
moment arm
=0
Cx
wR
wR
2
2
=
2
cos d =
=0
=0
(11.7-a)
=
wR wR[sin ] |=02 = wR wR( 0)
2
2
2
1 wR
(11.7-b)
By symmetry the reactions at A are equal to those at C

II Internal Forces can now be determined, Fig. 20.7.
1. Shear Forces: Considering the free body diagram of the arch, and summing the forces in the
radial direction (FR = 0):
(
1)wR cos + wR sin

2
2
Cx
wRd sin + V = 0
(11.8)
=0
Cy
V = wR ( 2 1) cos + ( 2 ) sin
(11.9)
2. Axial Forces: Similarly, if we consider the summation of forces in the axial direction (FN =
0):
( 2 1)wR sin + 2 wR cos
wRd cos + N = 0
(11.10)
=0
N = wR ( 2 ) cos ( 2 1) sin
(11.11)
3. Moment: Now we can consider the third equation of equilibrium (Mz = 0):
M
(+ )
( 2 1)wR R sin 2 wR2 (1 cos ) +
wRd R(cos cos ) + M = 0
(11.12)
=0
M = wR2
Victor Saouma
2 (1
sin ) + ( 2 ) cos
(11.13)
116
Draft
dP=wRd
R sin
R cos
C =( /2-1)wR
x
R(1-cos )
R cos
C y= /2 wR
R cos( )
Figure 11.7: Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram

III Deflection are determined last
1. The real curvature is obtained by dividing the moment by EI
wR2
M
=
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos
EI
EI 2
2
(11.14)
1. The virtual force P will be a unit vertical point in the direction of the desired deflection,
causing a virtual internal moment
M =
R
[1 cos sin ]
2
(11.15)
p
2. Hence, application of the virtual work equation yields:
1
2
=0
R
wR2
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos [1 cos sin ] Rd
EI 2
2
2
dx
11.1.2
M
EI
wR4
7 2 18 12
16EI
.0337 wR
EI
(11.16-a)
Statically Indeterminate
Example 11-3: Statically Indeterminate Arch, (Kinney 1957)

Victor Saouma
11.1 Arches
117
Draft
Determine the value of the horizontal reaction component of the indicated two-hinged solid rib arch,
Fig. 20.8 as caused by a concentrated vertical load of 10 k at the center line of the span. Consider
shearing, axial, and flexural strains. Assume that the rib is a W24x130 with a total area of 38.21 in2 ,
that it has a web area of 13.70 in2 , a moment of inertia equal to 4,000 in4 , E of 30,000 k/in2 , and a
shearing modulus G of 13,000 k/in2 .
Figure 11.8: Statically Indeterminate Arch

Solution:
1. Consider that end C is placed on rollers, as shown in Fig. ?? A unit fictitious horizontal force is
applied at C. The axial and shearing components of this fictitious force and of the vertical reaction
at C, acting on any section in the right half of the rib, are shown at the right end of the rib in
Fig. 13-7.
2. The expression for the horizontal displacement of C is
B
1 Ch = 2
M
C
M
ds + 2
EI
V
C
V
ds + 2
Aw G
N
C
N
ds
AE
(11.17)
3. From Fig. 20.9, for the rib from C to B,

M
M
V
V
N
Victor Saouma
P
(100 R cos )
2
= 1(R sin 125.36)
P
sin
=
2
= cos
P
cos
=
2
=
(11.18-a)
(11.18-b)
(11.18-c)
(11.18-d)
(11.18-e)
118
Draft
Figure 11.9: Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed

N
ds
= sin
(11.18-f)
= Rd
(11.18-g)
4. If the above values are substituted in Eq. 20.17 and integrated between the limits of 0.898 and
/2, the result will be
(11.19)
Ch = 22.55 + 0.023 0.003 = 22.57
5. The load P is now assumed to be removed from the rib, and a real horizontal force of 1 k is assumed
to act toward the right at C in conjunction with the fictitious horizontal force of 1 k acting to the
right at the same point. The horizontal displacement of C will be given by
B
ChCh
=
=
B
M
V
ds + 2
ds + 2
V
EI
A
wG
C
C
2.309 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 2.313 in
N
C
N
ds
AE
(11.20-a)
(11.20-b)
6. The value of the horizontal reaction component will be

HC =
Ch
22.57
= 9.75 k
=
ChCh
2.313
(11.21)
7. If only flexural strains are considered, the result would be

HC =
22.55
= 9.76 k
2.309
(11.22)
Comments
1. For the given rib and the single concentrated load at the center of the span it is obvious that the
effects of shearing and axial strains are insignificant and can be disregarded.
2. Erroneous conclusions as to the relative importance of shearing and axial strains in the usual solid
rib may be drawn, however, from the values shown in Eq. 20.19. These indicate that the effects of
the shearing strains are much more significant than those of the axial strains. This is actually the
case for the single concentrated load chosen for the demonstration, but only because the rib does
not approximate the funicular polygon for the single load. As a result, the shearing components
on most sections of the rib are more important than would otherwise be the case.
Victor Saouma
11.2 Curved Space Structures
119
Draft
3. The usual arch encountered in practice, however, is subjected to a series of loads, and the axis of
the rib will approximate the funicular polygon for these loads. In other words, the line of pressure
is nearly perpendicular to the right section at all points along the rib. Consequently, the shearing
components are so small that the shearing strains are insignificant and are neglected.
4. Axial strains, resulting in rib shortening, become increasingly important as the rise-to-span ratio
of the arch decreases. It is advisable to determine the effects of rib shortening in the design of
arches. The usual procedure is to first design the rib by considering flexural strains only, and then
to check for the effects of rib shortening.
11.2
Curved Space Structures
Example 11-4: Semi-Circular Box Girder, (Gerstle 1974)

Determine the reactions of the semi-circular cantilevered box girder shown in Fig. 20.10 subjected
x
x
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
O
R
wRd
C
A
A
y
Figure 11.10: Semi-Circular Box Girder

to its own weight w.
Solution:
I Reactions are again determined first From geometry we have OA = R, OB = R cos , AB = OA
BO = R R cos , and BP = R sin . The moment arms for the moments with respect to the x
and y axis are BP and AB respectively. Applying three equations of equilibrium we obtain
=
FzA
wRd = 0
FzA = wR
(11.23-a)
(wRd)(R sin ) = 0
MxA = 2wR2
(11.23-b)
(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0
MyA = wR2
(11.23-c)
=0
=
MxA
=0
=
MyA
=0
II Internal Forces are determined next

1. Shear Force:
(+ ) Fz = 0 V
Victor Saouma
wRd = 0 V = wr
(11.24)
1110
Draft
2. Bending Moment:
MR = 0 M
(wRd)(R sin ) = 0 M = wR2 (1 cos )
(11.25)
(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0 T = wR2 ( sin )
(11.26)
3. Torsion:
MT = 0 +
0
III Deflection are determined last we assume a rectangular cross-section of width b and height d = 2b
and a Poissons ratio = 0.3.
1. Noting that the member will be subjected to both flexural and torsional deformations, we
seek to determine the two stiffnesses.
3
b(2b)
=
2. The flexural stiffness EI is given by EI = E bd
12 = E 12
2Eb4
3
= .667Eb4 .
3. The torsional stiffness of solid rectangular sections J = kb d where b is the shorter side of the
E
E
= 2(1+.3)
=
section, d the longer, and k a factor equal to .229 for db = 2. Hence G = 2(1+)
4
4
.385E, and GJ = (.385E)(.229b ) = .176Eb .
4. Considering both flexural and torsional deformations, and replacing dx by rd:
P =
W
M
0
M
Rd +
EIz
T
0
T
Rd
GJ
(11.27)
Torsion
Flexure
U
where the real moments were given above.

5. Assuming a unit virtual downward force P = 1, we have
M
T
= R sin
= R(1 cos )
(11.28-a)
(11.28-b)
6. Substituting these expression into Eq. 20.27

1
wR2
EI
(R sin ) (1 cos ) Rd +
0
=
=
11.2.1
wR2
GJ
( sin ) R(1 cos ) Rd

0
T
1
wR
( cos sin + sin cos ) d
(sin sin cos ) +
EI
.265
0
wR4
( 2. + 18.56 )
EI
Flexure Torsion
4
20.56 wR
EI
(11.29-a)
Theory
Adapted from (Gerstle 1974)

1
18 Because space structures may have complicated geometry, we must resort to vector analysis
to
determine the internal forces.
19
In general we have six internal forces (forces and moments) acting at any section.
1 To
which you have already been exposed at an early stage, yet have very seldom used it so far in mechanics!
Victor Saouma
1111
Draft
11.2.1.1
Geometry
20 In general, the geometry of the structure is most conveniently described by a parameteric set of
equations
y = f2 ();
z = f3 ()
(11.30)
x = f1 ();
as shown in Fig. 20.11. the global coordinate system is denoted by X Y Z, and its unit vectors are
Figure 11.11: Geometry of Curved Structure in Space

denoted2 i, j, k.
21 The section on which the internal forces are required is cut and the principal axes are identified as
N S W which correspond to the normal force, and bending axes with respect to the Strong and
Weak axes. The corresponding unit vectors are n, s, w.
22
The unit normal vector at any section is given by

n=
dxi + dyj + dzk

dxi + dyj + dzk
=
ds
(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 )1/2
(11.31)
23 The principal bending axes must be defined, that is if the strong bending axis is parallel to the XY
plane, or horizontal (as is generally the case for gravity load), then this axis is normal to both the N
and Z axes, and its unit vector is
nk
(11.32)
s=
|nk|
24
The weak bending axis is normal to both N and S, and thus its unit vector is determined from
w = ns
11.2.1.2
25
(11.33)
Equilibrium
For the equilibrium equations, we consider the free body diagram of Fig. 20.12 an applied load P
2 All
vectorial quantities are denoted by a bold faced character.
Victor Saouma
1112
Draft
Figure 11.12: Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space

is acting at point A. The resultant force vector F and resultant moment vector M acting on the cut
section B are determined from equilibrium
F = 0;
P + F = 0;
F = P
B
M = 0; LP + M = 0; M = LP
(11.34-a)
(11.34-b)
where L is the lever arm vector from B to A.

26 The axial and shear forces N, Vs and Vw are all three components of the force vector F along the
N, S, and W axes and can be found by dot product with the appropriate unit vectors:
N
Vs
Vw
= Fn
= Fs
= Fw
(11.35-a)
(11.35-b)
(11.35-c)
27 Similarly the torsional and bending moments T, Ms and Mw are also components of the moment
vector M and are determined from
T
Ms
= Mn
= Ms
(11.36-a)
(11.36-b)
Mw
(11.36-c)
Mw
28 Hence, we do have a mean to determine the internal forces. In case of applied loads we summ, and
for distributed load we integrate.
Example 11-5: Internal Forces in an Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder, (Gerstle 1974)

Determine the internal forces N, Vs , and Vw and the internal moments T, Ms and Mw along the
helicoidal cantilevered girder shown in FIg. 20.13 due to a vertical load P at its free end.
Solution:
1. We first determine the geometry in terms of the angle
x = R cos ;
Victor Saouma
y = R sin ;
z=
(11.37)
Draft
1113
Figure 11.13: Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder
Victor Saouma
1114
Draft
2. To determine the unit vector n at any point we need the derivatives:

dx = R sin d;
dy = R cos d;
dz =
H
d
(11.38)
and then insert into Eq. 20.31

n
=
=
R sin i + R cos j + H/k

1/2
R2 sin2 + R2 cos2 + (H/)2

1
[sin i + cos j + (H/R)k]
1/2
1 + (H/R)2
(11.39-a)
(11.39-b)
Since the denominator depends only on the geometry, it will be designated by K.

3. The strong bending axis lies in a horizontal plane, and its unit vector can thus be determined from
Eq. 20.32:
nk
=
=
1
K
i
sin
0
j
cos
0
k
H
R
(11.40-a)
1
(cos i + sin j)
K
and the absolute magnitude of this vector |kn| =
1
K,
(11.40-b)
and thus
s = cos i + sin j
(11.41)
4. The unit vector along the weak axis is determined from Eq. 20.33
w = sn
1
K
i
cos
sin
j
sin
cos
k
0
1
K
H
H
sin i
cos j + k
R
R
(11.42-a)
H
R
(11.42-b)
5. With the geometry definition completed, we now examine the equilibrium equations. Eq. 20.34-a
and 20.34-b.
F = 0; F = P
Mb = 0; M = LP
(11.43-a)
(11.43-b)
where
L = (R R cos )i + (0 R sin )j + 0
H k
(11.44)
and
LP
i
j
(1 cos ) sin
0
0
k
H
R
P
(11.45-a)
= P R[ sin i (1 cos )j]
(11.45-b)
M = P R[sin i + (1 cos )j]
(11.46)
and
Victor Saouma
1115
Draft
6. Finally, the components of the force F = P k and the moment M are obtained by appropriate
dot products with the unit vectors
N
1
H
P R
= Fn = K
(11.47-a)
Vs
Fs = 0
(11.47-b)
Vw
1
Fw = K
P
(11.47-c)
= Mn = PKR (1 cos )
(11.47-d)
Ms
Ms = P R sin
(11.47-e)
Mw
Mw =
Victor Saouma
PH
K (1
cos )
(11.47-f)
1116
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 12
DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES;
Geometric Methods
Deflections of structures must be determined in order to satisfy serviceability requirements i.e. limit
deflections under service loads to acceptable values (such as
L 360).
Later on, we will see that deflection calculations play an important role in the analysis of statically
indeterminate structures.
We shall focus on flexural deformation, however the end of this chapter will review axial and torsional
deformations as well.
Most of this chapter will be a review of subjects covered in Strength of Materials.
This chapter will examine deflections of structures based on geometric considerations. Later on, we
will present a more pwerful method based on energy considerations.
12.1
Flexural Deformation
12.1.1
Curvature Equation
Let us consider a segment (between point 1 and point 2), Fig. 12.1 of a beam subjected to flexural
loading.
The slope is denoted by , the change in slope per unit length is the curvature , the radius of
curvature is .
From Strength of Materials we have the following relations

ds = d
10
(12.1)
We also note by extension that s =

As a first order approximation, and with ds dx and
=
11
1
d
=
ds
dy
dx
= Eq. 12.1 becomes
d
d2 y
1
=
= 2
dx
dx
(12.2)
Next, we shall (re)derive the exact expression for the curvature. From Fig. 12.1, we have
tan =
dy
dx
(12.3)
122
DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods
Draft
Figure 12.1: Curvature of a flexural element

Defining t as
t=
and combining with Eq. 12.3 we obtain
12
Applying the chain rule to =
d
ds
dy
dx
= tan1 t
d dt
dt ds
13
dx2 + dy 2
1+
dy
dx
dy
dx
(12.6)
ds can be rewritten as
(12.5)
we have
=
ds
(12.4)
dx ds =
1 + t2 dx
(12.7)
Next combining Eq. 12.6 and 12.7 we obtain
d
dt
=
=
=
d dt
dt 1+t2 dx
1
tan
1
1+t2
=
dt
dx
1 1
dt
1+t2 1+t2 dx
2
d y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
=
1+
dy
dx
3
2
(12.8)
14 Thus the slope , curvature , radius of curvature are related to the y displacement at a point x
along a flexural member by
d2 y
dx2
=
1+
Victor Saouma
dy
dx
3
2
(12.9)
12.1 Flexural Deformation
123
Draft
15
If the displacements are very small, we will have
12.1.2
dy
dx
<< 1, thus Eq. 12.9 reduces to
d2 y
1
=
dx2
(12.10)
Differential Equation of the Elastic Curve
16 Again with reference to Figure 12.1 a positive d at a positive y (upper fibers) will cause a shortening
of the upper fibers
u = y
(12.11)
17
This equation can be rewritten as

lim
s0
= y lim
s0 s
s
and since s x
du
d
= y
dx
dx
(12.12)
(12.13)
Combining this with Eq. 12.10
1
==
(12.14)
This is the fundamental relationship between curvature (), elastic curve (y), and linear strain ().
18
Note that so far we made no assumptions about material properties, i.e. it can be elastic or inelastic.
19
For the elastic case:
= E
= MI y
My
EI
(12.15)
Combining this last equation with Eq. 12.14 yields

d
d2 y
M
1
=
= 2 =
dx
dx
EI
(12.16)
This fundamental equation relates moment to curvature.

20
Combining this equation with the moment-shear-force relations determined in the previous chapter
dV
dx
dM
dx
=
=
w(x)
V (x)
d2 M
dx2
(12.17-a)
we obtain
d4 y
w(x)
= 4
EI
dx
12.1.3
21
(12.18)
Moment Temperature Curvature Relation
Assuming linear variation in temperature

T
B
Victor Saouma
=
=
TT dx Top
TB dx Bottom
(12.19-a)
(12.19-b)
124
Draft
22
Next, considering
d2 y
M
=
=
2
dx
EI
y
In this case, we can take = TT at y =
h
2
(12.20)
or = (TT TB ) at y = h thus
d2 y
(TT TB )
M
d
= 2 =
=
dx
dx
EI
h
12.2
Flexural Deformations
12.2.1
Direct Integration Method
(12.21)
23 Equation 12.18 lends itself naturally to the method of double integration which was presented in
Strength of Materials
Example 12-1: Double Integration

Determine the deflection at B for the following cantilevered beam
Solution:
At: 0 x
2L
3
1. Moment Equation
EI
5
d2 y
wL
x wL2
= Mx =
dx2
3
18
(12.22)
EI
wL 2
dy
5
=
x wL2 x + C1
dx
6
18
(12.23)
2. Integrate once
However we have at x = 0,
dy
dx
= 0, C1 = 0
3. Integrate twice
wL 3 5wL2 2
x
x + C2
18
36
Again we have at x = 0, y = 0, C2 = 0
EIy =
Victor Saouma
(12.24)
12.2 Flexural Deformations
125
Draft
At:
xL
2L
3
1. Moment equation
EI
5
d2 y
wL
2L x 2L
2
3
x
wL
)(
)
=
M
=
w(x
x
dx2
3
18
3
2
(12.25)
wL 2
2L 3
dy
5
w
=
x wL2 x (x
) + C3
dx
6
18
6
3
(12.26)
2. Integrate once
EI
Applying the boundary condition at x =

the left, C3 = 0
2L
3 ,
we must have
dy
dx
equal to the value coming from
3. Integrating twice
2L 4
5
w
wL 3
x wL2 x2 (x
) + C4
18
36
24
3
Again following the same argument as above, C4 = 0
EIy =
(12.27)
Substituting for x = L we obtain

y=
163 wL4
1944 EI
(12.28)
12.2.2
Curvature Area Method (Moment Area)
12.2.2.1
First Moment Area Theorem
24
From equation 12.16 we have

M
d
=
dx
EI
this can be rewritten as (note similarity with
dV
dx
(12.29)
= w(x)).
21 = 2 1 =
x2
x2
d =
x1
x1
M
dx
EI
(12.30)
or with reference to Figure 12.2

First Area Moment Theorem: The change in slope from point 1 to point 2 on a beam is
equal to the area under the M/EI diagram between those two points.
12.2.2.2
Second Moment Area Theorem
25 Similarly, with reference to Fig. 12.2, we define by t21 the distance between point 2 and the tangent
at point 1. For an infinitesimal distance ds = d and for small displacements
dt
d
dx
= d(x2 x)
M
=
EI
dt =
M
(x2 x)dx
EI
(12.31)
To evaluate t21
x2
t21 =
x2
dt =
x1
M
(x2 x)dx
EI
x1
(12.32)
or
Second Moment Area Theorem: The tangent distance t21 between a point, 2, on the
beam and the tangent of another point, 1, is equal to the moment of the M/EI diagram
between points 1 and 2, with respect to point 2.
Victor Saouma
126
Draft
Figure 12.2: Moment Area Theorems
Victor Saouma
127
Draft
Figure 12.3: Sign Convention for the Moment Area Method
Figure 12.4: Areas and Centroid of Polynomial Curves
Victor Saouma
128
Draft
26
The sign convention is as shown in Fig. 12.3
27
Fig. 12.4 is a helpful tool to determine centroid and areas.
Example 12-2: Moment Area, Cantilevered Beam

Determine the deflection of point A
Solution:
EItA/C =
1
2
2wL2
5
5L
2
2 5L
3 2
area
Moment wrt A
Thus, A =
1
3
wL2
2
(L)
9L
4
29wL4
24
(12.33)
area
Moment wrt A
29wL
24EI
Example 12-3: Moment Area, Simply Supported Beam

Determine C and C for the following example
Victor Saouma
129
Draft
Solution:
Deflection C is determined from C = c c = c c cc, cc = tC/B , and c c =
tA/B
1
3P a
=
EI
4
A1
a
2
Moment
Victor Saouma
2a
3
3a
2
3P a
4
A2 +A3
tA/B
2
3
3a
= 5P a
a+
3
2EI
from geometry
(12.34)
Moment
1210
Draft
Figure 12.5: Maximum Deflection Using the Moment Area Method

This is positive, thus above tangent from B
tC/B =
1
EI
Pa
2
2a
2
2a
3
P a3
3EI
(12.35)
Positive, thus above the tangent from B Finally,

C =
P a3
11 P a3
5P a3
=
4EI
3EI
12 EI
(12.36)
Rotation C is
BC
BC
B
12.2.2.3
=
=
=
B C C = B BC
5P a3
A3
C =
2EI(4a)
tA/B
Pa
2
2a
2
P a2
8EI
(12.37)
Maximum Deflection
A joint along the beam will have the maximum (or minimum) relative deflection if
So we can determine max if x is known, Fig. 12.5.
To determine x:
28
dy
dx
= 0 or = 0
1. Compute tC/A
2. A =
tC/A
L
3. B = 0 and AB = A B , thus AB = A . Hence, compute AB in terms of x using First

Theorem.
4. Equate items 2 and 3, then solve for x.
Example 12-4: Maximum Deflection
Victor Saouma
1211
Draft
Determine the deflection at D, and the maximum deflection at B
Solution:
Deflection at D:
EItC/A
tC/A
EItD/A
tD/A
9
tD/A tC/A
5
1 4P L
(L)
2
5
2P L3
15EI
1 4P L
(L)
2
5
234 P L3
375 EI
(12.38-a)
L
3
(12.38-b)
(12.38-c)
17L
15
1
2
4P L
5
4L
5
8L
15
(12.38-d)
(12.38-e)
Substituting we obtain
D =
48 P L3
125 EI
(12.39)
Maximum deflection at B:
tC/A
AB
max
max
2P L3
15EI
(12.40-a)
tC/A
2P L2
=
L
15EI
2 P x2
1 1 4P x
(x) =
EI 2
5
5 EI
2
2 P x2
L
2 PL
=
x=
AB
15 EI
5 EI
3
L
x
2
4P x
x at x =
5EI
2
3
3
3
4P L
45 3EI
(12.40-b)
(12.40-c)
(12.40-d)
(12.40-e)
(12.40-f)
Example 12-5: Frame Deflection

Victor Saouma
1212
Draft
Complete the following example problem
Solution:
xxxx
Example 12-6: Frame Subjected to Temperature Loading

Neglecting axial deformation, compute displacement at A for the following frame
Solution:
1. First let us sketch the deformed shape
Victor Saouma
1213
Draft
2. BC flexes B = C = 0
3. Rigid hinges at B and C with no load on AB and CD

4. Deflection at A
A
AA
A A
=
=
=
AA = AA + A A
B = C = |C |h2
|B |h1
(12.41-a)
(12.41-b)
(12.41-c)
5. We need to compute B & C

B
tC/B
L
CB + B or C =
(12.42-a)
tB/C
L
(12.42-b)
6. In order to apply the curvature are theorem, we need a curvature (or moment diagram).
T B TT
M
1
= (
)=
h
EI
7.
L
2
tC/B = A
|B | = A
1
L
L
2
8.
CB
C
=
=
A
CB + B
C = A
(12.43)
A
A
or B =
(-ve)
2
2
(12.44)
A
A
=
(+ve)
2
2
(12.45)
9. From above,
= |C |h2 + |B |h1 =
= A
2 (h2 + h1 )
A = (TBhTT ) L
A
2 h2
A
2 h1
A = (TB TT )
L
h
1
2
(h2 + h1 )
(12.46)
10. Substitute
A
(6.5 106 )(200 60)
2.87 in
(20)(12) 1
( )(10 + 25)(12)
(16)
2
(12.47-a)
(12.47-b)
11. Other numerical values:

B
1 (TB TT )
A
=
L
2
2
h
1
(200 60)
=
(6.5 106 )
(20)(12)
2
(16)
dy
= .00683rad. (.39 degrees) =
<< 1
dx
=
C =
(12.48-a)
(12.48-b)
(12.48-c)
Note: sin(.00683) = .006829947 and tan(.00683) = .006830106

M
EI
=
=
Victor Saouma
1
(TB TT )
=
h
(200 60)
= 5.6875 105
(6.5 106 )
16
1
= 1.758 104 in = 1, 465 ft
5.6875 105
(12.49-a)
(12.49-b)
(12.49-c)
1214
Draft
12. In order to get M , we need E & I. Note the difference with other statically determinate structures;
the stiffer the beam, the higher the moment; the higher the moment, the higher the stress? NO!!
13. =
My
I
EI y
I
Ey
14. is constant BC is on arc of circle M is constant &

2
C x2 + dx + e
M
EI
d2 y
dx2
d2 y
dx2
M
EI
= C y =
15. The slope is a parabola, (Why?)

d2 y
3
M
dy
d2 y
1
2
=
= dx 1 + ( )2 ) 2 2
EI
(
dx
dx
29
(12.50)
Let us get curvature from the parabola slope and compare it with
y
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2
cx2
+ dx + e
2
(12.51-a)
= cx + d
(12.51-b)
(12.51-c)
at x = 0, y = 0, thus e = 0
at x = 0, dy
x = B = .00683 thus d = .00683
dy
= C = .00683 thus c(20) .00683 = .00683 thus c = 6.83 104 thus
at x = 20 ft, dx
y
6.83 104
x2
10x
2
(12.52-a)
dy
= 6.83 104 (x 10)
dx
d2 y
= 6.83 104
dx2
= 6.83 104
1
= 1, 464f t as expected!
=
6.83 10 4
(12.52-b)
(12.52-c)
(12.52-d)
(12.52-e)
If we were to use the exact curvature formula
d2 y
3
dx2
)2
dy 2
+ ( dx )
12.2.3
6.83 104
(12.53-a)
[1 + (.00683)2 ] 2
6.829522 104
(12.53-b)
1464.23f t
(12.53-c)
(compared with 1465ft)
Elastic Weight/Conjugate Beams

V and M
x2
V12 =
wdx
V =
wdx + C1
12 =
M=
V dx + C2
t21 =
x1
x2
M12 =
x2
V dx
x1
Victor Saouma
and y
1
dx =
x1
x2
dx
y=
1
dx + C1
dx + C2
x1
1215
Draft
Figure 12.6: Conjugate Beams
29
M
1
==
EI
Load q
curvature
Shear V
This leads to the following Moment M
slope
deflection y
(12.54)
(12.55)
(12.56)
Since V & M can be conjugated from statics, by analogy & y can be thought of as the V & M of
M
elastic weight.
a fictitious beam (or conjugate beam) loaded by EI
30
31
What about Boundary Conditions? Table 12.1, and Fig. 12.6.

Actual Beam
Hinge
=0
Fixed End
=0
Free End
=0
Interior Hinge
=0
Interior Support = 0
y
y
y
y
y
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
V
V
V
V
V
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
Conjugate Beam
M = 0 Hinge
M = 0 Free end
M = 0 Fixed end
M = 0 Interior support
M = 0 Interior hinge
Table 12.1: Conjugate Beam Boundary Conditions

32 Whereas the Moment area method has a well defined basis, its direct application can be sometimes
confusing.
33 Alternatively, the moment area method was derived from the moment area method, and is a far
simpler method to remember and use in practice when simple back of the envelope calculations are
required.
34 Note that we can only have distributed load, and that the load the load is positive for a positive
moment, and negative for a negative moment. Shear and Moment diagrams should be drawn
accordingly.
Units of the distributed load w are FEIL (force time length divided by EI). Thus the Shear would
L2
L3
and the moment would have units of (w L) L or FEI
. Recalling
have units of w L or FEI
that EI has units of F L2 L4 = F L2 , we observe that indeed the shear corresponds to a rotation in
radians and the moment to a displacement.
35
Victor Saouma
1216
Draft
Example 12-7: Conjugate Beam

Analyze the following beam.
Solution:
3 equations of equilibrium and 1 equation of condition = 4 = number of reactions.
Deflection at D = Shear at D of the corresponding conjugate beam (Reaction at D)
Take AC and M with respect to C
RA (L)
4P L
5EI
L
2
L
3
(12.57-a)
RA
2P L2
15EI
(12.57-b)
(Slope in real beam at A) As computed before!

Let us draw the Moment Diagram for the conjugate beam
M
=
=
=
P
2 2
4
L x
x
EI 15
5
P
2
2 2
L x x3
EI 15
15
2P
L2 x x3
15EI
Point of Maximum Moment (max ) occurs when
dM
dx
x
2
x
3
(12.58-a)
(12.58-b)
(12.58-c)
=0
2P
L
dM
=
(L2 3x2 ) = 0 3x2 = L2 x =
dx
15EI
3
Victor Saouma
(12.59)
12.3 Axial Deformations
1217
Draft
Figure 12.7: Torsion Rotation Relations

as previously determined
x
=
=
3
2P
L3
L2 L

15EI
3
3 3
4P L3
45 3EI
(12.60-a)
(12.60-b)
(12.60-c)
as before.
12.3
Axial Deformations
Statics: =
P
A
Material: = E
Kinematics: =
PL
AE
12.4
(12.61)
Torsional Deformations
36 Since torsional effects are seldom covered in basic structural analysis, and students may have forgotten
the derivation of the basic equations from the Strength of Material course, we shall briefly review the
basic equations.
37 Assuming a linear elastic material, and a linear strain (and thus stress) distribution along the radius
of a circular cross section subjected to torsional load, Fig. 12.7 we have:
=
A
max dA
c
stress
(12.62)
area arm
F orce
torque
max
c
2 dA
(12.63)
A
J
max
Victor Saouma
Tc
J
(12.64)
1218
Draft
Note the analogy of this last equation with =
Mc
Iy
2 dA is the polar moment of inertia J for circular cross sections and is equal to:
38
A
c
2 dA =
=
=
2 (2d)
0
A
4
d4
c
=
2
32
(12.65)
39 Having developed a relation between torsion and shear stress, we now seek a relation between torsion
and torsional rotation. Considering Fig. 12.7-b, we look at the arc length BD
d
max
d
T
max dx = dc dx = c
max
d
=
=
(12.66)
max
dx
Gc
max = G
dx
GJ
max = TJC
40
Finally, we can rewrite this last equation as
T dx =
T =
Victor Saouma
GJ
L
Gjd and obtain:

(12.67)
Draft
Chapter 13
ENERGY METHODS; Part I

13.1
Introduction
Energy methods are powerful techniques for both formulation (of the stiffness matrix of an element1 )
and for the analysis (i.e. deflection) of structural problems.
1
We shall explore two techniques:

1. Real Work
2. Virtual Work (Virtual force)
13.2
3
Real Work
We start by revisiting the first law of thermodynamics:

The time-rate of change of the total energy (i.e., sum of the kinetic energy and the internal
energy) is equal to the sum of the rate of work done by the external forces and the change
of heat content per unit time.
d
dt (K
+ U ) = We + H
(13.1)
where K is the kinetic energy, U the internal strain energy, We the external work, and H the heat input
to the system.
For an adiabatic system (no heat exchange) and if loads are applied in a quasi static manner (no
kinetic energy), the above relation simplifies to:
We = U
(13.2)
Simply stated, the first law stipulates that the external work must be equal to the internal strain
energy due to the external load.
13.2.1
6
External Work
The external work is given by, Fig. 13.1

f
We
P d
0
f
1 More
about this in Matrix Structural Analysis.
(13.3)
M d
132
Draft
P
M
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
dW
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
dW
M
Figure 13.1: Load Deflection Curves

for point loads and concentrated moments respectively.
7
For linear elastic systems, we have for point loads
P = K
f
We = K
P d
We =
d =
0
1
K2f
2
(13.4)
When this last equation is combined with Pf = Kf we obtain
We =
1
Pf f
2
(13.5)
We =
1
Mf f
2
(13.6)
where K is the stiffness of the structure.

8
Similarly for an applied moment we have
13.2.2
Internal Work
Considering an infinitesimal element from an arbitrary structure subjected to uniaxial state of stress,
the strain energy can be determined with reference to Fig. 13.2. The net force acting on the element
while deformation is taking place is P = x dydz. The element will undergo a displacement u = x dx.
Thus, for a linear elastic system, the strain energy density is dU = 12 . And the total strain energy
will thus be
9
U=
10
1
2
(13.7)
E dVol
Vol
When this relation is applied to various structural members it would yield:
Victor Saouma
13.2 Real Work
133
Draft
Figure 13.2: Strain Energy Definition

Axial Members:
U
dV
dVol
Vol 2
= P
A
P
= AE
= Adx
U=
0
P2
dx
2AE
(13.8)
Torsional Members:
U
1
2
1
2
Vol
xy Gxy dVol
Vol
E dVol
xy
xy =
xy =
dVol =
xy
rddrdx
r
r2 d dr
=
o
Flexural Members:
U
=
=
dVol =
Iz
Tr
J
U=
0
T2
dx
2GJ
(13.9)
Vol
Mz y
I
1
2
Mz y
EIz
dA dx
y 2 dA
U=
0
M2
dx
2EIz
(13.10)
Example 13-1: Deflection of a Cantilever Beam, (Chajes 1983)

Determine the deflection of the cantilever beam, Fig. 13.3 with span L under a point load P applied
at its free end. Assume constant EI.
Solution:
We
Victor Saouma
1
P f
2
(13.11-a)
134
Draft
01
1010
x
M=PL
Figure 13.3: Deflection of Cantilever Beam
L
U
M
M2
dx
0 2EI
= P x
2
13.3
(13.11-b)
1
P f
2
P
2EI
P 2 L3
6EI
P L3
3EI
x2 dx =
0
(13.11-c)
2
P L
6EI
(13.11-d)
(13.11-e)
(13.11-f)
Virtual Work
11 A severe limitation of the method of real work is that only deflection along the externally applied
load can be determined.
12
A more powerful method is the virtual work method.
The principle of Virtual Force (VF) relates force systems which satisfy the requirements of equilibrium,
and deformation systems which satisfy the requirement of compatibility
13
14 In any application the force system could either be the actual set of external loads dp or some
virtual force system which happens to satisfy the condition of equilibrium p. This set of external
forces will induce internal actual forces d or internal virtual forces compatible with the externally
applied load.
15 Similarly the deformation could consist of either the actual joint deflections du and compatible internal
deformations d of the structure, or some virtual external and internal deformation u and which
satisfy the conditions of compatibility.
16
It is often simplest to assume that the virtual load is a unit load.
17 Thus we may have 4 possible combinations, Table 13.1: where: d corresponds to the actual, and
(with an overbar) to the hypothetical values.
This table calls for the following observations
1. The second approach is the same one on which the method of virtual or unit load is based. It is
simpler to use than the third as a internal force distribution compatible with the assumed virtual
Victor Saouma
13.3 Virtual Work
Draft
1
2
3
4
135
Force
External Internal
dp
d
p
dp
d
p
Deformation
External Internal
du
d
du
d
u
IVW
Formulation
U
U
Flexibility
Stiffness
Table 13.1: Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations

force can be easily obtained for statically determinate structures. This approach will yield exact
solutions for statically determinate structures.
2. The third approach is favored for statically indeterminate problems or in conjunction with approximate solution. It requires a proper guess of a displacement shape and is the basis of the stiffness
method.
18 Let us consider an arbitrary structure and load it with both real and virtual loads in the following
sequence, Fig. 13.4. For the sake of simplicity, let us assume (or consider) that this structure develops
only axial stresses.
P1
1
0
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
Virtual System
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
Real Load
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
P1
1
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
P
P
1
0
0
1
00
11
00
11
11
00
P
P
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
Virtual + Real Loads
Inter.
Ext.
= P
Virtual
Real
Figure 13.4: Real and Virtual Forces

1. If we apply the virtual load, then
1
1
P =
2
2
Victor Saouma
dVol
(13.12)
dVol
136
Draft
2. Load with the real (applied) load, since the external work must be equal to the internal strain
energy over the entire volume, then:
1
1
P1 1 =
2
2
dVol
(13.13)
dVol
3. We now immagine that the virtual load was first applied, and we then apply the real (actual) load
on top of it, then the total work done is
1
1
1
P + P1 1 + P =
2
2
2
dVol +
Vol
1
2
dVol +
Vol
dVol
(13.14)
Vol
4. Since the strain energy and work done must be the same whether the loads are applied together
or separately, we obtain, from substracting the sum of Eqs. 13.13 and 13.12 from 13.14 and
generalizing, we obtain
( + ) dVol = P
U
(13.15)
19 This last equation is the key to the method of virtual forces. The left hand side is the internal virtual
strain energy U 2 . Similarly the right hand side is the external virtual work.
13.3.1
External Virtual Work W
20
The general expression for the external virtual work W is
W =
n
i=1
(i )P i +
i=1
(13.16)
(i )M i
for distributed load, point load, and concentrated moment respectively.

21
Recall that all overbar quantities are virtual and the other ones are the real.
13.3.2
22
Internal Virtual Work U
The general expression for the internal virtual work is
( + ) dVol = P
U
(13.17)
We will generalize it to different types of structural members.

23 We will first write the equations independently of the material stress strain relation, and then we will
rewrite those same equations for a linear elastic system.
General :
Axial Members:
U
dVol =
Victor Saouma
dVol
0
Adx
U = A
dx
(13.18)
13.3 Virtual Work
137
Draft
Figure 13.5: Torsion Rotation Relations

Torsional Members: With reference to Fig. 13.5 Note that in torsion the strain is the rate
of change of rotation of the cross section about the longitudinal axis x.
=
xy xy dVol
U
Vol
T =
xy rdA
U =
(
xy rdA) dx
(13.19)
A
0
A
xy = r dx
T
dVol = dAdx
L
d
T dx
U =
dx
0
Shear Members:
U
xy xy dVol
Vol
=
=
dVol =
xy dA
A
dAdx
U =
(
0
xy dA) xy dx
(13.20)
A
V
L
U =
V xy dx
0
Flexural Members:
U
x x dVol
x ydA
=
y =
M
=
y
x dA
dVol =
dAdx
0
U =
M dx
(13.21)
Linear Elastic Systems Should we have a linear elastic material
= E
(13.22)
then the previous equations can be rewritten as:

2 We
use the * to distinguish it from the internal virtual strain energy obtained from the virtual displacement method
U .
Victor Saouma
138
Draft
Axial Members:
U
dVol
Vol
= P
A
P
= AE
dV = Adx
U =
P
0
P
dx
AE
(13.23)
Note that for a truss where we have n members, the above expression becomes
U = n1 P i
Pi Li
Ai Ei
(13.24)
Shear Members:
U
xy
xy
dVol
=
=
=
=
xy xy dVol
Vol
kA
xy
G
Adx
def
k 2 dydz
U =
V
0
V
dx
GA
(13.25)
xy
24
Note that the exact expression for the shear stress is

=
VQ
Ib
(13.26)
where Q is the moment of the area from the external fibers to y with respect to the neutral
axis; For a rectangular section, this yields
=
=
=
VQ
Ib
V
Ib
(13.27-a)
h/2
by dy =
y
h2
y2
4
V
2I
(13.27-b)
h2
4
4
6V
bh3
(13.27-c)
and we observe that the shear stress is zero for y = h/2 and maximum at the neutral axis
V
where it is equal to 1.5 bh
.
25
To determine the form factor of a rectangular section
= VIbQ
A
h2
2
k = 2I
V
4 y
= kA
h/2
k 2 dydz
b h2
bh =
y2
Q =
by dy =
A
A
2 4
y
= 1.2
(13.28)
26
Thus, the form factor may be taken as 1.2 for rectangular beams of ordinary proportions.
27
For I beams, k can be also approximated by 1.2, provided A is the area of the web.
Torsional Members:
U
=
Vol
xy
xy
dVol
G
xy
xy =
xy =
dVol =
Victor Saouma
Tr
J
xy
rddrdx
r
2
2
r d dr
o
U =
T
0
T
dx
GJ
(13.29)
13.3 Virtual Work
139
Draft
28
Note the similarity with the corresponding equation for shear deformation.
29
The torsional stiffness of cylindrical sections is given by J =
30
The torsional stiffness of solid rectangular sections is given by
d4
32 .
J = kb3 d
(13.30)
where b is the shorter side of the section, d the longer, and k a factor given by Table 13.2.
d/b
k
1.0
0.141
1.5
0.196
2.0
0.229
2.5
0.249
3.0
0.263
4.0
0.281
5.0
0.291
10
0.312
0.333
Table 13.2: k Factors for Torsion
31
Recall from strength of materials that
G=
Flexural Members:
U
E dV ol
Vol
Mz y
=
=
dVol =
x
Iz
E
2(1 + )
Mz y
EIz
dA dx
y 2 dA
(13.31)
U =
M
0
M
dx
EIz
(13.32)
13.3.3
Examples
Example 13-2: Beam Deflection (Chajes 1983)

Determine the deflection at point C in Fig. 13.6 E = 29, 000 ksi, I = 100 in4 .
Solution:
For the virtual force method, we need to have two expressions for the moment, one due to the real
load, and the other to the (unit) virtual one, Fig. 13.7.
Element
AB
BC
x=0
A
C
M
15x x2
x2
M
0.5x
x
Applying Eq. 13.32 we obtain

L
C P
W
M
0
M
dx
EIz
20
(1)C
(0.5x)
0
Victor Saouma
(13.33-a)
(15x x2 )
dx +
EI
10
(x)
0
x2
dx
EI
(13.33-b)
1310
Draft
Figure 13.6:
15x -x 2
-0.5x
-x
Figure 13.7:
Victor Saouma
13.3 Virtual Work
1311
Draft
=
C
=
=
2, 500
EI
(2, 500) k2 ft3 (1, 728) in3 / ft3
(29, 000) ksi(100) in4
1.49 in
(13.33-c)
(13.33-d)
(13.33-e)
Example 13-3: Deflection of a Frame (Chajes 1983)

Determine both the vertical and horizontal deflection at A for the frame shown in Fig. 13.8. E =
200 106 kN/ m2 , I = 200 106 mm4 .
Figure 13.8:
.
Solution:
To analyse this frame we must determine analytical expressions for the moments along each member
for the real load and the two virtual ones. One virtual load is a unit horizontal load at A, and the other
a unit vertical one at A also, Fig. 13.9.
Element
AB
BC
CD
x=0
A
B
C
M
0
50x
100
M v
x
2+x
4
M h
0
0
x
Note that moments are considered positive when they produce compression on the inside of the frame.
Victor Saouma
1312
Draft
50 kN
1 kN
50x
+100
+4
1 kN
x
+
-x
1 kN
100 kN-m
4 kN-m
50 kN
5 kN-m
1 kN
Figure 13.9:
Substitution yields:
L
v P
W
M
0
M
dx
EIz
U
2
(1)v
(x)
0
=
=
=
(13.34-a)
(0)
dx +
EI
(2 + x)
0
50x
dx +
EI
(4)
0
100
dx
EI
2, 333 kN m3
EI
(2, 333) kN m3 (103 )4 mm4 / m4
(200 106 ) kN/ m2 (200 106 ) mm4
(13.34-b)
(13.34-c)
(13.34-d)
0.058 m = 5.8 cm
(13.34-e)
Similarly for the horizontal displacement:

L
h P
W
M
0
M
dx
EIz
(13.35-a)
(1)h
=
=
=
2
5
(0)
50x
100
dx +
dx +
dx
(0)
(x)
EI
EI
EI
0
0
0
1, 250 kN m3
EI
(1, 250) kN m3 (103 )4 mm4 / m4
(200 106 ) kN/ m2 (200 106 ) mm4
(0)
= 0.031 m = 3.1 cm
(13.35-b)
(13.35-c)
(13.35-d)
(13.35-e)
Example 13-4: Rotation of a Frame (Chajes 1983)

Determine the rotation of joint C for frame shown in Fig. 13.10. E = 29, 000 ksi, I = 240 in4 .
Solution:
In this problem the virtual force is a unit moment applied at joint C, M e . It will cause an internal
moment M i
Victor Saouma
13.3 Virtual Work
1313
Draft
Figure 13.10:
Element
AB
BC
CD
x=0
A
B
D
M
0
30x 1.5x2
0
M
0
0.05x
0
Note that moments are considered positive when they produce compression on the outside of the frame.
Substitution yields:
L
C M e
W
M
0
M
dx
EIz
20
(1)C
(13.36-a)
(0.05x)
0
(30x 1.5x2 )
dx k2 ft3
EI
(13.36-b)
(1, 000)(144)
(29, 000)(240)
(13.36-c)
0.021 radians
(13.36-d)
Example 13-5: Truss Deflection (Chajes 1983)

Determine the vertical deflection of joint 7 in the truss shown in Fig. 13.11. E = 30, 000 ksi.
Solution:
Two analyses are required. One with the real load, and the other using a unit vertical load at joint
7. Results for those analysis are summarized below. Note that advantage was taken of the symmetric
load and structure.
Member
A
in
1&4
10 & 13
11 & 12
5&9
6&8
2& 3
7
Total
Victor Saouma
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
ft
25
20
20
15
25
20
15
-50
40
40
20
16.7
-53.3
0
-0.083
0.67
0.67
0
0.83
-1.33
0
P P L
A
nP P L
A
518.75
268.0
268.0
0
346.5
708.9
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1,037.5
536.0
536.0
0
693.0
1,417.8
0
4,220.3
1314
Draft
Figure 13.11:
Thus from Eq. 13.24 we have:
L
P
W
P
0
P
dx
AE
=
1
=
=
(13.37-a)
PL
AE
(4, 220.3)(12)
30, 000
(13.37-b)
(13.37-c)
1.69 in
(13.37-d)
Example 13-6: Torsional and Flexural Deformation, (Chajes 1983)

Determine the vertical deflection at A in the structure shown in Fig. 13.12. E = 30, 000 ksi, I =
144 in4 , G = 12, 000 ksi, J = 288 in4
Solution:
1. In this problem we have both flexural and torsional deformation. Hence we should determine the
internal moment and torsion distribution for both the real and the unit virtual load.
2. Then we will use the following relation
W
P A =
M
dx +
EI
flexure
T
dx
GJ
Torsion
3. The moment and torsion expressions are given by

Victor Saouma
13.3 Virtual Work
1315
Draft
Figure 13.12:
Element
AB
BC
x=0
A
B
M
10x
15x
T
0
50
M
x
x
T
0
5
4. Substituting,
P A
1A
=
=
=
=
M
T
dx + T
dx
EI
GJ
5
5
10x
15x
dx +
dx +
x
x
0 EI
0 EI
(1,042)(1,728)
(1,250)(1,728)
(30,000)(144) + (12,000)(288)
0.417 + 0.625
1.04 in
M
(5)
0
50
dx
GJ
Example 13-7: Flexural and Shear Deformations in a Beam (White et al. 1976)
Determine the delection of a cantilevered beam, of length L subjected to an end force P due to both
flexural and shear deformations. Assume G = 0.4E, and a square solid beam cross section.
Solution:
1. The virtual work equation is
L
M d +
0
=
0
V xy dx
(13.38-a)
M
dx +
EI
V
0
V
dx
GA
(13.38-b)
2. The first integral yields for M = P x, and M = (1)(x)

L
M
0
Victor Saouma
L
P
M
dx =
x2 dx
EI
EI 0
= P L3 /3EI
(13.39-a)
(13.39-b)
1316
Draft
3. The second integral represents the contribution of the shearing action to the total internal virtual
work and hence to the total displacement.
4. Both the real shear V and virtual shear V are constant along the length of the member, hence
L
V
0
V
dx =
GA
GA
1(P )dx =
0
P L
GA
(13.40)
5. Since = 1.2 for a square beam; hence

1
=
=
1.2P L
P L3
+
3EI
GA
P L L2
3.6
+
=
3E I
0.4A
(13.41-a)
PL
3E
L2
I
9
A
(13.41-b)
6. For a square beam of dimension h

I=
then
=
h4
12
and A = h2
(13.42)
3P L 1.33L2
9
P L 12L2
=
+
+1
3E
h4
h2
Eh2
h2
(13.43)
7. Choosing L = 20 ft and h = 1.5 ft (L/h = 13.3)

=
3P L
[1.33
Eh2
20
1.5
+ 1] =
3P L
Eh2 (237
+ 1)
(13.44)
Thus the flexural deformation is 237 times the shear displacement. This comparison reveals why we
normally neglect shearing deformation in beams.
As the beam gets shorter or deeper, or as L/h decreases, the flexural deformation decreases relative
to the shear displacement. At L/h = 5, the flexural deformation has reduced to 1.33(5)2 = 33 times the
shear displacement.
Example 13-8: Thermal Effects in a Beam (White et al. 1976)

The cantilever beam of example 13-7 is subjected to a thermal environment that produces a temperature change of 70 C at the top surface and 230 C at the bottom surface, Fig. 13.13.
If the beam is a steel, wide flange section, 2 m long and 200 mm deep, what is the angle of rotation,
1 , at the end of beam as caused by the temperature effect? The original uniform temperature of the
beams was 40 C.
Solution:
1. The external virtual force conforming to the desired real displacement 1 is a moment M = 1 at the
tip of the cantilever, producing an external work term of moment times rotation. The internal virtual
force system for this cantilever beam is a uniform moment M int = 1.
2. The real internal deformation results from: (a) the average beam temperature of 150 C, which is
110 C above that of the original temperature, and (b) the temperature gradient of 160 C across the
depth of the beam.
3. The first part of the thermal effect produces only a lengthening of the beam and does not enter into
the work equation since the virtual loading produces no axial force corresponding to an axial change in
length of the beam.
4. The second effect (thermal gradient) produces rotation d, and an internal virtual work term of
L
M d.
0
Victor Saouma
13.3 Virtual Work
1317
Draft
Figure 13.13:
5. We determine the value of d by considering the extreme fiber thermal strain as shown above. The
angular rotation in the length dx is the extreme fiber thermal strain divided by half the beam depth, or
d =
T dx
(11.7 106 )(80)dx
936 106
=
=
=
= (9.36 106 )dx
h/2
h/2
100
100
(13.45)
6. Using the virtual work equation

L
1 1
M d
0
2,000
1(9.36 106 )dx
(13.46-a)
(13.46-b)
=
=
+0.01872
0.01872 radians
(13.46-c)
(13.46-d)
7. This example raises the following points:

1. The value of 1 would be the same for any shape of 200 mm deep steel beam that has its neutral
axis of bending at middepth.
2. Curvature is produced only by thermal gradient and is independent of absolute temperature values.
3. The calculation of rotations by the method of virtual forces is simple and straightforward; the
applied virtual force is a moment acting at the point where rotation is to be calculated.
4. Internal angular deformation d has been calculated for an effect other than load-induced stresses.
The extension of the method of virtual forces to treat inelastic displacements is obvious all we
need to know is a method for determining the inelastic internal deformations.
Example 13-9: Deflection of a Truss (White et al. 1976)
Victor Saouma
1318
Draft
60 k
120 k
7
4
3
1
5
5
12
12
12
Figure 13.14:
Determine the deflection at node 2 for the truss shown in Fig. 13.14.
Solution:
Member
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
P
kips
+0.25
+0.25
-0.56
+0.56
+0.56
-0.56
-0.50
P,
kips
+37.5
+52.5
-83.8
+16.8
-16.8
-117.3
-45.0
L,
ft
12
12
13.42
13.42
13.42
13.42
12
A,
in2
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
E,
ksi
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
PL
P AE
+22.5 104
+31.5 104
+125.9 104
+25.3 104
25.3 104
+176.6 104
+54.0 104
+410.5 104
The deflection is thus given by

7
P
1
PL
AE
(13.47-a)
(410.5 104 )(12 in/ ft) = 0.493 in
(13.47-b)
Example 13-10: Thermal Defelction of a Truss; I (White et al. 1976)
Victor Saouma
13.3 Virtual Work
1319
Draft
The truss in example 13-9 the preceding example is built such that the lower chords are shielded from
the rays of the sun. On a hot summer day the lower chords are 30 F cooler than the rest of the truss
members. What is the magnitude of the vertical displacement at joint 2 as a result of this temperature
difference?
Solution:
1. The virtual force system remains identical to that in the previous example because the desired displacement component is the same.
2. The real internal displacements are made up of the shortening of those members of the truss that are
shielded from the sun.
3. Both bottom chord members 1 and 2 thus shorten by
l = (T )(L) = (0.0000128) in/ in/oF (30)o (12) ft(12) in/ft = 0.0553 in
(13.48)
4. Then,
1
=
=
P (L) = .25(0.0553) + .25(0.0553) = 0.0276

0.0276 in
(13.49-a)
(13.49-b)
5. The negative sign on the displacement indicates that it is in opposite sense to the assumed direction
of the displacement; the assumed direction is always identical to the direction of the applied virtual
force.
6. Note that the same result would be obtained if we had considered the internal displacements to be
made up of the lengthening of all truss members above the bottom chord.
Example 13-11: Thermal Deflections in a Truss; II (White et al. 1976)

A six-panel highway bridge truss, Fig. 13.15 is constructed with sidewalks outside the trusses so that
Figure 13.15:
the bottom chords are shaded. What will be the vertical deflection component of the bottom chord at
the center of the bridge when the temperature of the bottom chord is 40 F (T ) below that of the top
chord, endposts, and webs? (coefficient of steel thermal expansion is =0.0000065 per degree F.)
Solution:
1. The deflection is given by
L
P =
W
P
0
P
PL
dx = P
= P L = P T L
AE
AE
Victor Saouma
(13.50)
1320
Draft
where L is the temperature change in the length of each member, and P are the member virtual
internal forces.
2. Taking advantage of symmetry:
Member
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
L (ft)
35
21
21
0
35
28
35
0
(0.0000065)(40)L
T L
+0.00910
+0.00546
+0.00546
0
+0.00910
+0.00728
+0.00910
0
P (k)
+ 0.625
+ 0.75
+1.13
0
-0.625
+0.5
-0.625
0
P L
+0.00568
+0.00409
+0.00616
0
-0.00568
+0.00364
-0.00568
0
+0.00821
3. Hence, the total deflection is

= (2)(0.00821)(12) in/ft = +0.20 in
(13.51)
4. A more efficient solution would have consisted in considering members 1,2, and 3 only and apply a
T = 40, we would obtain the same displacement.
5. Note that the forces in members 1, 2, and 3 (-0.75, -0.375, and -0.375 respectively) were not included
in the table because the corresponding T = 0.
6. A simpler solution would have T = 40 in members 1, 2, and 3 thus,
Member
1
2
3
L (ft)
21
21
21
(0.0000065)(40)L
T L
-0.00546
-0.00546
-0.00546
P (k)
-0.75
-0.375
-0.375
P L
+0.004095
+0.0020475
+0.0020475
+0.00819
= (2)(0.00819)(12) in/ft = +0.20 in
(13.52)
Example 13-12: Truss with initial camber

It is desired to provide 3 in. of camber at the center of the truss shown below
by fabricating the endposts and top chord members additionally long. How much should the length of
each endpost and each panel of the top chord be increased?
Solution:
1. Assume that each endpost and each section of top chord is increased 0.1 in.
Victor Saouma
13.3 Virtual Work
1321
Draft
Member
1
2
3
P int
+0.625
+0.750
+1.125
L
+0.1
+0.1
+0.1
P int L
+0.0625
+0.0750
+0.1125
+0.2500
Thus,
(13.53)
(2)(0.250) = 0.50 in
2. Since the structure is linear and elastic, the required increase of length for each section will be
3.0
0.50
(0.1) = 0.60 in
(13.54)
3. If we use the practical value of 0.625 in., the theoretical camber will be
(6.25)(0.50)
= 3.125 in
0.1
(13.55)
Example 13-13: Prestressed Concrete Beam with Continously Variable I (White et al. 1976)
A prestressed concrete beam is made of variable depth for proper location of the straight pretensioning
tendon, Fig. 13.16. Determine the midspan displacement (point c) produced by dead weight of the girder.
The concrete weights 23.6 kN/m3 and has E = 25, 000 MPa (N/mm2 ). The beam is 0.25 m wide.
Solution:
1. We seek an expression for the real moment M , this is accomplished by first determining the reactions,
and then considering the free body diagram.
2. We have the intermediary resultant forces
R1
R2
=
=
(0.25)x(0.26)m3 (23.6)kN/m3 = 3.54x

3
(13.56-a)
2
f rac12(0.25)x(0.04x)m (23.6)kN/m = 0.118x
(13.56-b)
Hence,
M (x)
=
=
x
x
0.118x2
2
3
2
3
47.2x 1.76x 0.0393x
47.2x 3.54x
(13.57-a)
(13.57-b)
3. The moment of inertia of the rectangular beam varies continously and is given, for the left half of the
beam, by
1
1 3
bh =
(0.25)(0.6 + 0.04x)3
(13.58)
I(x) =
12
12
1
48
4. Thus, the real angle changes produced by dead load bending are
d =
47.2x 1.76x2 0.0393x3

M
dx =
dx
1
EI
(0.6 + 0.04x)3
E 48
(13.59)
5. The virtual force system corresponding to the desired displacement is shown above with M = (1/2)x
for the left half of the span. Since the beam is symmetrical, the virtual work equations can be evaluated
for only one half of the beam and the final answer is then obtained by multiplying the half-beam result
by two.
Victor Saouma
1322
Draft
Figure 13.16: *(correct 42.7 to 47.2)
Victor Saouma
13.3 Virtual Work
1323
Draft
6. The direct evaluation of the integral
M d is difficult because of the complexity of the expression for

M (M/EI)dx with the
d. Hence we shall use a numerical procedure, replacing the
M (M/EI)x,
where each quantity in the summation is evaluated at the center of the interval x and held constant
over the interval length. As x becomes very short, the solution approaches the exact answer.
7. An interval length of 1 meter, giving 10 elements in the half length of the beam, is chosen to establish
an accurate result.
8. The internal virtual work quantity is then
L/2
M
0
M
dx
EI
M M
(x)
EI
M M
E
48
E
0.25
12
h3
(13.60-a)
(x)
(13.60-b)
M M
(x)
h3
(13.60-c)
9. The summation for the 10 elements in the left half of the beam gives
Segment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
x
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.5
9.5
h3
0.238
0.288
0.343
0.405
0.475
0.551
0.636
0.729
0.831
0.941
h
0.62
0.66
0.70
0.74
0.78
0.82
0.86
0.90
0.94
0.98
M
23.2
66.7
106.4
150
173
200
222
238
250
256
M
0.25
0.75
1.25
1.75
2.25
2.75
3.25
3.75
4.25
4.75
M M
h3
24
174
388
648
820
998
1,134
1,224
1,279
1,292
7,981
10. The SI units should be checked for consistency. Letting the virtual force carry the units of kN, the
virtual moment M has the units of mkN, and the units of the equation
c =
are
1
1 kN
M M
x
EI
(13.61)
1 ( m kN)( m kN)
m
= mm
m=
( MN/ m2 ) m4
1, 000
(13.62)
M M
dx
EI
(13.63)
kN
11. Then
L
0
48
(7, 981)(1) = 30.6mm
25, 000
and the deflection at midspan is

c = 30.6 mm
(13.64)
12. Acceptably accurate results may be obtained with considerably fewer elements (longer intervals x).
Using four elements with centers at 2, 5, 8, and 10, the (M M/h3 )x is
= 3(174) + 3(820) + 3(1, 224) + 1(1, 292) = 7, 946
(13.65)
which is only 0.4% lower than the 10 element solution. If we go to two elements, 3 and 8, we obtain a
summation of 5(388) + 5(1, 224) = 8, 060, which is 1% high. A one element solution, with x = 5 m and
h = 0.8 m, gives a summation of 9,136, which is 14.4% high and much less accurate than the 2 element
solution.
13. Finally, it should be noted that the calculations involved in this example are essentially identical to
those necessary in the moment area method.
Victor Saouma
1324
Draft
13.4
24
*Maxwell Bettis Reciprocal Theorem
If we consider a beam with two points, A, and B, we seek to determine

1. The deflection at A due to a unit load at B, or fAB
2. The deflection at B due to a unit load at A, or fBA
25
Applying the theorem of vitual work

L
fAB
M A
MB
dx
EI
(13.66-a)
M B
MA
dx
EI
(13.66-b)
0
L
fBA
=
0
But since the both the real and the virtual internal moments are caused by a unit load, both moments
are numerically equal
M A
MA
(13.67-a)
M B
MB
(13.67-b)
thus we conclude that

fBA = fBA
(13.68)
or The displacement at a point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal to the
displacement of point A when the unit load is acting at point B.
26 Similarly The rotation at a point B on a structure due to a unit couple moment acting at point A is
equal to the rotation at point A when a unit couple moment is acting at point B.
27 And The rotation in radians at point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal
to the displacement of point A when a unit couple moment is acting at point B.
28 These theorems will be used later on in justifying the symmetry of the stiffness matrix, and in
construction of influence lines using the M
uller-Breslau principle.
13.5
Summary of Equations
Victor Saouma
13.5 Summary of Equations
1325
Draft
U
L
Axial
0
P2
dx
2AE
Virtual Force U
General
Linear
L
L
P
dx
P
dx
AE
0
0
Shear
...
L
Flexure
0
L
Torsion
0
V xy dx
2
M
dx
2EIz
2
T
dx
2GJ
W
i 21 Pi i
i 21 Mi i
P
M
0
L
M dx
0
L
T dx
0
M
dx
EIz
M
0
T
T
dx
GJ
Virtual Force W
i P i i
i M i i
w(x)v(x)dx
0
...
L
w(x)v(x)dx
0
Table 13.3: Summary of Expressions for the Internal Strain Energy and External Work
Victor Saouma
1326
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 14
BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

This chapter deals with the behavior and design of laterally supported steel beams according to the
LRFD provisions.
If a beam is not laterally supported, we will have a failure mode governed by lateral torsional buckling.
By the end of this lecture you should be able to select the most efficient section (light weight with
adequate strength) for a given bending moment and also be able to determine the flexural strength of a
given beam.
14.1
Review from Strength of Materials
14.1.1
Flexure
Fig.14.1 shows portion of an originally straight beam which has been bent to the radius by end
couples M , thus the segment is subjected to pure bending. It is assumed that plane cross-sections
normal to the length of the unbent beam remain plane after the beam is bent. Therefore, considering
the cross-sections AB and CD a unit distance apart, the similar sectors Oab and bcd give
(14.1)
where y is measured from the axis of rotation (neutral axis). Thus strains are proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis.
The corresponding variation in stress over the cross-section is given by the stress-strain diagram of
the material rotated 90o from the conventional orientation, provided the strain axis is scaled with the
distance y (Fig.14.1). The bending moment M is given by
5
M=
ydA
(14.2)
where dA is an differential area a distance y (Fig.14.1) from the neutral axis. Thus the moment M can
be determined if the stress-strain relation is known.
6
If stress is proportional to strain, = E, Equations 14.1 and 14.2 give

M
EI
y
y 2 dA =
=
=
= S
I
y
EI
where
S=
I
y
(14.3)
142
Draft
C
c d y
b
A
M
a
B
Figure 14.1: Bending of a Beam

is the Elastic Section Modulus. Note that for doubly symmetric sections, we have two section modulus
Sx and Sy .
The stress distribution on a typical wide-flange shape subjected to increasing bending moment is shown
in Fig.14.2. In the service range (that is before we multiplied the load by the appropriate factors in the
LRFD method) the section is elastic. This elastic condition prevails as long as the stress at the extreme
fiber has not reached the yield stress Fy . Once the strain reaches its yield value y , increasing strain
induces no increase in stress beyond Fy .
7
Figure 14.2: Stress distribution at different stages of loading

8 When the yield stress is reached at the extreme fiber, the nominal moment strength Mn , is referred
to as the yield moment My and is computed as
Mn = M y = S x Fy
(14.4)
(assuming that bending is occurring with respect to the x x axis).

9 When across the entire section, the strain is equal or larger than the yield strain ( y = Fy /Es )
then the section is fully plastified, and the nominal moment strength Mn is therefore referred to as the
Victor Saouma
14.1 Review from Strength of Materials
Draft
Elastic Region
143
Plastic Region
Fy
Stress
Strain
Figure 14.3: Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels

plastic moment Mp and is determined from
Mp = F y
(14.5)
ydA = Fy Z
A
Z=
(14.6)
ydA
is the Plastic Section Modulus.

10 The ratio Mp /My is a property of the cross-sectional shape and is independent of the material properties, it is referred to as the Shape Factor
Mp
Z
=
My
S
(14.7)
The shape factors of some regular cross-sectional shapes bending about their major axis are:
1. Rectangular section = 1.50
2. I section = 1.11
3. Circular section = 1.70
14.1.2
Shear
11 Examining the stress distribution in FIg. 14.4, if there is a variation of moment along the infinitesimal
segment dx (thus a shear force is present), we determine the total force acting over the shaded area on
the left of the section dx, on the right, and then take the difference which must be equal to the shear
force along the top surface of the shaded zone
My
dA
I
My
F1 =
dA
A I
(M + dM )y
F2 =
dA
I
A
bdx = F2 F1
x dA
Victor Saouma
(14.8-a)
(14.8-b)
(14.8-c)
(14.8-d)
144
Draft
h/2
M+dM
h
h/2
y1
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
y
00000000
11111111
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
dx
dA
max
Figure 14.4: Flexural and Shear Stress Distribution in a Rectangular Beam
dM y
dA
I
A
dM 1
dx Ib
(14.8-e)
ydA
(14.8-f)
(14.8-g)
substituting V = dM/dx we now obtain
VQ
Ib
Q =
ydA
(14.9)
(14.10)
this is the shear formula, and Q is the first moment of the area.
12
For a rectangular beam, we will have a parabolic shear stress distribution.
13 For a W section, it can be easily shown that about 95% of the shear force is carried by the web, and
that the average shear stress is within 10% of the actual maximum shear stress.
14.2
Nominal Strength
The strength requirement for beams in load and resistance factor design is stated as
b Mn M u
where:
b
Mn
Mu
(14.11)
strength reduction factor; for flexure 0.90

nominal moment strength
factored service load moment.
14 The equations given in this chapter are valid for flexural members with the following kinds of cross
section and loading:
1. Doubly symmetric (such as W sections) and loaded in Plane of symmetry

2. Singly symmetric (channels and angles) loaded in plane of symmetry or through the shear center
parallel to the web1 .
1 More
about shear centers in Mechanics of Materials II.
Victor Saouma
14.3 Flexural Design
145
Draft
14.3
Flexural Design
14.3.1
Failure Modes and Classification of Steel Beams
15
The strength of flexural members is limited by:
Plastic Hinge: at a particular cross section.

local buckling: of a cross-sectional element (e.g. the web or the flange),
Lateral-Torsional buckling: of the entire member.
Fig. 14.5 illustrates some of the buckling mode possible in a rolled section.
Figure 14.5: Local (flange) Buckling; Flexural and Torsional Buckling Modes in a Rolled Section, (Lulea
University)
16
Accordingly, the LRFD manual classifies steel sections as
Compact sections: No local buckling can occur. Strength is based on the plastic moment.
Partially compact sections: Where local buckling may occur
Slender sections: where lateral torsional buckling may occur.
We will cover only the first two cases.
14.3.1.1
Compact Sections
For compact sections, the mode of failure is the formation of a plastic hinge that is the section is
fully plastified. Hence we shall first examine the bending behavior of beams under limit load. Then we
will relate this plastic moment to the design of compact sections.
17
18
A section is compact if the following conditions are met:

1. Flanges are continuously connected to the web
2. Width to thickness ratios, known as the slenderness ratios, of the flange and the web must not
exceed the limiting ratios p defined as follows:
Flange
Web
Note that
bf
2tf
Victor Saouma
and
hc
tw
bf
2tf
hc
tw
p
p
p = 65
Fy
640
p =
(14.12)
Fy
are tabulated in Sect. 3.6.
146
Draft
19
The nominal strength Mn for laterally stable compact sections according to LRFD is
(14.13)
Mn = M p
where:
Mp
Z
Fy
20
plastic moment strength = ZFy

plastic section modulus
specified minimum yield strength
Note that section properties, including Z values are tabulated in Section 3.6.
14.3.1.2
Partially Compact Section
21 If the width to thickness ratios of the compression elements exceed the p values mentioned in Eq.
14.12 but do not exceed the following r , the section is partially compact and we can have local buckling.
Flange: p <
Web: p <
bf
2tf
hc
tw
p = 65
r = 141
p =
970
r =
Fy
640
Fy
Fy Fr
(14.14)
Fy
where, Fig. 14.6:

Fy specified minimum yield stress in ksi
bf width of the flange
tf thickness of the flange
hc unsupported height of the web which is twice the distance from the neutral axis
to the inside face of the compression flange less the fillet or corner radius.
tw thickness of the web.
Fr residual stress = 10.0 ksi for rolled sections and 16.5 ksi for welded sections.
Figure 14.6: W Section

22
The nominal strength of partially compact sections according to LRFD is, Fig. 14.7
Mn = Mp (Mp Mr )(
where:
Mr
p
) Mp
r p
(14.15)
Residual Moment equal to (Fy Fr )S

bf /2tf for I-shaped member flanges and
hc /tw for beam webs.
Victor Saouma
Draft
147
Mn
Compact
Partially Compact
Slender
Mp
Mr
p
Flanges
bf
2t
Web
tw
65
F
141
Fy - Fr
640
Fy
970
Fy
Figure 14.7: Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections
All other quantities are as defined earlier. Note that we use the associated with the one being
violated (or the lower of the two if both are).
23
14.3.1.3
Slender Section
24 If the width to thickness ratio exceeds r values of flange and web, the element is referred to as slender
compression element. Since the slender sections involve a different treatment, it will not be dealt here.
25 A laterally stable beam is one which is braced laterally in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of the web. Thus overall buckling of the compression flange as a column cannot occur prior to its full
participation to develop the moment strength of the section.
26
The AISC code requires that

Lb
Lp
Lp
300
rmin
Fy
(14.16)
(14.17)
where Lb is the maximum unbraced length of the compression flange, and rmin is the radius of gyration
with respect to the weak axis. This is an emperical equation, thus units are in inches, ksi, and ft.
14.3.2
Examples
Example 14-1: Shape Factors, Rectangular Section

Determine the shape factor for a rectangular beam of width b and depth d.
Victor Saouma
148
Draft
Solution:
From Eq. 14.7 the shape factor is given by =
My
f
=
=
f ydA
A
y
Fy d/2
Mp
My
= Fy 2y
d
The moment at first yield is

d/2
My = 2
0
2Fy 2
bd2
y bdy = Fy
d
6
The plastic moment is given by:

d/2
Mp =
f ydA = 2
A
Fy bydy = Fy
0
bd2
4
Thus, the shape factor is

2
Fy bd4
Mp
=
=
2 = 1.5
My
Fy bd6
Example 14-2: Shape Factors, T Section

Determine the shape factor of the inverted T-section shown in fig. below.
Solution:
1. Determine the position of the Elastic Neutral Axis:
Taking moment about the top, the depth of the neutral axis is given by
y =
Victor Saouma
(10)(1)(9.5) + (9)(1)(4.5)
= 7.13 cm
(10)(1) + (9)(1)
149
Draft
2. Determine the moment of inertia about the elastic neutral axis:

I=
(10)(1)3
(1)(9)3
2
+ (9)(1)(7.13 4.5)2 +
+ (10)(1) ((10 7.13) 0.5) = 180 cm4
12
12
3. Determine My :
M y = Fy
I
180.0
= 25.25Fy
= Fy
ymax
7.13
4. Determine the position of Plastic Neutral Axis:

Plastic neutral axis divides the section in such a way that, the area above it is equal to area below
it. In other words it is also called as the bf Equal Area Axis
Total area = (10)(1) + (9)(1) = 19 cm2 Half area = 9.5 cm2
Thus the plastic neutral axis passes through the horizontal seat at 0.95 cm. from the bottom.
5. Determine Mp : Taking moments of the resultant forces C1 and C2 with respect to the location of
the resultant force of the lower tensile forces we have:
0.95
0.05 0.95
] + [(Fy )(10)(0.05)][
+
] = 45.475Fy
Mp = [(Fy )(1)(9)][4.5 + 0.05 +
2
2
2
6. Shape Factor
45.475Fy
Mp
=
= 1.8
My
25.25Fy
Example 14-3: Beam Design

Select the lightest W or M section to carry a uniformly distributed dead load of 0.2 kip/ft superimposed (i.e., in addition to the beam weight) and 0.8 kip/ft live load. The simply supported span is 20
ft. The compression flange of the beam is fully supported against lateral movement. Select the sections
for the following steels: A36; A572 Grade 50; and A572 Grade 65.
Solution:
Case 1: A36 Steel
1. Determine the factored load.
wD
wL
wu
=
=
=
=
0.2 k/ft
0.8 k/ft
1.2wD + 1.6wL
1.2(0.2) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.52 k/ft
2. Compute the factored load moment Mu . For a simply supported beam carrying uniformly
distributed load,
Mu = wu L2 /8 = (1.52)(20)2 /8 = 76 k.ft
Assuming compact section, since a vast majority of rolled sections satisfy p for both the
flange and the web. The design strength b Mn is
b Mn = b Mp = b Zx Fy
The design requirement is
b Mn = Mu
or, combing those two equations we have:
b Zx Fy = Mu
Victor Saouma
1410
Draft
3. Required Zx is
Mu
76(12)
= 28.1 in3
=
b Fy
0.90(36)
Zx =
From the notes on Structural Materials, we select a W12X22 section which has a Zx = 29.3 in3
wd
9
Note that Zx is approximated by
(22)(12)
9
= 29.3.
4. Check compact section limits p for the flanges from the table
bf
2tf
=
=
p
and for the web:
=
hc
tw
4.7
65 =
Fy
=
=
65
36
41.8
640
=
Fy
= 10.8 >
640
36
= 107
5. Check the Strength by correcting the factored moment Mu to include the self weight. Self
weight of the beam W12X22 is 22 lb./ft. or 0.022 kip/ft
wD
wu
Mu
=
=
=
0.2 + 0.022 = 0.222 k/ft

1.2(0.222) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.55 k/ft
(1.55)(20)2 /8 = 77.3 k.ft
Mn
Mp = Zx Fy =
b Mn
0.90(87.9) = 79.1 k.ft > Mu
(29.3) in (36)
(12) in/ft
ksi
= 87.9 k.ft
Therefore use W12X22 section.

6. We finally check for the maximum distance between supports.
rmin
Lp
=
=
Iy
5
=
= 0.88 in
A
6.5
300
rmin
Fy
300
0.88 = 43 ft
36
(14.18-a)
(14.18-b)
(14.18-c)
Case 2: A572 Grade 65 Steel:

1. same as in case 1
2. same as in case 1
Mu
b Fy
by wd
9
3. Required Zx =
approximated
=
=
76(12)
0.90(65) = 15.6
(14)(12)
= 18.7.
9
in3 Select W12X14: Zx = 17.4 in3 Note that Zx is
4. Check compact section limits p :

=
p =
=
p =
hc
tw = 54.3
640
640
=
65
Fy
bf
=
8.82
2tf
65 = 65
65
Fy
= 79.4
= 8.1 < Not Good
In this case the controlling limit state is local buckling of the flange.
Since p < < r , as above, the section is classified as non-compact.
Victor Saouma
14.4 Shear Design
1411
Draft
5. Check the strength:

Since the section is non-compact, the strength is obtained by interpolation between Mp and
Mr .
For the flanges:
r
141
Mn
Mp (Mp Mr )( r pp ) Mp
Mp
Zx Fy =
Mr
Mn
b Mn
=
=
Fy 10
141
6510
= 19.0
(17.4) in (65) ksi

= 94.2 k.ft
(12) in/ft
3
(14.9) in (6510) ksi
Sx (Fy Fr ) =
= 68.3 k.ft.
(12) in/ft
8.88.1
= 92.5 k.ft
94.2 (94.2 68.3) 19.08.1
0.90(92.5) = 83.25 k.ft > Mu
Therefore provide W12X14 section.
14.4
Shear Design
27 Except for very short span beams, shear seldom govern. Thus sections should first be selected on the
basis of flexural reauirements, and shear should be checked next.
28
as for beams
V d = v V n ;
29
(14.19)
v = 0.9
There are three failure modes possible:
Web yielding
Inelastic web buckling
Elastic web buckling
30
The AISC requirements for shear design are summarized below

Web Yielding
Inel. Web Buckling
Elast. Web Buckling
h
tw
418
Vn = 0.6Fyw Aw
Fyw
418
Fyw
<
h
tw
418
523
Fyw
523
Fyw
Vn = 0.6Fyw Aw
<
h
tw
Vn =
132,000Aw
Fyw
h
tw
( thw )
(14.20)
and are shown in Fig. ??.
14.5
Deflections
31 Deflections of beams, under live load, are often curtailed in order not to impair serviceability (plaster
cracking, excessive vibration).
32 The AISC code states in Sect.
L3.1 that deformations of structural members and systems due to
service loads shall not impair the serviceability of the structure. However no specific limits are given, as
those would depend on the type of structire.
Victor Saouma
1412
Draft
40.0
Fy=36 ksi
Fy=54 ksi
35.0
Vn/Aw [ksi]
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
h/tw
Figure 14.8: AISC Requirements for Shear Design
33
In lieu of practical design experience, it is customary to limit the live-load central span deflection to
L
360
(14.21)
34 It should be recalled that the midspan deflection of a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam is
equal to
5 wL4
(14.22)
=
384 EIx
14.6
Complete Design Example
A simply supported beam with a span of 20 ft supports a dead load of 1.0 k/ft, and a live load of 1.5
k/ft in addition to its own weight (estimate dead load to 40 lbs/ft). Select the most economical W shape
using A-36, determine the maximum distance for lateral bracing of the compression flanges, and check
for deflection which should not exceed L/360.
WD
WL
=
=
1.0 + 0.04 = 1.04 k/ft

1.5 k/ft
(14.23-a)
(14.23-b)
Wu1
Wu2
=
=
(14.23-c)
(14.23-d)
Mu
Vu
Zx
1.4wd = 1.4(1.04) = 1.456 k/ft

1.2wd + 1.6wL = 1.2(1.04) + 1.6(1.5) = 3.648 k/ft
3.65(20)2 (12)
wu L2
=
= 2, 189 k.in
8
8
(3.65)(20)
wu L
=
= 36.5 k
2
2
Mu
2, 189
= 67.6 in3 W16x40, Zx = 72.9 in3
=
b Fy
(0.9)(36)
65
6.9 < = 10.8
36
640
46.6 < = 106.7
36
418
46.6 < = 69.7
36
0.9(0.6Fy ) dtw = (0.9)(0.6)(36)(16.01)(0.305) = 94.9 k > 36.5
bf
2tf
h
tw
h
tw
v Vn
=
=
=
=
(14.23-e)
(14.23-f)
(14.23-g)
(14.23-h)
(14.23-i)
(14.23-j)
(14.23-k)
Aw
Victor Saouma
14.6 Complete Design Example
Draft
L
360
rmin
Lp
Victor Saouma
1413
5 wL L4
5 (1.5/12) k/ in(20)4 (12)4 in4
=
= 0.36 in
384 EIx
384
(29, 000) ksi(518) in4
(20)(12)
=
= 0.67 in > 0.36 in
360
= 1.57 in
300rmin
(300)(1.57)
= 78.5 in
=
=
Fy
36
=
(14.23-l)
(14.23-m)
(14.23-n)
(14.23-o)
1414
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 15
COLUMN STABILITY
15.1
Introduction; Discrete Rigid Bars
15.1.1
Single Bar System
Let us begin by considering a rigid bar connected to the support by a spring and axially loaded at the
other end, Fig. 15.1. Taking moments about point A:
P
P
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
11111
0
1
00000
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
A
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
Unstable Equilibrium
k
L
(stable)
sin
Neutral Equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium
k
L
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
111
000
000
111
000
111
Stable
Neutral
111
000
000
111
000
111
Unstable
Figure 15.1: Stability of a Rigid Bar

MA
= P k = 0
= L for small rotation
P L k = 0
k
(P ) = 0
L
hence we have three possibilities:
Stable Equilibrium: for P < k/L, = 0
Neutral Equilibrium: for P = k/L, and can take any value
(15.1-a)
(15.1-b)
(15.1-c)
(15.1-d)
152
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
Unstable equilibrium: for P > k/L, = 0

2
Thus we introduce a critical load defined by

Pcr =
k
L
(15.2)
For large rotation, we would have

MA
Pcr
= P k = 0
= L sin()P L k = 0
k
=
L sin()
(15.3-a)
(15.3-b)
(15.3-c)
4 Because there is more than one possible path () when P = Pcr , we call this point a biffurcation
point.
If we now assume that there is an initial imperfection in the column, i.e. the column is initially
crooked, Fig. 15.2, then
MA
Pcr
P L k( 0 ) = 0
0
k
(1 )
L
(15.4-a)
(15.4-b)
P
P
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
A
00000
11111
00000
11111
Perfect System
k
L
k (1L
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
Figure 15.2: Stability of a Rigid Bar with Initial Imperfection
15.1.2
6
Two Bars System
Next we consider the two rigid bar problem illustrated in Fig. 15.3.
Victor Saouma
MB
1 + 2
MA
21 2
P L2 k(2 1 ) = 0
PL
2
k
P L1 + k(2 1 ) k1 = 0
PL
1
k
(15.5-a)
(15.5-b)
(15.5-c)
(15.5-d)
15.1 Introduction; Discrete Rigid Bars
Draft
153
P
P
C
L
B
k
A
k
1111111
0000000
C
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
L
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
2
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
P
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
B
0000
1111
B
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000k( k( - ) 1111
0000 2
1111
2
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
P
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
0000
1111
k
A 1111
1
0000000
1111111
0000 C
1111
1111111
0000000
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
1
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
2
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
B
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
L
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
1111111
0000000
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
1.618
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
P
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
.618
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
Figure 15.3: Stability of a Two Rigid Bars System
Those two equations can be cast in matrix form

2 1
1 1
1
2
1
2
(15.6)
where = P L/k, this is an eigenvalue formulation and can be rewritten as

2
1
1
1
1
2
0
0
(15.7)
This is a homogeneous system of equation, and it can have a non-zero solution only if its determinant is
equal to zero
2
1
1
1
(15.8-a)
2 2 + 2 1 = 0
2 3 + 1 = 0
(15.8-b)
(15.8-c)
1,2
3 5
94
=
2
2
(15.8-d)
Hence we now have two critical loads:

Pcr1
Pcr2
k
3 5 k
= 0.382
2 L
L
k
3+ 5 k
= 2.618
2
L
L
(15.9)
(15.10)
We now seek to determine the deformed shape for each of the first critical loads. It should be noted
that since the column will be failing at the critical buckling load, we can not determine the absolute
values of the deformations, but rather the shape of the buckling column.
3 5
(15.11-a)
1 =
2
2 32
1
Victor Saouma
1
1 32 5
1
2
0
0
(15.11-b)
154
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
1+ 5
2
1
1
1+ 5
2
1.618
1
1
0.618
1
2
0
0
(15.11-c)
1
2
0
0
(15.11-d)
we now arbitrarily set 1 = 1, then 2 = 1/0.618 = 1.618, thus the first eigenmode is
1
2
1
1.618
(15.12)
10
Note that we can determine the deformed shape upon buckling but not the geometry.
11
Finally, we examine the second mode shape loads

2
2 3+2
1
1 5
2
3+ 5
2
(15.13-a)
1
1 3+2 5
1
2
0
0
(15.13-b)
1
2
0
0
(15.13-c)
1
1.618
1
2
0
0
(15.13-d)
0.618
1
1 5
2
we now arbitrarily set 1 = 1, then 2 = 1/1.618 = 0.618, thus the second eigenmode is
1
2
15.1.3
1
0.618
(15.14)
Analogy with Free Vibration
12 The problem just considered bears great ressemblence with the vibration of a two degree of freedom
mass spring system, Fig. 15.4.
u1
k 2= k
m1= m
m = 2m
k 3= k
..
mu 1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
u1
ku
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
k 1= k
k(u -u )
2
..
2m u
ku
u2
Figure 15.4: Two DOF Dynamic System

13 Each mass is subjected to an inertial force equals to the mass times the acceleration, and the spring
force:
2m
u2 + ku2 + k(u2 u1 )
Victor Saouma
(15.15-a)
15.2 Continuous Linear Elastic Systems
Draft
155
m
u1 + ku1 + k9u2 u1 0
or in matrix form
m
0
1
u
2
u
0
2m
M
14
k
2k
2k
k
u1
u2
(15.15-b)
(15.16)
The characteristic equation is |K M| where = 2 , and is the natural frequency.

2h
h
h
2h 2
=0
(15.17)
where h = k/m. This reduces to the polynomial

3
2 3h + h2 = 0
2
(15.18)
Solving, = (3 3)h/2 or
1
0.796
k/m
(15.19-a)
1.538
k/m
(15.19-b)
15 To find the mode shapes 1 and 2 (relative magnitudes of the DOF) we substitute in the characteristic
equation and set the first element equal to 1:
1 =
15.2
1.000
1.3660
and 1 =
1.000
0.3660
(15.20)
Continuous Linear Elastic Systems
16
Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744.
17
An initially straight member is concentrically loaded, and all fibers remain elastic until buckling occur.
18 For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown in Fig. 15.5.
Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor imperfection is present.
x and y are
principal axes
Slightly bent position

L
y, v
Figure 15.5: Euler Column

19 Two sets of solutions will be presented, in both cases the equation of equilibrium is written for
the deformed element.
Victor Saouma
156
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
15.2.1
Lower Order Differential Equation
20 At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the concentric
load P , gives rise to a moment
(15.21)
Mz = P v
Note that the value of y is irrelevant.

21
Recalling that
d2 v
Mz
=
dx2
EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following differential equation
(15.22)
d2 v
P
v=0
dx2
EI
22
Letting k 2 =
P
EI ,
(15.23)
the solution to this second-order linear differential equation is

v = A sin kx B cos kx
23
(15.24)
The two constants are determined by applying the boundary conditions

1. v = 0 at x = 0, thus B = 0
2. v = 0 at x = L, thus
A sin kL = 0
(15.25)
24 This last equation can be satisfied if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no deflection; 2) kL = 0, that is no
applied load; or 3)
kL = n
(15.26)
Thus buckling will occur if
Pcr
EI
n 2
L
or
Pcr =
n2 2 EI
L2
25 The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature deflection, will occur for n = 1; Thus Euler
critical load for a pinned column is
Pcr =
26
2 EI
L2
(15.27)
The corresponding critical stress is

cr =
2 E
L
(15.28)
rmin
where I =
27
2
Armin
.
Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.
15.2.2
Higher Order Differential Equation
15.2.2.1
Derivation
28 In the preceding approach, the buckling loads were obtained for a column with specified boundary
conditons. A second order differential equation, valid specifically for the member being analyzed was
used.
Victor Saouma
157
Draft
29 In the next approach, we derive a single fourth order equation which will be applicable to any column
regardelss of the boundary conditions.
30 Considering a beam-column subjected to axial and shear forces as well as a moment, Fig. 15.6 (note
analogy with cable structure, Fig. 6.1), taking the moment about i for the beam segment and assuming
w
w(x)
1111
0000
0000
1111
y, u
1111
0000
0000
1111
V+ V dx
x
P
v
x
dx
P
dx
P
M+ M dx
x
i
j
Figure 15.6: Simply Supported Beam Column; Differential Segment; Effect of Axial Force P
the angle
dv
dx
between the axis of the beam and the horizontal axis is small, leads to
M M+
(dx)2
dV
dM
dx + w
+ V +
dx P
dx
2
dx
dv
dx
dx = 0
(15.29)
Note that the first underbraced term is identical to the one used in earlier derivation of the beams
differential equation.
neglecting the terms in dx2 which are small, and then differentiating each term with respect to x, we
obtain
d2 v
dV
d2 M
P 2 =0
(15.30)
2
dx
dx
dx
31
32
However, considering equilibrium in the y direction gives

dV
= w
dx
33
From beam theory, neglecting axial and shear deformations, we have

M = EI
34
(15.31)
d2 v
dx2
(15.32)
Substituting Eq. 15.31 and 15.32 into 15.30, and assuming a beam of uniform cross section, we obtain
EI
substituting =
P
EI ,
d4 v
d2 v
P
=w
dx4
dx2
(15.33)
and w = 0 we finally obtain

2
d4 v
2d v
+
=0
dx4
dx2
(15.34)
35 Again, we note that by considering equilibrium in the deformed state we have introduced the second
term to what would otherwise be the governing differential equation for flexural members (beams).
Finally, we note the analogy between this equation, and the governing differential equation for a cable
structure, Eq. 6.12.
36
The general solution of this fourth order differential equation to any set of boundary conditions is
v = C1 + C2 x + C3 sin x + C4 cos x
Victor Saouma
(15.35)
158
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
Essential
(Dirichlet)
Natural
(Neumann)
d3 v
(V )
3
dx
2
d v
(M )
dx2
v
dv
dx
Table 15.1: Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions for Columns

37 The constants C s are obtained from the boundary condtions. For columns, those are shown in Table
?? The essential boundary conditions are associated with displacement, and slope, the natural ones with
shear and moments (through their respective relationships with the displacement).
38 We note that at each node, we should have two boundary conditions, all combinations are possible
except pairs from the same raw (i.e. we can not have known displacement and shear, or known slope
and moment).
15.2.2.2
Hinged-Hinged Column
39 If we consider again the stability of a hinged-hinged column, the boundary conditions are displacement
d2 v
1
(v) and moment ( dx
2 EI) equal to zero at both ends , or
v
v
= 0,
= 0,
d2 v
2
dx
d2 v
dx2
=
=
0
0
at x = 0
at x = L
(15.36)
substitution of the two conditions at x = 0 leads to C1 = C4 = 0. From the remaining conditions, we

obtain
C3 sin L + C2 L = 0
C3 k 2 sin L = 0
(15.37-a)
(15.37-b)
these relations are satisfied either if C2 = C3 = 0 or if sin L = C2 = 0. The first alternative leads to
the trivial solution of equilibrium at all loads, and the second to L = n for n = 1, 2, 3 . The critical
load is
Pcr =
n2 2 EI
L2
(15.38)
which was derived earlier using the lower order differential equation.
40
The shape of the buckled column is
nx
(15.39)
L
and only the shape (but not the geometry) can be determined. In general, we will assume C3 = 1 and
plot y.
y = C3 sin
15.2.2.3
Fixed-Fixed Column
41 We now consider a column which is restrained against rotation at both ends, the boundary conditions
are given by:
v(0) = 0 = C1 + C4
v (0) = 0 = C2 + C3
v(L) = 0 = C1 + C2 L + C3 sin L + C4 cos L
v (L)
1 It
0 = C2 + C3 cos(L) C4 sin(L)
(15.40-a)
(15.40-b)
(15.40-c)
(15.40-d)
will be shown in subsequent courses, that the former BC is an essential B.C., and the later a natural B.C.
Victor Saouma
Draft
those equations can be set
1
1
1
0
in matrix form
0
1
L
1
sin L
cos L
1 0
1 1
1 L
0 1
159
C1
C2
0
C3
cos L
C4
sin L
0
sin L
cos L
1
0
cos L
sin L
(15.41-a)
(15.41-b)
The determinant is obtain from

1
0
L sin L
cos L
1 cos L sin L
sin L
cos L
cos L
sin L
L
1
cos L
sin L
1 1
1 L sin L
0 1 cos L
0 (15.42-a)
0 (15.42-b)
2 + 2 L sin L + 2 cos L =
0 (15.42-c)
1
0
sin L
cos L
1
0
L
1
The first solution, = 0 is a trivial one, and the next one

L sin L + 2 cos L 2
L sin L =
(15.43-a)
2(1 cos L)
(15.43-b)
The solution to this transcendental equation is

L =
P
EI
thus the critical load and stresses are given by
42
Pcr
cr
2n
(15.44-a)
2n
L
(15.44-b)
4n2 2 EI
L2
2 2
4n E
(L/r)2
(15.45)
(15.46)
The deflected shape (or eigenmodes) can be obtained by substituting the value of into the c s.
15.2.2.4
Fixed-Hinged Column
Next we consider a column with one end fixed (at x = L), and one end hinged (at x = 0). The
boundary conditions are
d2 v
= 0 at x = 0
v = 0, dx
2
(15.47)
dv
v = 0,
= 0 at x = L
dx
The first two B.C. yield C1 = C4 = 0, and the other two
43
sin L L cos L = 0
(15.48)
But since cos L can not possibly be equal to zero, the preceding equation can be reduced to
tan L = L
(15.49)
which is a transcendental algebraic equation and can only be solved numerically. We are essentially
looking at the intersection of y = x and y = tan x, Fig. 15.7 and the smallest positive root is L = 4.4934,
P
, the smallest critical load is
since k2 = EI
Pcr =
(4.4934)2
2
EI
=
EI
L2
(0.699L)2
(15.50)
Note that if we were to solve for x such that v,xx = 0 (i.e. an inflection point), then x = 0.699L.
Victor Saouma
1510
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Figure 15.7: Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged Column
15.2.3
Effective Length Factors K
44 Recall that the Euler buckling load was derived for a pinned column. In many cases, a column will
have different boundary conditions. It can be shown that in all cases, the buckling load would be given
by
Pcr =
2 EI
(KL)
(15.51)
where K is called effective length factor, and KL is the effective length. and
cr =
2 E
KL
rmin
(15.52)
The ratio rKL

is termed the slenderness ratio. Note that rmin should be the smallest radius of
min
gyration in the unbraced direction(s).
45 The effective length, can only be determined by numerical or approximate methods, and is the distance
between two adjacent (real or virtual) inflection points, Fig. 15.8, 15.9
46 The most widely used charts for the effective length determination are those produced by the Structural Stability Research Council. The alignment chart, for an individual column, Fig. 15.10 is shown in
Fig. 15.11. It should be noted that this chart assumes that all members are still in the elastic range.
The use of the alignment chart involces computing G at each end of the column using the following
formula
47
Ga =
Ic
Lc
Ig
Lg
(15.53)
where Ga is the stiffness at end a of the column, Ic , Ig are the moment of inertias of the columns and
girders respectively. The summation must include only those members which are rigidly connected to
that joint and lying in the plane for which buckling is being considered.
Victor Saouma
1511
Draft
P
P
KL = 0.7L
KL = L
KL =
1
L L
2
KL < L
P
P
P
(a) End rotations
unrestrained
(b) End rotations

fully restrained
(c) One end

restrained, other
unrestrained
(d) Partially restrained

at each end
Figure 15.8: Column Effective Lengths
KL
2
L
L
0.7L<KL<L
KL>2L
(a) Braced frame, hinged base

P
0.5L<KL<0.7L
(b) Unbraced frame, hinged base

P
L
L<KL<2L
(c) Braced frame, fixed base
(d) Unbraced frame, fixed base
Figure 15.9: Frame Effective Lengths
Victor Saouma
1512
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
Figure 15.10: Column Effective Length in a Frame

48 Hence, once Ga and Gb are determined, those values are connected by a straight line in the appropriate
chart, and k is the point of intersection of that line with the midle axis.
49
Alternatively :-)
GA GB
4
G A + GB
2
/K
tan /K
2 tan /2K
=1
/K
(15.54)
(Ref. McGuire P. 467).
15.3
50
Inelastic Columns
There are two limiting loads for a column

1. Yielding of the gross section Pcr = Fy Ag , which occirs in short stiff columns
2. Elastic (Euler) buckling, Eq. 15.51 Pcr =
2 EI
,
(KL)2
in long slender columns.
51 Those two expression are asymptotic values for actual column buckling. Intermediary failure loads
are caused by the presence of residual stresses which in turn give rise to inelastic buckling.
52 Inelastic buckling buckling occurs when the stresses (average) have not yet reached the yield stress,
and is based on the tangent modulus Et which is lower than the initial modulus E.
53
Residual stresses (caused by uneven cooling) will initiate inelastic buckling, Fig. 15.12.
54 The inelastic buckling curve has to be asymptotic to both the Euler elastic buckling (for slender
columns), and to the yield stress (for stiff columns).
55 The Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) has proposed a parabolic curve which provides a
transition between elastic buckling and yielding, thus accounting for the presence of residual stresses
Victor Saouma
15.3 Inelastic Columns
1513
Draft
Sidesway Inhibited
50.
10.
Ga
Sidesway Uninhibited
Gb
50.
10.
1.0
5.
5.
0.9
3.
3.
2.
100.
50.
30.
20.
Ga
Gb
100.
50.
30.
20.
20.
10.
5.
4.
2.
0.8
1.
1.
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.2
3.
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
5.
5.
2.
4.
4.
3.
3.
2.
2.
1.5
0.2
1.
0.1
1.
0.1
0.
0.5
0.
1.
Figure 15.11: Standard Alignment Chart (AISC)
Euler Buckling (Linear Elastic)

2
=E
( kLr )
yd
yd
ET < E
Inelastic
Buckling
Effect of Residual Stresses
Gross Yielding
Proportional Limit
Proportional Limit
kL
r
Figure 15.12: Inelastic Buckling
Victor Saouma
1514
COLUMN STABILITY
Draft
and the resulting inelastic buckling, Fig. 15.13.

cr = y 1
y
4 2 E
KL
rmin
(15.55)
Fy=36 ksi; E=29,000 ksi

50
Euler
SSRC
Stress [ksi]
40
30
20
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Slenderness Ratio KL/rmin
160
180
200
Figure 15.13: Euler Buckling, and SSRC Column Curve
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 16
STEEL COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
This chapter will cover the elementary analysis and design of steel column according to the LRFD
provisions.
16.1
AISC Equations
2 By introducing a slenderness parameter c (not to be confused with the slenderness ratio) defined
as
2c
Fy
=
Euler
Fcr
KL
rmin
Fy
2 E
KL
rmin
(16.1-a)
2
Fy
2 E
(16.1-b)
Hence, this parameter accounts for both the slenderness ratio as well as steel material properties.
This new parameter is a more suitable one than the slenderness ratio (which was a delimeter for elastic
buckling) for the inelastic buckling.
3
Equation 15.55 becomes

Fcr
2
=1 c
Fy
4
When c >
for c
(16.2)
2, then Euler equation applies

Fcr
1
= 2
Fy
c
for c
(16.3)
Hence the first equation is based on inelastic buckling (with gross yielding as a limiting case), and the
second one on elastic buckling. The two curves are tangent to each other.
5
The above equations are valid for concentrically straight members.
The previous two equations, were modified to account for an initial out-of-straightness of about 1/1500.
This will result in, Fig. 16.1:
Fcr
Fcr
0.658c Fy for c 1.5

0.877
Fy for c > 1.5
2c
(16.4)
(16.5)
162
STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Draft
where
c =
KL
r
Fy
E
(16.6)
Fy=36 ksi; E=29,000 ksi

50
SSRC 2
c
0.6584 ; c<1.5
2
0.877c Fy; c>1.5
Stress [ksi]
40
Elastic Buckling
30
Inelastic Buckling
20
10
20
40
60
>1.5
<1.5
80
100
120
140
Slenderness Ratio KL/rmin
160
180
200
Figure 16.1: SSRC Column Curve and AISC Critical Stresses

Fcr can readily be determined from Figure 16.2 or from Table 16.1 and 16.2.
The AISC code introduces a reduction factor Q into Eq. 16.7-a and 16.7-b when certan width/thickness
limitations (LRFD Table B5.1) are not satisfied, and local buckling may occur prior to overall buckling.
Fcr
Fcr
0.658Qc Fy for c Q 1.5

0.877
Fy for c Q > 1.5
2c
(16.7-a)
(16.7-b)
since Q = 1 for all rolled H sections (standard W, S, and M shapes) it will be neglected in this course.
Finally, the AISC introduces a stiffness reduction factor (SRF) for columns when the nomographs are
used. Such a reduction would account for the discrepancy between elastic buckling (assumed in the
nomographs) and inelastic buckling which occur for relatively high Pu /A values, Table 16.3.
16.2
10
LRFD Equations
The strength requirement for columns in load and resistance factor design is stated as
c P n P u
where:
c strength reduction factor, 0.85
Pn nominal strength=Ag Fcr
Fcr Eq. 16.7-a and 16.7-b
Pu factored service load.
Victor Saouma
(16.8)
16.2 LRFD Equations
163
Draft
Kl
rmin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
c
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.31
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.40
0.41
0.43
0.44
0.45
c Fcr
30.60
30.59
30.59
30.57
30.56
30.54
30.52
30.50
30.47
30.44
30.41
30.37
30.33
30.29
30.24
30.19
30.14
30.08
30.02
29.96
29.90
29.83
29.76
29.69
29.61
29.53
29.45
29.36
29.27
29.18
29.09
28.99
28.90
28.79
28.69
28.58
28.47
28.36
28.25
28.13
Kl
rmin
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
c
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.89
0.90
c Fcr
28.01
27.89
27.76
27.63
27.51
27.37
27.24
27.10
26.97
26.83
26.68
26.54
26.39
26.25
26.10
25.94
25.79
25.63
25.48
25.32
25.16
24.99
24.83
24.66
24.50
24.33
24.16
23.99
23.82
23.64
23.47
23.29
23.11
22.94
22.76
22.58
22.40
22.21
22.03
21.85
Kl
rmin
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
c
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.35
c Fcr
21.66
21.48
21.29
21.11
20.92
20.73
20.54
20.35
20.17
19.98
19.79
19.60
19.41
19.22
19.03
18.84
18.65
18.46
18.27
18.08
17.89
17.70
17.51
17.32
17.13
16.94
16.75
16.56
16.37
16.18
16.00
15.81
15.62
15.44
15.25
15.07
14.88
14.70
14.52
14.34
Kl
rmin
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
c
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.44
1.45
1.46
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.50
1.51
1.53
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.58
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.63
1.64
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.68
1.69
1.70
1.72
1.73
1.74
1.75
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.79
Table 16.1: Design Stress Fcr for Fy =36 ksi in Terms of
Victor Saouma
c Fcr
14.16
13.98
13.80
13.62
13.44
13.27
13.09
12.92
12.74
12.57
12.40
12.23
12.06
11.88
11.71
11.54
11.37
11.20
11.04
10.89
10.73
10.58
10.43
10.29
10.15
10.01
9.87
9.74
9.61
9.48
9.36
9.23
9.11
9.00
8.88
8.77
8.66
8.55
8.44
8.33
Kl
rmin
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
c
1.81
1.82
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.90
1.91
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.95
1.96
1.97
1.99
2.00
2.01
2.02
2.03
2.04
2.05
2.06
2.07
2.09
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
c Fcr
8.23
8.13
8.03
7.93
7.84
7.74
7.65
7.56
7.47
7.38
7.30
7.21
7.13
7.05
6.97
6.89
6.81
6.73
6.66
6.59
6.51
6.44
6.37
6.30
6.23
6.17
6.10
6.04
5.97
5.91
5.85
5.79
5.73
5.67
5.61
5.55
5.50
5.44
5.39
5.33
KL
rmin
164
Draft
Kl
rmin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
c
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.52
0.53
c Fcr
42.50
42.49
42.47
42.45
42.42
42.39
42.35
42.30
42.25
42.19
42.13
42.05
41.98
41.90
41.81
41.71
41.61
41.51
41.39
41.28
41.15
41.02
40.89
40.75
40.60
40.45
40.29
40.13
39.97
39.79
39.62
39.43
39.25
39.06
38.86
38.66
38.45
38.24
38.03
37.81
Kl
rmin
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
c
0.54
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.06
c Fcr
37.58
37.36
37.13
36.89
36.65
36.41
36.16
35.91
35.66
35.40
35.14
34.88
34.61
34.34
34.07
33.79
33.51
33.23
32.95
32.66
32.38
32.09
31.79
31.50
31.21
30.91
30.61
30.31
30.01
29.70
29.40
29.09
28.79
28.48
28.17
27.86
27.55
27.24
26.93
26.62
Kl
rmin
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
c
1.07
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.53
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.59
c Fcr
26.31
25.99
25.68
25.37
25.06
24.75
24.44
24.13
23.82
23.51
23.20
22.89
22.58
22.27
21.97
21.66
21.36
21.06
20.76
20.46
20.16
19.86
19.57
19.27
18.98
18.69
18.40
18.11
17.83
17.55
17.26
16.98
16.71
16.42
16.13
15.86
15.59
15.32
15.07
14.82
Kl
rmin
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
c
1.60
1.61
1.63
1.64
1.65
1.67
1.68
1.69
1.71
1.72
1.73
1.74
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.80
1.81
1.82
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.88
1.89
1.90
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.96
1.97
1.98
2.00
2.01
2.02
2.04
2.05
2.06
2.08
2.09
2.10
2.11
Table 16.2: Design Stress Fcr for Fy =50 ksi in Terms of
Victor Saouma
c Fcr
14.57
14.33
14.10
13.88
13.66
13.44
13.23
13.02
12.82
12.62
12.43
12.25
12.06
11.88
11.71
11.54
11.37
11.20
11.04
10.89
10.73
10.58
10.43
10.29
10.15
10.01
9.87
9.74
9.61
9.48
9.36
9.23
9.11
9.00
8.88
8.77
8.66
8.55
8.44
8.33
Kl
rmin
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
c
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.45
2.46
2.47
2.48
2.50
2.51
2.52
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.58
2.59
2.60
2.62
2.63
2.64
c Fcr
8.23
8.13
8.03
7.93
7.84
7.74
7.65
7.56
7.47
7.38
7.30
7.21
7.13
7.05
6.97
6.89
6.81
6.73
6.66
6.59
6.51
6.44
6.37
6.30
6.23
6.17
6.10
6.04
5.97
5.91
5.85
5.79
5.73
5.67
5.61
5.55
5.50
5.44
5.39
5.33
KL
rmin
16.2 LRFD Equations
165
Draft
80
70
Fy=36 ksi
Fy=50 ksi
Fy=60 ksi
Fy=70 ksi
Fy=100 ksi
Fcr (ksi)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Slenderness ratio, KL/r
160
180
200
Figure 16.2: Fcr versus KL/r According to LRFD, for Various Fy
Pu /A
Fy
36 ksi
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
0.05
0.14
0.22
0.30
Pu /A
50 ksi
0.03
0.09
0.16
0.21
0.27
0.33
0.38
0.44
0.49
0.53
0.58
0.63
0.67
0.71
0.75
0.79
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
Fy
36 ksi
0.38
0.45
0.52
0.58
0.65
0.70
0.76
0.81
0.85
0.89
0.92
0.85
0.97
0.99
1.00
1.00
50 ksi
0.82
0.85
0.88
0.90
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Table 16.3: Stiffness Reduction Factors (AISC)

.
Victor Saouma
166
Draft
16.3
Examples
16.3.1
Evaluation
11 In this class of problems, we seek to assess the load carrying capacity of a given column. This, in
contrast to design problems, is a straightforward application of the governing equations.
Example 16-1: Unbraced Column Evaluation, (?)

Calculate the maximum factored load Pu that a 20 ft. long, unbraced A36 W 14x53 column can
hold. (K = 1.0)
Solution:
1. The W14x53 section has, (Sect. 3.6) A = 15.6 in2 , rx = 5.89 in, and ry = 1.92 in.
2. Since the column is not braced, the weak axis will control
(1.0)(20) ft(12) in/ft
KL
=
= 125 dimensionless
ry
(1.92) in
3. The slenderness parameter
c =
KL
r
125
Fy
=
E
36, 000
= 1.401 < 1.5
29 106
4. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5, inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2
Fcr = 0.658c Fy = 0.6581.401 (36) ksi = 15.81 ksi

5. The design capacity of the section is thus
Pu = c Pn = c Ag Fcr = (0.85)(15.6) in2 (15.81) ksi = 209.6 k
Example 16-2: Braced Column Evaluation, (?)

Calculate the maximum load, Pu for a 20 ft. long, A36 W24x104 column with K = 0.8. Then
recalculate if the column is braced at midheight in the weak axis (still assume K = 0.8).
Solution:
Unbraced Case:
Since the column is not braced, the weak axis will control
(0.8)(20) ft(12) in/ft
KL
=
= 65.98
ry
(2.91) in
c =
KL
r
65.98
Fy
=
E
36, 000
= .7399 < 1.5
29 106
3. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5 inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2
Fcr = 0.658c Fy = 0.658.7399 (36) ksi = 28.62 ksi

Victor Saouma
16.3 Examples
167
Draft
Braced Case:
5. We compute the slenderness ratios for both axis

KL
rx
(0.8)(20) ft(12)
(10.1) in
(0.8)(10) ft(12)
(2.91) in
KL
ry
in/ft
in/ft
= 19.01
= 32.99

c =
32.99
Fy
=
E
KL
r
36, 000
= .369 < 1.5
29 106
2
Fcr = 0.658c Fy = 0.658.369 (36) ksi = 34 ksi

Pu = c Pn = c Ag Fcr = (0.85)(30.6) in2 (34) ksi = 884.4 k
9. We observe that bracing has increased the column capacity by
888.4744.4
744.4
= 18.8%
Example 16-3: Braced Column Evaluation, (?)

Calculate the maximum load, Pu for a 20 ft. long, A36 W12x79 column. The column is braced along
its weak axis at five feet from the top and the bottom. The column is pinned at both ends.
Solution:
2. The unbraced lengths along the weak axis are 5 ft. at the ends and 10 ft. in the middle, however the
unbraced length along the strong axis is 20 ft.
3. We compute the slenderness ratios for both axis
KL
rx
KL
ry
(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(5.34) in
(1.0)(10) ft(12)
(3.05) in
=
=
in/ft
in/ft
= 44.9
= 39.3

c =
KL
r
44.9
Fy
=
E
36, 000
= .503 < 1.5
29 106
2
Fcr = 0.658c Fy = 0.658.503 (36) ksi = 32.4 ksi

Victor Saouma
168
Draft
16.3.2
Design
12 Design problems are inherently more difficult than verification ones, and a trial and error procedure
must be followed.
1. Assume a design a design stress, c Fcr , typically around 25-30 ksi

2. Using the assumed c Fcr , determine Atrial
=
g
Pu
c Fcr
3. Select a trial member on the basis of Atrial

g
4. Determine Fcr of trial member, and compare c Pn with Pu .
5. If
(a) c Pn Pu , selection is appropriate
(b) c Pn > Pu , select a smaller section
(c) c Pn < Pu , select a larger section
13
Note that often the depth of the member is specified.

Example 16-4: Column Design, (?)
Find the most economical W12 section to hold a compressive load of 120 kips. Steel is A36, K = 1.0,
L = 16 feet. Live load to dead load ratio is 1.0 and the column is unbraced.
Solution:
1. Since the dead load and live loads are evenly split, from Sect. 7.3.3
Pu = 1.6(60) + 1.2(60) = 168 k
2. The effective length KL=16 feet, we assume a design stress of c Fcr = 25 ksi and
Atrial
=
g
Pu
168
= 6.72 in2
=
c Fcr
25
3. Select W12x26 as a trial member (A = 7.75 in2 )

KL
ry
=
=
Fcr
c P n
=
=
=
=
(1.0)(16) ft(12) in/ft

(1.51) in
Fy
KL
r
E
36,000
127.1
29106
2
0.658c Fy
1.422
0.658
(36) ksi
c Ag Fcr
(0.85)(7.65) in2 (15.4) ksi
127.1
1.42 < 1.5
15.4 ksi
100.1 k
4. Since the design capacity of this section is less than the required one, we need a bigger section, try
W12x40, (A = 11.8 in2 ).
KL
ry
Fcr
c P n
=
=
=
(1.0)(16) ft(12)
(1.93) in
36,000
99.5
29106
1.1162
in/ft
0.658
(36) ksi
c Ag Fcr
(0.85)(11.8) in2 (21.37) ksi
99.5
1.116 < 1.5
21.37 ksi
214.3 k
5. Since W 12x40 has a design capacity greater than the required one, it is a satisfactory design. Because
there is a sizeable gap between the required strength (168 kips) and the design strength (214 kips), we
could try a smaller section, W12x35. If we did, it will turn out that this section is not satisfactory.
Hence, we select W12x40 .
Victor Saouma
16.3 Examples
169
Draft
Example 16-5: Design of Braced Column, (?)
Design an economical W section to hold a factored load Pu of 795 kips. The column is 20 ft. long
and is assumed to have pin-pin end conditions. The column is braced at midheight in the weak direction
and is made of A36 steel.
Solution:
1. Since the column is braced at midheight in the weak direction, the effective length is 10 ft. in the
weak direction, and 20 ft in the strong one.
2. Assuming a design stress c Fcr = 30 ksi and
=
Atrial
g
Pu
795
= 26.5 in2
=
c Fcr
30
3. Select W14x90 as a trial member (A = 26.5 in2 )

KL
ry
KL
rx
=
=
(1.0)(10) ft(12)
(3.7) in
(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(6.14) in
in/ft
in/ft
32.4
39.1
4. Using Table 16.1, for a slenderness ratio of 39.1, the design stress is 28.23 ksi, thus the design capacity
is
c Pn = c Fcr Ag = (28.23) ksi(26.5) in2 = 748.1 k
5. Since this is slightly less than the required capacity (795 kips), we need a bigger section and try
W14x99
(1.0)(10) ft(12) in/ft
KL
=
= 32.34
ry
(3.71) in
KL
rx
(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(6.17) in
in/ft
38.9
6. Using Table 16.1, for a slenderness ratio of 38.9, the design stress is 28.27 ksi, thus the design capacity
is
c Pn = c Fcr Ag = (28.27) ksi(29.1) in2 = 822.6 k
7. Hence, select W14x99 .
Example 16-6: Design of a Column, (?)

Select the lightest W section of A36 steel to serve as a pinned-end main member column 16 ft. long
to carry an axial compression load of 95 kips dead load and 100 kips live load in a braced structure, as
shown below. Design and indicate the first three choices.
P
Hinged
A 36
Steel
16 0"
Hinged
Victor Saouma
1610
Draft
Section
W8 X 48
W10 X 49
W12 X 50
W14 X 53
Area (sq.in.)
14.1
14.4
14.7
15.6
KL/ry
92
76
98
100
Fcr (kksi)
23.0
26.6
21.7
21.3
c Pn (kips)
276
326
271
282
First choice
Second choice
Not good
Third choice
Solution:
1. Compute factored load.
Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(95) + 1.6(100) = 274 k
2. We simply summarize the calculations for this example
Example 16-7: Column Design Using AISC Charts, (?)

Select the lightest W section of A36 steel to serve as a main member 30 ft. long to carry compression
load of 50 kips dead load and 110 kips live load in a braced structure, as shown below. The member is
assumed pinned at top and bottom and in addition has weak direction support at mid-height.
Potential buckled
shape if
KyLy/r y governs
P
Assume hinged top and
bottom for x- and y-axis
bending
A 36
Steel
15 0"
Assume hinged at mid-height

for y-axis bending only
Potential buckled
shape if
KxLx/r x governs
15 0"
Bracing
P
(a)
P
(b)
Solution:
1. Compute the factored loads:
Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(50) + 1.6(110) = 236 k
2. Select from LRFD Column Load Tables. The effective length factors K for buckling in either the
strong or the weak direction equal unity; i.e., Kx = Ky = 1.0. Since the AISC Column Load tables are
computed assuming (KL/r)y controls, enter these tables with the effective length (KL)y . Thus enter
with,
Pu = 236 k; (KL)y = 15 ft.
Starting with the shallow W8 sections and working towards the deeper sections, find
W8 X 40 c Pn = 238 k rx /ry = 1.73
W10 X 45 c Pn = 267 k rx /ry = 2.15
W12 X 45 c Pn = 257 k rx /ry = 2.65
Victor Saouma
16.3 Examples
1611
Draft
3. Since the actual support conditions are such that (KL)x = 2(KL)y , if rx /ry 2, weak axis controls
and tabular loads give the correct answer. Thus, W10 X 45 and W12 X 45 are both acceptable.
4. Since rx /ry for W8 X 40 is less than 2, strong axis bending controls. The strength may be obtained
from the tables by entering with the equivalent (KL)y that corresponds to (KL)x = 30f t.
5. For equal strength with respect to the x and y axes,
(KL)x
rx
(KL)y
(KL)y
ry
(KL)x
30
= 17.3 ft
=
rx /ry
1.73
(16.9-a)
(16.9-b)
For (KL)y = 17.3 ft., the W8 X 40 has a design strength c Pn of only 208 kips; therefore it is not
acceptable.
6. Check of section. It is always advisable to make a final check of the apparent acceptable solution:W10
X 45,
(KL/r)y
c Fcr
=
=
15(12)/(2.10) = 89.6
20.1 ksi
c Pn = c Fcr Ag
(20.1)(13.3) = 267 k > 236 k
(16.10-a)
(16.10-b)
(16.10-c)
Therefore use W10 X 45
Victor Saouma
1612
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 17
STEEL CONNECTIONS
17.1
Bolted Connections
Bolted connections, Fig. 17.1 are increasingly used instead of rivets (too labor intensive) and more
often than welds (may cause secondary cracks if not properly performed).
17.1.1
Types of Bolts
Most common high strength bolts are the A325 and A490.
A325 is made from heat-treated medium carbon steel, min. Fyb 81 92 ksi, Fub = 120 ksi
A490 is a higher strength manufactured from an alloy of steel, min. Fyb 115 130 ksi, and Fub = 150
ksi
4
Most common diameters are 3/4, 7/8 for building constructions; 7/8 and 1 for bridges, Table 17.1.
Bolt Diameter (in.)

5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1 1/8
1 1/4
Nominal Area (in2 )

0.3068
0.4418
0.6013
0.7854
0.9940
1.2272
Table 17.1: Nominal Areas of Standard Bolts
17.1.2
6
Types of Bolted Connections
There are two types of bolted connections:
Bearing type which transmits the load by a combination of shear and bearing on the bolt, Fig. 17.2.
Slip-critical transmits load by friction, Fig. 17.3. In addition of providing adequate at ultimate load,
it must not slip during service loads.
Possible failure modes (or limit states) which may control the strength of a bolted connection are
shown in Fig. 17.4.
172
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Draft
Butt Splice
Lap Splice
Axial Shear
Hanger Connection
Bracket Connection
Tension
Eccentric Shear
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
Standard Beam Connection
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
Unstiffened Seat Connection
Stiffened Seat Connection
Structural Tee Connection
Shear and Tension
Figure 17.1: Examples of Bolted Connections
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
P
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
Figure 17.2: Stress Transfer by Shear and Bearing in a Bolted Connection
Victor Saouma
17.1 Bolted Connections
173
Draft
High-strength bolt
P
T
P
T
T
P= T
T
P
T
Figure 17.3: Stress Transfer in a Friction Type Bolted Connection
* Checked Through Design of Plates
00
11
00
11
00
11
000
111
111
000
000
111
Shear Failure
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
Shear Failure of Plate *
111
000
000
111
11
00
00
11
Bearing Failure
Tensile Failure
Bearing Failure of Plate
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
00
11
Bending Failure
Tensile Failure of Plate *
Figure 17.4: Modes of Failure of Bolted Connections
Victor Saouma
174
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Draft
17.1.3
Nominal Strength of Individual Bolts
Tensile Strength The nominal strength Rn of one fastener in tension is

Rn = Fub An
(17.1)
where Fub is the tensile strength of the bolt, and An the area through the threaded portion, also
known as tensile stress area. The ratio of the tensile stress area to the gross area Ag ranges from
0.75 to 0.79.
Shear Strength is given by
Rn = mAb Fn
(17.2)
where m is the number of shear planes, Fig. 17.5, Ab the gross area of the bolt, and Fn is the
nominal shear strength of bolts
P
11
00
00
11
00
11
000
111
000
111
000
111
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
000
111
000
111
m=1
m=2
Figure 17.5: Number of Shearing Planes m in Bolted Connections

Bearing Strength Rn is the force applied against the side of the hole to split or tear the plate, Fig.
17.6. The larger the end distance L, the less likely that of having a splitting failure. Tearing will
occur along lines 1-1 and 2-2. In the most conservative case, is taken as zero, thus
thickness t
thickness t
1
1
P
d
Failure Line
Resisting Shear Stresses
d/2
L
Figure 17.6: Bearing Strength Related to End Distance
Rn = 2t L
d p
2 u
(17.3)
where:
up is the shear strength of the plate 0.7Fu
Fu is the tensile strength of the plate material
d is the nominal bolt diameter.
Thus this equation transforms into
Rn
=
=
d
(0.70Fu )
2
L 1
1.40Fu dt
d
2
2t L
(17.4-a)
(17.4-b)
which can be approximated as

Rn = Fu dt
L
= LtFu
d
(17.5)
which applies to the bolt closest to the edge for the design of single bolt connection, or two or
more in line force, when the end distance is less than 1.5d.
Victor Saouma
175
Draft
17.1.4
Concentric Loads (Tension Connections)
17.1.4.1
AISC Requirements
AISC RFD requirements for fasteners must satisfy

Rn i Qi
(17.6)
where is the strength resistance factor, Rn the nominal resistance (strength), i the load magnification
factor, and Qi the actual loads.
9
The most important relevant requirements are summarized below:
Shear Strength
No threads in shear plane (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = (0.6Fub )mAb
(17.7)
where = 0.65, and m the number of shear planes, A b the gross-sectional area across the
unthreaded shank of the bolt.
Threads in shear plane (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = (0.45Fub )mAb
(17.8)
where = 0.65, and m the number of shear planes, Ab the gross-sectional area across the
unthreaded shank of the bolt.
Tension Strength (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = Fub (0.75)Ab
(17.9)
where = 0.75.
Bearing Strength (LRFD-J3.6). Note that for Bearing strength, Fu is the one of the plate and not
the bolt.
1. Usual conditions (standard holes or short-slotted holes, end distance not less than 1.5d, bolt
spacing center to center not less than 3d, and with two or more bolts in the line of force:
Rn = (2.4dtFu )
(17.10)
where =0.75, d is the nominal diameter of the bolt (not at threads), t thickness of connected
part.
2. Long-slotted holes perpendicular to the direction of load transmission, end distance not less
than 1.5d, bolt center-to-center spacing not less than 3d and with two or more bolts in line
of force (LRFD J3-1b)
Rn = (2.0dtFu )
(17.11)
where =0.75, d is the nominal diameter of the bolt (not at threads), t thickness of connected
part.
Victor Saouma
176
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Draft
3. For the bolt closest to the edge and when Eqs 17.10 and 17.11 are not satisfied, then (LRFD
J3-1c)
(17.12)
Rn = LtFu
where L is the end distance of force, from the center of a standard hole or oversized hole, or
from the mid-width of a slotted hole, to an edge of a connected part.
Minimum Spacing of bolts in the direction of transmitted forces must be at least 3 diameters when
Eq. 17.10 and 17.11 are used. Under all other conditions Eq. 17.5 applies. Solving for L from the
center of the fastener to the edge of the adjacent hole
L
Rn
Fu t
(17.13)
then adding the radius dh /2, and replacing Rn by P/, gives the minimum center to center spacing
Spacing
dh
P
+
Fu t
2
(17.14)
where = 0.75
Minimum End Distance When Eq. 17.10 and 17.11 are used, then the minimum end distances must
be at least 1 1/2 diameters. If higher bearing strengths are used, then Eq. 17.5 gives
L
Rn
Fu t
(17.15)
P
Fu t
(17.16)
thus LRFDJ3.10 results in
where =0.75
In all cases Fub is the tensile strength of the bolt (120 ksi for A325; 150 ksi for A490).
17.1.4.2
Examples
Example 17-1: Analysis of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990)

Compute the tensile service load capacity for the bearing-type connection shown below if a) the bolt
threads are excluded from the shear plane and b) the bolt threads are included in the shear plane. 7/8
in diameter A325 bolts in standard holes, and A572 Grade 50 steel plates are used. LL=3 DL
Plates 5/8 x 6
T
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
1 1/2"
1 1/2"
3"
Victor Saouma
7/8" hole A325 Bolts

A572 Grade 50 Steel Plates
177
Draft
Solution:
1. Determine the strength based on tension members:

Ag
An
Ae
=
=
Tn
Tn
6(0.625) = 3.75 in2

7 1
+
(0.625) = 2.50 in2
62
8 8
U An = 1(2.50) = 2.50 in2
Fy Ag = (0.9)(50)(3.75) = 169 k
= Fu Ae = (0.75)(65)(2.5) = 122 k
(17.17-a)
(17.17-b)
(17.17-c)
(17.17-d)
(17.17-e)
2. Shear strength
= (0.60Fub )mAb
= 0.65(0.60)(120)(1)(0.6013) = 28.1 k/bolt
Rn
(17.18-a)
(17.18-b)
3. Bearing strength for 1.5d end distance and 3d center to center spacing is
Rn
= (2.4Fu dt)
= 0.75(2.4)(65)(0.875)(0.625) = 64 k/bolt
(17.19-a)
(17.19-b)
note that for the bearing strength, Fu is the ultimate strength of the plate.
4. Since bearing strength is larger than shear strength, shear controls and the total design strength
based on the fasteners is
Tn = No. of fasteners Rn = 4(28.1) = 112 k
(17.20)
5. The single shear design strength (112 kip) is smaller than the plate design strength (122 kip) then
Tn =112 kips
6. The end distance L from the center of the hole to the end of the plate should be, Eq. 17.16
L
28.1
P
=
= 0.92 in
Fu t
0.75(65)(0.625)
(17.21)
7. Shear block failure was not checked, it should have been

8. The design strength is related to the service load
Tn
Tu
Tu
1.2D + 1.6L
(17.22-a)
(17.22-b)
112
1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6.0D
(17.22-c)
(17.22-d)
D = 18.7 k
L = 3D = 56.1 k
Tmax
(17.22-e)
D + L = 18.7 + 56.1 = 74.8 k
(17.22-f)
9. If threads are included in the shear plane, the design strength per bolt in single shear is
Rn
Victor Saouma
(0.45Fub )mAb
(17.23-a)
0.65(0.45)(120)(1)(0.6013) = 21.1 k/bolt
(17.23-b)
178
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Draft
10. Strength in single shear governs also

Tn
84.4
D
= 1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6.0D

= 14.1 k
L =
Tmax
No. of fasteners Rn = 4(21.1) = 84.4 k
(17.24-a)
(17.24-b)
(17.24-c)
3D = 42.3 k
(17.24-d)
D + L = 14.1 + 42.4 = 56.4 k
(17.24-e)
Example 17-2: Design of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990)

Determine the number of 3/4 in diameter A325 bolts in standard size holes required to carry 7 kips
dead load and 43 kips live load on the plates shown below using A36 steel. Assume the portion of the
double lap splice is a bearing-type connection with threads excluded from the shear plane and a double
row of bolts.
1/4X10 Plates
T
T/2
T/2
T
10"
Solution:
1. The center plate controls the tension strength
(10)(0.25) = 2.50 in2
3 1
+
0.25 = 2.06 in2
10 2
4 8
Ag
An
Ae
U An = (1)(2.06) = 2.06 in2
(17.25-c)
=
=
=
Fy Ag = 0.9(36)(2.50) = 81 k
Fu Ae = 0.75(58)(2.06) = 90 k
1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(7) + 1.6(43) = 77 k < Tn
(17.25-d)
(17.25-e)
(17.25-f)
Tn
Tn
Tu
(17.25-a)
(17.25-b)
2. The shear strength of each A325 bolt is

Rn = (0.60Fub )mAb = 0.65(0.60)(120)(2)(0.4418) = 41.4 k/bolt
(17.26)
3. The design strength in bearing on the 1/4 in plate is

Rn = (2.4Fu dt) = 0.75(2.4)(58)(0.75)(0.25) = 19.6 k/bolt
(17.27)
4. Thus the total number of bolts required is

No. of bolts =
Victor Saouma
77
= 3.9
19.6
(17.28)
17.2 Welded Connections
179
Draft
5. The end distance is obtained from Eq. 17.16

P
77
= 19.3 k
4
19.3
P
=
= 1.77 in
Fu t
0.75(58)(0.25)
(17.29-a)
(17.29-b)
6. Select the bolt arrangement shown below

a
2"
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
c 11111111
00000000
11111111
6"
2"
T
f 11111111
00000000 e
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
2"
3"
7. We must check shear rupture since the plate is a thin one and heavily loaded
= 0.60Fy Avg + Fu Ant
(17.30-a)
= 0.60(36)(10)0.25 + 58(4 13/16)0.25 (17.30-b)
(17.30-c)
= 54 + 46 = 100 k
= 0.60Fu Ans + Fy Atg
(17.30-d)
= 0.60(58)[10 3(13/16)]0.25 + 36(4)0.25(17.30-e)
(17.30-f)
= 66 + 36 = 102 k
(17.30-g)
Shear Yielding-Tension Fracture Tn
Shear Fracture-Tension Yielding Tn
Note that we have used 3/4 + 1/16 for the hole diameter instead of 3/4 + 1/8
8. The design strength Tn gives
Tn = 0.75(102) = 77 k
(17.31)
which equals the factored load Tu = 77 kips that must be supported.

9. Use 2 in. edge distance along the sides, 3 in. longitudinal spacing, and 2 in. end distance, with 4
A325 bolts.
17.1.5
Eccentric Connection (Shear Connections)
17.2
Welded Connections
10
Basic types of welds are shown in Fig. 17.7

b
t
L
t
45
t
45
Figure 17.7: Basic Types of Weld
Victor Saouma
1710
Draft
STEEL CONNECTIONS
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 18
UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL

BEAMS
18.1
Introduction
In a previous chapter we have examined the behavior of laterally supported beams. Under those
conditions, the potential modes of failures were either the formation of a plastic hinge (if the section is
compact), or local buckling of the flange or the web (partially compact section).
Rarely are the compression flange of beams entirely free of all restraint, and in general there are two
types of lateral supports:
1. Continuous lateral support by embedment of the compression flange in a concrete slab.

2. Lateral support at intervals through cross beams, cross frames, ties, or struts.
Now that the beam is not laterally supported, we ought to consider a third potential mode of failure,
lateral torsional buckling.
18.2
Background
Whereas it is beyond the scope of this course to derive the governing differential equation for flexural
torsional buckling (which is covered in either Mechanics of Materials II or in Steel Structures), we shall
review some related topics in order to understand the AISC equations later on
4
There are two types of torsion:
Saint-Venants torsion: or pure torsion (torsion is constant throughout the length) where it is assumed that the cross-sectional plane prior to the application of torsion remains plane, and only
rotation occurs.
Warping torsion: out of plane effects arise when the flanges are laterally displaced during twisting.
Compression flange will bend in one direction laterally while its tension flange will bend in another.
In this case part of the torque is resisted by bending and the rest by Saint-Venants torsion.
6
With reference to Fig. 18.1, the governing torsional differential equation is
Insert Fig. 9.4.1 from Steel Structures by Salmon and Johnson

Figure 18.1: I Shaped Beam in Slightly Buckled Position
ECw
d2
M02
d4
Gj
=0
dz 4
dz 2
EIy
(18.1)
182
UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS
Draft
where:
Cw Torsional warping constant
E
Elastic modulus
G
Shear modulus
J
Saint-Venant Torsional constant
M0 Applied moment in the yz plane
Cw and J are section properties tabulated in the AISC manual.
7
Solution of this equation is

Mcr = Cb
E
L
Cw Iy + EIy GJ
(18.2)
where Cb is a factor to account for moment gradient.
18.3
AISC Equations
18.3.1
Dividing values
8 We identify three failure modes depending on Lb which is the distance between lateral supports (or
unbraced length)
Failure Mode
Conditions
Lb < Lp
very short Plastic hinge
Inelastic lateral torsional buckling
Lp < Lb < Lr short
long
Elastic lateral torsional buckling
Lr < Lb
and
where:
Lp
Lr
ry
Fyw
Fr
Lp
Lr
300
ry
Fy , ksi
ry X1
Fyf Fr
(18.3)
1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
1+
(18.4)
Limit dividing line for plastic hinge formation

Dividing line between inelastic and elastic lateral torsional buckling
Radius of gyration with respect to the weak axis, [in.]
Yield stress of the flange, [ksi]
Compressive residual stress, usually taken as 10 ksi. for rolled sections,
and 16.5 ksi for welded shapes.
and
X1
Sx
X2
Cw
Iy
EGJA
2
Sx
GJ
(18.5-a)
(18.5-b)
are not really physical properties but a combination of cross-sectional ones which simplifies the writing
of Eq. 18.4. Those values are tabulated in the AISC manual.
9
The flexural efficiency of the member increases when X1 decreases and/or X2 increases.
18.3.2
Governing Moments
1. Lb < Lp : very short Plastic hinge

M n = M p = Zx F y
Victor Saouma
(18.6)
18.3 AISC Equations
183
Draft
2. Lp < Lb < Lr : short inelastic lateral torsional buckling

Lb Lp
Lr Lp
Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr )
Mp
(18.7)
and
M1
M2
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
+ 0.3
M1
M2
2.3
(18.8)
1
where M1 is the smaller and M2 is the larger end moment in the unbraced segment M
M2 is negative
when the moments cause single curvature (i.e. one of them is clockwise, the other counterclockwise),
hence the most severe loading case with constant M gives Cb = 1.75 1.05 + 0.3 = 1.0.
Mr is the moment strength available for service load when extreme fiber reach the yield stress Fy ;
Mr = (Fy Fr )Sx
(18.9)
3. Lr < Lb long elastic lateral torsional buckling, and the critical moment is the same as in Eq.18.2
Mcr = Cb
Lb
E
Lb
Cw Iy + EIy GJ Cb Mr and Mp
(18.10)
or if expressed in terms of X1 and X2

Mcr =
10
Cb Sx X1 2
Lb
ry
1+
X12 X2
2
Lb
ry
Cb Mr
(18.11)
Fig. 18.2 summarizes the governing equations.
Mn
Mp
Mr
Mp = Zx Fy
Plastic
Lateral Torsional Buckling
Analysis
1
2
s
s
Inelastic
L Lp
Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr ) Lrb Lp
3
s
Elastic
Mcr =
Cb Sx X1
Lb
ry
1+
Lp =
Lr =
300
ry
Fy
ry X1
Fyf Fr
1+
1 + X2 Fyf Fr
X12 X2
2
Lb
ry
Lb
Figure 18.2: Nominal Strength Mn of Compact Sections as Affected by Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Victor Saouma
184
Draft
18.4
Examples
18.4.1
Verification
Example 18-1: Adequacy of an unbraced beam, (?)

Verify the adequacy of a 15 ft W12X87 beam, subjected to a uniform load of 3k/ft and which is
braced only at the ends. The load is 60% live and 40% dead and unfactored. Steel is A36 and Cb = 1.0.
Solution:
1. The factored load and moments are
wu
Mu
1.2(0.4)(3) + 1.6(0.6)(3) = 4.32 k/ft

(4.32)(15)2
wu L2
=
= 121.5 k.ft
8
8
(18.12-a)
(18.12-b)
2. Next we check if the W12X87 is compact, From Eq. 14.12

bf
= 7.5
2tf
<
65
= 10.8
36
(18.13-a)
hc
= 18.9
tw
<
640
= 106.
36
(18.13-b)
Note that those values are taken from the AISC manual.
3. The unbraced length is Lb =15 ft.
4. From AISC manual,
ry
X1
=
=
3.07 in
3, 880 ksi
(18.14-a)
(18.14-b)
X2
0.000586
(18.14-c)
5. Determine Lp from Eq. 18.3

Lp
=
=
300
ry
Fy
300
(3.07) = 153.5 in = 12.8 ft
36
(18.15-a)
(18.15-b)
6. Determine Lr from Eq. 18.4

Lr
=
=
=
Victor Saouma
ry X1
Fyf Fr
1+
1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
(3.07) in(3, 880) ksi

(36 10) ksi
676.6 in = 56.4 ft
1+
(18.16-a)
2
1 + 0.000586 (36 10)
(18.16-b)
(18.16-c)
18.4 Examples
185
Draft
7. Hence Lp < Lb < Lr , and failure is caused by inelastic lateral torsional buckling, and we must use
Eq. 18.7
Mn
Mp
Mr
Mn
Lb Lp
Mp
Lr Lp
1
Zx Fy = (36) ksi(132) in3
= 396 k.ft
(12) in/ft
1
= 255.7 k.ft
(Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(118)
(12)
15 12.8
= 388.9 k.ft 396 k.ft
1.0 396 (396 255.7)
56.4 12.8
Cb Mp (Mp Mr )
(18.17-a)
(18.17-b)
(18.17-c)
(18.17-d)
8. The moment capacity will then be

b Mn = (0.9)(388.9) k.ft = 350 k.ft > 121.5 k.ft
(18.18)
Example 18-2: Adequacy of an unbraced beam, II (?)

Check the design of a 25 ft. long W10X33 beam which is subjected to a factored load (including self
weight) of 1.2 kips/ft. The beam is unbraced and made from A242 steel (Fy =50 ksi). Assume Cb = 1.0.
Solution:
1. The factored moment is
(1.2)(25)2
wu L2
=
= 93.75 k.ft
8
8
2. Check if the W10X33 is compact, From Eq. 14.12
Mu =
bf
= 9.1
2tf
<
65
= 9.19
50
(18.19)
(18.20-a)
hc
= 27.1
tw
<
640
= 90.5
50
(18.20-b)
3. The unbraced length is Lb =25 ft.

4. From AISC manual,
ry
X1
=
=
1.94 in
2, 710 ksi
(18.21-a)
(18.21-b)
X2
0.00251
(18.21-c)
5. Determine Lp from Eq. 18.3

Lp
=
=
Victor Saouma
300
ry
Fy
300
(1.94) = 82.3 in = 6.85 ft
50
(18.22-a)
(18.22-b)
186
Draft
6. Determine Lr from Eq. 18.4

Lr
ry X1
Fyf Fr
1+
1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
(1.94)(2, 710)
1+
(50 10)
= 236.5 in = 19.7 ft
(18.23-a)
1 + 0.00251 (50 10)
(18.23-b)
(18.23-c)
7. Since Lb > Lr , failure is caused by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we must use Eq. 18.8
Mcr
=
=
Cb Sx X1 2
1+
Lb
ry
X12 X2
2 Lryb
(1.0)(35.0)(2, 710) 2
(25)(12)
1.94
(18.24-a)
1+
(2, 710)2 (0.00251)

2
(25)(12)
1.94
1, 021 k.in = 85.1 k.ft
(18.24-b)
(18.24-c)
8. The moment capacity will then be

b Mn = (0.9)(85.1) k.ft = 76.6 k.ft < 93.75 k.ft NG
(18.25)
Hence the section is not adequate.
18.4.2
Design
11 Seeking a design where failure is through a plastic hinge, the objective is to have Lb < Lp . This can
be achieved by setting Lb = Lp , or from Eq. 18.3
rymin =
Lb Fy
300
(18.26)
Mn
Fy
(18.27)
and from Eq. 18.6

Zxreq =
12 If Lb is so large that the previous design objectives can not be met, then the bam will fail by
either inelastic or elastic lateral torsional buckling. Recalling that the limiting cases for the former is
Lp < Lb < Lr , and that the corresponding limiting moments Mp and Mr are given by Eq. 18.6 and 18.9
respectively, then the upper and lower limits would be
Zxreq
<
Sxreq
>
Mn
Fy
Mn
Fy Fr
(18.28-a)
(18.28-b)
Hence, if Lb is close to Lp , then we should select a section using Zxreq , and if Lb is close to Lr , then
we select a section close to Sxreq .
13 Alternatively, one can use the AISC design charts.
In those charts, the design moment b Mn is
plotted in terms of Lb for a given Fy and Cb = 1.0. In those charts, the most economical section by
Victor Saouma
18.4 Examples
187
Draft
weight are differentiated from the others (solid versus dashed lines), and limiting Lp and Lr values are
highlighted by closed and open circles.
14 To use those charts, one would enter Lb and b Mn , where those two values intersect, then any beam
listed to the right or above will satisfy the necessary requirements (assuming that Cb = 1.0).
Note that since all of the strength equations are linear in Cb , we can use Lb /Cb as a substitute of Lb
with Cb = 1
15
Example 18-3: Design of Laterally Unsupported Beam, (?)

Select an economical W section for the beam shown in Fig. 18.3. Lateral support is provided at the
vertical supports, concentrated load points, and at the end of the cantilever. The 26-kip load contains
6 kips dead load and the 11.5-kip load includes 4 kips dead load; the remainder is live load. Use A36
steel. Use W24 section.
DL: 6
LL: 20
24
A
LS
DL 4
LL: 7.5
28
B
LS
460
LS
21
C
LS
LL on 52 ft span, not on cantilever
+
70
101
LL on cantilever, not on 52 f span
353
Factored bending moment envelope due to superimposed load
Figure 18.3: Design of Laterally Unsupported Steel Beam
Solution:
1. The moment envelope resulting from the factored load is first obtained. It contains two loading
scenario; a) DL+LL on the 52-ft span, and no LL on the cantilever; and b) DL+LL on the cantilever
and no LL on the 52 ft span:
Wu1
Wu2
=
=
1.2(6) + 1.6(20) = 39.2 k

1.2(4) + 1.6(7.5) = 16.8 k
(18.29-a)
(18.29-b)
2. For the first loading case, the maximum factored moment at the cantilever support and under the
point load
Victor Saouma
Mu
Mu
(1.2)(4)(21) = 101 k.ft

24
1
= 460 k.ft
(39.2)(24)(58) (101)
2
52
(18.30-a)
(18.30-b)
188
Draft
3. For the second load case, the maximum factored moment at the cantilever support is
Mu = (16.8)(21) = 353 k.ft
(18.31)
4. Three laterally unbraced segments must be considered since each length is different and is subjected
to a different maximum factored moment Mu . By inspection, segment A controls over segment C; both
the moment and the unbraced length are larger on segment A, and the moment gradient is the same
(i.e. Cb =1.75 for both).
5. Segment B has a larger Cb
=
1.75 + 1.05
M1
M2
+ 0.3
M1
M2
Cb
1.75 + 1.05
0
460
+ 0.3
0
460
CbA
CbB
1.75 + 1.05
+101
+460
+ 0.3
2.3
(18.32-a)
= 1.75
(18.32-b)
+101
+460
= 2.0 2.3
(18.32-c)
which is beneficial, but also a larger Lb , hence we should design both segment A and B.
6. For segment A, Mu =460 ft-kips, and Lb = 24 ft. The required Mn is
Mu
460
= 511 k.ft
=
b
0.9
Mn =
(18.33)
7. Aiming for a plastic failure, we use Eq. 18.26 to determine rymin and Zxmin
Lb Fy
(24)(12) 36
=
= 5.76 in
rymin =
300
300
Mn
(511) k.ft(12) in/ft
Zxmin =
=
= 170 in3
Fy
(36) ksi
(18.34-a)
(18.34-b)
8. From the AISC manual we have the following

Section
W24x492
ry
3.41
Zx
1,550
Sx
1,290
Lp
Lr
W24x76
W24x68
W24x55
1.92
1.87
1.34
200.
177.
134
176.
154.
114.
8.0
7.8
5.6
23.4
22.4
16.5
Remarks
Largest W24 section,
ry NG and section too stiff (very large Zx )
Zx OK but ry NG
Zx OK but ry NG
Smallest W24 section
Hence it is quite clear that failure will have to be through inelastic or elastic torsional buckling.
9. We try W24x76.
10. Is the section compact?
bf
= 6.66
2tf
<
65
= 10.8
36
<
640
= 106
36
(18.35-a)
hc
= 49
tw
(18.35-b)
Then we can proceed,

11. From Eq. 18.3 and 18.4:
Victor Saouma
Lp
Lr
300
1 300
1.92 = 8.0 ft
ry =
12
Fy
36
ry X1
Fyf Fr
1+
1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
(18.36-a)
2
(18.36-b)
18.4 Examples
189
Draft
=
=
1 (1.92)(1, 760)
12
36 10
23.4 ft
1+
1 + (0.0186) (36 10)
(18.36-c)
(18.36-d)
12. Since Lr < Lb , failure is governed by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we use Eq. 18.11
Mr
C b Mr
Mp
Lb
ry
Mcr
Mn
b Mn
= (Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(176)
1
= 381. k.ft
(12)
(18.37-a)
= (1.75)(381) = 667 k.ft

(200)(36)
= 600 k.ft
= Zx Fy =
12
(24)(12)
= 150
= =
1.92
Cb Sx X1 2
X12 X2
=
1+
2 Cb Mr
Lb
ry
2 Lryb
1 (1.75)(176)(1, 760) 2
(1, 760)2 (0.0186)
=
1+
(12)
150
2(150)2
(18.37-b)
= 643.14 k.ft Cb Mr but > Mp
(18.37-g)
= Mp = 600 k.ft
= (0.9)(600) = 540 k.ft
(18.37-h)
(18.37-i)
(18.37-c)
(18.37-d)
(18.37-e)
(18.37-f)
13. Hence the W24x76 is a satisfactory design.

14. In an attempt to automate the design procedure through a spread-sheet, and seek the most economical design (smallest weight), we consider table 18.1. and note that W24x68 is the most economical
Section
Lb /ry
W24.x76.
W24.x68.
W24.x62.
W24.x55.
W21.x83.
W21.x73.
W21.x68.
W21.x62.
W18.x97.
W18.x86.
W18.x76.
W16.x100.
W16.x89.
W16.x77.
W14.x109.
W14.x99.
W14.x90.
W12.x120.
W12.x106.
W12.x96.
W10.x112.
W10.x100.
W8.x67.
W8.x58.
W6.x25.
W6.x20.
150.00
154.01
208.70
214.93
157.38
159.12
160.00
162.71
108.68
109.51
110.34
114.74
115.66
116.60
77.21
77.63
77.84
92.01
92.60
93.20
107.46
108.68
135.85
137.14
189.47
192.00
Lp
ft.
8.0
7.8
5.8
5.6
7.6
7.5
7.5
7.4
11.0
11.0
10.9
10.5
10.4
10.3
15.5
15.5
15.4
13.0
13.0
12.9
11.2
11.0
8.8
8.8
6.3
6.3
Lr
ft.
23.4
22.4
17.2
16.6
24.9
23.5
22.8
21.7
38.1
35.5
33.3
42.1
38.6
34.9
62.7
58.2
54.1
75.5
67.2
61.4
86.4
77.4
64.0
56.0
31.3
25.6
Mp
ft-kips
600.
531.
459.
402.
588.
516.
480.
432.
633.
558.
489.
594.
525.
450.
576.
519.
471.
558.
492.
441.
441.
390.
211.
179.
57.
45.
Mr
ft-kips
381.
334.
284.
247.
371.
327.
303.
275.
407.
360.
316.
379.
336.
290.
375.
340.
542.
353.
314.
284.
273.
243.
131.
113.
36.
29.
Cb Mr
ft-kips
667.
584.
497.
432.
648.
573.
531.
482.
713.
629.
554.
664.
588.
508.
656.
595.
762.
618.
550.
497.
478.
425.
229.
197.
63.
51.
Eq. 18.7
ft-kips
0.
0.
0.
0.
669.
0.
0.
0.
918.
792.
679.
879.
759.
632.
945.
846.
762.
914.
798.
709.
722.
632.
330.
276.
74.
53.
Mine
ft-kips
0.
0.
0.
0.
588.
0.
0.
0.
633.
558.
489.
594.
525.
450.
576.
519.
471.
558.
492.
441.
441.
390.
211.
179.
57.
45.
Eq. 18.8
ft-kips
643.
523.
298.
239.
0.
555.
491.
414.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Mel.
ft-kips
600.
523.
298.
239.
0.
516.
480.
414.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
b Mn
ft-kips
540.
471.
268.
215.
529.
464.
432.
372.
570.
502.
440.
535.
473.
405.
518.
467.
424.
502.
443.
397.
397.
351.
190.
161.
51.
40.
Table 18.1: Unbraced Beam Design

design. Should we increase the depth, then the weight increases (as expected for a beam).
Victor Saouma
1810
Draft
15. Next, we must consider segment B, it has a steeper moment gradient than segment A, i.e. Cb > 1.75
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
+101
+460
+101
+460
+ 0.3
= 2.0 2.3
(18.38)
however the laterally unbraced length of 28 ft is now longer.

16. Check the W24x68
Lr
ry X1
Fyf Fr
1 (1.87)(1, 590)
12
36 10
22.4 ft
b Zx Fy
Mp
1+
1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
1+
(18.39-a)
2
1 + (0.0290) (36 10)
(18.39-c)
(18.39-d)
1
= 531 k.ft
= (177)(36)
12
Since Lr < Lb , the beam fails by linear elastic torsional buckling and
=
(Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(154)
C b Mr
Mcr
(2.0)(333.7) = 667 k.ft
Cb Sx X1 2
X12 X2
1+
2 Cb Mr
Lb
ry
2 Lryb
Lb
ry
=
=
(18.39-e)
1
= 333.7 k.ft
(12)
Mr
(18.40-a)
(18.40-b)
(18.40-c)
(28)(12)
= 154.
1.87
1 (2.0)(154)(1, 590) 2
(12)
154
(18.39-b)
(18.40-d)
1+
(1, 590)2 (0.0290)

2(154)2
468 k.ft Cb Mr and > Mp
(18.40-e)
(18.40-f)
17. We observe that Mcr = 468 k.ft for segment B, and 523 k.ft for segment A. Hence, segment B
controls.
18. Checking for the ultimate moment
b Mn = (0.9)(468) = 421 < Mu (460)
(18.41-a)
19. Hence, we must increase the section to W24x76. From above Lr = 23.4 ft. since Lr < Lb , failure is
governed by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we use Eq. 18.11
=
(Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(176)
C b Mr
Mp
Lb
ry
Mcr
(2.0)(381) = 762 k.ft

(200)(36)
= 600 k.ft
Zx Fy =
12
(28)(12)
= 175
=
1.92
Cb Sx X1 2
X12 X2
1+
2 Cb Mr
Lb
ry
2 Lryb
1 (2.0)(176)(1, 760) 2
(1, 760)2 (0.0186)
1+
(12)
175
2(175)2
b Mn
Victor Saouma
1
= 381. k.ft
(12)
Mr
= 581 k.ft Cb Mr and > Mp
= (0.9)(581) = 523 k.ft
(18.42-a)
(18.42-b)
(18.42-c)
(18.42-d)
(18.42-e)
(18.42-f)
(18.42-g)
(18.42-h)
18.5 Summary of AISC Governing Equations
1811
Draft
20. Note that Mc r is 581 for segment B, and was 600 for segment A.
21. Use W24x76
18.5
Summary of AISC Governing Equations
Table 18.2 summarizes the AISC design equations covered so far.

Braced Beams
p
Mn = ZFy
hc
p
tw
b
p < 2tff r
bf
2tf
Compact
Mn = Mp (Mp Mr )( r pp ) Mp
Partially compact
Plastic Hinge
p < thwc r
Unbraced Beams
Lb < Lp
M n = M p = Zx F y
Inelastic lateral torsional buckling
Lp < Lb < Lr
Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr )
Mcr =
Cb Sx X1
Elastic lateral torsional buckling
Lr < Lb
Elastic Buckling
Inelastic Buckling
Columns
2
c 1.5
Fcr = 0.658c Fy
c > 1.5
Fcr = 0.877
2 Fy
Lb
ry
1+
X12 X2
2
L
2 ryb
Lb Lp
Lr Lp
Mp
Cb Mr
Table 18.2: Summary of AISC Governing Equations
Victor Saouma
1812
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 19
Beam Columns, (Unedited)

UNEDITED
Examples taken from Structural Steel Design; LRFD, by T. Burns, Delmar Publishers, 1995
19.1
Potential Modes of Failures
19.2
AISC Specifications
8
Pu
+
c P n
9
19.3
Examples
19.3.1
Verification
Muy
Mux
+
b Mnx
b Mny
Mux
Pu
+
2c Pn
b Mnx
Pu
.20
c P n
Pu
1.0 if
.20
c P n
1.0 if
(19.1)
(19.2)
Example 19-1: Verification, (?)

A W 12 120 is used to support the loads and moments as shown below, and is not subjected
to sidesway. Determine if the member is adequate and if the factored bending moment occurs about
the weak axis. The column is assumed to be perfectly pinned (K = 1.0) in both the strong and weak
directions and no bracing is supplied. Steel is A36 and assumed Cb = 1.0.
192
Draft
Solution:
1. Calculate the slenderness ratios in both the weak and strong directions (even though when unbraced
in both directions, the weak axis will of course be critical).
Klx
rx
Kly
ry
=
=
(1.0)(15) ft(12) in/ft

= 32.67
(5.51) in
(1.0)(15) ft.(12) in/ft)
= 57.50
(3.13) in
2. Using Table 16.1, we can find the design axial stress (c Fcr ) as 25.71 ksi. And, multiplying that
with the area of the section, we can find the design axial capacity (c Pn ) as follows:
c Pn
=
=
c Fcr Ag
(25.71) ksi(35.3) in2 = 907.6 k
3. Since the factored axial load is 400 kips, the ratio of
Pu
c Pn
is as follows:
(400) k
= .44 > .20
(907.6) k
therefore we must use Eq. as the beam-column analysis.
8
Pu
+
c P n
9
Muy
Mux
+
b Mnx
b Mny
1.0
4. To start, calculate the design moment capacity (b Mn ) of the W 12 120. The beam is compact
and the unbraced length, lb , is 15 feet. This value of unbraced length is then compared to limits
referred to as Lp and Lr to determine whether plastic behavior can be developed or whether
buckling behavior controls the bending behavior. The values for Lp and Lr can be calculated
using Eq. 6-1 and 6-2 respectively or they can be found in the beam section of the LRFD manual.
In either case these values for a W 12 120 are:
Lp
Lr
Victor Saouma
=
=
13 ft
75.5 ft
19.3 Examples
193
Draft
5. Since our unbraced length falls between these two values, the beam will be controlled by inelastic
buckling, and the nominal moment capacity Mn can be calculated from Eq. 6-5. Using this
equation we must first calculate the plastic and elastic moment capacity values, Mp and Mr .
Mp
Mr
Fy Zx = (36) ksi(186) in3 (12)ftin = 558 k.ft

(Fyw 10) ksiSx
(36 10) ksi(163) in3 = 353.2 k.ft
=
=
6. Using Eq. 6-5 (assuming Cb is equal to 1.0) we find:

Mn
Mn
=
=
l L
Cb [Mp (Mp Mr )] Lbr Lpp
(1513) ft
1.0[558 (558 453.2)] k.ft (75.515)
ft
551.4 k.ft
7. Therefore the design moment capacity is as follows:

b Mn = 0.90(551.4) k.ft = 496.3 k.ft
8. Now consider the effects of moment magnification on this section. Based on the alternative method
and since the member is not subjected to sidesway (Mlt = 0)
Mu
B1
= B1 Mnt
Cm
= 1
Pu
Cm
Cm
Pu
Pe
1
= .60 .4 M
M2
50
= .60 .4 50 = 1.0
= 400 k
2 EAg
=
(Eulers Buckling Load Equation)
Kl 2
Pe
Pe
2 (29,000 ksi)(35.3
32.672
in2 )
= 9, 456 k
9. Therefore, calculating the B1 magnifier we find:

B1 =
1
1
(400) k
(9,456) k
= 1.044
Calculating the amplified moment as follows:

Mu
Mu
=
=
B1 Mnt
1.044(50) k.ft = 52.2 k.ft
Therefore the adequacy of the section is calculated from Eq. as follows:

Pu
8 Mu x
c Pn + 9 b Mn x
(52.2)
94000 k
+ 89 (496.3) k.ft
(907.6) k
k.ft
1.0
.53 < 1.0
When dealing with unbraced frames, the procedure gets more involved since the calculation of sidesway
effects (sidesway moments and sidesway axial loads) is required to utilize the alternate method that we
perform to estimate the secondary effects. This generally means that a single load case on an unbraced
frame that causes sidesway must be analyzed as if it were two separate load casesone that would
have a negligible sidesway effect (typically the vertical gravity loads) and one that would cause sidesway
(typically the lateral loads). This is illustrated in Figure 19.1
As the forces and moments for each of these broken-down load cases are calculated for a member,
the same basic procedure is then followed as it was in the first example.
Victor Saouma
194
Draft
Figure 19.1: Rigid Frame Subjected to Lateral Loading
The analysis of frames and frames subject to sidesway is not within the scope of this course.
4 You should be aware that as unbraced members are encountered, the B2 magnifier will become active
as the frame exhibits sidesway behavior. The following example illustrates this situation.
Example 19-2: 8.2, (?)

In the unbraced frame shown below, determine the adequacy of either W 14 90 columns under the
factored loads given. The steel is A36 and assume that the columns have a Ky = 1.0 and Kx = 1.5 The
lateral load is causing bending to occur about the x-axis.
Solution:
1. Typically, we would start this problem by separating the loads into those that cause sidesway
effects (the lateral load) and those that have little influence on such effects (the vertical loads).
As shown below, the effects on the columns from the lateral load and the vertical load can be
computed separately by various standard techniques of analysis such as moment distribution.
Victor Saouma
19.3 Examples
195
Draft
2. From these techniques, we find that each column is under approximately 20 kips of factored axial
load and a moment of 40 kip-feet in no sidesway case. And, they are under 20 kips of factored
axial load (different directions) and a moment of 200 kip-feet (assuming pinned supports) in the
sidesway case.
3. To begin the evaluation, calculate the column sections design axial capacity c Pn . Calculating
the slenderness ratios about both axis (although the weak axis will control in this case):
Kl
ry
Kl
rx
=
=
1.0(240) in
(3.70) in
1.5(240) in
(6.14) in
= 64.8
= 58.6
4. Since the weak axis controls, find the design axial stress c Fcr that can be taken from Table 16.1.
In this case the design axial stress corresponding to the critical slenderness ratio is 24.54 ksi. This
would make the design axial capacity of this section as follows:
c Pn
c P n
Pu
5. Since Pc Pun =
section.
40 k
650.3 k
=
=
=
c Fcr Ag
(24.54) ksi(26.5) in2 ) = 650.3 k
(20) k (no sidesway) + (20) k
(sidesway) = 40 k
= .061 < .20 Eq. controls and should be used to check the adequacy of the
6. Calculate the design bending capacity of these sections about the strong axis. The unbraced length
of this column is assumed to be 20 feet and the nominal moment capacity depends on what bending
behavior controls in this case. Compare the unbraced length (20 ft.) to the Lp and Lr limits that
were discussed in Chapter 6.
7. These values can be calculated from Equations 6-1 and 6-2 or taken from the LRFD manual. Since
the Lp value for a W 14 90 is 15.4 feet and the Lr , value is 54.1 feet, the sections capacity is
controlled by Case 2 (compact beams exhibiting inelastic lateral torsional buckling).
8. The capacity of this section is found by calculating Eq. 6-5 (see Chapter 6) as follows and notice
that Cb is equal to 1.67 using Mmax = 40, Ma = 10, Mb = 20, and Mc = 30.
9. Before calculating the nominal moment capacity from Eq. 6-5, first calculate the plastic and elastic
moment capacity Mp and Mr .
Mp
Mr
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
Fy Zx = (36) ksi(157) in3 (12)ftin = 471 k.ft

(Fyw 10 ksi)Sx
(36 10) ksi(143) in3 = 309.8 k.ft
196
Draft
Calculating Eq. 6-5:

Mn
= 1.67[(471) k.ft [(471) k.ft(309.8) k.ft)((20 15.4) ft(54.1 15.4) ft)]

= 791.5 k.ft
10. However because the nominal moment capacity cannot be greater than the plastic moment capacity,
use 471 ft.-kips which is the plastic moment capacity. The design moment capacity is:
b Mn = 0.90(471) k.ft = 423.9 k.ft
11. After this we can calculate the magnification factors B1 and B2 , remembering that B1 is used for
the nonsway effects and B2 for the sway effects. In this case, the axis of bending has been stated
to be the x-axis and the effective length factor K was given as 1.5. Therefore for B1
B1
Cm
Cm
=
=
Pe
Pu
=
=
Cm
u
(1 P
Pe
1
.60 .4 M
M2
1
.6 since M
M2 = 0
2 EAg
2
( Kl
r )
2206 k
40 k
2 E(26.5)
58.62
in2
12. Therefore,
B1 =
.6
1
(40) k
(2,206) k
= .61 use 1.0
13. Calculating B2 from Eq. 8-5:

B2
1
u
1 P
Pe
Pu
Pe
B2
=
=
=
2(20) k = 40 k (for both columns in the story)

(2, 206) k(2) columns = 4, 412 k
1
40
1 4,412 = 1.01
14. Calculating the nominal moment capacity about the x-axis, Mus , from Equation 8-1 as follows:
Mu
Mux
=
=
B1 Mnt + B2 Mlt
1.0(40) k.ft + 1.01(200) k.ft = 242 k.ft
15. Calculating the adequacy per Eq. :

Pu
2c Pn
Mux
b Mnx
=
=
(40) k
(2)(650.3)
k+
(242) k.ft
(423.9) k.ft
.60 < 1.0
16. Therefore the section is good. Notice that the calculation of Pe for the B1 and B2 magnifiers is
always taken about the axis of bending, in this case the strong axis.
19.3.2
Design
The design of beam-columns is truly a trial and error procedure and depends a great deal on the
designers experience. If the designer can select a good trial section at the very beginning, the work
in obtaining a safe and economical member is greatly simplified although, in any case, the process will
ultimately converge on a solution.
The most popular method of selecting a beam-column is the equivalent axial load method. This method
replaces the factored axial load and moment that are applied to the column with a fictitious concentric
Victor Saouma
19.3 Examples
197
Draft
axial load. This fictitious concentric axial load will be larger than the factored axial load but will produce
approximately the same maximum effect.
The following equation is used to convert the factored bending moment into an estimated axial load,
P . The actual factored axial load Pu , is added to P resulting in a fictitious axial load called the
equivalent factored axial load Puequiv . This idea is shown below:
7
Pu + P = Puequiv
where
Pu
P
Puequiv
actual factored axial load

estimated axial load caused by moment
Equivalent factored axial load
Although there are equations that would estimate the equivalent factored axial load based on the
assumptions used by the interaction formulas separately (Eq. and ), it is much faster to use the following
combined approximation developed from these formulas. This approximation is as follows:
(19.3)
Puequiv = Pu + Mux m + Muy mU
In this formula, Pu is again the actual factored load expressed in kips and Mux and Muy are the bending
moments expressed in kip-feet.
If bending should occur about one axis only, the corresponding term regarding the other axis will then
drop out. The value of m is taken from Table 19.1.
10
12
14
All
Shapes
2.0
1.9
1.8
Preliminary Beam-Column Design

Fy = 36 ksi, Fy = 50 ksi
Values of m
36 ksi
16 18 20 22 and
10 12 14
over
1st Approximation
1.7 1.6 1.5
1.3
1.9 1.8 1.7
W4
W6
W8
W8
W10
W12
W14
3.1
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.1
1.7
1.5
2.3
2.7
2.5
2.3
2.0
1.7
1.5
1.7
2.1
2.1
2.2
1.9
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.7
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.4
Fy
KL(f t)
Subsequent
1.1 1.0
1.4 1.2
1.5 1.3
1.8 1.6
1.7 1.6
1.5 1.4
1.3 1.3
Approximation
0.8
2.4 1.8
1.0
2.8 2.2
1.1
2.5 2.2
1.4
2.4 2.2
1.4
2.0 1.9
1.3
1.7 1.6
1.2
1.5 1.4
1.4
1.7
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.4
50 ksi
16 18
20
22 and
over
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.3
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.2
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.2
Table 19.1: Values of m for use in Beam-Column Design Equation, (from a paper in AISC Engineering
Journal by Uang, Wattar, and Leet (1990))
.
10 The value of U , which is the bending moment conversion factor, is taken from the column load tables that
are shown in Appendix C. (A full set of the column load tables can be found in the column section of the LRFD
manual as well).
The procedure using this approximate formula is an iterative process that begins by assuming the value of m
from Table 8-1 and a typical value of U (usually about 2.0). After a section is selected, the section is checked
against the applicable AISC interactions formulas (Eq. and ). With successive trials the values of m and U can
be refined to a point where their values begin to stabilize.
11
Victor Saouma
198
Draft
Example 19-3: Design of Steel Beam-Column, (?)
Design the most economical W 12 section subjected to the loads and moments shown below. The value of
K = 1.0 in both strong and weak directions and steel is A36. Assume this member to be part of a frame that is
not subjected to sidesway.
Solution:
Using the equivalent load formula and choosing the first trial values of m = 1.9 as suggested In Table 8-1 and
U = 2.0 (approximate), the equivalent load is as follows:
=
=
=
Puequiv
Puequiv
Pu + Mux m + Muy mU
(300) k + (120) k.ft(1.9) + (80) k.ft(1.9)(2.0)
832 k
From Column Load tables found in Appendix C for Kl =12 ft. try a W 12 x 106 (with an axial design strength
of 853 kips)
Checking this section with the interaction formulas we find the following:
Pu
= (300) k = .352 > .20, the Eq. will control.
Since P
n
(853) k
Calculating the design moment capacity about each axis we find the following:
Lp = 13.0 ft
Since this value is greater than 12 ft. which is this W 12 x 106s unbraced length, the section is able to develop
as plastic capacity. Therefore,
b Mnx
b Mny
0.90(36) ksi(164) in3
1
= 442.8 k.ft
in/ft
3
ft
.90(36) ksi(75.1) in 12 in = 202.8 k.ft
12
Calculating the magnifier, B1 , similar to what was done previously, we would find the following:
Cmx
Cmy
Kl
rx
Kl
ry
.6 .4 120
= 1.0
120
1.0( similarly)
26.3(c = .295)
46.3(c = .519)
=
=
=
=
Calculating the Euler buckling load as follows:
Victor Saouma
Pe
Pex
Pex
=
=
Pey
Pey
B1x
B1y
=
=
=
=
Ag Fy
2
c
(31.2)
in (36)
.2952
ksi
(12, 907) k (based on c = .295)

2
(31.2) in (36) ksi
.5192
(4, 162) k (based on c = .519)

1
300
12,907
= 1.023
1
1
300
=
1.078
1
4,162
19.3 Examples
199
Draft
This would make the magnified factored as shown below:

Mu
Mux
Muy
=
=
=
B1 Mnt
(120) k.ft(1.023) = 122.76 k.ft
(80) k.ft(1.078) = 86.24 k.ft
Applying AISC Eq. to the above information:

(300) k
8
+
(853) k
9
(122.76) k.ft
(86.24) k.ft
+
(442.8) k.ft
(202.8) k.ft
= .976 < 1.0
which works well and therefore is a very good choice!
Victor Saouma
1910
Draft
Victor Saouma
Draft
Part II
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING II;

CVEN 3235
Draft
Draft
Chapter 20
ARCHES and CURVED

STRUCTURES
1
This chapter will concentrate on the analysis of arches.
The concepts used are identical to the ones previously seen, however the major (and only) difference
is that equations will be written in polar coordinates.
Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moment in long span structures. Essentially,
an arch can be considered as an inverted cable, and is transmits the load primarily through axial
compression, but can also resist flexure through its flexural rigidity.
A parabolic arch uniformly loaded will be loaded in compression only.
A semi-circular arch unifirmly loaded will have some flexural stresses in addition to the compressive
ones.
20.1
Arches
In order to optimize dead-load efficiency, long span structures should have their shapes approximate the
coresponding moment diagram, hence an arch, suspended cable, or tendon configuration in a prestressed
concrete beam all are nearly parabolic, Fig. 20.1.
Long span structures can be built using flat construction such as girders or trusses. However, for spans
in excess of 100 ft, it is often more economical to build a curved structure such as an arch, suspended
cable or thin shells.
Since the dawn of history, mankind has tried to span distances using arch construction. Essentially
this was because an arch required materials to resist compression only (such as stone, masonary, bricks),
and labour was not an issue.
The basic issues of static in arch design are illustrated in Fig. 20.2 where the vertical load is per unit
horizontal projection (such as an external load but not a self-weight). Due to symmetry, the vertical
reaction is simply V = wL
2 , and there is no shear across the midspan of the arch (nor a moment). Taking
moment about the crown,
wL L L
=0
(20.1)
M = Hh
2
2
4
9
Solving for H
H=
wL2
8h
(20.2)
We recall that a similar equation was derived for arches., and H is analogous to the C T forces in a
beam, and h is the overall height of the arch, Since h is much larger than d, H will be much smaller
202
Draft
2
M = w L /8
L
w=W/L
IDEALISTIC ARCH
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
C
RISE = h
-C
BEAM
+T
W/2
M-ARM small
C C-T large
BEAM
T
-C
+T
SAG = h
W/2
IDEALISTIC SUSPENSION
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
NOTE THAT THE "IDEAL" SHAPE FOR AN ARCH OR SUSPENSION

SYSTEM IS EQUIVILENT TO THE DESIGN LOAD MOMENT DIAGRAM
Figure 20.1: Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
wL/2
H
h
H = wL2 /8h
L/2
R
R
V = wL/2
R = V 2+ H
V = wL/2
2
MCROWN = VL/2 - wL /8 - H h = 0
M BASE
= wL2 /8 - H h = 0
Figure 20.2: Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
20.1 Arches
203
Draft
than C T in a beam.
Since equilibrium requires H to remain constant across thee arch, a parabolic curve would theoretically
result in no moment on the arch section.
10
11 Three-hinged arches are statically determinate structures which shape can acomodate support settlements and thermal expansion without secondary internal stresses. They are also easy to analyse through
statics.
12 An arch carries the vertical load across the span through a combination of axial forces and flexural
ones. A well dimensioned arch will have a small to negligible moment, and relatively high normal
compressive stresses.
13 An arch is far more efficient than a beam, and possibly more economical and aesthetic than a truss
in carrying loads over long spans.
14 If the arch has only two hinges, Fig. 20.3, or if it has no hinges, then bending moments may exist
either at the crown or at the supports or at both places.
h
M base
H=wl 2/8h<
wl /8h
H
2
APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE
APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
H<H H<H
M crown
M base
L
V
Figure 20.3: Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

15 Since H varies inversely to the rise h, it is obvious that one should use as high a rise as possible. For
a combination of aesthetic and practical considerations, a span/rise ratio ranging from 5 to 8 or perhaps
as much as 12, is frequently used. However, as the ratio goes higher, we may have buckling problems,
and the section would then have a higher section depth, and the arch advantage diminishes.
16 In a parabolic arch subjected to a uniform horizontal load there is no moment. However, in practice
an arch is not subjected to uniform horizontal load. First, the depth (and thus the weight) of an arch
is not usually constant, then due to the inclination of the arch the actual self weight is not constant.
Finally, live loads may act on portion of the arch, thus the line of action will not necessarily follow the
arch centroid. This last effect can be neglected if the live load is small in comparison with the dead load.
17 Since the greatest total force in the arch is at the support, (R =

V 2 + H 2 ), whereas at the crown
we simply have H, the crown will require a smaller section than the support.
h
M base
H=wl 2/8h<
wl /8h
H
2
APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE
APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
H<H H<H
V
M crown
M base
L
V
Figure 20.4: Arch Rib Stiffened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
Victor Saouma
204
Draft
20.1.1
Statically Determinate
Example 20-1: Three Hinged Arch, Point Loads. (Gerstle 1974)

Determine the reactions of the three-hinged arch shown in Fig. 20.5
Figure 20.5:
Solution:
Four unknowns, three equations of equilibrium, one equation of condition statically determinate.
M C
(+ )
z
0;
(+ ) Fx
) Fy
(+
M B
(+ )
=
=
=
0;
0;
0;
(RAy )(140) + (80)(3.75) (30)(80) (20)(40) + RAx (26.25)

140RAy + 26.25RAx
80 RAx RCx
RAy + RCy 30 20
(Rax )(60) (80)(30) (30)(20) + (RAy )(80)
80RAy + 60RAx
Solving those four equations simultaneously we have:

140 26.25 0 0
RAy
2, 900
R
80
1
0
1
Ax
=
1
R
0
1 0
Cy

50
RCx
3, 000
80
60
0 0
RAy
RAx
RCy
RCx
15.1
29.8
=

34.9
50.2
k
k
k
k
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
2.900
0
0
0
3, 000
(20.3)
We can check our results by considering the summation with respect to b from the right:
(+ ) MzB = 0; (20)(20) (50.2)(33.75) + (34.9)(60) = 0
(20.4)
(20.5)
Example 20-2: Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974)

Determine the reactions of the three hinged statically determined semi-circular arch under its own
dead weight w (per unit arc length s, where ds = rd). 20.6
Solution:
I Reactions The reactions can be determined by integrating the load over the entire structure
Victor Saouma
20.1 Arches
205
Draft
dP=wRd
R cos
Figure 20.6: Semi-Circular three hinged arch

1. Vertical Reaction is determined first:
(+ )
MA
0; (Cy )(2R) +
wRd R(1 + cos ) = 0

=0
(20.6-a)
dP
moment arm
wR
[ sin ] |=
(1 + cos )d =
=0
2
=0
=
Cy
=
=
=
wR
2
wR
[( sin ) (0 sin 0)]
2
2 wR
(20.6-b)
2. Horizontal Reactions are determined next
(+ ) MB
0; (Cx )(R) + (Cy )(R)
=
2
wRd
R cos
dP
moment arm
=0
Cx
wR
wR
2
2
=
2
cos d =
=0
=0
(20.7-a)
=
wR wR[sin ] |=02 = wR wR( 0)
2
2
2
1 wR
(20.7-b)
By symmetry the reactions at A are equal to those at C

II Internal Forces can now be determined, Fig. 20.7.
1. Shear Forces: Considering the free body diagram of the arch, and summing the forces in the
radial direction (FR = 0):
(
1)wR cos + wR sin

2
2
Cx
wRd sin + V = 0
(20.8)
=0
Cy
V = wR ( 2 1) cos + ( 2 ) sin
(20.9)
2. Axial Forces: Similarly, if we consider the summation of forces in the axial direction (FN =
0):
( 2 1)wR sin + 2 wR cos
wRd cos + N = 0
(20.10)
=0
N = wR ( 2 ) cos ( 2 1) sin
(20.11)
3. Moment: Now we can consider the third equation of equilibrium (Mz = 0):
M
(+ )
( 2 1)wR R sin 2 wR2 (1 cos ) +
wRd R(cos cos ) + M = 0
(20.12)
=0
M = wR2
Victor Saouma
2 (1
sin ) + ( 2 ) cos
(20.13)
206
Draft
dP=wRd
R sin
R cos
C =( /2-1)wR
x
R(1-cos )
R cos
C y= /2 wR
R cos( )
Figure 20.7: Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram

III Deflection are determined last
1. The real curvature is obtained by dividing the moment by EI
wR2
M
=
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos
EI
EI 2
2
(20.14)
1. The virtual force P will be a unit vertical point in the direction of the desired deflection,
causing a virtual internal moment
M =
R
[1 cos sin ]
2
(20.15)
p
2. Hence, application of the virtual work equation yields:
1
2
=0
R
wR2
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos [1 cos sin ] Rd
EI 2
2
2
dx
20.1.2
M
EI
wR4
7 2 18 12
16EI
.0337 wR
EI
(20.16-a)
Statically Indeterminate
Example 20-3: Statically Indeterminate Arch, (Kinney 1957)

Victor Saouma
20.1 Arches
207
Draft
Determine the value of the horizontal reaction component of the indicated two-hinged solid rib arch,
Fig. 20.8 as caused by a concentrated vertical load of 10 k at the center line of the span. Consider
shearing, axial, and flexural strains. Assume that the rib is a W24x130 with a total area of 38.21 in2 ,
that it has a web area of 13.70 in2 , a moment of inertia equal to 4,000 in4 , E of 30,000 k/in2 , and a
shearing modulus G of 13,000 k/in2 .
Figure 20.8: Statically Indeterminate Arch

Solution:
1. Consider that end C is placed on rollers, as shown in Fig. ?? A unit fictitious horizontal force is
applied at C. The axial and shearing components of this fictitious force and of the vertical reaction
at C, acting on any section in the right half of the rib, are shown at the right end of the rib in
Fig. 13-7.
2. The expression for the horizontal displacement of C is
B
1 Ch = 2
M
C
M
ds + 2
EI
V
C
V
ds + 2
Aw G
N
C
N
ds
AE
(20.17)
3. From Fig. 20.9, for the rib from C to B,

M
M
V
V
N
Victor Saouma
P
(100 R cos )
2
= 1(R sin 125.36)
P
sin
=
2
= cos
P
cos
=
2
=
(20.18-a)
(20.18-b)
(20.18-c)
(20.18-d)
(20.18-e)
208
Draft
Figure 20.9: Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed

N
ds
= sin
(20.18-f)
= Rd
(20.18-g)
4. If the above values are substituted in Eq. 20.17 and integrated between the limits of 0.898 and
/2, the result will be
(20.19)
Ch = 22.55 + 0.023 0.003 = 22.57
5. The load P is now assumed to be removed from the rib, and a real horizontal force of 1 k is assumed
to act toward the right at C in conjunction with the fictitious horizontal force of 1 k acting to the
right at the same point. The horizontal displacement of C will be given by
B
ChCh
=
=
B
M
V
ds + 2
ds + 2
V
EI
A
wG
C
C
2.309 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 2.313 in
N
C
N
ds
AE
(20.20-a)
(20.20-b)
6. The value of the horizontal reaction component will be

HC =
Ch
22.57
= 9.75 k
=
ChCh
2.313
(20.21)
7. If only flexural strains are considered, the result would be

HC =
22.55
= 9.76 k
2.309
(20.22)
Comments
1. For the given rib and the single concentrated load at the center of the span it is obvious that the
effects of shearing and axial strains are insignificant and can be disregarded.
2. Erroneous conclusions as to the relative importance of shearing and axial strains in the usual solid
rib may be drawn, however, from the values shown in Eq. 20.19. These indicate that the effects of
the shearing strains are much more significant than those of the axial strains. This is actually the
case for the single concentrated load chosen for the demonstration, but only because the rib does
not approximate the funicular polygon for the single load. As a result, the shearing components
on most sections of the rib are more important than would otherwise be the case.
Victor Saouma
209
Draft
3. The usual arch encountered in practice, however, is subjected to a series of loads, and the axis of
the rib will approximate the funicular polygon for these loads. In other words, the line of pressure
is nearly perpendicular to the right section at all points along the rib. Consequently, the shearing
components are so small that the shearing strains are insignificant and are neglected.
4. Axial strains, resulting in rib shortening, become increasingly important as the rise-to-span ratio
of the arch decreases. It is advisable to determine the effects of rib shortening in the design of
arches. The usual procedure is to first design the rib by considering flexural strains only, and then
to check for the effects of rib shortening.
20.2
Curved Space Structures
Example 20-4: Semi-Circular Box Girder, (Gerstle 1974)

Determine the reactions of the semi-circular cantilevered box girder shown in Fig. 20.10 subjected
x
x
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
O
R
wRd
C
A
A
y
Figure 20.10: Semi-Circular Box Girder

to its own weight w.
Solution:
I Reactions are again determined first From geometry we have OA = R, OB = R cos , AB = OA
BO = R R cos , and BP = R sin . The moment arms for the moments with respect to the x
and y axis are BP and AB respectively. Applying three equations of equilibrium we obtain
=
FzA
wRd = 0
FzA = wR
(20.23-a)
(wRd)(R sin ) = 0
MxA = 2wR2
(20.23-b)
(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0
MyA = wR2
(20.23-c)
=0
=
MxA
=0
=
MyA
=0
II Internal Forces are determined next

1. Shear Force:
(+ ) Fz = 0 V
Victor Saouma
wRd = 0 V = wr
(20.24)
2010
Draft
2. Bending Moment:
MR = 0 M
(wRd)(R sin ) = 0 M = wR2 (1 cos )
(20.25)
(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0 T = wR2 ( sin )
(20.26)
3. Torsion:
MT = 0 +
0
III Deflection are determined last we assume a rectangular cross-section of width b and height d = 2b
and a Poissons ratio = 0.3.
1. Noting that the member will be subjected to both flexural and torsional deformations, we
seek to determine the two stiffnesses.
3
b(2b)
=
2. The flexural stiffness EI is given by EI = E bd
12 = E 12
2Eb4
3
= .667Eb4 .
3. The torsional stiffness of solid rectangular sections J = kb d where b is the shorter side of the
E
E
= 2(1+.3)
=
section, d the longer, and k a factor equal to .229 for db = 2. Hence G = 2(1+)
4
4
.385E, and GJ = (.385E)(.229b ) = .176Eb .
4. Considering both flexural and torsional deformations, and replacing dx by rd:
P =
W
M
0
M
Rd +
EIz
T
0
T
Rd
GJ
(20.27)
Torsion
Flexure
U
where the real moments were given above.

5. Assuming a unit virtual downward force P = 1, we have
M
T
= R sin
= R(1 cos )
(20.28-a)
(20.28-b)
6. Substituting these expression into Eq. 20.27

1
wR2
EI
(R sin ) (1 cos ) Rd +
0
=
=
20.2.1
wR2
GJ
( sin ) R(1 cos ) Rd

0
T
1
wR
( cos sin + sin cos ) d
(sin sin cos ) +
EI
.265
0
wR4
( 2. + 18.56 )
EI
Flexure Torsion
4
20.56 wR
EI
(20.29-a)
Theory
Adapted from (Gerstle 1974)

1
18 Because space structures may have complicated geometry, we must resort to vector analysis
to
determine the internal forces.
19
In general we have six internal forces (forces and moments) acting at any section.
1 To
which you have already been exposed at an early stage, yet have very seldom used it so far in mechanics!
Victor Saouma
2011
Draft
20.2.1.1
Geometry
20 In general, the geometry of the structure is most conveniently described by a parameteric set of
equations
y = f2 ();
z = f3 ()
(20.30)
x = f1 ();
as shown in Fig. 20.11. the global coordinate system is denoted by X Y Z, and its unit vectors are
Figure 20.11: Geometry of Curved Structure in Space

denoted2 i, j, k.
21 The section on which the internal forces are required is cut and the principal axes are identified as
N S W which correspond to the normal force, and bending axes with respect to the Strong and
Weak axes. The corresponding unit vectors are n, s, w.
22
The unit normal vector at any section is given by

n=
dxi + dyj + dzk

dxi + dyj + dzk
=
ds
(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 )1/2
(20.31)
23 The principal bending axes must be defined, that is if the strong bending axis is parallel to the XY
plane, or horizontal (as is generally the case for gravity load), then this axis is normal to both the N
and Z axes, and its unit vector is
nk
(20.32)
s=
|nk|
24
The weak bending axis is normal to both N and S, and thus its unit vector is determined from
w = ns
20.2.1.2
25
(20.33)
Equilibrium
For the equilibrium equations, we consider the free body diagram of Fig. 20.12 an applied load P
2 All
vectorial quantities are denoted by a bold faced character.
Victor Saouma
2012
Draft
Figure 20.12: Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space

is acting at point A. The resultant force vector F and resultant moment vector M acting on the cut
section B are determined from equilibrium
F = 0;
P + F = 0;
F = P
B
M = 0; LP + M = 0; M = LP
(20.34-a)
(20.34-b)
where L is the lever arm vector from B to A.

26 The axial and shear forces N, Vs and Vw are all three components of the force vector F along the
N, S, and W axes and can be found by dot product with the appropriate unit vectors:
N
Vs
Vw
= Fn
= Fs
= Fw
(20.35-a)
(20.35-b)
(20.35-c)
27 Similarly the torsional and bending moments T, Ms and Mw are also components of the moment
vector M and are determined from
T
Ms
= Mn
= Ms
(20.36-a)
(20.36-b)
Mw
(20.36-c)
Mw
28 Hence, we do have a mean to determine the internal forces. In case of applied loads we summ, and
for distributed load we integrate.
Example 20-5: Internal Forces in an Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder, (Gerstle 1974)

Determine the internal forces N, Vs , and Vw and the internal moments T, Ms and Mw along the
helicoidal cantilevered girder shown in FIg. 20.13 due to a vertical load P at its free end.
Solution:
1. We first determine the geometry in terms of the angle
x = R cos ;
Victor Saouma
y = R sin ;
z=
(20.37)
Draft
2013
Figure 20.13: Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder
Victor Saouma
2014
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2. To determine the unit vector n at any point we need the derivatives:

dx = R sin d;
dy = R cos d;
dz =
H
d
(20.38)
and then insert into Eq. 20.31

n
=
=
R sin i + R cos j + H/k

1/2
R2 sin2 + R2 cos2 + (H/)2

1
[sin i + cos j + (H/R)k]
1/2
1 + (H/R)2
(20.39-a)
(20.39-b)
Since the denominator depends only on the geometry, it will be designated by K.

3. The strong bending axis lies in a horizontal plane, and its unit vector can thus be determined from
Eq. 20.32:
nk
=
=
1
K
i
sin
0
j
cos
0
k
H
R
(20.40-a)
1
(cos i + sin j)
K
and the absolute magnitude of this vector |kn| =
1
K,
(20.40-b)
and thus
s = cos i + sin j
(20.41)
4. The unit vector along the weak axis is determined from Eq. 20.33
w = sn
1
K
i
cos
sin
j
sin
cos
k
0
1
K
H
H
sin i
cos j + k
R
R
(20.42-a)
H
R
(20.42-b)
5. With the geometry definition completed, we now examine the equilibrium equations. Eq. 20.34-a
and 20.34-b.
F = 0; F = P
Mb = 0; M = LP
(20.43-a)
(20.43-b)
where
L = (R R cos )i + (0 R sin )j + 0
H k
(20.44)
and
LP
i
j
(1 cos ) sin
0
0
k
H
R
P
(20.45-a)
= P R[ sin i (1 cos )j]
(20.45-b)
M = P R[sin i + (1 cos )j]
(20.46)
and
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6. Finally, the components of the force F = P k and the moment M are obtained by appropriate
dot products with the unit vectors
N
1
H
P R
= Fn = K
(20.47-a)
Vs
Fs = 0
(20.47-b)
Vw
1
Fw = K
P
(20.47-c)
= Mn = PKR (1 cos )
(20.47-d)
Ms
Ms = P R sin
(20.47-e)
Mw
Mw =
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PH
K (1
cos )
(20.47-f)
2016
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Chapter 21
STATIC INDETERMINANCY;
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
All the examples in this chapter are taken verbatim from White, Gergely and Sexmith
21.1
Introduction
A statically indeterminate structure has more unknowns than equations of equilibrium (and equations
of conditions if applicable).
The advantages of a statically indeterminate structures are:

1. Lower internal forces
2. Safety in redundancy, i.e. if a support or members fails, the structure can redistribute its internal
forces to accomodate the changing B.C. without resulting in a sudden failure.
Only disadvantage is that it is more complicated to analyse.
Analysis mehtods of statically indeterminate structures must satisfy three requirements
Equilibrium
Force-displacement (or stress-strain) relations (linear elastic in this course).
Compatibility of displacements (i.e. no discontinuity)
5
This can be achieved through two classes of solution
Force or Flexibility method;

Displacement or Stiffness method
The flexibility method is first illustrated by the following problem of a statically indeterminate cable
structure in which a rigid plate is supported by two aluminum cables and a steel one. We seek to
determine the force in each cable, Fig. 21.1
1. We have three unknowns and only two independent equations of equilibrium. Hence the problem
is statically indeterminate to the first degree.
2. Applying the equations of equilibrium
right
left
= PAl
Mz = 0; PAl
Fy = 0; 2PAl + PSt = P
Thus we effectively have two unknowns and one equation.
(21.1-a)
212
STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD
Draft
Figure 21.1: Statically Indeterminate 3 Cable Structure

3. We need to have a third equation to solve for the three unknowns. This will be derived from the
compatibility of the displacements in all three cables, i.e. all three displacements must be
equal:
(21.2)
DAl = DSt
4. Finally, those isplacements are obtained from the Force-Displacement relations:
= P
A
PL
L =
= L
L
AE
= E
(21.3)
PSt L
PAl
(EA)Al
PAl L
=
=
EAl AAl
ESt ASt
PSt
(EA)St
DAl
(21.4)
DSt
or
(EA)St PAl + (EA)Al PSt = 0
(21.5)
5. Solution of Eq. 21.1-a and 21.5 yields

PAl
P
2
1
=
PSt
0
(EA)St (EA)Al
1
2
1
P
PAl
=
PSt
(EA)St (EA)Al
0
1
P
(EA)Al 1
=
0
2(EA)Al + (EA)St (EA)St 2
Determinant
6. We observe that the solution of this sproblem, contrarily to statically determinate ones, depends
on the elastic properties.
7
Another example is the propped cantiliver beam of length L, Fig. 21.2

1. First we remove the roller support, and are left with the cantilever as a primary structure.
2. We then determine the deflection at point B due to the applied load P using the virtual force
method
1.D
M
dx
EI
L/2
0
0
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px
dx +
EI
(21.6-a)
L/2
PL
+ P x (x)dx
2
(21.6-b)
21.1 Introduction
213
Draft
L/2
L/2
x
P
Primary Structure Under Actual Load
-PL
PL/2
f BB
Primary Structure Under Redundant Loading
-(1)L/2
QL/2
+
Bending Moment Diagram
PL/4
Figure 21.2: Propped Cantilever Beam
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214
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=
=
=
1
EI
L/2
1
EI
P x3
P Lx2
+
4
3
PL
x + P x2 dx
2
(21.6-c)
L/2
(21.6-d)
0
5 P L3
48 EI
(21.6-e)
3. We then apply a unit load at point B and solve for the displacement at B using the virtual force
method
1fBB
M
dx
EI
L/2
(x)
0
(21.7-a)
x
dx
EI
(21.7-b)
(1)L3
24EI
(21.7-c)
4. Then we argue that the displacement at point B is zero, and hence the displacement fBB should
be multiplied by RB such that
(21.8)
RB fBB = D
to ensure compatibility of displacements, hence
RB =
21.2
D
=
fBB
5
3
48 P L EI
(1)L3
24EI
5
2P
(21.9)
The Force/Flexibility Method
Based on the previous two illustrative examples, we now seek to develop a general method for the
linear elastic analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
1. Identify the degree of static indeterminancy (exterior and/or interior) n.

2. Select n redundant unknown forces and/or couples in the loaded structure along with n corresponding releases (angular or translation).
3. The n releases render the structure statically determinate, and it is called the primary structure.
4. Determine the n displacements in the primary structure (with the load applied) corresponding to
the releases, Di .
5. Apply a unit force at each of the releases j on the primary structure, without the external load, and
determine the displacements in all releases i, we shall refer to these displacements as the flexibility
coefficients, fij , i.e. displacement at release i due to a unit force at j
6. Write the compatibility of displacement relation
f11 f12 f1n

R1
f21 f22 f2n R2
fn1 fn2 fnn

Rn
[f ]

D1
D2
=
Dn
D10
D20
Dn0
(21.10)
D0i
and
[R] = [f ]1 D D0i
(21.11)
Note that D0i is the vector of initial displacements, which is usually zero unless we have an initial
displacement of the support (such as support settlement).
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21.3 Short-Cut for Displacement Evaluation
215
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7. The reactions are then obtained by simply inverting the flexibility matrix.
Note that from Maxwell-Bettis reciprocal theorem, the flexibility matrix [f ] is always symmetric.
21.3
Short-Cut for Displacement Evaluation
10 Since deflections due to flexural effects must be determined numerous times in the flexibility method,
Table 21.1 may simplify some of the evaluation of the internal strain energy. You are strongly discouraged
to use this table while still at school!.
g2 (x)
a
g1 (x)
Lac
Lac
2
Lc(a+b)
2
Lac
2
Lac
3
Lc(2a+b)
6
Lac
2
Lac
6
Lc(a+2b)
6
La(c+d)
2
La(2c+d)
6
La(2c+d)+Lb(c+2d)
6
La(c+4d+e)
6
La(c+2d)
6
La(c+2d)+Lb(2d+e)
6
c
c
L
c
L
d
c
L
c
d e
L
Table 21.1: Table of
g1 (x)g2 (x)dx
0
21.4
Examples
Example 21-1: Steel Building Frame Analysis, (White et al. 1976)

A small, mass-produced industrial building, Fig. 21.3, is to be framed in structural steel with a
typical cross section as shown below. The engineer is considering three different designs for the frame:
(a) for poor or unknown soil conditions, the foundations for the frame may not be able to develop any
dependable horizontal forces at its bases. In this case the idealized base conditions are a hinge at one of
the bases and a roller at the other; (b) for excellent soil conditions with properly designed foundations,
the bases of the frame legs will have no tendency to move horizontally, and the idealized base condition
is that of hinges at both points A and D; and (c) a design intermediate to the above cases, with a steel
tie member capable of carrying only tension running between points A and D in the floor of the building.
The foundations would not be expected to provide any horizontal restraint for this latter case, and the
hinge-roller details at points A and D would apply.
Critical design loads for a frame of this type are usually the gravity loads (dead load + snow load)
and the combination of dead load and wind load. We will restrict our attention to the first combination,
and will use a snow load of 30 psf and an estimated total dead load of 20 psf. With frames spaced at 15
ft on centers along the length of the building, the design load is 15 (30 + 20) = 750 lb/ft.
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Figure 21.3:
If the frame is made of steel beam sections 21 in. deep and weighing 62 lb/ft of length (W 21 62),
and the tie member for design (c) is tentatively chosen as a 2-in.2 bar, determine the bending moment
diagrams for the three designs and discuss the alternate solutions.
Solution:
Structure a This frame is statically determinate since it has three possible unknown external
forces acting on it, and the bending moment is shown in Fig. 21.6-a.
Structure b Hinging both legs of the frame results in another unknown force, making the structure
statically indeterminate to the first degree (one redundant).
1. A lateral release at point A is chosen. with the redundant shearing force R1 . The displacement D1Q
in the primary structure, as a result of the real loading, is shown in Figure 21.4-a. D1Q is computed by
virtual work.
2. The virtual force system in Figure 21.4-b produces a virtual bending moment M , which is uniform
Figure 21.4:
across the top member of the frame. The virtual moment acting through the real angle changes gives
the internal work term
40
M
M d =
dx
(21.12)
M
EI
0
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21.4 Examples
217
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3. Equating this to the external virtual work of 1 D1Q , we have

40
1 D1Q =
0
(12)(1/2)(.75)(Lx x2 )
dx
EI
(21.13)
or
48, 000
k ft3
(21.14)
EI
4. The equation of consistent displacement is D1Q +f11 R1 = 0. The flexibility coefficient f11 is computed
by applying a unit horizontal force at the release and determining the displacement at the same point.
5. It is seen that the real loading and the virtual loading are identical for this calculation, and
D1Q =
12
1 f11 = 2
0
or
f11 =
6. Solving for R1
x2 dx
+
EI
20
0
122 dx
EI
6, 912
k ft3
EI
(21.15)
(21.16)
1
[48, 000 + 6, 912R1 ] = 0
EI
(21.17)
R1 = 6.93 k
(21.18)
or
7. The bending moment diagram is given below
Structure c The frame with the horizontal tie between points A and D has three unknown external
forces. However, the structure is statically indeterminate to the first degree since the tie member provides
one degree of internal redundancy.
8. The logical release to choose is a longitudinal release in the tie member, with its associated longitudinal
displacement and axial force.
9. The primary structure Fig. 21.5 is the frame with the tie member released. The compatibility
Figure 21.5:
equation is based on the fact that the displacement at the release must be zero; that is, the relative
displacement of the two sections of the tie at the point of release must be zero, or
D1Q + f11 R1 = 0
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(21.19)
218
Draft
where
D1Q = displacement at release 1 in the primary structure, produced by the loading,
f11 = relative displacement at release 1 for a unit axial force in the tie member,
R1 = force in the tie member in the original structure.
10. Virtual work is used to determine both displacement terms.
11. The value of D1Q is identical to the displacement D1Q computed for structure (b) because the tie
member has no forces (and consequently no deformations) in the primary structure. Thus
D1Q =
(48, 000)(1, 728)

= 2.08 in
(30 103 )(1, 327)
(21.20)
12. The flexibility coefficient f11 is composed of two separate effects: a flexural displacement due to the
flexibility of the frame, and the axial displacement of the stressed tie member. The virtual and real
loadings for this calculation are shown in Figure 21.5. The virtual work equation is
12
1 f11
20
pL
x21 dx1
(12)2 dx
+
+ P
EI
EI
EA
0
0
6, 912 1(1)(40)
+
=
EI
EA
(6, 912)(1, 728)
40(12)
=
+
(30 103 )(1, 327) (30 103 )(2)
= 0.300 + 0.008 = 0.308
(21.21-a)
(21.21-b)
(21.21-c)
(21.21-d)
and
f11 = 0.308in./k
(21.22)
13. The equation of consistent deformation is

D1Q + f11 R1 = 0
(21.23)
2.08 .308R1 = 0
(21.24)
R1 = 6.75 k (tension)
(21.25)
or
or
14. The two displacement terms in the equation must carry opposite signs to account for their difference
in direction.
Comments The bending moment in the frame, Figure 21.6-c differs only slightly from that of
structure (b). In other words, the tie member has such high axial stiffness that it provides nearly as
much restraint as the foundation of structure (b). Frames with tie members are used widely in industrial
buildings. A lesson to be learned here is that it is easy to provide high stiffness through an axially loaded
member.
Figure 21.6:
The maximum moment in frames (b) and (c) is about 55% of the maximum moment in frame (a).
This effect of continuity and redundancy is typical the positive bending moments in the members are
lowered while the joint moments increase and a more economical design can be realized.
Finally, we should notice that the vertical reactions at the bases of the columns do not change with
the degree of horizontal restraint at the bases. A question to ponder is Does this type of reaction
behavior occur in all frames, or only in certain geometrical configurations?
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21.4 Examples
219
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Example 21-2: Analysis of Irregular Building Frame, (White et al. 1976)
The structural steel frame for the Church of the Holy Spirit, Penfield, New York is shown below. In
this example we will discuss the idealization of the structure and then determine the forces and bending
moments acting on the frame.
Solution:
1. A sectional view of the building is given in Figure 21.8-a.
Figure 21.7:
The two main horizontal members of the frame are supported at points A and D by masonry walls.
2. The connection used at these points is not intended to transmit axial forces from the frame to the
wall; accordingly, the axial forces in the horizontal members are assumed to be zero and the joints at A
and D are idealized as rollers that transmit vertical forces only.
3. The base joint E is designed to resist both horizontal and vertical loads, but not moment, and is
assumed to be a hinge.
4. Finally, joints B and C are designed to provide continuity and will be taken as rigid; that is, the
angles of intersection of the members at the joint do not change with applied loading.
5. The frame is simplified for analysis by removing the small 4-in. wide flange members EF and F G
and replacing their load effect by applying the roof load which acts on EF directly to the segment AG.
6. The idealized frame is shown in Figure 21.8-b.
7. The dead load on the higher portion of the frame is wAB = 25 psf times the frame spacing of 13.33
ft, or wAB = 25(13.33) = 334 lb/ft along the frame.
8. The dead load on CD is less because the weight of the frame member is substantially smaller, and
the dead load is about 19 psf, or wCD = 19(13.33) = 254 lb/ft of frame.
9. Snow load is 35 psf over both areas, or w = 35(13.33) = 467 lb/ft.
10. Total loads are then
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2110
Draft
Figure 21.8:
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21.4 Examples
2111
Draft
Member AB:
Member CD:
w = 334 + 467 = 800 lb/ft = 0.8 k/ft

w = 254 + 467 = 720 lb/ft = 0.72 k/ft
11. The frame has four unknown reaction components and therefore has one redundant. Although
several different releases are possible, we choose an angular (bending) release at point B.
12. The resulting primary structure is shown in Figure 21.8-c, where the redundant quantity R1 is the
bending moment at point B.
13. The equation of compatibility is
(21.26)
1Q + 11 R1 = 0
where 1Q is the relative angular rotation corresponding to release 1 as produced by the actual loading,
and 11 is the flexibility coefficient for a unit moment acting at the release.
14. From virtual work we have
1 1Q =
M d =
M
dx
EI
(21.27)
1 11 =
M d =
M
dx
EI
(21.28)
and
where m is a real unit load and M and M are defined in Figure 21.8-d and e.
15. Then
1Q
=
+
=
1
(EI)AB
61.42
0
x
(24.6x 0.4x2 )dx
61.42
(21.29-a)
21.33
x
1
(7.68x 0.36x2 )dx
(EI)CD 0
21.33
295
7750
+
(EI)AB
(EI)CD
(21.29-b)
(21.29-c)
16. with IAB = 4, 470 in.4 and ICD = 290 in.4

1Q =
2.75
1.733 1.0107
+
=
E
E
E
(21.30)
17. Similarly
11
1
(EI)AB
+
61.42
0
1
(EI)CD
18. with IBC = 273 in4

11 =
21.33
0
x
61.42
x
21.33
dx
2
dx +
(21.31-a)
1
(EI)BC
(1)2 dx
(21.31-b)
20.5
7.11
8.0
0.0585
+
+
=
(EI)AB
(EI)CD
(EI)BC
E
(21.32)
Note that the numerators of 1Q and 11 have the units k-ft2 /in4 .
19. Applying the compatibility equation,
2.75 0.0585
+
R1 = 0
E
E
(21.33)
and the bending moment at point B is R1 = 47.0 ft-k . The reactions and moments in the structure
are given in Figure 21.8-f.
Example 21-3: Redundant Truss Analysis, (White et al. 1976)

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2112
Draft
Figure 21.9:
Determine the bar forces in the steel truss shown below using the force method of analysis. The truss
is part of a supporting tower for a tank, and the 20 kN horizontal load is produced by wind loading on
the tank.
Solution:
1. Applying the criteria for indeterminacy, 2 4 = 8 equations, 6 members + 3 reactions one degree
of indeterminacy. A longitudinal release in any of the six bars may be chosen.
2. Because the truss members carry only axial load, a longitudinal release is identical to actually cutting
the member and removing its axial force capability from the truss.
3. In analyzing trusses with double diagonals it is both convenient and customary to select the release
in one of the diagonal members because the resulting primary structure will be the conventional truss
form to which we are accustomed.
4. Choosing the diagonal member BC for release, we cut it and remove its axial stiffness from the
structure. The primary structure is shown in Figure 21.9-b.
5. The analysis problem reduces to applying an equation of compatibility to the changes in length of
the release member. The relative displacement D1Q of the two cut ends of member BC, as produced by
the real loading, is shown in Figure 21.9-c.
6. The displacement is always measured along the length of the redundant member, and since the
redundant is unstressed at this stage of the analysis, the displacement D1Q is equal to the relative
displacement of joint B with respect to joint C.
7. This displacement must be eliminated by the relative displacements of the cut ends of member BC
when the redundant force is acting in the member. The latter displacement is written in terms of the
axial flexibility coefficient f11 , and the desire equation of consistent deformation is
D1Q + f11 R1 = 0
(21.34)
1 D1Q = P (l) = P (P L/AE)
(21.35)
8. The quantity D1Q is given by
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21.4 Examples
2113
where P and P are given in Figure 21.9-d and c, respectively.

9. Similarly,
f11 = P (P L/AE)
(21.36)
Draft
10. Evaluating these summations in tabular form:

Member
AB
BC
CD
AC
AD
BC
P
0
0
+20
+20
28.28
0
P
0.707
0.707
0.707
0.707
+1
+1
L
3
3
3
3
4.242
4.242
P P L
0
0
42.42
42.42
119.96
0
-204.8
P P L
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
4.242
4.242
14.484
11. Since A = constant for each member

D1Q = P
then
204.8
PL
14.484
=
andf11 =
AE
AE
AE
(21.37)
1
[204.8 + 14.484R1 ] = 0
AE
(21.38)
12. The solution for the redundant force value is R1 = 14.14 kN .

13. The final values for forces in each of the truss members are given by superimposing the forces due
to the redundant and the forces due to the real loading.
14. The real loading forces are shown in Figure 21.9-c while the redundant force effect is computed by
multiplying the member forces in Figure 21.9-d by 2.83, the value of the redundant.
15. It is informative to compare the member forces from this solution to the approximate analysis
obtained by assuming that the double diagonals each carry half the total shear in the panel. The
comparison is given in Figure 21.10; it reveals that the approximate analysis is the same as the exact
Figure 21.10:
analysis for this particular truss. The reason for this is that the stiffness provided by each of the diagonal
members (against shear deformation of the rectangular panel) is the same, and therefore they each
carry an equal portion of the total shear across the panel.
16. How would this structure behave if the diagonal members were very slender?
Example 21-4: Truss with Two Redundants, (White et al. 1976)

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2114
Draft
Another panel with a second redundant member is added to the truss of Example 21-3 and the new
truss is supported at its outermost lower panel points, as shown in Figure 21.11. The truss, which is
similar in form to trusses used on many railway bridges, is to be analyzed for bar forces under the given
loading.
Solution:
1. The twice redundant truss is converted to a determinate primary structure by releasing two members
of the truss; we choose two diagonals (DB and BF ).
2. Releasing both diagonals in a single panel, such as members AE and DB, is inadmissible since it
leads to an unstable truss form.
3. The member forces and required displacements for the real loading and for the two redundant forces
Figure 21.11:
in members DB and BF are given in Figure 21.11.
4. Although the real loading ordinarily stresses all members of the entire truss, we see that the unit forces
corresponding to the redundants stres only those members in the panel that contains the redundant; all
other bar forces are zero.
5. Recognizing this fact enables us to solve the double diagonal truss problem more rapidly than a frame
with multiple redundants.
6. The virtual work equations for computing the six required displacements (two due to load and four
flexibilities) are
= P 1
1 D2Q
= P 2
1 f11
= P 1
1 f21
= P 2
(21.39-d)
= f21
(21.39-e)
f12
Victor Saouma
PL
AE
PL
AE
1 D1Q
P 1L
AE
P 1L
AE
by the reciprocal theorem
(21.39-a)
(21.39-b)
(21.39-c)
21.4 Examples
2115
Draft
1 f22
= P 2
P 2L
AE
(21.39-f)
7. If we assume tension in a truss member as postive, use tensile unit loads when computing the flexibility
coefficients corresponding to the redundants, and let all displacement terms carry their own signs, then
in the solution for the redundants a positive value of force indicates tension while a negative value means
the member is in compression.
8. The calculation of f22 involves only the six members in the left panel of the truss; f21 involves only
member BE.
9. The simple procedures used for performing the displacement analyses, as summarized in tabular form
in Table 21.2, leads one quickly to the compatibility equations which state that the cut ends of both
Member
AB
BC
CF
EF
DE
AD
AE
BE
CE
BD
BF
P
-9.5
-9.5
-9.5
0
+4
-5.5
+7.78
.15
+13.43
0
0
P1
-0.707
0
0
0
-0.707
-0.707
+1
-0.707
0
+1
0
P2
0
-0.707
-0.707
-0.707
0
0
0
-0.707
+1
0
+1
L
120
120
120
120
120
120
170
120
170
170
170
D1Q
P 1 P L
+806
0
0
0
-340
+466
+1,322
+1,272
0
0
0
+3,528
D2Q
P 2 P L
0
+806
+806
0
0
0
0
+1272
+2,280
0
0
+5,164
f11
P 1 P 1 L
60
0
0
0
60
60
170
60
0
170
0
+580
f21
P 2 P 1 L
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
0
0
0
+60
f22
P 2 P 2 L
0
60
60
60
0
0
0
60
170
0
170
+580
Table 21.2:
redundant members must match (there can be no gaps or overlaps of members in the actual structure).
10. The equations are
D1Q + f11 R1 + f12 R2
D2Q + f21 R1 + f22 R2
or
1
AE
580
60
60
580
R1
R2
=
=
1
AE
0
0
(21.40-a)
(21.40-b)
3, 528
5, 164
(21.41)
and
R1
5.20 k
(21.42-a)
R2
8.38 k
(21.42-b)
11. The final set of forces in the truss is obtained by adding up, for each member, the three separate
effects. In terms of the forces shown in Figure 21.11 and Table 21.2, the force in any member is given by
F = P + R1 P 1 + R2 P 2 . The final solution is given in Figure 21.11-e. The truss is part of a supporting
tower for a tank, and the 20 kN horizontal load is produced by wind loading on the tank.
12. NOTE: A mixture of internal redundant forces and external redundant reactions is no more difficult
than the preceding example. Consider the two-panel truss of this example modified by the addition of
another reaction component at joint E, Figure 21.12. The three releases for this truss can be chosen
from a number of possible combinations: diagonals DB and BF and the reaction at E; the same two
diagonals and the reaction at F ; the same diagonals and the top chord member BC, etc. The only
requirement to be met is that the primary structure be stable and statically determinate.
13. For any set of releases there are four new displacement components: the displacement at the third
release resulting from the actual load on the primary structure, and the three flexibility coefficients
f31 , f32 , and f33 . Judicious choice of releases often results in a number of the flexibility coefficients being
zero
Victor Saouma
2116
Draft
Figure 21.12:
Example 21-5: Analysis of Nonprismatic Members, (White et al. 1976)

The nonprismatic beam of Figure 21.13-a is loaded with an end moment MA at its hinged end A.
Determine the moment induced at the fixed end B by this loading.
Figure 21.13:
Solution:
1. The beam has one redundant force; we select MB as the redundant R1 , and obtain the primary
structure shown in Figure 21.13-c. It can be shown that the flexibility co-efficients for unit moments
applied at each end are those shown in Fig. 21.13-d and e, with a sign convention of counterclockwise
as positive.
2. The equation of consistent displacements at B is
3 l
MA l
+
R1 = 0
8EI
16 EI
(21.43)
and the value of MB is

Victor Saouma
21.4 Examples
2117
Draft
2
MA
(21.44)
3
3. The resulting moment diagram is given in Figure 21.13-f. We note that the inflection point is 0.40l
from the fixed end. If the beam had a uniform value of I across its span, the inflection point would be
L/3 from the fixed end. Thus the inflection point shifts toward the section of reduced stiffness.
4. The end rotation A is given by
MB = R 1 =
a =
5 MA l 1
16 EI
8
2
MA
3
11 MA l
l
=
EL
48 EI
(21.45)
5. The ratio of applied end moment to rotation. MA /A , is called the rotational stiffness and is
EI
48 EI
MA
= 4.364
=
A
11 l
l
(21.46)
6. If we now reverse the boundary conditions, making A fixed and B hinged, and repeat the analysis for
an applied moment MB , the resulting moment diagram will be as given in Figure 21.13-h. The moment
induced at end A is only 40% of the applied end moment MB . The inflection point is 0.286l from the
fixed end A. The corresponding end rotation B in Figure 21.13-g is
B =
7. The rotational stiffness
MB
B
11 MB l
80 EI
(21.47)
is
EI
MB
80 EI
= 7.272
=
B
11 l
l
(21.48)
8. A careful comparison of the rotational stiffnesses, and of the moment diagrams in Figures 21.13-f and
h, illustrate the fact that flexural sections of increased stiffness attract more moment, and that inflection
points always shift in the direction of decreased stiffness.
9. The approach illustrated here may be used to determine moments and end rotations in any type of
nonprismatic member. The end rotations needed in the force analysis may be calculated by either virtual
work or moment area (or by other methods). Complex variations in EI are handled by numerical integration of the virtual work equation or by approximating the resultant M/EI areas and their locations
in the moment area method.
Example 21-6: Fixed End Moments for Nonprismatic Beams, (White et al. 1976)
The beam of example 21-5, with both ends fixed, is loaded with a uniform load w, Figure 21.14-a.
Determine the fixed end moments MA and MB .
Solution:
1. The beam has two redundant forces and we select MA and MB . Releasing these redundants, R1 and
R2 , the primary structure is as shown in Figure 21.14-c.
2. The equations of consistent deformations are
D1Q + f11 R1 + f12 R2
D2Q + f21 R1 + f22 R2
=
=
0
0
(21.49-a)
(21.49-b)
where R1 is MA and R2 is MB .
3. The values of D1Q and D2Q , the end rotations produced by the real loading on the primary structure,
can be computed by the virtual work method.
4. The flexibility coefficients are also separately derived (not yet in these notes) and are given in Figures
21.14-d and e of the previous example.
Victor Saouma
2118
Draft
Figure 21.14:
5. We define counterclockwise end moments and rotations a positive and obtain
l
EI
5
16
18
18
3
16
R1
R2
wl3
EI
0.352
+0.0273
(21.50)
from which
R1
MA = 0.0742wl2
(21.51-a)
R2
MB = 0.0961wl2
(21.51-b)
6. The stiffer end of the beam attracts 30% more than the flexible end.
7. For a prismatic beam with constant I, the fixed end moments are equal in magnitude (MA = MB =
wl2 /12) and intermediate in value between the two end moments determined above.
8. Fixed end moments are an essential part of indeterminate analysis based on the displacement (stiffness) method and will be used extensively in the Moment Distribution method.
Example 21-7: Rectangular Frame; External Load, (White et al. 1976)

Solution:
1. The structure is statically indeterminate to the third degree, and the displacements (flexibility terms)
are shown in Fig. 21.15
2. In order to evaluate the 9 flexility terms, Fig. 21.16 we refer to Table 21.3
3. Substituting h = 10 ft, L = 20 ft, and EIb = EIc = EI, the flexibility matrix then becomes
2, 667 3, 000 300

1
3, 000 6, 667 400
[f ] =
(21.52)
EI
300 400
40
and the vector of displacements for the primary structure is
12, 833
1
31, 333
{D} =
EI
1, 800
(21.53)
where the units are kips and feet.

Victor Saouma
21.4 Examples
2119
Draft
Figure 21.15:
Figure 21.16: Definition of Flexibility Terms for a Rigid Frame
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2120
Draft
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M
AB
f11
f12
f13
f22
f23
f33
D3Q
L2 h
2EIb
Lh
EIb
L2 h
2EIb
h
+L
EIc
L3
3EIb
hL
EI
c
L2
2EIb
h
EI
c
Lh
EIb
hL
EI
c
L2
2EIb
+L
+h
2h
+ EI
c
L
EIb
+ Lh(205L)
2
(2h+15L30)
6EIc
Lh(205L)
2EIb
Lh(2h+10L20)
2EIc
L2 (3010L)
6EIb
h(2h+10L20)
2EIc
L(205L)
2EIb
+ h3
2h
+ 3EI
c
+ L2 h
h L
+ 2EI
c
h2
Lh
h2
h
EI
c
+ h 2L
+ L2 h
h L
+ 2EI
c
+L2 h
+ L3
hL
L2
h2
Lh
h2
hL
L2
+h
Lh2
EIb
+Lh2
+ h 2L
CD
+ h3
f32
D2Q
f31
D1Q
M
dx
M EI
Total
(2h+15L30)
6
Lh(2h+10L20)
2
+ h(2h+10L20)
2
+L
(3010L)
6
L(205L)
2
Table 21.3: Displacement Computations for a Rectangular Frame
f21
M M dx
BC
21.4 Examples
2121
Draft
4. The inverse of the flexibility matrix is
[f ]1
2.40
= 103 EI 0.00
18.000
5. Hence the reactions are determined from
2.40
0.00
R1
R2
0.375
{R} =
= 103 EI 0.00
R3
18.000 3.750
0.00
0.375
3.750
18.00
3.750
197.5
(21.54)
18.00
1.60
12, 833
1
3.750
+5.00
31, 333
=
EI
197.5
7.00
1, 800
(21.55)
Example 21-8: Frame with Temperature Effectsand Support Displacements, (White et al. 1976)
The single bay frame, of example 21-7, has a height h = 10 ft and span L = 20 ft and its two suports
rigidly connected and is constructed of reinforced concrete. It supports a roof and wall partitions in
such a manner that a linear temperature variation occurs across the depth of the frame members when
inside and outside temperatures differ. Assume the member depth is constant at 1 ft, and that the
structure was built with fixed bases A and D at a temperature of 85 F. The temperature is now 70 F
inside and 20 F outside. We wish to determine the reactions at D under these conditions. Assume that
the coefficient of linear expansion of reinforced concrete is = 0.0000055/ F.
Solution:
1. Our analysis proceeds as before, using Equation 21.11 with the [D] vector interpreted appropriately.
The three releases shown in Fig. 21.16 will be used.
2. The first stage in the analysis is the computation of the relative displacements D1 , D2 , D3 of the
primary structure caused by temperature effects. These displacements are caused by two effects: axial
shortening of the members because of the drop in average temperature (at middepth of the members),
and curvature of the members because of the temperature gradient.
3. In the following discussion the contributions to displacements due to axial strain are denoted with a
single prime ( ) and those due to curvature by a double prime ( ).
4. Consider the axial strain first. A unit length of frame member shortens as a result of the temperature
decrease from 85 F to 45 F at the middepth of the member. The strain is therefore
T = (0.0000055)(40) = 0.00022
(21.56)
5. The effect of axial strain on the relative displacements needs little analysis. The horizontal member
shortens by an amount (0.00022)(20) = 0.0044 ft. The shortening of the vertical members results in no
relative displacement in the vertical direction 2. No rotation occurs.
6. We therefore have D1 = 0.0044 ft, D2 = 0, and D3 = 0.
7. The effect of curvature must also be considered. A frame element of length dx undergoes an angular
strain as a result of the temperature gradient as indicated in Figure 21.17. The change in length at an
extreme fiber is
= T dx = 0.0000055(25)dx = 0.000138dx
(21.57)
8. with the resulting real rotation of the cross section
d = /0.5 = 0.000138dx/0.5 = 0.000276dx radians
(21.58)
9. The relative displacements of the primary structure at D are found by the virtual force method.
10. A virtual force Q is applied in the direction of the desired displacement and the resulting moment
diagram M determined.
Victor Saouma
2122
Draft
Figure 21.17:
11. The virtual work equation
QD =
M d
(21.59)
is used to obtain each of the desired displacements D.

12. The results, which you should verify, are
D1
0.0828 ft
(21.60-a)
D2
0.1104 ft
(21.60-b)
D3
0.01104 radians
(21.60-c)
13. Combining the effects of axial and rotational strain, we have

D1
D2
D3
=
=
=
D1 + D1
D2 + D2
D3 + D3
=
=
=
0.0784 ft
0.1104 ft
0.01104 radians
(21.61)
14. We now compute the redundants caused by temperature effects:

[R] = [f ]1 ([D])
R1
R2 = 103 EI
R3
(21.62)
18.0
3.75
197.5
0.0784
0.1104 =
+0.01104
+0.0106
+0.355
103 EI
(21.63)
where the units are feet and kips.

15. You should construct the moment diagram for this structure using the values of the redundants
found in the analysis.
16. Notice that the stiffness term EI does not cancel out in this case. Internal forces and reactions
in a statically indeterminate structure subject to effects other than loads (such as temperature) are
dependent on the actual stiffnesses of the structure.
17. The effects of axial strain caused by forces in the members have been neglected in this analysis.
This is usual for low frames where bending strain dominates behavior. To illustrate the significance of
this assumption, consider member BC. We have found R1 = 10.6 106 EI k. The tension in BC has
this same value, resulting in a strain for the member of 10.6 106 EI/EA. For a rectangular member,
I/A = (bd3 /12)(bd) = d2 /12. In our case d = 1 ft, therefore the axial strain is 10.6 106 (0.0833) =
8.83 107 , which is several orders of magnitude smaller than the temperature strain computed for the
same member. We may therefore rest assured that neglecting axial strain caused by forces does not
affect the values of the redundants in a significant manner for this structure.
18. Now consider the effects of foundation movement on the same structure. The indeterminate frame
behavior depends on a structure that we did not design: the earth. The earth is an essential part of
nearly all structures, and we must understand the effects of foundation behavior on structural behavior.
Victor Saouma
21.4 Examples
2123
Draft
For the purposes of this example, assume that a foundation study has revealed the possibility of a
clockwise rotation of the support at D of 0.001 radians and a downward movement of the support at D
of 0.12 ft. We wish to evaluate the redundants R1 , R2 , and R3 caused by this foundation movement.
19. No analysis is needed to determine the values of D1 , D2 , and D3 for the solution of the redundants. These displacements are found directly from the support movements, with proper consideration
of the originally chosen sign convention which defined the positive direction of the relative displacements.
From the given support displacements, we find D1 = 0, D2 = +0.12 ft, and D3 = 0.001 radians.
Can you evaluate these quantities for a case in which the support movements occurred at A instead of
D?
20. The values of the redundants is given by
[R] = [f ]1 ([D])
(21.64)
R1
R2 = 103 EI
R3
18.0
3.75
197.5
0.12
+0.001
= 106 EI
18.0
252.5
(21.65)
with units in kips and feet.

21. A moment diagram may now be constructed, and other internal force quantities computed from
the now known values of the redundants. The redundants have been valuated separately for effects of
temperature and foundation settlement. These effects may be combined with those due to loading using
the principle of superposition.
Example 21-9: Braced Bent with Loads and Temperature Change, (White et al. 1976)
The truss shown in Figure 21.18 reperesents an internal braced bent in an enclosed shed, with
lateral loads of 20 kN at the panel points. A temperature drop of 30 C may occur on the outer members
(members 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, and 5-6). We wish to analyze the truss for the loading and for the temperature
effect.
Solution:
1. The first step in the analysis is the definition of the two redundants. The choice of forces in diagonals
2-4 and 1-5 as redundants facilitates the computations because some of the load effects are easy to
analyze. Figure ??-b shows the definition of R1 and R2 .
2. The computations are organized in tabular form in Table 21.4. The first column gives the bar forces
P in the primary structure caused by the actual loads. Forces are in kN. Column 2 gives the force in each
bar caused by a unit load (1 kN) corresponding to release 1. These are denoted p1 and also represent the
bar force q1 /Q1 caused by a virtual force Q1 applied at the same location. Column 3 lists the same
quantity for a unit load and for a virtual force Q2 applied at release 2. These three columns constitute
a record of the truss analysis needed for this problem.
3. Column 4 gives the value of L/EA for each bar in terms of Lc /EAc of the vertical members. This is
useful because the term L/EA cancels out in some of the calculations.
4. The method of virtual work is applied directly to compute the displacements D1Q and D2Q corresponding to the releases and caused by the actual loads. Apply a virtual force Q1 at release 1. The
internal virtual forces q1 are found in column 2. The internal virtual work q1 l is found in column 5 as
the product of columns 1, 2, and 4. The summation of column 5 is D1q = 122.42 Lc /EAc . Similarly,
column 6 is the product of columns 1, 3, and 4, giving D2Q = 273.12 Lc /EAc .
5. The same method is used to compute the flexibilities fij . In this case the real loading is a unit load
corresponding first to release 1 leading to f11 , and f21 , and then to release 2 leading to f12 and f22 .
Column 7 shows the computation for f11 . It is the product of column 2 representing force due to the
real unit load with column 2 representing force due to a virtual load Q1 at the same location (release
1) multiplied by column 4 to include the Lc /EAc term. Column 8 derives from columns 2, 3, and 4 and
leads to f21 . Columns 9 and 10 are the computations for the remaining flexibilities.
Victor Saouma
Victor Saouma
multiply by
1-2
60.0
2-3
20.00
3-4
0
4-5
0
5-6
20.00
6-1
40.00
2-5
20.00
1-5
0
2-6
56.56
2-4
0
3-5
28.28
0
0.707
0.707
0.707
0
0
0.707
0
0
1.00
1.00
p1
0.707
0
0
0
0.707
0.707
0.707
1.00
1.00
0
0
p2
L/EA
Lc /EAc
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
2.828
2.828
2.828
2.838
D1Q
q1 P L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
14.14
0
0
0
0
28.28
0
0
0
80.00
122.42
D2Q
q2 P L/EA
Lc /EAc
42.42
0
0
0
14.14
56.56
28.28
0
160.00
0
0
273.12
f11
q1 p1 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0.50
1.00
0.50
0
0
1.00
0
0
2.83
2.83
8.66
f21
q2 p2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.00
0
0
0
0
1.00
f12
qp2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.00
0
0
0
0
1.00
f22
q2 p2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0.50
0
0
0
0.50
1.00
1.00
2.83
2.83
0
0
8.66
/temp
Lc
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0
0
0
0
0
0
D1
q1 /
104 Lc
0
2.12
2.12
2.12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6.36
D2
q2 /
104 Lc
2.12
0
0
0
2.12
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.24
Draft
2124
21.4 Examples
2125
Draft
Figure 21.18:
6. We have assumed that a temperature drop of 30 C occurs in the outer members. The corresponding
length changes are found in column 11. Again using the virtual work method, column 12 tabulates the
internal virtual work of virtual forces q1 through displacements l where for each bar, l = lT .
Column 12 is therefore the product of columns 2 and 11. The summation of the elements of column 12
is the displacement D1 corresponding to release 1. Column 13 repeats this process for D2 corresponding
to release 2.
7. The tabulated information provides the necessary terms for a matrix solution of the problem. We
have
8.66
1.00
Dq
122.42
273.12
6.36
4.24
therefore
f 1 =
0.117
0.0134
1.00
8.66
Lc /EAc
(21.66-a)
Lc /EAc
(21.66-b)
(10)4 Lc
0.0134
0.117
(21.66-c)
EAc /Lc
(21.67)
8. The redundant forces due to the applied loading are

R
f 1 (DQ )
0.0134
(21.68-a)
0.117
EAc /Lc
122.42
273.12
Lc /EAc =
10.66
30.32
(21.68-b)
9. thus R1 = 10.66 kN, R2 = 30.32 kN.

10. The redundant forces due to the temperature drop are R = f 1 (D )
=
0.0134
0.117
EAc /Lc
6.36
4.24
104 Lc =
6.87
4.11
105 EAc
11. Thus with E = 200 kN/mm2 , Ac = 500 mm2 , we have

R1 =
R2 =
Victor Saouma
6.87(105 )(200)(500) = 6.87kN

4.11(105 )(200)(500) = 4.11kN
(21.69-a)
(21.69-b)
2126
Draft
12. Using the redundant forces from each of these analyses, the remainder of the bar forces are computed
by simple equilibrium. The information in Table 21.4 contains the basis for such computations. The bar
force in any bar is the force of column 1 added to that in column 2 multiplied by R1 plus that in column
3 multiplied by R2 . This follows from the fact that columns 2 and 3 are bar forces caused by a force
of unity corresponding to each of the redundants. The results of the calculations are shown in Figure
??-c for the applied loading and ??-d for the temperature drop. The forces caused by the temperature
drop are similar in magnitude to those caused by wind load in this example. Temperature differences,
shrinkage, support settlement, or tolerance errors can cause important effects in statically indeterminate
structures. These stresses are self-limiting, however, in the sense that if they cause yielding or some
ductile deformation failure does not necessarily follow, rather relief from th
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 22
APPROXIMATE FRAME
ANALYSIS
1
Despite the widespread availability of computers, approximate methods of analysis are justified by
1. Inherent assumption made regarding the validity of a linear elastic analysis vis a vis of an ultimate
failure design.
2. Ability of structures to redistribute internal forces.
3. Uncertainties in load and material properties
Vertical loads are treated separately from the horizontal ones.
We use the design sign convention for moments (+ve tension below), and for shear (ccw +ve).
Assume girders to be numbered from left to right.
In all free body diagrams assume positivee forces/moments, and take algeebraic sums.
The key to the approximate analysis method is our ability to sketch the deflected shape of a structure
and identify inflection points.
We begin by considering a uniformly loaded beam and frame. In each case we consider an extreme
end of the restraint: a) free or b) restrained. For the frame a relativly flexible or stiff column would be
analogous to a free or fixed restrain on the beam, Fig. 22.1.
22.1
8
Vertical Loads
With reference to Fig. 22.1, we now consider an intermediary case as shown in Fig. 22.2.
With the location of the inflection points identified, we may now determine all the reactions and
internal forces from statics.
10 If we now consider a multi-bay/multi-storey frame, the girders at each floor are assumed to be continuous beams, and columns are assumed to resist the resulting unbalanced moments from the girders,
we may make the following assumptions
1. Girders at each floor act as continous beams supporting a uniform load.

2. Inflection points are assumed to be at
(a) One tenth the span from both ends of each girder.
(b) Mid-height of the columns
3. Axial forces and deformation in the girder are negligibly small.
222
APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS
Draft
111
000
000
111
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
000
111
111
000
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
2
wL/24
2
wL/12
0.21 L
0.21 L
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Figure 22.1: Uniformly Loaded Beam and Frame with Free or Fixed Beam Restraint
Victor Saouma
22.1 Vertical Loads
223
Draft
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000
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0.5H
0.5H
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000
111
1111
0000
111
1111
000
0000
111
000
000
111
111
000
000
111
111
000
000
111
0.1 L
111
000
000
111
0.1 L
Figure 22.2: Uniformly Loaded Frame, Approximate Location of Inflection Points
Victor Saouma
224
Draft
4. Unbalanced end moments from the girders at each joint is distributed to the columns above and
below the floor.
11 Based on the first assumption, all beams are statically determinate and have a span, Ls equal to 0.8
the original length of the girder, L. (Note that for a rigidly connected member, the inflection point is
at 0.211 L, and at the support for a simply supported beam; hence, depending on the nature of the
connection one could consider those values as upper and lower bounds for the approximate location of
the hinge).
12
End forces are given by
Maximum positive moment at the center of each beam is, Fig. 22.3
Mrgt
lft
Vrgt
Vlft
0.1L
0.1L
0.8L
L
Figure 22.3: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments
M+ =
1
1
wL2s = w (0.8)2 L2 = 0.08wL2
8
8
(22.1)
Maximum negative moment at each end of the girder is given by, Fig. 22.3
w
w
M lef t = M rgt = (0.1L)2 (0.8L)(0.1L) = 0.045wL2
2
2
(22.2)
Girder Shear are obtained from the free body diagram, Fig. 22.4
V lf t =
Victor Saouma
wL
2
V rgt =
wL
2
(22.3)
22.2 Horizontal Loads
225
Draft
Pabove
Vrgti-1
Vlfti
Pbelow
Figure 22.4: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces
Column axial force is obtained by summing all the girder shears to the axial force transmitted by the
column above it. Fig. 22.4
rgt
P dwn = P up + Vi1
Vilf t
(22.4)
Column Moment are obtained by considering the free body diagram of columns Fig. 22.5
rgt
bot
M top = Mabove
Mi1
+ Milf t
M bot = M top
(22.5)
Column Shear Points of inflection are at mid-height, with possible exception when the columns on
the first floor are hinged at the base, Fig. 22.5
V =
M top
h
2
(22.6)
Girder axial forces are assumed to be negligible eventhough the unbalanced column shears above and
below a floor will be resisted by girders at the floor.
22.2
Horizontal Loads
13 Again, we begin by considering a simple frame subjected to a horizontal force, Fig. 22.6. depending
on the boundary conditions, we will have different locations for the inflection points.
14 For the analysis of a multi-bays/multi-storeys frame, we must differentiate between low and high rise
buildings.
Low rise buidlings, where the height is at least samller than the hrizontal dimension, the deflected
shape is characterized by shear deformations.
Victor Saouma
226
Draft
h/2
h/2
Mcolabove
lft
i-1
Mi-1rgt
Vi-1rgt
Vi-1lft
Li-1
Mirgt
Milft
Virgt
Vilft
Mcolbelow
Li
h/2
h/2
Figure 22.5: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments
Victor Saouma
227
Draft
PH
2
PH
2
PH
4
PH
4
H
P
2
P
2
111
000
000
111
111
000
000
111
PH
L
PH
L
L
P
I
111
000
000
111
PH
2L
P
2
PH
4
PH
4
111
000
000
111
P
2
PH
2L
111
000
000
111
111
000
000
111
PH
4
PH
4
Figure 22.6: Horizontal Force Acting on a Frame, Approximate Location of Inflection Points
Victor Saouma
228
Draft
High rise buildings, where the height is several times greater than its least horizontal dimension, the
deflected shape is dominated by overall flexural deformation.
22.2.1
Portal Method
15 Low rise buildings under lateral loads, have predominantly shear deformations. Thus, the approximate
analysis of this type of structure is based on
1. Distribution of horizontal shear forces.

2. Location of inflection points.
16
The portal method is based on the following assumptions

1. Inflection points are located at
(a) Mid-height of all columns above the second floor.
(b) Mid-height of floor columns if rigid support, or at the base if hinged.
(c) At the center of each girder.
2. Total horizontal shear at the mid-height of all columns at any floor level will be distributed among
these columns so that each of the two exterior columns carry half as much horizontal shear as each
interior columns of the frame.
17
Forces are obtained from
Column Shear is obtained by passing a horizontal section through the mid-height of the columns at
each floor and summing the lateral forces above it, then Fig. 22.7
H/2
H/2
Figure 22.7: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear
V ext =
Victor Saouma
F lateral
2No.
of bays
V int = 2V ext
(22.7)
229
Draft
Column Moments at the end of each column is equal to the shear at the column times half the height
of the corresponding column, Fig. 22.7
M top = V
h
2
M bot = M top
(22.8)
Girder Moments is obtained from the columns connected to the girder, Fig. 22.8
h/2
h/2
Mcolabove
lft
i-1
Mi-1rgt
Vi-1rgt
Vi-1lft
Li-1/2
Li-1/2
Mirgt
Milft
Virgt
Vilft
Mcolbelow
Li/2
Li/2
h/2
h/2
Figure 22.8: ***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment
rgt
above
below
Milf t = Mcol
Mcol
+ Mi1
Mirgt = Milf t
(22.9)
Girder Shears Since there is an inflection point at the center of the girder, the girder shear is obtained
by considering the sum of moments about that point, Fig. 22.8
V lf t =
2M
L
V rgt = V lf t
(22.10)
Column Axial Forces are obtained by summing girder shears and the axial force from the column
above, Fig. ??
P = P above + P rgt + P lf t
Victor Saouma
(22.11)
2210
Draft
Pabove
Vrgti-1
Vlfti
Pbelow
Figure 22.9: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force
In either case, you should always use a free body diagram in conjunction with this method, and
never rely on a blind application of the formulae.
18
Example 22-1: Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Draw the shear, and moment diagram for the following frame. Solution:
0.25K/ft
15K
30K
12
9
1
13
0.50
K/ft
10
14
30
14
11
3
20
16
24
Figure 22.10: Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building
Vertical Loads
The analysis should be conducted in conjunction with the free body diagram shown in Fig. 22.11.
Victor Saouma
2211
6.5
0.51
0.8
6.0
13.0
6.5
0.45
0.7
4.5
6.0
7.5
3.6
0.7
0.56
0.93
3.6
13.0
20.2
5.6
3.6
20.2
7.5
5.0
9.0
9.0
4.5
0.56
0.93
0.51
5.6
5.0
4.5
6.5
3.6
0.8
0.64
3.0
3.0
3.75
5.6
0.64
6.5
10.1
4.5
10.1
3.75
2.5
4.5
4.5
2.5
Draft
0.81
0.45
5.6
3.6
0.81
6.5
Figure 22.11: Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
2212
Draft
1. Top Girder Moments

lf t
M12
cnt
M12
rgt
M12
lf t
M13
cnt
M13
rgt
M13
lf t
M14
cnt
M14
rgt
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.045w12 L212 = (0.045)(0.25)(20)2

0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.25)(20)2
lf t
M12
0.045w13 L213 = (0.045)(0.25)(30)2
0.08w13 L213 = (0.08)(0.25)(30)2
lf t
M13
0.045w14 L214 = (0.045)(0.25)(24)2
0.08w14 L214 = (0.08)(0.25)(24)2
lf t
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5 k.ft
8.0 k.ft
4.5 k.ft
10.1 k.ft
18.0 k.ft
10.1 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
11.5 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
0.045w9 L29 = (0.045)(0.5)(20)2

0.08w9 L29 = (0.08)(0.5)(20)2
M9lf t
0.045w10 L210 = (0.045)(0.5)(30)2
0.08w10 L210 = (0.08)(0.5)(30)2
lf t
M11
0.045w12 L212 = (0.045)(0.5)(24)2
0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.5)(24)2
lf t
M12
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
9.0 k.ft
16.0 k.ft
9.0 k.ft
20.3 k.ft
36.0 k.ft
20.3 k.ft
13.0 k.ft
23.0 k.ft
13.0 k.ft
2. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lf t
M9cnt
M9rgt
lf t
M10
cnt
M10
rgt
M10
lf t
M11
cnt
M11
rgt
M11
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
3. Top Column Moments

M5top
M5bot
M6top
M6bot
M7top
M7bot
M8top
M8bot
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
lf t
+M12
M5top
rgt
lf t
M12
+ M13
= (4.5) + (10.1)
top
M6
rgt
lf t
M13
+ M14
= (10.1) + (6.5)
M7top
rgt
M14
= (6.5)
M8top
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5
4.5
5.6
5.6
3.6
3.6
6.5
6.5
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
4. Bottom Column Moments

M1top
M1bot
M2top
M2bot
M3top
M3bot
M4top
M4bot
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
+M5bot + M9lf t = 4.5 9.0

M1top
lf t
+M6bot M9rgt + M10
= 5.6 (9.0) + (20.3)
top
M2
rgt
lf t
+M7bot M10
+ M11
= 3.6 (20.3) + (13.0)
top
M3
rgt
+M8bot M11
= 6.5 (13.0)
top
M4
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5
4.5
5.6
5.6
3.6
3.6
6.5
6.5
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
5. Top Girder Shear

lf t
V12
rgt
V12
lf t
V13
rgt
V13
lf t
V14
rgt
V14
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
=
=
w12 L12
2
lf t
V12
w13 L13
2
lf t
V13
w14 L14
2
lf t
V14
(0.25)(20)
2
(0.25)(30)
2
(0.25)(24)
2
=
=
=
=
=
=
2.5 k
2.5 k
3.75 k
3.75 k
3.0 k
3.0 k
2213
Draft
0.25K/ft
12
13
0.50
10
20
30
+8.0k
+18.0k
-4.5k
+16.0k
-9.0
-20.2
+4.5k
+5.6k
-4.5k
+4.5k
+5.6k
-5.6k
-5.6
16
24
+11.5k
-6.5k
+23.0
+32.0k
k
14
11
-10.1k -10.1k -6.5
-9.0k
-4.5k
-4.5k
14
K/ft
k
-20.2k -13.0
+3.6k
-13.0k
+6.5k
-3.6k
-6.5k
k
+3.6
+6.5
k
-3.6k
-6.5k
Figure 22.12: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
2214
Draft
6. Bottom Girder Shear

V9lf t
V9rgt
lf t
V10
rgt
V10
lf t
V11
rgt
V11
=
=
=
=
=
=
7. Column Shears
V5
V6
V7
V8
V1
V2
V3
V4
w9 L9
= (0.5)(20)
2
2
lf t
V9
w10 L10
= (0.5)(30)
2
2
lf t
V10
w11 L11
= (0.5)(24)
2
2
lf t
V11
M5top
H5
2
M6top
H6
2
M7top
H7
2
M8top
H8
2
M1top
H1
2
M2top
H2
2
M3top
H3
2
M4top
H4
2
=
=
=
=
=
=
5.00
5.00
7.50
7.50
6.00
6.00
4.5
= 0.64 k
5.6
= 0.80 k
3.6
0.52 k
6.5
0.93 k
=
=
14
2
14
2
14
2
14
2
4.5
= 0.56 k
5.6
= 0.70 k
3.6
0.46 k
6.5
0.81 k
=
=
16
2
16
2
16
2
16
2
k
k
k
k
k
k
8. Top Column Axial Forces

P5
P6
P7
P8
=
=
=
=
lf t
V12
rgt
lf t
V12
+ V13
= (2.50) + 3.75
rgt
lf t
V13
+ V14
= (3.75) + 3.00
rgt
V14
= 2.50 k
= 6.25 k
= 6.75 k
= 3.00 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces

P1
P2
P3
P4
=
=
=
=
P5 + V9lf t = 2.50 + 5.0

rgt
P6 V10
+ V9lf t = 6.25 (5.00) + 7.50
rgt
lf t
P7 V11
+ V10
= 6.75 (7.50) + 6.0
rgt
P8 V11 = 3.00 (6.00)
= 7.5 k
= 18.75 k
= 20.25 k
= 9.00 k
Horizontal Loads, Portal Method

1. Column Shears
V5
V6
V7
V8
V1
V2
V3
V4
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
15
(2)(3)
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5)
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5)
V5
15+30
(2)(3)
2(V1 ) = (2)(7.5)
2(V1 ) = (2)(2.5)
V1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
2.5 k
5k
5k
2.5 k
7.5 k
15 k
15 k
7.5 k
2215
Draft
+2.5K
+3.75K
+3.0K
-2.5K
+7.5
+5.0K
-3.75K
+6.0
-5.0K
-0.64K
-0.56K
-0.80K
-0.70K
-3.0K
-6.0K
-7.5K
+0.51K
+0.45K
+0.93K
+0.81K
Figure 22.13: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
2216
Draft
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Height
14
16
Span
Load
Load
APROXVER.XLS
Victor E. Saouma
L1
20
0.25
0.5
L2
L3
30
24
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Cnt Rgt
Lft Cnr Rgt
Lft Cnt Rgt
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-6.5 11.5 -6.5 AAAA
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Figure 22.14: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format
Victor Saouma
Victor Saouma
L1
20
0.25
0.5
H
L2
30
0.25
0.5
APROXVER.XLS
M
L3
24
0.25
0.5
Victor E. Saouma
=-0.045*D5*D3^2 =0.08*D5*D3*D3 =+D13
=-F13+I13+G12
=-G14
=-0.045*I5*I3^2 =0.08*I5*I3*I3 =+I13
=-K13+N13+L12
=-L14
=-0.045*N5*N3^2 =0.08*N5*N3*N3 =+N13
=-P13+Q12
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=+C28+D22
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AAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
=2*C11/A4
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA=2*Q11/A4
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
SHEAR
Bay 1
Col
=+D13+C12
=-C14
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAA
A AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AA AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
Bay 2
Bay 3
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft
Cnt
Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALft
Cnr
Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft
Cnt
Rgt
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
=0.08*D4*D3*D3
=+D10
=-0.045*I4*I3^2
=0.08*I4*I3*I3
=+I10
=-0.045*N4*N3^2
=0.08*N4*N3*N3
=N10
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A =-0.045*D4*D3^2
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
=+D10
=-F10+I10
=-K10+N10
=-P10
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA =-G11
AAAA
A =-L11
=-C11
=-Q11
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Col
29
30
Span
Load
Load
24
25
26
27
28
22
23
16
17
18
19
20
21
13
14
15
A
1
2
3 Height
4 14
5 16
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads
Draft

2217
Figure 22.15: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet
35
35
30
60
120
60
77.5
35
120
7.5
7.5
35
77.5
77.5
17.5
77.5
2.5
17.5
5
77.5
2.5
2.5
17.5
60
15
15
120
15
2.5
77.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
15
17.5
17.5
Draft
17.5
17.5
2218
15
120
7.5
7.5
60
Figure 22.16: Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Lateral Loads
Victor Saouma
2219
Draft
2. Top Column Moments

M5top
M5bot
M6top
M6bot
M7top
M7bot
M8top
M8bot
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
V1 H5
= (2.5)(14)
2
2
top
M5
V6 H6
= (5)(14)
2
2
top
M6
up
V7 H7
= (5)(14)
2
2
M7top
V8up H8
= (2.5)(14)
2
2
top
M8
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
17.5
17.5
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
17.5
17.5
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
3. Bottom Column Moments

M1top
M1bot
=
=
M2top
M2bot
=
=
M3top
M3bot
=
=
M4top
M4bot
=
=
V1dwn H1
2
M1top
V2dwn H2
2
M2top
V3dwn H3
2
M3top
V4dwn H4
2
M4top
(7.5)(16)
2
=
=
60 k.ft
60 k.ft
(15)(16)
2
=
=
120 k.ft
120 k.ft
(15)(16)
2
=
=
120 k.ft
120 k.ft
(7.5)(16)
2
=
=
60 k.ft
60 k.ft
4. Top Girder Moments

lf t
M12
rgt
M12
lf t
M13
rgt
M13
lf t
M14
rgt
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
M5top
lf t
M12
rgt
M12 + M6top = 17.5 + 35
lf t
M13
rgt
M13
+ M7top = 17.5 + 35
lf t
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
5. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lf t
M9rgt
lf t
M10
rgt
M10
lf t
M11
rgt
M11
=
=
=
=
=
=
M1top M5bot = 60 (17.5)

M9lf t
M9rgt + M2top M6bot = 77.5 + 120 (35)
lf t
M10
rgt
M10 + M3top M7bot = 77.5 + 120 (35)
lf t
M11
=
77.5 k.ft
= 77.5 k.ft
=
77.5 k.ft
= 77.5 k.ft
=
77.5 k.ft
= 77.5 k.ft
6. Top Girder Shear

2M lf t
lf t
V12
rgt
V12
=
=
12
L12
= (2)(17.5)
20
lf t
+V12
=
=
1.75 k
1.75 k
lf t
V13
rgt
V13
=
=
13
L13
= (2)(17.5)
30
lf t
+V13
=
=
1.17 k
1.17 k
lf t
V14
rgt
V14
=
=
14
L14
= (2)(17.5)
24
lf t
+V14
=
=
1.46 k
1.46 k
V9lf t
V9rgt
=
=
L12
= (2)(77.5)
20
9
+V9lf t
=
=
7.75 k
7.75 k
lf t
V10
rgt
V10
=
=
10
L10
= (2)(77.5)
30
lf t
+V10
=
=
5.17 k
5.17 k
lf t
V11
rgt
V11
=
=
11
L11
= (2)(77.5)
24
lf t
+V11
=
=
6.46 k
6.46 k
2M lf t
2M lf t
7. Bottom Girder Shear
Victor Saouma
2M lf t
2M lf t
2M lf t
2220
Draft
15K
12
30K
13
10
20
+17.5K
-35K
+60K
-120K
+17.5K
-120K
+77.5
+77.5
+77.5
-77.5K
-17.5K
-60K
+17.5K
-17.5K
K
16
24
-35K
+120K
-60K
+17.5K
+35K
+35K
14
11
30
-17.5K
+120K
+60K
+17.5K
14
-17.5K
-17.5K
-77.5K
-77.5K
Figure 22.17: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads
Victor Saouma
2221
Draft
8. Top Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)

P5
P6
P7
P8
=
=
=
=
lf t
V12
rgt
lf t
+V12
V13
= 1.75 (1.17)
rgt
lf t
+V13
V14
= 1.17 (1.46)
rgt
V14
= 1.46 k
= (1.75) k
= 0.58 k
= 0.29 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)

P1
P2
P3
P4
=
=
=
=
P5 + V9lf t = 1.75 (7.75)

rgt
P6 + V10
+ V9lf t = 0.58 7.75 (5.17)
rgt
lf t
P7 + V11 + V10
= 0.29 5.17 (6.46)
rgt
P8 + V11 = 1.46 6.46
=
=
=
=
9.5 k
3.16 k
1.58 k
7.66 k
Design Parameters On the basis of the two approximate analyses, vertical and lateral load, we now
seek the design parameters for the frame, Table 22.2.
Mem.
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Vert.
Hor.
4.50
7.50
0.56
5.60
18.75
0.70
3.60
20.25
0.45
6.50
9.00
0.81
4.50
2.50
0.64
5.60
6.25
0.80
3.60
6.75
0.51
6.50
3.00
0.93
60.00
9.50
7.50
120.00
15.83
15.00
120.00
14.25
15.00
60.00
7.92
7.50
17.50
1.75
2.50
35.00
2.92
5.00
35.00
2.63
5.00
17.50
1.46
2.50
Design
Values
64.50
17.00
8.06
125.60
34.58
15.70
123.60
34.50
15.45
66.50
16.92
8.31
22.00
4.25
3.14
40.60
9.17
5.80
38.60
9.38
5.51
24.00
4.46
3.43
Table 22.1: Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Victor Saouma
2222
Draft
Portal Method
PORTAL.XLS
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Victor E. Saouma
PORTAL METHOD
# of Bays
# of Storeys
2
Force Shear
H Lat. Tot Ext Int
H1
14 15 15 2.5
H2
16 30 45 7.5 15
L1
20
L2
L3
30
24
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA 17.5 -17.5 AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA 17.5 -17.5AAAA
AAAAAAAA
A 17.5 -17.5 AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
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AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
17.5 AAAA
35.0
35.0
17.5
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
-17.5 AAAA
-35.0
-35.0
-17.5
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
A
AAAA
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AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
77.5 -77.5 AAAA
77.5 -77.5AAAA
77.5 -77.5AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
60.0 AAAA
120.0
120.0
60.0
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
-60.0 AAAA
-120.0
-120.0
-60.0
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
SHEAR
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Rgt
Lft Rgt
Lft Rgt
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
-1.75
-1.17
-1.17
-1.46
-1.46
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
A -1.75
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
2.50 AAAA
5.00
5.00
2.50
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
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Figure 22.18: Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format
Victor Saouma
2223
Draft
Portal Method
PORTAL.XLS
A
1
PORTAL METHOD
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Victor E. Saouma
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5 # of Storeys
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Figure 22.19: Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet
Victor Saouma
2224
Draft
Mem.
10
11
12
13
14
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
Vert.
Hor.
9.00
16.00
5.00
20.20
36.00
7.50
13.0
23.00
6.00
4.50
8.00
2.50
10.10
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3.75
6.50
11.50
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77.50
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5.17
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6.46
17.50
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1.75
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1.17
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1.46
Design
Values
86.50
16.00
12.75
97.70
36.00
12.67
90.50
23.00
12.46
22.00
8.00
4.25
27.60
18.00
4.92
24.00
11.50
4.46
Table 22.2: Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 23
KINEMATIC
INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS
METHOD
23.1
Introduction
23.1.1
Stiffness vs Flexibility
There are two classes of structural analysis methods, Table 23.1:
Flexibility: where the primary unknown is a force, where equations of equilibrium are the starting
point, static indeterminancy occurs if there are more unknowns than equations, and displacements
of the entire structure (usually from virtual work) are used to write an equation of compatibility
of displacements in order to solve for the redundant forces.
Stiffness: method is the counterpart of the flexibility one. Primary unknowns are displacements, and
we start from expressions for the forces written in terms of the displacements (at the element
level) and then apply the equations of equilibrium. The structure is considered to be kinematically
indeterminate to the nth degree where n is the total number of independent displacements. From
the displacements, we then compute the internal forces.
Primary Variable (d.o.f.)

Indeterminancy
Force-Displacement
Governing Relations
Methods of analysis
Flexibility
Forces
Static
Displacement(Force)/Structure
Compatibility of displacement
Consistent Deformation
Stiffness
Displacements
Kinematic
Force(Displacement)/Element
Equilibrium
Slope Deflection; Moment Distribution
Table 23.1: Stiffness vs Flexibility Methods

In the flexibility method, we started by releasing as many redundant forces as possible in order to render
the structure statically determinate, and this made it quite flexible. We then applied an appropriate set
of forces such that kinematic constraints were satisifed.
In the stiffness method, we follow a different approach, we stiffen the structure by constraining all the
displacements, hence making it kinematically determinate, and then we will release all the constraints
in such a way to satisfy equilibrium.
3
232
Draft
KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD
In the slope deflection method, all constraints are released simultaneously, thus resulting in a linear
system of n equations with n unknowns. In the Moment Distribution method, we release the constraints
one at a time and essentially solve for the system of n equations iteratively.
4
23.1.2
Sign Convention
The sign convention in the stiffness method is different than the one previously adopted in structural
analysis/design, Fig. 26.3.
In the stiffness method the sign convention adopted is consistent with the prevailing coordinate system.
Hence, we define a positive moment as one which is counter-clockwise at the end of the element, Fig.
26.3.
Figure 23.1: Sign Convention, Design and Analysis
23.2
7
Degrees of Freedom
A degree of freedom (d.o.f.) is an independent generalized nodal displacement of a node.
The displacements must be linearly independent and thus not related to each other. For example, a
roller support on an inclined plane would have three displacements (rotation , and two translations u
and v), however since the two displacements are kinematically constrained, we only have two independent
displacements, Fig. 26.5.
Figure 23.2: Independent Displacements

We note that we have been referring to generalized displacements, because we want this term to include
translations as well as rotations. Depending on the type of structure, there may be none, one or more
than one such displacement.
10
The types of degrees of freedom for various types of structures are shown in Table 26.4
Victor Saouma
23.3 Kinematic Relations
Draft
233
Type
Node 1
1 Dimensional
Fy1 , Mz2
{p}
Node 2
Fy3 , Mz4
Beam
{}
v1 , 2
2 Dimensional
Fx1
{p}
v3 , 4
Fx2
Truss
{}
{p}
u1
Fx1 , Fy2 , Mz3
u2
Fx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
Frame
{}
u1 , v2 , 3
3 Dimensional
Fx1 ,
{p}
u4 , v5 , 6
Fx2
Truss
{}
{p}
u1 ,
Fx1 , Fy2 , Fy3 ,
Tx4 My5 , Mz6
u2
Fx7 , Fy8 , Fy9 ,
Tx10 My11 , Mz12
{}
u1 , v2 , w3 ,
4 , 5 6
u7 , v8 , w9 ,
10 , 11 12
Frame
Table 23.2: Degrees of Freedom of Different Structure Types Systems

11 Fig. 26.4 also shows the geometric (upper left) and elastic material (upper right) properties associated
with each type of element.
23.2.1
12
Methods of Analysis
There are three methods for the stiffness based analysis of a structure
Slope Deflection: (Mohr, 1892) Which results in a system of n linear equations with n unknowns,
where n is the degree of kinematic indeterminancy (i.e. total number of independent displacements/rotation).
Moment Distribution: (Cross, 1930) which is an iterative method to solve for the n displacements
and corresponding internal forces in flexural structures.
Direct Stiffness method: (
1960) which is a formal statement of the stiffness method and cast in
matrix form is by far the most powerful method of structural analysis.
The first two methods lend themselves to hand calculation, and the third to a computer based analysis.
23.3
Kinematic Relations
23.3.1
Force-Displacement Relations
13 Whereas in the flexibility method we sought to obtain a displacement in terms of the forces (through
virtual work) for an entire structure, our starting point in the stiffness method is to develop a set of
relationship for the force in terms of the displacements for a single element.

V1
v1
M1
1

=
(23.1)
V2
v2

M2
2

Victor Saouma
234
Draft
Figure 23.3: Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements
Victor Saouma
235
Draft
14 We start from the differential equation of a beam, Fig. 23.4 in which we have all positive known
displacements, we have from strength of materials
1
M2
V2
V1
M1
v2
v1
2
1
L
Figure 23.4: Flexural Problem Formulation
d2 v
= M1 V1 x + m(x)
(23.2)
dx2
where m(x) is the moment applied due to the applied load only. It is positive when counterclockwise.
M = EI
15
Integrating twice
where f (x) =
16
EIv
EIv
m(x)dx, and g(x) =
f (x)dx.
= 1
= v1
= 2
= v2
EI2
EIv2
=
=
where q =
L
0
=
=
EI1
EIv1
(23.5)
M1 L 12 V1 L2 + f (L) EI1
1
1
2
3
2 M1 L 6 V1 L + g(L) EI1 L EIv1
(23.6)
M1 V1 L + m(L) + M2 = 0
(23.7)
p(x)dx, thus
V1 =
1
(M1 + M2 )
+ m(L)
L
L
V2 = (V1 + q)
(23.8)
Substituting V1 into the expressions for 2 and v2 in Eq. 23.6 and rearranging
M1 M 2
2M1 M2
20
C1
C2
Since equilibrium of forces and moments must be satisfied, we have:

V 1 + q + V2 = 0
19
(23.4)
Applying the boundary conditions at x = L and combining with the expressions for C1 and C2
v
v
18
(23.3)
Applying the boundary conditions at x = 0

v
v
17
1
M1 x V1 x2 + f (x) + C1
2
1
1
2
M1 x V1 x3 + g(x) + C1 x + C2
2
6
=
=
2EIz
L 1
6EIz
L 1
2EIz
L 2
6EIz
L2 v1
+ m(L) L2 f (L)
z
6EI
L2 v2 + m(L)
6
L2 g(L)
(23.9)
Solving those two equations, we obtain:
Victor Saouma
236
Draft
M1
2EIz
6EIz
(21 + 2 )
(v2 v1 ) + M1F
L
L2
II
M2
(23.10)
2EIz
6EIz
(1 + 22 )
(v2 v1 ) + M2F
L
L2
(23.11)
II
where
M1F
M2F
2
[Lf (L) 3g(L)]
L2
1
2 L2 m(L) 4Lf (L) + 6g(L)
L
(23.12-a)
(23.12-b)
M1F and M2F are the fixed end moments for 1 = 2 = 0 and v1 = v2 = 0, that is fixed end moments.
They can be obtained either from the analysis of a fixed end beam, or more readily from the preceding
two equations.
21 In Eq. 23.10 and 23.11 we observe that the moments developed at the end of a member are caused
by: I) end rotation and displacements; and II) fixed end members.
22
Finally, we can substitute those expressions in Eq. 23.8

V1
6EIz
12EIz
(1 + 2 )
(v2 v1 ) + V1F
L2
L3
II
V2
(23.13)
6EIz
12EIz
(1 + 2 ) +
(v2 v1 ) + V2F
L2
L3
(23.14)
II
where
23
V1F
V2F
6
[Lf (L) 2g(L)]
L3
6
3 [Lf (L) 2g(L)] + q
L
(23.15-a)
(23.15-b)
The relationships just derived enable us now to determine the stiffness matrix of a beam element.
V1
M1
V2
M2
v1
z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz
M
1
L2
12EIz
V2
L3
6EIz
M
2
L2
1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L
v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2
2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L
v1
v2
(23.16)
ke
23.3.2
Fixed End Actions
24 As mentioned above, the end actions developed in a member involve the end displacements, rotations,
and the in-span loads. In-spans loads exhibit themselves in the form of fixed-end forces.
25 The fixed-end actions can be determined from the equations derived above, or by analyzing a fixed-end
beam under the applied loads.
26
Note that in both cases, the load has to be assumed positive, i.e. pointing up for a beam.
27 The equations derived for calculating the fixed-end actions can be summarized as follows. We recall
that, with the x axis directed to the right, positive loads and shear forces act upward and positive
Victor Saouma
237
Draft
moments are counterclockwise. To calculate the fixed end actions the only thing we need is an expression
for the moment of the applied loads (without the end reactions) in the analysis sign convention. Thus
with
m(x)
moment due to the applied loads at section x
(23.17-a)
f (x)
m(x)dx
(23.17-b)
g(x)
f (x)dx
(23.17-c)
p(x)dx = total load on the span
(23.17-d)
and
23.3.2.1
28
M1F
M2F
V1F
V2F
2
[Lf (L) 3g(L)]
L2
1
2 L2 m(L) 4Lf (L) + 6g(L)
L
6
[Lf (L) 2g(L)]
L3
6
3 [Lf (L) 2g(L)] q
L
(23.18)
(23.19)
(23.20)
(23.21)
Uniformly Distributed Loads
For a uniformly distributed load w over the entire span,

1
1
1
m(x) = wx2 ; f (x) = wx3 ; g(x) = wx4 ; q = wL
2
6
24
29
(23.22)
Substituting
23.3.2.2
M1F
M2F
V1F
V2F
2
1
1
2
L wL3 3 wL4
= wL
12
L2
6
24
1
1
1
1
2 L2 wL2 4L wL3 + 6 wL4
L
2
6
24
1
1
6
L wL3 2 wL4
= wL
2
L3
6
24
1
1
6
wL = wL
3 L wL3 2 wL4
2
L
6
24
(23.23-a)
=
wL2
12
(23.23-b)
(23.23-c)
(23.23-d)
Concentrated Loads
30 For a concentrated load we can use the unit step function to find m(x). For a concentrated load P
acting at a from the left-hand end with b = L a,
m(x) = P (x a)Ha
f (x) = 12 P (x a)2 Ha
g(x) = 16 P (x a)3 Ha
gives
= P b
= 12 P b2
= 16 P b3
m(L)
f (L)
g(L)
(23.24)
where we define Ha = 0 if x < a, and Ha = 1 if x a.

31
and
q
M1F
=
=
Victor Saouma
P
1
2
L P b2
2
L
2
(23.25-a)
1
3 P b3
6
== PLb2 a
(23.25-b)
238
Draft
M2F
=
=
32
V1F
V2F
1
1
L2 (P b) 4L P b2
L2
2
1
+ 6 P b3
6
Pb 2
L 2Lb + b2
12
P ba2
L2
(23.25-c)
(23.25-d)
2
1 2
1 3
P b2
6
P
b
P
b
L
(3L 2b) = PLb3 (3a + b)

L3
2
6
L3
2
1
1
6
L P b2 2 P b3
+ P = PLa3 (a + 3b)
L3
2
6
(23.25-e)
(23.25-f)
If the load is applied at midspan (a = B = L/2), then the previous equation reduces to
M1F
M2F
V1F
V2F
PL
8
PL
8
P
2
P
(23.26)
(23.27)
(23.28)
(23.29)
23.4
Slope Deflection; Direct Solution
23.4.1
Slope Deflection Equations
33 In Eq. 23.10 and 23.11 if we let = v2 v1 (relative displacement), = /L (rotation of the chord
of the member), and K = I/L (stiffness factor) then the end equations are:
34
M1
2EK(21 + 2 3) + M1F
(23.30)
M2
2EK(1 + 22 3) + M2F
(23.31)
Note that will be positive if counterclockwise, negative otherwise.
From Eq. 23.30 and 23.31, we note that if a node has a displacement , then both moments in the
adjacent element will have the same sign. However, the moments in elements on each side of the node
will have different sign.
35
23.4.2
Procedure
36 To illustrate the general procedure, we consider the two span beam in Fig. 23.5 under the applied
load, we will have three rotations 1 , 2 , and 3 (i.e. three degrees of freedom) at the supports. Separating
the spans from the supports, we can write the following equilibrium equations for each support
M12
(23.32-a)
M21 + M23
M32
=
=
0
0
(23.32-b)
(23.32-c)
37 The three equilibrium equations in turn can be expressed in terms of the three unknown rotations,
thus we can analyze this structure (note that in the slope deflection this will always be the case).
38
Using equations 23.30 and 23.31 we obtain

M21
=
=
F
2EK12 (21 + 2 ) + M12
F
2EK12 (1 + 22 ) + M21
(23.33-a)
(23.33-b)
M23
M32
=
=
2EK23 (22 + 3 )
2EK23 (2 + 23 )
(23.33-c)
(23.33-d)
M12
Victor Saouma
23.4 Slope Deflection; Direct Solution
Draft
239
111
000
111
000
111
000
000
111
111
000
111
000
L1
P
M 12
M21
M23
M 32
Figure 23.5: Illustrative Example for the Slope Deflection Method
39
Substituting into the equations of equilibrium, we obtain
2
K12
0
MF
1
0
1
2EK1212
F
M21
2(K12 + K23 ) K23
2
=

2E
1
2
3
0
(23.34)
Stiffness Matrix
Where the fixed end moment can be separately determined.
40 Once the rotations are determined, we can then determine the moments from the slope deflection
equation Eq. 23.30.
41 The computational requirements of this method are far less than the one involved in the flexibility
method (or method of consistent deformation).
23.4.3
42
Algorithm
Application of the slope deflection method requires the following steps:

1. Sketch the deflected shape.
2. Identify all the unknown support degrees of freedom (rotations and deflections).
3. Write the equilibrium equations at all the supports in terms of the end moments.
4. Express the end moments in terms of the support rotations, deflections and fixed end moments.
5. Substitute the expressions obtained in the previous step in the equilibrium equations.
6. Solve the equilibrium equations to determine the unknown support rotation and/or deflections.
7. Use the slope deflection equations to determine the end moments.
8. Draw the moment diagram, careful about the difference in sign convention between the slope
deflection moments and the moment diagram.
Victor Saouma
2310
Draft
23.4.4
Examples
Example 23-1: Propped Cantilever Beam, (Arbabi 1991)

Find the end moments for the beam of Fig. 23.6
20 kN
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1111
0000
1111
0000
10 m
5m
Figure 23.6: Slope Deflection; Propped Cantilever Beam

Solution:
1. The beam is kinematically indeterminate to the third degree (2 , 3 , 3 ), however by replacing the
the overhang by a fixed end moment equal to 100 kN.m at support 2, we reduce the degree of kinematic
indeterminancy to one (2 ).
2. The equilbrium relation is
(23.35)
M21 100 = 0
3. The members end moments in terms of the rotations are (Eq. 23.30 and 23.31)
M12
M21
2
EI2
10
4
EI2
2EK12 (1 + 22 ) =
10
2EK12 (21 + 2 ) =
(23.36-a)
(23.36-b)
4. Substituting into the equilibrium equations

2 =
or
M12 =
10
250
M21 =
4EI
EI
(23.37)
10
2
2
(2)EI(50)
EI2 =
EI
M21 =
= 50 kN.m
10
10
4EI
(10)EI
(23.38)
Example 23-2: Two-Span Beam, Slope Deflection, (Arbabi 1991)

Draw the moment diagram for the two span beam shown in Fig. 23.8 Solution:
1. The unknowns are 1 , 2 , and 3
2. The equilibrium relations are
M21 + M23
M32
Victor Saouma
=
=
0
0
(23.39-a)
(23.39-b)
2311
Draft
5 kips
2 kip/ft
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
11
00
11
00
111
000
111
000
20
15
15
0
40.97
79.52
Figure 23.7: Two-Span Beam, Slope Deflection

3. The fixed end moments are given by Eq. 23.23-b and 23.26
(2)(20)2
wL2
=
= 66.67 k.ft
12
12
(5)(30)
PL
=
= 18.75 k.ft
=
8
8
F
M12
F
M21
=
(23.40-a)
F
M23
F
M32
(23.40-b)
M12
M21
M23
=
=
M32
=
=
2EI
EI
F
2 + 66.67
2 + M12
=
L1
10
4EI
EI
F
F
2 66.67
2EK12 (22 ) + M21
=
2 + M21
=
L1
5
2EI
F
F
2EK23 (22 + 3 ) + M23
=
(22 + 3 ) + M23
L2
EI
EI
2 +
3 + 18.75
7.5
15
2EI
F
F
2EK23 (2 + 23 ) + M32
=
(2 + 23 ) + M32
L2
EI
EI
2 +
3 18.75
15
7.5
F
2EK12 (2 ) + M12
=
(23.41-a)
(23.41-b)
(23.41-c)
(23.41-d)
(23.41-e)

EI
EI
2 66.67 +
2 +
5
7.5
EI
2 +
15
EI
3 + 18.75
15
EI
3 18.75
7.5
(23.42-a)
(23.42-b)
or
EI
5
1
1
2
2
3
718.8
281.25
(23.43)
Stiffness Matrix
Victor Saouma
2312
Draft
which will give EI2 = 128.48 and EI3 = 76.38

6. Substituting for the moments
M12
M21
M23
M32
12.85 + 66.67 = 79.52 k.ft

128.48
66.67 = 40.97 k.ft
5
128.48 76.38
+
+ 18.75 = 40.97 k.ft
7.5
15
128.48 76.38
+
18.75 = 0 k.ft
15
7.5
(23.44-a)
(23.44-b)
(23.44-c)
(23.44-d)
43 The final moment diagram is also shown in Fig. 23.8. We note that the midspan moment has to be
separately computed from the equations of equilibrium in order to complete the diagram.
Example 23-3: Two-Span Beam, Slope Deflection, Initial Deflection, (Arbabi 1991)
Determine the end moments for the previous problem if the middle support settles by 6 inches, Fig.
23.8.
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
6"
20
15
15
Figure 23.8: Two Span Beam, Slope Deflection, Moment Diagram

Solution:
1. Since we are performing a linear elastic analysis, we can separately analyze the beam for support
settlement, and then add then add the moments to those due to the applied loads.
2. The unknowns are 1 , 2 , and 3
M21 + M23
(23.45-a)
M32
(23.45-b)
Victor Saouma
EI
3EI
2 +
=
L12
10
400
EI
3EI
2 +
22 3
=
L12
5
400
EI
2 +
22 + 3 3
=
L23
7.5
EI
2 +
2 + 23 3
=
L23
15
M12
2EK12 2 3
(23.46-a)
M21
2EK12
(23.46-b)
M23
2EK23
M32
2EK23
EI
3 +
15
EI
3 +
7.5
EI
300
EI
300
(23.46-c)
(23.46-d)
2313
Draft

EI
3EI
EI
EI
EI2 +
+
3 +
5
400
15
300
EI
5EI
EI
2 +
3 +
15
7.5
300
or
EI
100
20
20
40
2
3
= EI
(23.47-a)
(23.47-b)
13
4
1
(23.48)
Stiffness Matrix
1+ 5.5
5.5
180
= 0.031 radians and 3 = 40 9 = 0.0097 radians

which will give 2 =
6. Thus the additional moments due to the settlement are
M12
M21
M23
M32
3EI
EI
(0.031) +
= 0.0044EI
10
400
3EI
EI
(0.031) +
= 0.0013EI
5
400
EI
EI
EI
(0.031) +
(0.0097) +
= 0.0015EI
7.5
15
300
EI
EI
EI
2 +
(0.0097) +
= 0.
15
7.5
300
(23.49-a)
(23.49-b)
(23.49-c)
(23.49-d)
Example 23-4: dagger Frames, Slope Deflection, (Arbabi 1991)

Determine the end moments for the frame shown in Fig. 23.9.
2
2
3
2
3 kips/ft
5
10 kips
5
4
1
20
Figure 23.9: Frame Analysis by the Slope Deflection Method

Solution:
1. The effect of the 35 cantilever can be included by replacing it with its end moment.
M3 = wL
Victor Saouma
L
= (3)(6)(3) = 54 k.ft
2
(23.50)
2314
Draft
2. The unknowns displacements and rotations are

2 and 2 at joint 2.
3 and 4 at joints 3 and 4.
We observe that due to the lack of symmetry, there will be a lateral displacement in the frame, and
neglecting axial deformations, 2 = 3 .
M21 + M23
M32 + M34
M43
V12 + V43 10
= 0
= 54
(23.51-a)
(23.51-b)
= 0
= 0
(23.51-c)
(23.51-d)
Thus we have four unknown displacements and four equations. However, the last two equations are in
terms of the shear forces, and we need to have them in term of the end moments, this can be achieved
through the following equilibrium relations
V12
V43
M12 + M21 + 50
L12
M34 + M43
L34
(23.52-a)
(23.52-b)
Hence, all four equations are now in terms of the moments.

4. The fixed end moments fro member 23 are
F
M21
F
M23
(10)(10)
PL
=
= 12.5 k.ft
8
8
(3)(20)2
wL2
=
= 100 k.ft
12
12
(23.53-a)
(23.53-b)
2
F
+ M12
= 0.2EI(2 0.32 ) + 12.5
L12
2
F
22 3
+ M21
= 0.2EI(22 0.32 ) 12.5
L21
M12
2EK12 2 3
(23.54-a)
M21
2EK12
(23.54-b)
M23
F
2EK23 (22 + 3 ) + M23
= 0.1EI(22 + 3 ) + 100.
(23.54-c)
= 0.1EI(2 + 23 ) 100.
(23.54-d)
F
M32
M32
2EK32 (2 + 23 ) +
M34
2EK34 23 + 4
= 0.2EI(23 + 4 0.32 )
(23.54-e)
M43
2EK43
= 0.2EI(3 + 24 0.32 )
(23.54-f)
32
L34
32
3 + 24
L34
6. Substituting into the equilibrium equations and dividing by EI

62 + 3 0.62
2 + 63 + 24 0.62
3 + 24 0.32
875
EI
460
EI
0
(23.55-a)
(23.55-b)
(23.55-c)
and the last equilibrium equation is obtained by substituting V12 and V43 and multiplying by 10/EI:
2 + 3 + 4 0.42 =
Victor Saouma
83.3
EI
(23.56)
23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution
Draft
or
6 1 0 0.6
2
1 6 2 0.6 3
EI
0 1 2 0.3 4
2
1 1 1 0.4
2315
875
1
460
=
0
EI
83.3
(23.57)
Stiffness Matrix
which will give
3
4
294.8
1
68.4
=
240.6
EI
1, 375.7
(23.58)
7. Substitution into the slope deflection equations gives the end-moments
M12
21
M23
M32
M34
M43
36.0
47.88
47.88
=
115.80
61.78
23.5
Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution
23.5.1
Background
(23.59)
43 The moment distribution is essentially a variation of the slope deflection method, however rather than
solving a system of n linear equations directly, the solution is achieved iteratively through a successive
series of operations.
44 The method starts by locking all the joints, and then unlock each joint in succession, the internal
moments are then distributed and balanced until all the joints have rotated to their final (or nearly
final) position.
45
In order to better understand the method, some key terms must first be defined.
23.5.1.1
Sign Convention
46 The sign convention is the same as the one adopted for the slope deflection method, counter-clockwise
moment atelements end is positive.
23.5.1.2
Fixed-End Moments
47 Again fixed end moments are the same set of forces defined in the slope deflection method for a beam
which is rigidly connected at both ends.
48 Consistent with the sign convention, the fixed end moments are the moments caused by the applied
load at the end of the beam (assuming it is rigidly connected).
23.5.1.3
Stiffness Factor
We define the stiffness factor as the moment required to rotate the end of a beam by a unit angle of
one radian, while the other end is fixed. From Eq. 23.10, we set 2 = v1 = v2 = 0, and 1 = 1, this will
49
Victor Saouma
2316
Draft
yield
K=
50
4EI
Far End Fixed
L
(23.60)
We note that this is slightly different than the definition given in the slope deflection method (I/L).
51 If the far end of the beam is hinged rather than fixed, then we will have a reduced stiffness factor.
From Eq. 23.10 and 23.11, with M2 = v1 = v2 = 0, we obtain
M2
2EIz
(1 + 22 ) = 0
L
1
(23.61-a)
(23.61-b)
Substituting into M1
M1
2
=
=
2EIz
L
21
Comparing this reduced stiffness

factor
52
(21 + 2 )
3EI
L
M1 =
Far End Pinned
(23.62)
with the stiffness of a beam, we define the reduced stiffness
Reduced Stiffness Factor =
23.5.1.4
3EI
L 1
3
Kred
= Far End Pinned
K
4
(23.63)
Distribution Factor (DF)
If a member is applied to a fixed-connection joint where there is a total of n members, then from
equilibrium:
(23.64)
M = M1 + M2 + + Mn
53
However, from Eq. 23.30, and assuming the other end of the member to be fixed, then
M = K1 + K2 + + Kn
(23.65)
or
DFi =
Ki
Mi
=
M
Ki
(23.66)
54 Hence if a moment M is applied at a joint, then the portion of M carried by a member connected
to this joint is proportional to the distribution factor. The stiffer the member, the greater the moment
carried.
55
Similarly, DF = 0 for a fixed end, and DF = 1 for a pin support.
23.5.1.5
56
Carry-Over Factor
Again from Eq. 23.30, and 23.31

M1
M2
2EK(21 + 2 3) + M1F
(23.67-a)
2EK(1 + 22 3) +
(23.67-b)
M2F
we observe that if one end of the beam is restrained (2 = = 0), and there is no member load, then
the previous equations reduce to
M1
M2
Victor Saouma
=
=
2EK(21 )
2EK(1 )
M2 =
1
M1
2
(23.68)
2317
Draft
Hence in this case the carry-over factor represents the fraction of M that is carried over from the
rotating end to the fixed one.
57
CO =
58
(23.69)
If the far end is pinned there is no carry over.
23.5.2
59
1
Far End Fixed
2
Procedure
The general procedure of the Moment Distribution method can be described as follows:
1. Constrain all the rotations and translations.
2. Apply the load, and determine the fixed end moments (which may be caused by element loading,
or support translation).
F
F
3. At any given joint i equilibrium is not satisfied Mlef
t = Mright , and the net moment is Mi
4. We enforce equilibrium by applying at the node Mi , in other words we balance the forces at the
node.
5. How much of Mi goes to each of the elements connected to node i depends on the distribution
factor.
6. But by applying a portion of Mi to the end of a beam, while the other is still constrained, from
Eq. 23.30, half of that moment must also be carried over to the other end.
7. We then lock node i, and move on to node j where these operations are repeated
(a) Sum moments
(b) Balance moments
(c) Distribute moments (K, DF )
(d) Carry over moments (CO)
(e) lock node
8. repeat the above operations until all nodes are balanced, then sum all moments.
9. The preceding operations can be easily carried out through a proper tabulation.
60 If an end node is hinged, then we can use the reduced stiffness factor and we will not carry over
moments to it.
61 Analysis of frame with unsymmetric loading, will result in lateral displacements, and a two step
analysis must be performed (see below).
23.5.3
Algorithm
1. Calculate the stiffness (K = 4EI/L, however this can often be simplified to I/L) factor for all the
members and the distribution factors at all the joints.
2. If a member AB is pinned at B, then K AB = 3EI/L, and K BA = 4EI/L. Thus, we must apply
the reduced stiffness factor to K AB only and not to K BA .
3. The carry-over factor is
1
2
for members with constant cross-section.
4. Find the fixed-end moments for all the members. Note that even if the end of a member is pinned,
determine the fixed end moments as if it was fixed.
5. Start out by fixing all the joints, and release them one at a time.
Victor Saouma
2318
Draft
6. If a node is pinned, start by balancing this particular node. If no node is pinned, start from either
end of the structure.
7. Distribute the unbalanced moment at the released joint
8. Carry over the moments to the far ends of the members (unless it is pinned).
9. Fix the joint, and release the next one.
10. Continue releasing joints until the distributed moments are insignificant. If the last moments
carried over are small and cannot be distributed, it is better to discard them so that the joints
remain in equilibrium.
11. Sum up the moments at each end of the members to obtain the final moments.
23.5.4
Examples
Example 23-5: Continuous Beam, (Kinney 1957)

Solve for moments at A and B by moment distribution, using (a) the ordinary method, and (b) the
simplified method.
10k
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
12
11
00
10
12.9
25.8
3.22
3.22 6.29
10
11
00
3.71
37.1
12.9
9.51
M
25.8
Solution:
Victor Saouma
2319
Draft
1. For this example the fixed-end moments are computed as follows:

F
MBC
F
MCB
(10)(20)
PL
=
= +25.0 k.ft
8
8
= 25.0 k.ft
=
(23.70-a)
(23.70-b)
2. Since the relative stiffness is given in each span, the distribution factors are
DFAB
KAB
K
DFBA
KBA
K
DFBC
KBC
K
DFCB
KCB
K
5
= 0,
+5
5
= = 0.625,
8
3
= = 0.375,
8
3
= = 1.
3
(23.71-a)
(23.71-b)
(23.71-c)
(23.71-d)
3. The balancing computations are shown below.

Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM
Total
A
AB
5
0
C
Balance
BC
CB
3
3
0.375
1
+25.0
-25.0
+12.5 +25.0 C
-14.1 -7.0
-11.7
B
-23.4
+7.0
+3.5
C
-0.6
-1.3
-1.1 -2.2
B
+0.6 C
+0.3
-0.2
-0.1
-0.1
B
-12.9 -25.8 +25.8
0
CO
BA
5
0.625
BC
AB; CB
BC
AB; CB
BC
AB
4. The above solution is that referred to as the ordinary method, so named to designate the manner of
handling the balancing at the simple support at C. It is known, of course, that the final moment must
be zero at this support because it is simple.
5. Consequently, the first step is to balance the fixed-end moment at C to zero. The carry-over is
then made immediately to B. When B is balanced, however, a carry-over must be made back to C
simply because the relative stiffness of BC is based on end C of this span being fixed. It is apparent,
however, that the moment carried back to C (in this case, -7.0) cannot exist at this joint. Accordingly,
it is immediately balanced out, and a carry-over is again made to B, this carry-over being considerably
smaller than the first. Now B is again balanced, and the process continues until the numbers involved
become too small to have any practical value.
6. Alternatively, we can use the simplified method. It was previously shown that if the support at C is
simple and a moment is applied at B, then the resistance of the span BC to this moment is reduced to
three-fourths of the value it would have had with C fixed. Consequently, if the relative stiffness of span
BC is reduced to three-fourths of the value given, it will not be necessary to carry over to C.
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM
Total
Victor Saouma
A
AB
5
0
C
Balance
CB
3
3.00
4 3 = 2.25
0.31
1
+25.0
-25.0
+25.0 C
+12.5
-25.8
-12.9
-11.7
B
-12.9 -25.8
+25.8
0
BA
5
0.69
CO
BC
BC
AB
2320
Draft
7. From the standpoint of work involved, the advantage of the simplified method is obvious. It should
always be used when the external (terminal) end of a member rests on a simple support, but it does
not apply when a structure is continuous at a simple support. Attention is called to the fact that when
the opposite end of the member is simply supported, the reduction factor for stiffness is always 34 for a
prismatic member but a variable quantity for nonprismatic members.
8. One valuable feature of the tabular arrangement is that of dropping down one line for each balancing
operation and making the carry-over on the same line. This practice clearly indicates the order of
balancing the joints, which in turn makes it possible to check back in the event of error. Moreover, the
placing of the carry-over on the same line with the balancing moments definitely decreases the chance
of omitting a carry-over.
9. The correctness of the answers may in a sense be checked by verifying that M = 0 at each joint.
However, even though the final answers satisfy this equation at every joint, this in no way a check on
the initial fixed-end moments. These fixed-end moments, therefore, should be checked with great care
before beginning the balancing operation. Moreover, it occasionally happens that compensating errors
are made in the balancing, and these errors will not be apparent when checking M = 0 at each joint.
10. To draw the final shear and moment diagram, we start by drawing the free body diagram of each
beam segment with the computed moments, and then solve from statics for the reactions:
12, 9 + 25.8 12VA = 0
VA + VBL = 0
25.8 + (10)(10) 20VBR = 0
6.29 + VC 10 = 0
VBL VBR + RB = 0
Check: RA + RB + RC 10
VA = RA = 3.22 k
(23.72-a)
(23.72-b)
(23.72-c)
(23.72-d)
= 3.22 k
= 6.29 k
VC = RC 3.71 k
VBL
VBR
RB = 9.51 k
= 3.22 + 9.51 + 3.71 10 = 0
+
= (3.71)(10) = 37.1 k.ft
MBC
(23.72-e)
(23.72-f)
(23.72-g)
Example 23-6: Continuous Beam, Simplified Method, (Kinney 1957)

Using the simplified method of moment distribution, find the moments in the following continuous
beam. The values of I as indicated by the various values of K, are different for the various spans.
Determine the values of reactions, draw the shear and bending moment diagrams, and sketch the deflected
structure.
Solution:
1. Fixed-end moments:
F
= (0.5)(10) = 5.0 k.ft
MAO
(23.73)
For the 1 k load:
Victor Saouma
F
MAB
F
MBA
P ab2
(1)(5)(152 )
=
= +2.8 k.ft
2
L
202
P a2 b
(1)(52 )(15)
=
= 0.9 k.ft
L2
202
(23.74-a)
(23.74-b)
2321
Draft
For the 4 k load:

F
MAB
PL
8
(4)(20)
8
= +10.0 k.ft
(23.75-a)
= 10.0 k.ft
F
MBA
(23.75-b)
For the uniform load:

F
MCD
F
MDC
(0.2)(152 )
wL2
=
= +3.8 k.ft
12
12
= 3.8 k.ft
=
(23.76-a)
(23.76-b)
2. The balancing operation is shown below

Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM
Total
A
AO
0
0
-5.0
-5.0
B
C
D
AB
BA
BC
CB
CD
DC
3
20
60
60
40
40
4 (20) = 15
1
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0
+12.8
-10.9
+3.8
-3.8
-7.8 -3.9
s +11.9 +5.9
+2.9
s-3.9 -1.9
-2.9 -5.8
+2.3 +1.1
+0.6
-0.7
s-0.4 -0.2
-0.3
+0.2
+0.1
+5.0
-11.2
+11.2 +0.5 -0.5
-5.9
Balance
CO
A
B
C
B
C
B
BA
CB
DC; BC
CB
DC; BC
3. The only new point in this example is the method of handling the overhanging end. It is obvious that
the final internal moment at A must be 5.0 k.ft and, accordingly, the first step is to balance out 7.8 k.ft
of the fixed-end moment at AB, leaving the required 5.0 k.ft for the internal moment at AB. Since the
relative stiffness of BA has been reduced to three-fourths of its original value, to permit considering the
support at A as simple in the balancing, no carry-over from B to A is required.
4. The easiest way to determine the reactions is to consider each span as a free body. End shears are
first determined as caused by the loads alone on each span and, following this, the end shears caused by
the end moments are computed. These two shears are added algebraically to obtain the net end shear
for each span. An algebraic summation of the end shears at any support will give the total reaction.
Victor Saouma
2322
Draft
Example 23-7: Continuous Beam, Initial Settlement, (Kinney 1957)

For the following beam find the moments at A, B, and C by moment distribution. The support at
C settles by 0.1 in. Use E = 30, 000 k/in2 .
Solution:
1. Fixed-end moments: Uniform load:
F
MAB
F
MBA
F
MCD
F
MDC
(5)(202 )
wL2
=
= +167 k.ft
12
12
167 k.ft
(23.77-a)
(23.77-b)
Concentrated load:
Victor Saouma
(10)(30)
PL
=
= +37.5 k.ft
8
8
37.5 k.ft
(23.78-a)
(23.78-b)
2323
Draft
Moments caused by deflection:

F
MBC
F
MCB
F
MCD
F
MDC
6EI
6(30, 000)(1, 200)(0.1)
=
= +1, 500 k.in = +125 k.ft
L2
(120)2
(23.79-a)
+125 k.ft
6EI
(6)(30, 000)(7, 200)(0.1)
=
= 1, 000 k.in = 83 k.ft
2
L
(360)2
(23.79-b)
83 k.ft
(23.79-d)
(23.79-c)
2. Moment distribution
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM Load
FEM
Total
A
AB
10
0
+167
D
DC
3
20
4 (20) = 15
0.6
1
+38
-38
+125
+125
-83
-83
+121
+60
-84
-28 -56
+35 +17
+17 +35

s -10
-7
-3
+1
+1 +2
+185 -130 +130
+79
-79
0
BA
10
0.5
-167
BC
10
0.5
CB
10
0.4
Balance
CO
D
C
B
C
B
CD
BC
AB; CB
BC
CD
The fixed-end moments caused by a settlement of supports have the same sign at both ends of each
span adjacent to the settling support. The above computations have been carried to the nearest k.ft,
which for moments of the magnitudes involved, would be sufficiently close for purposes of design.
Example 23-8: Frame, (Kinney 1957)

Find all moments by moment distribution for the following frame Draw the bending moment diagram
and the deflected structure.
Solution:
Victor Saouma
2324
Draft
1. The first step is to perform the usual moment distribution. The reader should fully understand
that this balancing operation adjusts the internal moments at the ends of the members by a series of
corrections as the joints are considered to rotate, until M = 0 at each joint. The reader should also
realize that during this balancing operation no translation of any joint is permitted.
2. The fixed-end moments are
F
MBC
F
MCB
(18)(12)(62 )
= +24 k.ft
182
(18)(6)(122 )
= 48 k.ft
182
(23.80-a)
(23.80-b)
3. Moment distribution
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM
Total
A
AB
10
0
C
D
BC
CB
CD
DC
20
20
15
15
0.667
0.571
0.429
0
+24.0
-48.0
+10.3
+13.7 +27.4 +20.6
-12.5
-6.3
-25.1
-12.6

s +5.4 +2.7
+3.6 +7.1
-1.2
-1.2
-0.6
-2.4
+0.7

s +0.5 +0.02
+0.3
-0.1
-0.2
-6.9 -13.9 +13.9 -26.5 +26.5 +13.2
Balance
CO
FEM
C
B
C
B
C
B
DC; BC
AB; CB
BC; DC
AB; CB
BC; DC
BA
10
0.333
4. The final moments listed in the table are correct only if there is no translation of any joint. It is
therefore necessary to determine whether or not, with the above moments existing, there is any tendency
for side lurch of the top of the frame.
5. If the frame is divided into three free bodies, the result will be as shown below.
Inspection of this sketch indicates that if the moments of the first balance exist in the frame, there is a
net force of 1.53 0.80 = 0.73 k tending to sway the frame to the left. In order to prevent side-sway,
and thus allow these moments to exist (temporarily, for the purpose of the analysis), it is necessary that
an imaginary horizontal force be considered to act to the right at B or C. This force is designated as
the artificial joint restraint (abbreviated as AJR) and is shown below.
6. This illustration now shows the complete load system which would have to act on the structure if the
final moments of the first balance are to be correct. The AJR, however, cannot be permitted to remain,
Victor Saouma
2325
Draft
and thus its effect must be cancelled. This may be accomplished by finding the moments in the frame
resulting from a force equal but opposite to the AJR and applied at the top.
7. Although it is not possible to make a direct solution for the moments resulting from this force, they
may be determined indirectly. Assume that some unknown force P acts on the frame, as shown below
and causes it to deflect laterally to the left, without joint rotation, through some distance . Now,
regardless of the value of P and the value of the resulting , the fixed-end moments induced in the ends
of the columns must be proportional to the respective values of KM .
62
Recalling that the fixed end moment is M F = 6EI L2 = 6EKm , where Km =
F
MAB
F
MDC
=
=
F
F
MAB
MDC
=
6EKm
6EKm
AB
Km
10
=
DC
Km
15
I
L2
K
L
we can write
(23.81-a)
(23.81-b)
63 These fixed-end moments could, for example, have the values of 10 and 15 k.ft or 20 and 30, or
30 and 45, or any other combination so long as the above ratio is maintained. The proper procedure
is to choose values for these fixed-end moments of approximately the same order of magnitude as the
original fixed-end moments due to the real loads. This will result in the same accuracy for the results
of the balance for the side-sway correction that was realized in the first balance for the real loads.
Accordingly, it will be assumed that P , and the resulting , are of such magnitudes as to result in the
fixed-end moments shown below
8. Obviously, M = 0 is not satisfied for joints B and C in this deflected frame. Therefore these joints
must rotate until equilibrium is reached. The effect of this rotation is determined in the distribution
below
Victor Saouma
2326
Draft
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM
Total

A
AB
10
0
-30.0
D
CD
DC
15
15
0.429
0
-45.0
-45.0
+19.2 +9.6
+12.9 +25.8
+5.7
+11.4
+2.8 +5.7
-3.3

s -2.4 -1.2
-1.6
+0.5
+0.2
+1.1
+0.5

s -0.2 -0.1
-0.3
-27.0 -23.8 +23.8 +28.4 -28.4 -36.7
BA
10
0.333
-30.0
BC
20
0.667
Balance
CO
C
B
C
B
C
BC; DC
AB; CB
BC; DC
AB; CB
CB
20
0.571
9. During the rotation of joints B and C, as represented by the above distribution, the value of has
remained constant, with P varying in magnitude as required to maintain .
10. It is now possible to determine the final value of P simply by adding the shears in the columns.
The shear in any member, without external loads applied along its length, is obtained by adding the
end moments algebraically and dividing by the length of the member. The final value of P is the force
necessary to maintain the deflection of the frame after the joints have rotated. In other words, it is the
force which will be consistent with the displacement and internal moments of the structure as determined
by the second balancing operation. Hence this final value of P will be called the consistent joint force
(abbreviated as CJF).
11. The consistent joint force is given by
CJF =
+27.0 + 23.8 28.4 + 36.7

+
= 1.95 + 2.50 = 4.45 k
26
26
(23.82)
and inspection clearly indicates that the CJF must act to the left.
12. Obviously, then, the results of the last balance above are moments which will exist in the frame when
a force of 4.45 k acts to the left at the top level. It is necessary, however, to determine the moments
resulting from a force of 0.73 k acting to the left at the top level, and some as yet unknown factor z
times 4.45 will be used to represent this force acting to the left.
13. The free body for the member BC is shown above. H = 0 must be satisfied for this figure, and if
forces to the left are considered as positive, the result is 4.45z 0.73 = 0, and
z = +0.164.
(23.83)
If this factor z = +0.164 is applied to the moments obtained from the second balance, the result will
be the moments caused by a force of 0.73 k acting to the left at the top level. If these moments are
then added to the moments obtained from the first balance, the result will be the final moments for the
frame, the effect of the AJR having been cancelled. This combination of moments is shown below.
Joint
Member
M from 1st balance
z M from 2nd balance
Final moments
A
AB
-6.9
-4.4
-11.3
B
BA
-13.9
-3.9
-17.8
BC
+13.9
+3.9
+17.8
C
CB
-26.5
+4.7
-21.8
CD
+26.5
-4.7
+21.8
D
DC
+13.2
-6.0
+7.2
14. If the final moments are correct, the shears in the two columns of the frame should be equal and
opposite to satisfy H = 0 for the entire frame. This check is expressed as
+11.3 + 17.8 21.8 7.2
+
= 0,
26
26
(23.84)
+1.12 1.11 = 0(nearly)
(23.85)
and
Victor Saouma
Draft
2327
The signs of all moments taken from the previous table have been reversed to give the correct signs
for the end moments external to the columns. It will be remembered that the moments considered in
moment distribution are always internal for each member. However, the above check actually considers
each column as a free body and so external moments must be used.
15. The moment under the 18 k load is obtained by treating BC as a free body:
M18 = (5.77)(12) 17.8 = +51.5 k.ft
(23.86)
16. The direction of side-lurch may be determined from the obvious fact that the frame will always lurch
in a direction opposite to the AJR. If required, the magnitude of this side lurch may be found. The
procedure which follows will apply.
A force P of sufficient magnitude to result in the indicated column moments and the lurch was applied
to the frame. During the second balance this value of was held constant as the joints B and C rotated,
and the value of P was considered to vary as necessary. The final value of P was found to be 4.45 k. Since
was held constant, however, its magnitude may be determined from the equation M = 6EI/L2 ,
where M is the fixed-end moment for either column, I is the moment of inertia of that column, and L
is the length. This will be the lurch for 4.45 k acting at the top level. For any other force acting
horizontally, would vary proportionally and thus the final lurch of the frame would be the factor z
multiplied by the determined above.
Example 23-9: Frame with Side Load, (Kinney 1957)

Find by moment distribution the moments in the following frame
Victor Saouma
2328
Draft
Solution:
The first balance will give the results shown
AB
-7.2
BA
-14.6
BC
+14.6
CB
-22.5
CD
-22.5
DC
0
A check of the member BC as a free body for H = 0 will indicate that an AJR is necessary as follows:
AJR + 0.84 0.87 5.0 = 0
(23.87)
AJR = +5.03 in the direction assumed
(23.88)
from which
The values of KM for the two columns are shown, with KM for column CD being K/2L because of the
pin at the bottom. The horizontal displacement of the top of the frame is
assumed to cause the fixed-end moments shown there. These moments are proportional to the values
of KM and of approximately the same order of magnitude as the original fixed-end moments due to the
real loads. The results of balancing out these moments are
AB
-34.4
BA
-28.4
CJF =
BC
+28.4
CB
+23.6
CD
-23.6
+34.4 + 28.4 + 23.6

= 3.32 k
26
DC
0
(23.89)
and
5.03 z(3.32) = 0,
(23.90)
z = +1.52.
(23.91)
from which
The final results are
Victor Saouma
Draft
AB
-7.2
-52.1
-59.3
M from 1st balance

z M 2nd balance
Final moments
BA
-14.6
-43.0
-57.6
2329
BC
+14.6
+43.0
+57.6
CB
-22.5
+35.8
+13.3
CD
+22.5
-35.8
-13.3
DC
0
0
0
If these final moments are correct, the sum of the column shears will be 5.0 k: Sum of column shears:
V =
59.3 + 57.6 + 13.3

= 5.01 k
26
(23.92)
The 5 k horizontal load acting at C enters into the problem only in connection with the determination
of the AJR. If this load had been applied to the column CD between the ends, it would have resulted
in initial fixed-end moments in CD and these would be computed in the usual way. In addition, such a
load would have entered into the determination of the AJR, since the horizontal reaction of CD against
the right end of BC would have been computed by treating CD as a free body.
Example 23-10: Moment Distribution on a Spread-Sheet

Analyse the following frame
12
8
20 k
C
I = cst
15
10
D
A
Solution:
Victor Saouma
2330
Draft
Sheet1
Artificially Restrained Structure

A
B
C
D
AB BA BC CB CD DC Balance
Lenght
15
15
20
20
10
10
EI
30
30
30
30
30
30 "arbitrary"
K
2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 3.0 3.0
DF
1.0 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.7 1.0
FEM
38.4 -57.6
-11.0 -21.9 -16.5 -8.2
B
11.0 21.9 43.9 21.9 C
-3.1 -6.3 -4.7 -2.4
B
0.4 0.8 1.6 0.8 C
-0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1
B
0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 C
Total
-14.2 -28.4 28.5 -45.5 45.5 22.8 .
Horizontal displacement Delta
Lenght
EI
K
DF
FEM
A
B
AB BA
15
15
30
30
2.0 2.0
1.0 0.6
-8.0 -8.0
2.3 4.6
-0.8
Total
-6.5
1st
z 2nd
Final
AB
-14.2
-9.6
-23.9
C
BC CB CD
20
20
10
30
30
30
1.5 1.5 3.0
0.4 0.3 0.7
-18.0
3.4 1.7
2.7 5.4 10.9
-1.6 -1.2 -0.6
0.1 0.2 0.4
-0.1 0.0
-5.0 5.0 6.8 -6.8
Final Moments
BA BC CB CD
-28.4 28.5 -45.5 45.5
-7.5 7.5 10.0 -10.0
-35.9 35.9 -35.5 35.5
D
DC Balance
10
30 "arbitrary"
3.0
1.0
-18.0
B
5.4 C
B
0.2 C
B
-12.4 .
CO
V
6EI/L^2 M^F
H_A
-2.84
AB
0.80
-8
H_D 6.826355685 DC
1.80
-18
AJR
3.98
Delta
-10
Delta to the left, will cause -ve M^F
Frame sways to the right
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC
CO
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
H_A
H_D
CJF
z
V
-0.77
-1.9
-2.68
1.49
DC
22.8
-18.4
4.4
Page 1
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 24
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS; Part I
24.1
Introduction
1 Recalling that concrete has a tensile strength (ft ) about one tenth its compressive strength (fc ),
concrete by itself is a very poor material for flexural members.
To provide tensile resistance to concrete beams, a reinforcement must be added. Steel is almost
universally used as reinforcement (longitudinal or as fibers), but in poorer countries other indigenous
materials have been used (such as bamboos).
The following lectures will focus exclusively on the flexural design and analysis of reinforced concrete rectangular sections. Other concerns, such as shear, torsion, cracking, and deflections are left for
subsequent ones.
Design of reinforced concrete structures is governed in most cases by the Building Code Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete, of the American Concrete Institute (ACI-318). Some of the most relevant
provisions of this code are enclosed in this set of notes.
We will focus on determining the amount of flexural (that is longitudinal) reinforcement required at a
given section. For that section, the moment which should be considered for design is the one obtained
from the moment envelope at that particular point.
24.1.1
6
Notation
In R/C design, it is customary to use the following notation

As
b
c
d
fc
fr
fs
ft
fy
h
Area of steel
Width
Distance from top of compressive fibers to neutral axis
Distance from the top of the compressive fibers to the centroid
of the reinforcement
Concrete compressive strength
Concrete modulus of rupture
Steel stress
Concrete tensile strength
Steel yield stress (equivalent to Fy in AISC)
Height
Steel ratio, Abds
242
Draft
24.1.2
REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I
Modes of Failure
A reinforced concrete beam is a composite structure where concrete provides the compression and steel
the tension.
Failure is initiated by
1. Yielding of the steel when the steel stress reaches the yield stress (fs = fy ). This occurs if we
do not have enough reinforcement that is the section is under-reinforced. This will result in
excessive rotation and deformation prior to failure.
2. Crushing of the concrete, when the concrete strain reaches its ultimate value (c = u = 0.003),
ACI 318: 10.2.3. This occurs if there is too much reinforcement that is the section is overreinforced. This is a sudden mode of failure.
Ideally in an optimal (i.e. most efficient use of materials) design, a section should be dimensioned
such that crushing of concrete should occur simultaneously with steel yielding. This would then be a
balanced design.
10 However since concrete crushing is a sudden mode of failure with no prior warning, whereas steel
yielding is often accompanied by excessive deformation (thus providing ample warning of an imminent
failure), design codes require the section to be moderately under-reinforced.
24.1.3
11
Analysis vs Design
In R/C we always consider one of the following problems:
Analysis: Given a certain design, determine what is the maximum moment which can be applied.
Design: Given an external moment to be resisted, determine cross sectional dimensions (b and h) as
well as reinforcement (As ). Note that in many cases the external dimensions of the beam (b and
h) are fixed by the architect.
12
We often consider the maximum moment along a member, and design accordingly.
24.1.4
Basic Relations and Assumptions
13 In developing a design/analysis method for reinforced concrete, the following basic relations will be
used:
1. Equilibrium: of forces and moment at the cross section. 1) Fx = 0 or Tension in the reinforcement
= Compression in concrete; and 2) M = 0 or external moment (that is the one obtained from
the moment envelope) equal and opposite to the internal one (tension in steel and compression of
the concrete).
2. Material Stress Strain: We recall that all normal strength concrete have a failure strain
in compression irrespective of fc .
14
= .003
Basic assumptions used:
Compatibility of Displacements: Perfect bond between steel and concrete (no slip). Note that those
two materials do also have very close coefficients of thermal expansion under normal temperature.
Plane section remain plane strain is proportional to distance from neutral axis.
Victor Saouma
24.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method
243
Draft
24.1.5
ACI Code
15 The ACI code is based on limit strength, or Mn Mu thus a similar design philosophy is used as
the one adopted by the LRFD method of the AISC code, ACI-318: 8.1.1; 9.3.1; 9.3.2
16
The required strength is based on (ACI-318: 9.2)

U
17
= 1.4D + 1.7L
= 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W )
(24.1)
(24.2)
We should consider the behaviors of a reinforced concrete section under increasing load:
1. Section uncracked
2. Section cracked, elastic
3. Section cracked, limit state
The second analysis gives rise to the Working Stress Design (WSD) method (to be covered in Structural
Engineering II), and the third one to the Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method.
24.2
Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method
24.2.1
Equivalent Stress Block
18 In determining the limit state moment of a cross section, we consider Fig. 24.1. Whereas the strain
distribution is linear (ACI-318 10.2.2), the stress distribution is non-linear because the stress-strain
curve of concrete is itself non-linear beyond 0.5fc .
19 Thus we have two alternatives to investigate the moment carrying capacity of the section, ACI-318:
10.2.6
1. Use the non-linear stress distribution.

2. Use a simpler equivalent stress distribution.
20 The ACI code follows the second approach. Thus we seek an equivalent stress distribution such
that:
1. The resultant force is equal

2. The location of the resultant is the same.
We note that this is similar to the approach followed in determining reactions in a beam subjected to a
distributed load when the load is replaced by a single force placed at the centroid.
21
From the actual stress distribution we have the following relations

C
M
= T = As fs = As fy
= T (d c)
22 We select an equivalent rectangular stress distribution, often referred to as the Whitney Stress
Block such that the constant stress is equal to 0.85fc and is applied over a depth a = 1 c, ACI-318:
10.2.7
23 Comparing the actual and the equivalent stress distributions, the two requirements previously stated
translate into the following mathematical relations
fc bc =
c =
Victor Saouma
0.85fc b1 c
1
2 1 c
244
Draft
Figure 24.1: Cracked Section, Limit State

Those two equations yield
1
=
=
2
.85
24 We have two equations and three unknowns (, 1 , and ). Thus we need to use test data to solve
this problem1 . From experimental tests, the following relations are obtained
fc (ppsi)
< 4,000
.72
.425
.85
5,000
.68
.400
.80
6,000
.64
.375
.75
7,000
.60
.350
.70
8,000
.56
.325
.65
Thus we have a general equation for 1 (ACI-318 10.2.7.3):

1
= .85
1
= .85 (.05)(fc 4, 000) 1,000
if fc 4, 000
if 4, 000 < fc < 8, 000
(24.3)
Figure 24.2: Whitney Stress Block

1 This approach is often used in Structural Engineering. Perform an analytical derivation, if the number of unknowns
then exceeds the number of equations, use experimental data.
Victor Saouma
245
Draft
24.2.2
Balanced Steel Ratio
25 Next we seek to determine the balanced steel ratio b such that failure occurs by simultaneous
yielding of the steel fs = fy and crushing of the concrete c = 0.003, ACI-318: 10.3.2 We will
separately consider the two failure possibilities:
Tension Failure: we stipulate that the steel stress is equal to fy :
As fy
=
=
As
bd
.85fc ab = .85fc b1 c
c=
fy
d
0.85fc 1
(24.4)
Compression Failure: where the concrete strain is equal to the ultimate strain; From the strain
diagram
.003
c = 0.003
c = fs
d
(24.5)
c
.003
=
+ .003
d
.003+s
Es
26
Balanced Design is obtained by equating Eq. 24.4 to Eq. 24.5 and by replacing by b and fs by fy :
fy
.003
d
fs
f
0.85fc 1 d =
+.003
.003
Es
b y
d
d = fy
fs = fy
.85f
c 1
Es + .003
= b
When we replace Es by 29, 000 ksi we obtain

b = .851
fc 87, 000
fy 87, 000 + fy
(24.6)
This b corresponds to the only combination of b, d and As which will result in simultaneous yielding of
the steel and crushing of the concrete, that is an optimal design.
27 Because we need to have ample warning against failure, hence we prefer to have an under-reinforced
section. Thus, the ACI code stipulates:
< .75b
(24.7)
28 In practice, depending on the relative cost of steel/concrete and of labour it is common to select lower
values of . If < 0.5b (thus we will have a deeper section) then we need not check for deflection.
29 A minimum amount of reinforcement must always be used to prevent temperature and shrinkage
cracks:
min
30
200
fy
(24.8)
The ACI code adopts the limit state design method
MD = Mn > Mu
24.2.3
= b = 0.9
(24.9)
Analysis
Given As , b, d, fc , and fy determine the design moment:

1. act =
As
bd
f
2. b = (.85)1 fyc
Victor Saouma
87
87+fy
246
Draft
3. If act < b (that is failure is triggered by yielding of the steel, fs = fy )

a
MD
A f
s y
From Equilibrium
= .85f
cb
= As fy d a2
MD = As fy d 0.59
As fy
fc b
Mn
Combining this last equation with =
As
bd
yields
MD = fy bd2 1 .59
fy
fc
(24.10)
4. If act > b is not allowed by the code as this would be an over-reinforced section which would
fail with no prior warning. However, if such a section exists, and we need to determine its moment
carrying capacity, then we have two unknowns:
(a) Steel strain s (which was equal to y in the previous case)
(b) Location of the neutral axis c.
We have two equations to solve this problem
Equilibrium: of forces
c=
As fs
.85fc b1
(24.11)
Strain compatibility: since we know that at failure the maximum compressive strain c is equal
to 0.003. Thus from similar triangles we have
.003
c
=
d
.003 + s
(24.12)
Those two equations can be solved by either one of two methods:

(a) Substitute into one single equation
(b) By iteration
Once c and fs = Es are determined then
MD = As fs d
24.2.4
1 c
2
(24.13)
Design
31 We distinguish between two cases. The first one has dimensions as well as steel area unknown, the
second has the dimensions known (usually specified by the architect or by other constraints), and we
seek As .
b, d and As unknowns and MD known:

1. We assume that = .75b with b determined from Eq. 24.6
= 0.75 .851
fc 87, 000
fy 87, 000 + fy
Often times, a designer will take a smaller portion of b if the relative cost of steel is higher
than the one of concrete, resulting in deeper sections. The ratio may range from 0.4 to 0.75.
Victor Saouma
247
Draft
2. From Eq. 24.10

MD = fy 1 .59
fy
fc
bd2
or
R = fy 1 .59
fy
fc
(24.14)
which does not depend on unknown quantities2 . Then solve for bd2 :
bd2 =
MD
R
(24.15)
Note that in most case R is around 1 ksi

3. solve for b and d (this will require either an assumption on one of the two, or on their ratio).
4. As = bd
dag b, d and Md known, As unknown: In this case there is no assurance that we can have a design
with b . If the section is too small, then it will require too much steel resulting in an over-reinforced
section.
We will again have an iterative approach
1. Since we do not know if the steel will be yielding or not, use fs .
2. Assume an initial value for a (a good start is a = d5 )
3. Assume initially that fs = fy
4. Check equilibrium of moments (M = 0)
As =
MD
fs d
(24.16)
a
2
5. Check equilibrium of forces in the x direction (Fx = 0)

a=
As fs
.85fc b
(24.17)
6. Check assumption of fs from the strain diagram

.003
dc
s
=
f s = Es
.003 < fy
dc
c
c
where c =
(24.18)
a
1 .
7. Iterate until convergence is reached.
Example 24-1: Ultimate Strength Capacity

Determine the ultimate Strength of a beam with the following properties: b = 10 in, d = 23 in,
As = 2.35 in2 , fc = 4, 000 psi and fy = 60 ksi.
Solution:
As
bd
2.35
(10)(23) = .0102
f
87
87
4
= (.85)(.85) 60
b = .851 fyc 87+f
87+60 =
y
As fy
(2.35)(60)
= (.85)(4)(10)
= 4.147 in
a = .85f
cb
2 Note analogy with Eq. 14.5 M = F Z for stell beams.
y
Mn = p (2.35)(60)(23
4.147
2 ) = 2, 950 k.in
MD = Mn = (.9)(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in
act
Victor Saouma
.02885 > act
248
Draft
Note that from the strain diagram

c=
4.414
a
=
= 4.87 in
0.85
0.85
Alternative solution
Mn
= act fy bd2 1 .59act fy

c
= As fy d 1 .59act fy
c
= (2.35)(60)(23) 1 (.59) 60
4 (.01021) = 2, 950 k.in = 245 k.ft
Example 24-2: Beam Design I

Design a 15 ft beam to support a dead load of 1.27 k/ft, a live load of 2.44 k/ft using a 3,000 psi
concrete and 40 ksi steel. Neglect beam weight
Solution:
wu
1.4(1.27) + 1.7(2.44) = 5.92 k/ft

(5.92)
MD
b
k/ft(15)2 ft2
=
(12) in/ft = 2, 000 k.in
8
fc 87
= .851 fy 87+fy
3
87
= (.85)(.85) 40
87+40 = 0.040
= .75b = .75(0.04) = 0.030
R
bd2
fy 1 .59 fy
c
= (0.03)(40) 1. (0.59)(0.03) 40
3 = 0.917 ksi
2
2,000
Md
k.in
in
= R = (0.9)(0.917)
= 2, 423 in3
k
Assume b = 10 in, this will give d = 2,423

10 = 15.57 in. We thus adopt b = 10 in and d = 16 in.
Finally,
As = bd = (0.030)(10)(16) = 4.80 in2
we select 3 bars No. 11
Example 24-3: Beam Design II

Select the reinforcement for a cross section with b = 11.5 in; d = 20 in to support a design moment
Md = 1, 600 k.in using fc = 3 ksi; and fy = 40 ksi
Solution:
1. Assume a =
d
5
20
5
= 4 in and fs = fy
2. Equilibrium of moments:
As =
1, 600 k.in
MD
==
= 2.47 in2
fy (d a2 )
(.9)(40) ksi(20 42 ) in
3. Check equilibrium of forces:

a=
Victor Saouma
(2.47) in2 (40) ksi

As fy
=
= 3.38 in
.85fc b
(.85)(3) ksi(11.5) in
24.3 ACI Code
249
Draft
4. We originally assumed a = 4, at the end of this first iteration a = 3.38, let us iterate again with
a = 3.30
5. Equilibrium of moments:
As =
1, 600 k.in
MD
= 2.42 in2
a ==
fy (d 2 )
(.9)(40) ksi(20 3.3
)
in
2
6. Check equilibrium of forces:

a=
(2.42) in2 (40) ksi

As fy
=
= 3.3 in
.85fc b
(.85)(3) ksi(11.5) in
7. we have converged on a.
8. Actual is act =
2.42
(11.5)(20)
= .011
9. b is equal to
3
fc 87
87
= .037
= (.85)(.85)
fy 87 + fy
40 87 + 40
= .75 = (0.75)(0.037) = .0278 > 0.011 thus fs = fy .

b = .851
10. max
24.3
ACI Code
Attached is an unauthorized copy of some of the most relevant ACI-318-89 design code provisions.
8.1.1 - In design of reinforced concrete structures, members shall be proportioned for adequate
strength in accordance with provisions of this code, using load factors and strength reduction factors
specified in Chapter 9.
8.3.1 - All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the maximum effects
of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modified according to Section
8.4. Simplifying assumptions of Section 8.6 through 8.9 may be used.
8.5.1 - Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as Wc1.5 33 fc ( psi) for values of Wc
between 90 and 155 lb per cu ft. For normal weight concrete, Ec may be taken as 57, 000 fc .
8.5.2 - Modulus of elasticity Es for non-prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 29,000 psi.
9.1.1 - Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections
at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations
as are stipulated in this code.
9.2 - Required Strength
9.2.1 - Required strength U to resist dead load D and live load L shall be at least equal to
U = 1.4D + 1.7L
9.2.2 - If resistance to structural effects of a specified wind load W are included in design, the
following combinations of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest required strength
U
U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W )
where load combinations shall include both full value and zero value of L to determine the more severe
condition, and
U = 0.9D + 1.3W
but for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. (9-1).
9.3.1 - Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its cross
sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as the nominal strength
calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this code, multiplied by a strength
reduction factor .
Victor Saouma
2410
Draft
9.3.2 - Strength reduction factor shall be as follows:

9.3.2.1 - Flexure, without axial load 0.90
9.4 - Design strength for reinforcement Designs shall not be based on a yield strength of reinforcement
fy in excess of 80,000 psi, except for prestressing tendons.
10.2.2 - Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance
from the neutral axis, except, for deep flexural members with overall depth to clear span ratios greater
than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a non-linear distribution of strain shall be
considered. See Section 10.7.
10.2.3 - Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed equal to
0.003.
10.2.4 - Stress in reinforcement below specified yield strength fy for grade of reinforcement used
shall be taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy , stress in
reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy .
10.2.5 - Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in flexural calculations of reinforced concrete,
except when meeting requirements of Section 18.4.
10.2.6 - Relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be
assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other shape that results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
10.2.7 - Requirements of Section 10.2.5 may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular
concrete stress distribution defined by the following:
10.2.7.1 - Concrete stress of 0.85fc shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral
axis at a distance (a = 1 c) from the fiber of maximum compressive strain.
10.2.7.2 - Distance c from fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be measured in a
direction perpendicular to that axis.
10.2.7.3 - Factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths fc up to and including 4,000 psi.
For strengths above 4,000 psi, 1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi of
strength in excess of 4,000 psi, but 1 shall not be taken less than 0.65.
10.3.2 - Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when tension reinforcement reaches the
strain corresponding to its specified yield strength fy just as concrete in compression reaches its assumed
ultimate strain of 0.003.
10.3.3 - For flexural members, and for members subject to combined flexure and compressive axial
load when the design axial load strength (Pn ) is less than the smaller of (0.10fc Ag ) or (Pb ), the ratio
of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio b that would produce balanced strain
conditions for the section under flexure without axial load. For members with compression reinforcement,
the portion of b equalized by compression reinforcement need not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
10.3.4 - Compression reinforcement in conjunction with additional tension reinforcement may be
used to increase the strength of flexural members.
10.5.1 - At any section of a flexural member, except as provided in Sections 10.5.2 and 10.5.3, where
positive reinforcement is required by analysis, the ratio provided shall not be less than that given by
min =
Victor Saouma
200
fy
Draft
Chapter 25
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS; Part II
25.1
1
T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
Equivalent width for uniform stress, Fig. 25.1 must satisfy the following requirements (ACI 8.10.2):
b
hf
bw
be
Figure 25.1: T Beams
252
REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II
Draft
1.
1
2 (b
bw ) 8hf
2. b < 4bw for isolated T beams only

3. hf >
4. b <
2
bw
2
L
4
Two possibilities:
1. Neutral axis within the flanges (c < hf ) rectangular section of width b, Fig. 25.2.
2. Neutral axis in the web (c > hf ) T beam.
Figure 25.2: T Beam as Rectangular Section
hf
.85fc
a=1c
As fy
Figure 25.3: T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram

For T beams, we have a large concrete area, start by assuming that failure will occur by steel yielding,
Fig. 25.3.
The approach consists in decomposing As into 2 components

1. Asf resists compression force in (b bw )hf
2. (As Asf ) resists compression force in bw c
Victor Saouma
25.1 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
253
Draft
25.1.1
5
Review
Given, b, d, hf , As , fc , fy , determine the moment capacity M , Fig. 25.4.
As
Asf
As-Asf
Figure 25.4: Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T Beams

The moment is obtained from
Flanges:
Asf
Mn1
.85fc (bbw )hf

fy
h
Asf fy (d 2f
F = 0
)
M = 0
Web:
a
Mn2
(A A
)f
s
y
sf
=
F = 0
.85fc bw
= (As Asf )fy (d a2 ) M = 0
Total moment:
Mn = Mn1 + Mn2
25.1.2
7
Design, (balanced)
Let us derive an expression for b and use it for design

c
d
As fy
u
u +y
=
=
.85fc 1 cbw + .85fc (b bw )hf
StrainCompatibility
F = 0
Asf fy
thus,
Asf y
w
f
wb
Hence, max
=
=
=
=
=
.85fc 1 cbw + Asf fy

As
bw d
Asf
bwd
w = .85
fc
u
1
+f
fy u + y
b + f
(25.1)
.75(b + f ) (25.2)
Example 25-1: T Beam; Moment Capacity I

For the following beam: As = 8 # 11 ( 12.48 in2 ); fc =3,000 psi; fy = 50,000 psi. Determine Mn
Victor Saouma
254
Draft
30"
7"
36"
14"
Solution:
1. Check requirements for isolated T sections
(a) be = 30 in should not exceed 4bw = 4(14) = 56 in
(b) hf b2u 7 14
2
2. Assume Rectangular section

a=
(12.48)(50)
= 8.16 in > hf
(0.85)(3)(30)
3. For a T section
.85fc hf (bbw )
fy
(.85)(3)(7)(3014)
50
5.71
(14)(36) = .0113
Asf
f
Asw
w
=
=
=
=
12.48 5.71 = 6.77 in2

12.48
(14)(36) = .025
=
=
87
.851 fyc 87+f
y
3
87
(.85)(.85) 50
87+50 = .0275
= 5.71 in2
4. Maximum permissible ratio

max
= .75(b + f )
= .75(.0275 + .0113) = .029 > w
5. The design moment is then obtained from

Mn1 = (5.71)(50)(36 72 ) = 9, 280 k.in
(6.77)(50)
a = (.85)(3)(14)
= 9.48 in
Mn2 = (6.77)(50)(36 9.48
2 ) = 10, 580 k.in
Md = (.9)(9, 280 + 10, 580) = 17, 890 k.in 17, 900 k.in
Example 25-2: T Beam; Moment Capacity II
Victor Saouma
25.1 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
255
Draft
Determine the moment capacity of the following section, assume flange dimensions to satisfy ACI
requirements; As = 6#10 = 7.59 in2 ; fc = 3 ksi; fy =60 ksi.
28"
6"
26"
10"
As = 6#10= 7.59in2
Solution:
Assume rectangular beam
7.59
(28)(26)
(.85)(.85)
Asf
Asw
w
f
max
Mn1
As Asf
a
Mn2
Md
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(7.59)(60)
(.85)(3)(28) =
(.85)(3)(18)(6)
60
= .0104
3
60
87
87+60
= .0214 > fs = fy
6.37 in > 6 in T beam
= 4.59 in2
7.59 4.59 = 3.00 in2
7.59
(26)(10) = .0292
4.59
(26)(10) = .0177
.75(.0214 + .0177) = .0294 > .0292 Ductile failure
(4.59)(60)(26 3) = 6, 330 k.in
7.59 4.59 = 3. in2
(3)(60)
(.85)(3)(10) = 7.07 in
(3.00)(60)(26 7.07
2 ) = 4, 050 k.in
(.9)(6, 330 + 4, 050) = 9, 350 k.in
Example 25-3: T Beam; Design

given L = 24 ft; fy = 60 ksi; fc = 3 ksi; Md = 6, 400 k.in; Design a R/C T beam.
Victor Saouma
256
Draft
3"
20"
11"
47"
Solution:
1. Determine effective flange width:
bw ) 8hf
16hf + bw = (16)(3) + 11 = 59 in
L
24
= 72 in
4 = 4 12
Center Line spacing
= 47 in
1
2 (b
2. Assume a = 3 in
As
6,400
Md
= 0.9)(60)(20
=
3
fy (d a
2)
2)
As fy
(6.4)(60)
(.85)fc b = (.85)(3)(47) = 3.20
b = 47 in
6.40 in2
in > hf
3. Thus a T beam analysis is required.

Asf
.85fc (bbw )hf

fy
Md1
Md2
=
=
Asf fy (d 2f ) = (.90)(4.58)(60)(20 32 ) = 4, 570 k.in

Md Md1 = 6, 400 4, 570 = 1, 830 k.in
(.85)(3)(4711)(3)
60
= 4.58 in2
d
5
4. Now, this is similar to the design of a rectangular section. Assume a =

As Asf =
5. check
1, 830
(.90)(60) 20
4
2
20
5
= 4. in
= 1.88 in2
1.88)(60)
(.85)(3)(11)
As
w
f
=
=
=
4.58 + 1.88 = 6.46 in2

6.46
(11)(20) = .0294
4.58
(11)(20) = .0208
=
=
3
87
(.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0214
.75(.0214 + .0208) = .0316 > w
max
= 4.02 in 4.00
6. Note that 6.46 in2 (T beam) is close to As = 6.40 in2 if rectangular section was assumed.
25.2
8
Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams
Negative steel reinforcement is needed to

1. Increase internal moment resistance capacity (not very efficient)
Victor Saouma
25.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams
257
Draft
2. Support stirups
3. Reverse moments (moving load)
4. Provide ductility (earthquake)
5. Reduce creep (long term deflections)
Approach will again be based on a strain compatibility analysis & equilibrium equation, Fig. 25.5.
d
As
s
.85fc
.85fc
Asfs
Asfy
d-d
+
Asfy
Asfs
As
(As-As)fs
Figure 25.5: Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams
10
If max = .75b we can disregard compression steel
11
As for T beams, we decompose the tension steel into two components

1. As to resist the force in the top steel (assuming both yield)
2. As As to resist compression in the concrete.
and we define
=
25.2.1
12
As
bd
(25.3)
Tests for fs and fs
Different possibilities: Fig. 25.6
1
yes
no
As yield?
yes
I
f s=fy
fs=fy
As yield?
no
II
fs=fy
fs< fy
yes
As yield?
III
fs< fy
fs=fy
no
IV
fs< fy
fs< fy
not allowed by code

Figure 25.6: Different Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams
Victor Saouma
258
Draft
Test 1 Is As yielding?
Assuming s = y , and fs = fy , we have from the strain diagram
s = u dd (u + y )
fs = Es s
u
c = u+
d
y
From equilibrium:
bdfy = bdfs + .85fc 1 bc
Combining:
b = 1 =
f
fs
u
+ .85 c 1
fy
fy u + y
b
fs
+ b (25.4)
fy
f
thus max = 0.75b + s
(25.5)Note that 0.75 premultiplies only one term as in the other
fy
failure is ipso facto by yielding. We also note the similarity with max of T Beams (where 0.75
premultiplied both terms).
b
1 =
Test 2 fs = fy is fs = fy ?
We set s = y , and from the strain diagram
s=y
s>y
Figure 25.7: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding?
c=
u
d
u y
from equilibrium
bdfy = bdfy + .85fc 1 cb
combining
min 2 = + .851
fc d
87
fy d 87 fy
(25.6)
which corresponds to the minimum amount of steel to ensure yielding of compression steel at
failure. Thus, if < min then fs < fy .
Test 3 fs < fy , is fs = fy ?
From strain diagram:
c =
s =
Victor Saouma
u
u y d
dc
cd y
259
Draft
From equilibrium
bdfs = bdfy + .85fc 1 bc
combining
= 3 =
cd
f c
+ .851 c
dc
fy d
(25.7)
Summary of the tests are shown in Fig. 25.8
cy
fs< fy
fs = fy
II
fs = fy
III
fs< fy
fs < fy
IV
Figure 25.8: Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding
25.2.2
Moment Equations
Case I fs = fy and fs = fy , (small bottom and top reinforcement ratios)

As fy = As fy + .85fc ab
(As As )fy
a =
.85f b
c
MnI = .85fc ab d
a
+ As fy (d d )
2
(25.8)
Case II We have fs = fy and fs < fy (small bottom and large top reinforcement ratios, most common
case)
s
fs
As fy
=
=
=
u cd
c
Es s
As fs + .85fc b1 c
solve for c and fs by iteration.

Using a = 1 c
MnII = .85fc ab d
a
+ As fs (d d )
2
(25.9)
Case III fs < fy and fs = fy (large bottom and small top reinforcement ratios, rare)
s
fs
As fs
a
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
u dc
c
Es s
As fy + .85fc ab
1 c
2510
Draft
solve for a
MnIII = .85fc ab d
a
+ As fy (d d )
2
(25.10)
Case IV fs < fy and fs < fy (large bottom and top reinforcement ratios, rare)
s = u cd
c
s = u dc
c
As fs = As fs + .85fc ab
a = 1 c
solve for a
MnIV = .85fc ab d
a
+ As fs (d d )
2
(25.11)
13 Note that in most beams of normal size and proportions, it will be found that fs < fy when fs = fy .
We nevertheless use As in order to ensure ductility, stiffness and support for the stirrups.
Example 25-4: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review

Given, fc = 4, 000 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, As = 3 (1.56) = 4.68 in2 , As = 4 (1.56) = 6.24 in2 , determine
the moment carrying capacity of the following beam.
Solution:
b
=
=
=
(.85)1 fyc
6.24
(16)(27.3)
4.68
(16)(27.3)
87
87+fy
4
87
= (.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0285
= .0143
= .0107
We can not check yet if < max because fs is yet unknown

min
=
=
u
+ .85 fyc 1 dd u
y
4
3
.003
.0107 + (.85) 60 (.85) 27.3
.003 60
= .0278 >
29,000
Hence
<
.0143 <
Victor Saouma
min
.0278
<
b
< .0285
2511
Draft
and thus fs = fy and fs < fy and we have case II
solve for c
fs
As fy
(6.24)(60)
374.4
fs
=
=
=
=
=
=
Es u cd
= (29, 000)(.003) c3
c
c
c3
87 c
As fs + .85fc b1 c
(4.68)fs + (.85)(4)(16)(.85)c
4.68fs + 46.24c
9.9c + 80.2
Note that if we were to plott those two equations,

50
25
-25
-50
-75
-100
We note that f s increases with c from the strain diagram, but fs decreases with c from equilibrium.
Graphically the solution is around 4.9.
Combining those two equations1
c2 + .7085c 26.42 = 0
we obtain c = 4.80 in a = 0.85(4.8) = 4.078 in, and fs = (.003)(29, 000) 4.803
4.80 = 32.6 ksi
Substituting into the moment equation
Mn
Md
= .85fc ab d a2 + As fs (d d )
+ (4.68)(32.62)(27.3 3)
= (.85)(4)(4.078)(16) 27.3 4.078
2
= 9, 313 k.in
= 0.9(9, 313) = 8, 382 k.in = 699 k.ft
Check
max
=
=
.75b + fys
(.75)(.0285) +
32.6
60 (.0107)
= .027
Example 25-5: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design

Given Md = 505 k.ft, fc = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, b = 12 in, h = 24.5 in, d = 21 in, and d = 2.5 in,
determine the reinforcement As and possibly As .
Solution:
= (505)(12) = 6, 060 k.in
f
87
4
87
= .851 fyc 87+f
= (.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0285
y
max = .75b = (.75)(.0285) = .0213
= (.0213)(12)(21) = 5.37 in2
Amax
s
1 In this problem, unfortunately
As fy
(5.37)(60)
iterative method
if we were to start with a = d5 .
a = .85f
=an(.85)(4)(12)
= 7.89diverges
in
cb
= 4, 943 k.in < 6, 060 k.in
Mmax = (0.9)As fy d a2 = (.9)(5.37)(60) 21 7.89
2
Victor Saouma
Md
b
2512
Draft
Thus compression steel is required. Assuming that fs = fy

Md2
As
As
As
= 6, 060 4, 943 = 1, 117 k.in

1,117
2
d2
= fyM
(dd ) = (0.9)(60)(212.5) = 1.12 in
=
1.12 in2
= 5.37 + 1.12 = 6.49 in2
check that fs = fy
=
=
min
=
=
1.12
(12)(21)
6.49
(12)(21)
= .00444
= .0257
f
u
+ .851 fyc dd u
y
87
4 2.5
.00444 + (.85)(.85) 60
21.0 8760 = .0229 < (.0257)
Note that if it turns out that fs < fy , then we will need to make an assumption on As (such as As = A2s ,
as we will have three equations (2 of equilibrium and one of strain compatibility) and four unknowns
(As , As , fs and c).
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 26
DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

26.1
Introduction
26.1.1
Structural Idealization
Prior to analysis, a structure must be idealized for a suitable mathematical representation. Since it is
practically impossible (and most often unnecessary) to model every single detail, assumptions must be
made. Hence, structural idealization is as much an art as a science. Some of the questions confronting
the analyst include:
1
1. Two dimensional versus three dimensional; Should we model a single bay of a building, or the
entire structure?
2. Frame or truss, can we neglect flexural stiffness?
3. Rigid or semi-rigid connections (most important in steel structures)
4. Rigid supports or elastic foundations (are the foundations over solid rock, or over clay which may
consolidate over time)
5. Include or not secondary members (such as diagonal braces in a three dimensional analysis).
6. Include or not axial deformation (can we neglect the axial stiffness of a beam in a building?)
7. Cross sectional properties (what is the moment of inertia of a reinforced concrete beam?)
8. Neglect or not haunches (those are usually present in zones of high negative moments)
9. Linear or nonlinear analysis (linear analysis can not predict the peak or failure load, and will
underestimate the deformations).
10. Small or large deformations (In the analysis of a high rise building subjected to wind load, the
moments should be amplified by the product of the axial load times the lateral deformation, P
effects).
11. Time dependent effects (such as creep, which is extremely important in prestressed concrete, or
cable stayed concrete bridges).
12. Partial collapse or local yielding (would the failure of a single element trigger the failure of the
entire structure?).
13. Load static or dynamic (when should a dynamic analysis be performed?).
14. Wind load (the lateral drift of a high rise building subjected to wind load, is often the major
limitation to higher structures).
15. Thermal load (can induce large displacements, specially when a thermal gradient is present.).
16. Secondary stresses (caused by welding. Present in most statically indeterminate structures).
262
Draft
26.1.2
Structural Discretization
Once a structure has been idealized, it must be discretized to lend itself for a mathematical representation which will be analyzed by a computer program. This discretization should uniquely define each
node, and member.
The node is characterized by its nodal id (node number), coordinates, boundary conditions, and load
(this one is often defined separately), Table 26.1. Note that in this case we have two nodal coordinates,
Node No.
1
2
3
4
Coor.
X
Y
0.
0.
5.
5.
20. 5.
25. 2.5
X
1
0
0
1
B. C.
Y
1
0
0
1
Z
0
0
0
1
Table 26.1: Example of Nodal Definition

and three degrees of freedom (to be defined later) per node. Furthermore, a 0 and a 1 indicate unknown or
known displacement. Known displacements can be zero (restrained) or non-zero (as caused by foundation
settlement).
4
The element is characterized by the nodes which it connects, and its group number, Table 26.2.
Element
No.
1
2
3
From
Node
1
3
3
To
Node
2
2
4
Group
Number
1
2
2
Table 26.2: Example of Element Definition

Group number will then define both element type, and elastic/geometric properties. The last one is
a pointer to a separate array, Table 26.3. In this example element 1 has element code 1 (such as beam
element), while element 2 has a code 2 (such as a truss element). Material group 1 would have different
elastic/geometric properties than material group 2.
Group
No.
1
2
3
Element
Type
1
2
1
Material
Group
1
1
2
Table 26.3: Example of Group Number

From the analysis, we first obtain the nodal displacements, and then the element internal forces. Those
internal forces vary according to the element type. For a two dimensional frame, those are the axial and
shear forces, and moment at each node.
Hence, the need to define two coordinate systems (one for the entire structure, and one for each
element), and a sign convention become apparent.
26.1.3
8
Coordinate Systems
We should differentiate between 2 coordinate systems:
Victor Saouma
26.1 Introduction
263
Draft
Global: to describe the structure nodal coordinates. This system can be arbitrarily selected provided
it is a Right Hand Side (RHS) one, and we will associate with it upper case axis labels, X, Y, Z,
Fig. 26.1 or 1,2,3 (running indeces within a computer program).
Figure 26.1: Global Coordinate System

Local: system is associated with each element and is used to describe the element internal forces. We
will associate with it lower case axis labels, x, y, z (or 1,2,3), Fig. 26.2.
The x-axis is assumed to be along the member, and the direction is chosen such that it points from
the 1st node to the 2nd node, Fig. 26.2.
10
Two dimensional structures will be defined in the X-Y plane.
26.1.4
Sign Convention
11 The sign convention in structural analysis is completely different than the one previously adopted in
structural analysis/design, Fig. 26.3 (where we focused mostly on flexure and defined a positive moment
as one causing tension below. This would be awkward to program!).
12 In matrix structural analysis the sign convention adopted is consistent with the prevailing coordinate
system. Hence, we define a positive moment as one which is counter-clockwise, Fig. 26.3
13
Fig. 26.4 illustrates the sign convention associated with each type of element.
14 Fig. 26.4 also shows the geometric (upper left) and elastic material (upper right) properties associated
with each type of element.
26.1.5
15
Degrees of Freedom
A degree of freedom (d.o.f.) is an independent generalized nodal displacement of a node.
16 The displacements must be linearly independent and thus not related to each other. For example, a
roller support on an inclined plane would have three displacements (rotation , and two translations u
Victor Saouma
264
Draft
Figure 26.2: Local Coordinate Systems
Figure 26.3: Sign Convention, Design and Analysis
Figure 26.4: Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements

Victor Saouma
26.2 Stiffness Matrices
265
Draft
and v), however since the two displacements are kinematically constrained, we only have two independent
displacements, Fig. 26.5.
Figure 26.5: Dependent Displacements

17 We note that we have been referring to generalized displacements, because we want this term to
include translations as well as rotations. Depending on the type of structure, there may be none, one
or more than one such displacement. It is unfortunate that in most introductory courses in structural
analysis, too much emphasis has been placed on two dimensional structures, and not enough on either
three dimensional ones, or two dimensional ones with torsion.
18 In most cases, there is the same number of d.o.f in local coordinates as in the global coordinate system.
One notable exception is the truss element. In local coordinate we can only have one axial deformation,
whereas in global coordinates there are two or three translations in 2D and 3D respectively for each
node.
19 Hence, it is essential that we understand the degrees of freedom which can be associated with the
various types of structures made up of one dimensional rod elements, Table 26.4.
20
This table shows the degree of freedoms and the corresponding generalized forces.
21 We should distinguish between local and global d.o.f.s. The numbering scheme follows the following
simple rules:
Local: d.o.f. for a given element: Start with the first node, number the local d.o.f. in the same order
as the subscripts of the relevant local coordinate system, and repeat for the second node.
Global: d.o.f. for the entire structure: Starting with the 1st node, number all the unrestrained global
d.o.f.s, and then move to the next one until all global d.o.f have been numbered, Fig. 26.6.
26.2
Stiffness Matrices
26.2.1
Truss Element
22
From strength of materials, the force/displacement relation in axial members is
A
P
= E
AE
=
L
Hence, for a unit displacement, the applied force should be equal to

other end must be equal and opposite.
23
(26.1)
AE
L .
From statics, the force at the
The truss element (whether in 2D or 3D) has only one degree of freedom associated with each node.
Victor Saouma
266
Draft
Figure 26.6: Examples of Active Global Degrees of Freedom
Victor Saouma
26.2 Stiffness Matrices
Draft
267
Type
Node 1
Node 2
1 Dimensional
Fy3 , Mz4
{p}
Fy1 , Mz2
{}
v1 , 2
{p}
Fx1
{}
{p}
u1
Fx1 , Fy2 , Mz3
u2
Fx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
{}
{p}
u1 , v2 , 3
Tx1 , Fy2 , Mz3
u4 , v5 , 6
Tx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
{}
1 , v2 , 3
{p}
Fx1 ,
{}
{p}
u1 ,
Fx1 , Fy2 , Fy3 ,
Tx4 My5 , Mz6
u2
Fx7 , Fy8 , Fy9 ,
Tx10 My11 , Mz12
{}
u1 , v2 , w3 ,
4 , 5 6
u7 , v8 , w9 ,
10 , 11 12
Beam
v3 , 4
2 Dimensional
Fx2
Truss
Frame
Grid
4 , v5 , 6
3 Dimensional
Fx2
Truss
Frame
[k]
(Local)
[K]
(Global)
44
44
22
44
66
66
66
66
22
66
12 12
12 12
Table 26.4: Degrees of Freedom of Different Structure Types Systems

Hence, from Eq. 26.1, we have
[kt ] =
26.2.2
AE
L
u1 u2
p1 1 1
p
1
2 1
(26.2)
Beam Element
24 Using Equations 23.10, 23.11, 23.13 and 23.14 we can determine the forces associated with each unit
displacement.
[kb ] =
25
V1 Eq.
M
1 Eq.
V2 Eq.
M2 Eq.
v1
23.13(v1
23.10(v1
23.14(v1
23.11(v1
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
1
23.13(1
23.10(1
23.14(1
23.11(1
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
v2
23.13(v2
23.10(v2
23.14(v2
23.11(v2
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
2
23.13(2
23.10(2
23.14(2
23.11(2
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
(26.3)
The stiffness matrix of the beam element (neglecting shear and axial deformation) will thus be
[kb ] =
Victor Saouma
v1
z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz
M
1
L2
12EI
V2
L3 z
6EIz
M
2
L2
1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L
v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2
2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L
(26.4)
268
Draft
26
We note that this is identical to Eq.23.16
V1
M1
V2
M2
v1
z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz
M
1
L2
z
V2 12EI
L3
6EIz
M2
L2
1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L
v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2
2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L
v1
v2
(26.5)
k(e)
26.2.3
2D Frame Element
27 The stiffness matrix of the two dimensional frame element is composed of terms from the truss and
beam elements where kb and kt refer to the beam and truss element stiffness matrices respectively.
[k2df r ] =
u
t1
P1 k11
V1
0
M
1 0
t
P2
k21
V2 0
M2 0
v1
0
b
k11
b
k21
0
b
k31
b
k41
1
0
b
k12
b
k22
0
b
k32
b
k42
u2
t
k12
0
0
t
k22
0
0
v2
0
b
k13
b
k23
0
b
k33
b
k43
0
b
k14
b
k24
b
k34
b
k44
(26.6)
Thus, we have:
[k2df r ] =
26.2.4
u1
P1 EA
L
V1
0
M
0
1
EA
P2
L
V2 0
M
0
2
v1
0
1
0
12EIz
L3
6EIz
L2
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
12EI
L3
z
6EI
L2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
u2
EA
L
0
0
EA
L
0
0
v2
0
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
0
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2
2
0
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
0
6EI
2
L
4EIz
(26.7)
Remarks on Element Stiffness Matrices
Singularity: All the derived stiffness matrices are singular, that is there is at least one row and one
column which is a linear combination of others. For example in the beam element, row 4 = row
1; and L times row 2 is equal to the sum of row 3 and 6. This singularity (not present in the
flexibility matrix) is caused by the linear relations introduced by the equilibrium equations which
are embedded in the formulation.
Symmetry: All matrices are symmetric due to Maxwell-Bettis reciprocal theorem, and the stiffness
flexibility relation.
28
More about the stiffness matrix properties later.
26.3
Direct Stiffness Method
26.3.1
Orthogonal Structures
29 As a vehicle for the introduction to the stiffness method let us consider the problem in Fig 26.7-a,
and recognize that there are only two unknown displacements, or more precisely, two global d.o.f: 1
and 2 .
30
If we were to analyse this problem by the force (or flexibility) method, then
Victor Saouma
26.3 Direct Stiffness Method
269
Draft
Figure 26.7: Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. 1 and 2
Victor Saouma
2610
Draft
1. We make the structure statically determinate by removing arbitrarily two reactions (as long as the
structure remains stable), and the beam is now statically determinate.
2. Assuming that we remove the two roller supports, then we determine the corresponding deflections
due to the actual laod (B and C ).
3. Apply a unit load at point B, and then C, and compute the deflections fij at note i due to a unit
force at node j.
4. Write the compatibility of displacement equation
fBB
fCB
fBC
fCC
RB
RC
1
2
0
0
(26.8)
5. Invert the matrix, and solve for the reactions

31
We will analyze this simple problem by the stiffness method.

1. The first step consists in making it kinematically determinate (as opposed to statically determinate
in the flexibility method). Kinematically determinate in this case simply means restraining all the
d.o.f. and thus prevent joint rotation, Fig 26.7-b.
2. We then determine the fixed end actions caused by the element load, and sum them for each d.o.f.,
Fig 26.7-c: FEM1 and FEM2 .
3. In the third step, we will apply a unit displacement (rotation in this case) at each degree of
freedom at a time, and in each case we shall determine the reaction forces, K11 , K21 , and K12 , K22
respectively. Note that we use [K], rather than k since those are forces in the global coordinate
system, Fig 26.7-d. Again note that we are focusing only on the reaction forces corresponding to
a global degree of freedom. Hence, we are not attempting to determine the reaction at node A.
4. Finally, we write the equation of equilibrium at each node:
M1
M2
FEM1
FEM2
K11
K21
K12
K22
1
2
(26.9)
32 Note that the FEM being on the right hand side, they are detemined as the reactions to the applied
load. Strictly speaking, it is a load which should appear on the left hand side of the equation, and are
the nodal equivalent loads to the element load (more about this later).
33 As with the element stiffness matrix, each entry in the global stiffness matrix Kij , corresponds to
the internal force along d.o.f. i due to a unit displacement (generalized) along d.o.f. j (both in global
coordinate systems).
Example 26-1: Beam

Considering the previous problem, Fig. 26.7-a, let P1 = 2P , M = P L, P2 = P , and P3 = P , Solve
for the displacements.
Solution:
1. Using the previously defined sign convention:
FEM1
PL
P1 L P2 L
2P L P L
+
=
+
=
8
8
8
8
8
BA
FEM2
PL
(26.10)
BC
(26.11)
CB
Victor Saouma
2611
Draft
4EI
AB
BC
2. If it takes 4EI
L (k44 ) to rotate AB (Eq. 26.4) and L (k22 ) to rotate BC, it will take a total force
8EI
of L to simultaneously rotate AB and BC, (Note that a rigid joint is assumed).
3. Hence, K11 which is the sum of the rotational stiffnesses at global d.o.f. 1. will be equal to K11 = 8EI
L ;
2EI
BC
similarly, K21 = L (k42 ) .
2EI
BC
BC
4. If we now rotate dof 2 by a unit angle, then we will have K22 = 4EI
L (k22 ) and K12 = L (k42 ) .
5. The equilibrium relation can thus be written as:
PL
0
P8L
P8L
or
8EI
L
2EI
L
1
2
F EM
P L + P8L
+ P8L
2EI
L
4EI
L
2EI
L
4EI
L
8EI
L
2EI
L
(26.12)
1
2
(26.13)
We note that this matrix corresponds to the structures stiffness matrix, and not the augmented one.
6. The two by two matrix is next inverted
1
2
8EI
L
2EI
L
2EI
L
4EI
L
P L + P8L
+ P8L
17 P L2
112 EI 2
5 PL
112
EI
(26.14)
7. Next we need to determine both the reactions and the internal forces.
8. Recall that for each element {p} = [k]{}, and in this case {p} = {P} and {} = {} for element
AB. The element stiffness matrix has been previously derived, Eq. 26.4, and in this case the global and
local d.o.f. are the same.
9. Hence, the equilibrium equation for element AB, at the element level, can be written as:
12EI
2P
6EI
6EI
0
12EI
p1
3
2
3
2
L
L
L
L
2P2 L
6EI

4EI
2EI
0
p2
6EI
2
2
L
L
L
L
8
= 12EI
(26.15)
+
12EI
2P
0
p3
L3
6EI
6EI

L2
L3
L2
2
2
6EI
2EI
4EI
17 P L
p4
6EI
2P8 L
L2
L
L2
L
112 EI
{p}
{ }
[k]
FEM
solving
p1
p2
p3
10. Similarly, for element BC:

12EI
6EI
p1
L3
L2
6EI
4EI
p2
2
L
L
= 12EI
p3
L3
6EI
L2
6EI
2EI
p4
L2
L
107
56 P
12EI
L3
6EI
L2
6EI
L2
2EI
L
6EI
L2
4EI
L
p4
12EI
L3
6EI
L2
31
56 P L
5
56 P
5
14 P L
17 P L2
112 EI
0
2
5 PL
112
EI
(26.16)
P
2
PL
8
P
2
P8L
(26.17)
or
p1
p2
p3
p4
7
8P
9
14 P L
P7
(26.18)
11. This simple example calls for the following observations:

1. Node A has contributions from element AB only, while node B has contributions from both AB
and BC.
= pBC
eventhough they both correspond to a shear force at node B, the
12. We observe that pAB
3
1
= pBC
due to the externally
difference betweeen them is equal to the reaction at B. Similarly, pAB
4
2
applied moment at node B.
2. From this analysis, we can draw the complete free body diagram, Fig. 26.7-e and then the shear
and moment diagrams which is what the Engineer is most interested in for design purposes.
Victor Saouma
2612
Draft
26.3.2
Local and Global Element Stiffness Matrices ([k(e) ] [K(e) ])
34 In the previous section, in which we focused on orthogonal structures, the assembly of the structures
stiffness matrix [K(e) ] in terms of the element stiffness matrices was relatively straight-forward.
35 The determination of the element stiffness matrix in global coordinates, from the element stiffness
matrix in local coordinates requires the introduction of a transformation.
36 This section will examine the 2D transformation required to obtain an element stiffness matrix in
global coordinate system prior to assembly (as discussed in the next section).
37
Recalling that
{p}
{P}
38
[k(e) ]{}
(26.19)
(e)
(26.20)
[K
]{}
Let us define a transformation matrix [(e) ] such that:

{}
{p}
=
=
[(e) ]{}
(e)
(26.21)
]{P}
(26.22)
Note that we use the same matrix (e) since both {} and {p} are vector quantities (or tensors of order
one).
39
Substituting Eqn. 26.21 and Eqn. 26.22 into Eqn. 26.19 we obtain
[(e) ]{P} = [k(e) ][(e) ]{}
(26.23)
{P} = [(e) ]1 [k(e) ][(e) ]{}
(26.24)
premultiplying by [(e) ]1
40
But since the rotation matrix is orthogonal, we have [(e) ]1 = [(e) ]T and
{P} = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]{}
(26.25)
[K(e) ]
[K(e) ] = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]
(26.26)
which is the general relationship between element stiffness matrix in local and global coordinates.
26.3.2.1
2D Frame
41 The vector rotation matrix is defined in terms of 9 direction cosines of 9 different angles. However
for the 2D case, Fig. 26.8, we will note that four angles are interrelated (lxX , lxY , lyX , lyY ) and can all
be expressed in terms of a single one , where is the direction of the local x axis (along the member
from the first to the second node) with respect to the global X axis. The remaining 5 terms are related
to another angle, , which is between the Z axis and the x-y plane. This angle is zero because we select
an orthogonal right handed coordinate system. Thus, the rotation matrix can be written as:

cos
cos( 2 ) 0
cos sin 0
lxX lxY lxZ
cos
0 = sin cos 0
(26.27)
[] = lyX lyY lyZ = cos( 2 + )
lzX lzY lzZ
0
0
1
0
0
1
and we observe that the angles are defined from the second subscript to the first, and that counterclockwise angles are positive.
Victor Saouma
2613
Draft
Figure 26.8: 2D Frame Element Rotation
42
The element rotation matrix [(e) ] will then be given by

0
cos sin 0
p1
p
0
sin
cos
p3
0
0
0
1
=
0
0 0
cos

p4
sin
0
0
0
5
p6
0
0
0 0
(e)
26.3.3
0
0
0
sin
cos
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
(26.28)
Global Stiffness Matrix
The physical interpretation of the global stiffness matrix K is analogous to the one of the element,
i.e. If all degrees of freedom are restrained, then Kij corresponds to the force along global degree of
freedom i due to a unit positive displacement (or rotation) along global degree of freedom j.
43
44 For instance, with reference to Fig. 26.9, we have three global degrees of freedom, 1 , 2 , and 3 .
and the global (restrained or structures) stiffness matrix is
K11 K12 K13

(26.29)
K = K21 K22 K23
K31 K32 K33
and the first column corresponds to all the internal forces in the unrestrained d.o.f. when a unit displacement along global d.o.f. 1 is applied.
26.3.3.1
Structural Stiffness Matrix
45 The structural stiffness matrix is assembled only for those active dgrees of freedom which are active
(i.e unrestrained). It is the one which will be inverted (or rather decomposed) to determine the nodal
displacements.
26.3.3.2
Augmented Stiffness Matrix
46 The augmented stiffness matrix is expressed in terms of all the dof. However, it is partitioned into two
groups with respective subscript u where the displacements are known (zero otherwise), and t where
the loads are known.
Ktt Ktu
Pt
t ?
(26.30)
=
Ru ?
Kut Kuu
u
Victor Saouma
2614
Draft
Figure 26.9: *Frame Example (correct K32 and K33 )

We note that Ktt corresponds to the structural stiffness matrix.
47
The first equation enables the calculation of the unknown displacements.

t = K1
tt (Pt Ktu u )
48
(26.31)
The second equation enables the calculation of the reactions
Ru = Kut t + Kuu u
(26.32)
49 For internal book-keeping purpose, since we are assembling the augmented stiffness matrix, we proceed
in two stages:
1. First number all the global unrestrained degrees of freedom

2. Then number all the global restrained degrees of freedom (i.e. those with known displacements,
zero or otherwise) and multiply by -11 .
26.3.4
Internal Forces
50 The element internal forces (axia and shear forces, and moment at each end of the member) are
determined from
(e)
pint = k(e) (e)
(26.33)
1 An
alternative scheme is to separately number the restrained dof but assign a negative number. This will enable us
later on to distinguish the restrained from unrestrained dof.
Victor Saouma
Draft
2615
(e)
at the element level where pint is the six by six array of internal forces, k(e) the element stiffness matrix
in local coordinate systems, and (e) is the vector of nodal displacements in local coordinate system.
Note that this last array is obrained by first identifying the displacements in global coordinate system,
and then premultiplying it by the transofrmation matrix to obtain the displacements in local coordinate
system.
26.3.5
Boundary Conditions, [ID] Matrix
51 Because of the boundary condition restraints, the total structure number of active degrees of freedom
(i.e unconstrained) will be less than the number of nodes times the number of degrees of freedom per
node.
52
To obtain the global degree of freedom for a given node, we need to define an [ID] matrix such that:
ID has dimensions l k where l is the number of degree of freedom per node, and k is the number of
nodes).
ID matrix is initialized to zero.
1. At input stage read ID(idof,inod) of each degree of freedom for every node such that:
0
1
ID(idof, inod) =
if unrestrained d.o.f.
if restrained d.o.f.
(26.34)
2. After all the node boundary conditions have been read, assign incrementally equation numbers
(a) First to all the active dof
(b) Then to the other (restrained) dof.
(c) Multiply by -1 all the passive dof.
Note that the total number of dof will be equal to the number of nodes times the number of
dof/node NEQA.
3. The largest positive global degree of freedom number will be equal to NEQ (Number Of Equations),
which is the size of the square matrix which will have to be decomposed.
53
For example, for the frame shown in Fig. 26.10:

1. The input data file may contain:
[ID]T
000
110
000
100
Node No.
1
2
3
4
2. At this stage, the [ID] matrix is equal to:
0
ID = 0
0
3. After we determined the equation numbers, we
1
ID = 2
3
Victor Saouma
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
(26.35)
would have:
1
2
4
5 3
6 8
7 9
(26.36)
2616
Draft
Figure 26.10: Example for [ID] Matrix Determination
26.3.6
LM Vector
The LM vector of a given element gives the global degree of freedom of each one of the element degree
of freedoms. For the structure shown in Fig. 26.10, we would have:
54
LM
LM
LM
26.3.7
=
=
=
1 2 4 5 6 7
5 6 7 1 2 3
1 2 3 3 8 9
element 1 (2 3)
element 2 (3 1)
element 3 (1 4)
Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix
55 As for the element stiffness matrix, the global stiffness matrix [K] is such that Kij is the force in
degree of freedom i caused by a unit displacement at degree of freedom j.
56 Whereas this relationship was derived from basic analysis at the element level, at the structure level,
this term can be obtained from the contribution of the element stiffness matrices [K(e) ] (written in global
coordinate system).
57 For each Kij term, we shall add the contribution of all the elements which can connect degree of
freedom i to degree of freedom j, assuming that those forces are readily available from the individual
element stiffness matrices written in global coordinate system.
58 Kij is non-zero if and only if degree of freedom i and degree of freedom j are connected by an element
or share a node.
59 There are usually more than one element connected to a dof.
Hence, individual element stiffness
matrices terms must be added up.
60 Because each term of all the element stiffness matrices must find its position inside the global stiffness matrix [K], it is found computationally most effective to initialize the global stiffness matrix
[KS ](N EQAN EQA ) to zero, and then loop through all the elements, and then through each entry of
(e)
the respective element stiffness matrix Kij .
(e)
The assignment of the element stiffness matrix term Kij (note that e, i, and j are all known since
we are looping on e from 1 to the number of elements, and then looping on the rows and columns of the
61
Victor Saouma
2617
Draft
S
element stiffness matrix i, j) into the global stiffness matrix Kkl
is made through the LM vector (note
that it is k and l which must be determined).
62 Since the global stiffness matrix is also symmetric, we would need to only assemble one side of it,
usually the upper one.
63
Contrarily to the previous method, we will assemble the full augmented stiffness matrix.
Example 26-2: Assembly of the Global Stiffness Matrix
As an example, let us consider the frame shown in Fig. 26.11.
50kN
4 kN/m
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
8m
3m
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
7.416 m
8m
Figure 26.11: Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code

The ID matrix is initially set to:
1
[ID] = 1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
(26.37)
We then modify it to generate the global degrees of freedom of each node:
4 1 7
[ID] = 5 2 8
6 3 9
(26.38)
Finally the LM vectors for the two elements (assuming that Element 1 is defined from node 1 to node
2, and element 2 from node 2 to node 3):
[LM ] =
4
1
5
2
6
3
1
7
2
8
3
9
(26.39)
Let us simplfy the operation by designating the element stiffness matrices in global coordinates as follows:
K (1)
4 A11
5
A21
6
A31
1
A41
2 A51
3 A61
5
A12
A22
A32
A42
A52
A62
6
A13
A23
A33
A43
A53
A63
1
A14
A24
A34
A44
A54
A64
2
A15
A25
A35
A45
A55
A65
A16
A26
A36
A46
A56
A66
1
1 B11
2
B21
3
B31
7
B41
8 B51
9 B61
2
B12
B22
B32
B42
B52
B62
3
B13
B23
B33
B43
B53
B63
7
B14
B24
B34
B44
B54
B64
8
B15
B25
B35
B45
B55
B65
B16
B26
B36
B46
B56
B66
K (2)
Victor Saouma
(26.40-a)
(26.40-b)
2618
Draft
We note that for each element we have shown the

Now, we assemble the global stiffness matrix
A44 + B11 A45 + B12 A46 + B13

A54 + B21 A55 + B22 A56 + B23
A64 + B31 A65 + B32 A66 + B33
A14
A15
A16
K=
A
A26
A
24
25
A
A36
A
34
35
B
B
B
41
42
43
B51
B52
B53
B61
B62
B63

corresponding LM vector.
A41
A51
A61
A11
A21
A31
0
0
0
A42
A52
A62
A12
A22
A32
0
0
0
A43
A53
A63
A13
A23
A33
0
0
0
B14
B24
B34
0
0
0
B44
B54
B64
B15
B25
B35
0
0
0
B45
B55
B65
B16
B26
B36
0
0
0
B46
B56
B66
(26.41)
We note that some terms are equal to zero because we do not have a connection between the corresponding degrees of freedom (i.e. node 1 is not connected to node 3).
26.3.8
64
Algorithm
The direct stiffness method can be summarized as follows:
Preliminaries: First we shall

1. Identify type of structure (beam, truss, grid or frame) and determine the
(a) Number of spatial coordinates (1D, 2D, or 3D)
(b) Number of degree of freedom per node (local and global)
(c) Number of cross-sectional and material properties
2. Determine the global unrestrained and restrained degree of freedom equation numbers for
each node, Update the [ID] matrix (which included only 0s and 1s in the input data file).
Analysis :
1. For each element, determine
(a) Vector LM relating local to global degree of freedoms.
(b) Element stiffness matrix [k(e) ]
(c) Angle between the local and global x axes.
(d) Rotation matrix [(e) ]
(e) Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates [K(e) ] = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]
2. Assemble the augmented stiffness matrix [K(S) ] of unconstrained and constrained degree of
freedoms.
3. Extract [Ktt ] from [K(S) ] and invert (or decompose into into [Ktt ] = [L][L]T where [L] is a
lower triangle matrix.
4. Assemble load vector {P} in terms of nodal load and fixed end actions.
5. Backsubstitute and obtain nodal displacements in global coordinate system.
6. SOlve for the reactions.
7. For each element, transform its nodal displacement from global to local coordinates {} =
[(e) ]{}, and determine the internal forces [p] = [k]{}.
65
Some of the prescribed steps are further discussed in the next sections.
Example 26-3: Direct Stiffness Analysis of a Truss
Victor Saouma
2619
Draft
5
1
6
8
50k
12
100k
16
16
Figure 26.12:
Using the direct stiffness method, analyse the truss shown in Fig. 26.12.
Solution:
1. Determine the structure ID matrix
Node #
Bound.
X
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
ID
0
1
0
0
1
1
N ode 1
1
1
0
0
Cond.
Y
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
(26.42-a)
2
2
3
3
2
3
4
4
5
5
6
7
(26.42-b)
2. The LM vector of each element is evaluated next

LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
LM
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(26.43-a)
=
=
1
2
1 2 3
3 4 5
(26.43-b)
(26.43-c)
=
=
=
4 5 6 7
2 3 4
2 3 6 7
=
=
2 3 0 0
2 3 6
(26.43-d)
(26.43-e)
(26.43-f)
(26.43-g)
(26.43-h)
3. Determine the element stiffness matrix of each element in the global coordinate system noting that
for a 2D truss element we have
[K (e) ]
=
=
Victor Saouma
[(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]

2
c
cs
2
EA
cs
s
2
L c cs
cs s2
c2 cs
cs s2
c2
cs
cs
s2
(26.44-a)
(26.44-b)
2620
Draft
where c = cos =

x2 x1
L ;
Element 1 L = 20 , c =
Y2 Y1
L
s = sin =
160
20
120
20
= 0.8, s =
= 0.6,
1
1
9600
1
7200
4 9600
5 7200
[K1 ] =
EA
L
Element 2 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,
Element 3 L = 12 , c = 0 , s = 1 ,
[K3 ] =
Element 4 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,
[K4 ] =
160
20
EA
L
1
0
0
0
0
20
2
18, 750
0
18, 750
0
0
0
0
0
(26.47)
5
6
7
0 18, 750 0
0
0
0
0 18, 750 0
0
0
0
EA
L
EA
L
(26.48)
= 15, 000 k/ft.

5
7200
5400
7200
5400
[K7 ] =
(26.49)
= 15, 000 k/ft.
2
3
6
7
2 9600
7200 9600 7200
3
5400 7200 5400
7200
6 9600 7200 9600

7200
7 7200 5400 7200
5400
EA
L
(26.45)
(26.46)
4
5
0
0
0 25, 000
0
0
0 25, 000
2
3
4
2 9600 7200 9600

3
7200
7200 5400
4 9600 7200
9600
5
7200 5400 7200
Element 7 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,
= 15, 000 k/ft.
= 18, 750 k/ft.
4 18, 750
5
0
6 18, 750
7
0
Element 6 L = 20 , c = 0.8 , s = 0.6 ,
[K6 ] =
ksi)(10 in2 )
= 25, 000 k/ft.
2
3
2 0
0
3
0
25,
000
4 0
0
5 0 25, 000
EA
L
(30,000
= 18, 750 k/ft.
= 0.8 , s = 0.6 ,
[K5 ] =
Victor Saouma
1
4
5
7200 9600 7200

5400 7200 5400
7200 9600
7200
5400 7200
5400
1
18, 750
1
0
2 18, 750
3
0
[K2 ] =
Element 5 L = 20 , c =
EA
L
(26.50)
= 18, 750 k/ft.
2 18, 750
3
0
0 18, 750
0
0
3
0
0
0 18, 750 0
0
0
0
0 18, 750 0
0
0
0
(26.51)
2621
Draft
EA
L
Element 8 L = 12 , c = 0 , s = 1 ,
[K8 ] =
2
3
6
7
= 25, 000 k/ft.

2
0
0
0
0
3
0
25, 000
0
25, 000
6
7
0
0
0 25, 000
0
0
0 25, 000
(26.52)
4. Assemble the global stiffness matrix in k/ft Note that we are not assembling the augmented stiffness
matrix, but rather its submatrix [Ktt ].
0 9600 + 18, 750
18, 750
0
9600
7200
0
0
0
9600 + (2) 18, 750
7200
0
0
9600
7200
100k
5400 + 25, 000

0
25, 000
7200
5400
0
18, 750 + (2)9600
7200 7200
18, 750
0
=
0
SYMMETRIC
25, 000 + 5400(2)
0
0
50k
18, 750 + 9600

7200
0
25, 000 + 5400

(26.53)
5. convert to k/in and simplify

0
2362.5
1562.5
0
3925.0
100

0
=
SYMMETRIC
0

50
800
0
0
3162.5
0
600
2533.33
600
0
2083.33
0
2983.33
6. Invert stiffness matrix and solve for displacements

0.0223 in
U1
U
0.00433 in

0.116 in
V3
U4
0.0102 in
=
5
0.0856 in

0.00919 in
V7
0.0174 in
0
800
600
1562.5
0
2362.5
0
600
450
0
0
600
2533.33
U1
U2
V3
U4
V5
U6
V7
(26.54)
(26.55)
7. Solve for member internal forces (in this case axial forces) in local coordinate systems
U1
c
s c s
u1
V1
=
c s
c
s
u2
U2
V2
(26.56)
Element 1
p1
p2
(15, 000 k/ft)(
52.1 k
52.1 k
1 ft
)
12 in
0.8
0.8
0.6 0.8 0.6

0.6
0.8
0.6
Compression
0.0223
0
(26.57-a)
0.0102
0.0856
(26.57-b)
Element 2
p1
p2
Victor Saouma
18, 750 k/ft(
1 ft
)
12 in
1
1
0 1
0
1
0
0
0.0233
0
(26.58-a)
0.00433
0.116
u1
u2
v3
u4
v5
u6
v7
2622
Draft
43.2 k
43.2 k
Tension
(26.58-b)
Element 3
p1
p2
25, 000 k/ft(
63.3 k
63.3 k
1 ft
)
12 in
0.00433
0.116
0.0102
0.0856
1 0 1
1 0
1
0
0
Tension
(26.59-a)
(26.59-b)
Element 4
p1
p2
= 18, 750 k/ft(
1 ft
)
12 in
1.58 k
1.58 k
0 1
0
1
1
1
0.0102
0.0856
0.00919
0.0174
0
0
Tension
(26.60-a)
(26.60-b)
Element 5
p1
p2
15, 000 k/ft(
54.0 k
54.0 k
1 ft
)
12 in
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.8 0.6
0.8
0.6
0.0102
0.0856
Compression
(26.61-a)
(26.61-b)
Element 6
p1
p2
1 ft
15, 000 k/ft(
)
12 in
60.43 k
60.43 k
0.6 0.8
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.116
0.00919 (26.62-a)
0.0174
Tension
(26.62-b)
Element 7
7
p1
p2
18, 750 k/ft(
6.72 k
6.72 k
1 ft
)
12 in
1
1
0 1
0
1
0
0
0.116
0
Compression
(26.63-a)
(26.63-b)
Element 8
p1
p2
= 25, 000 k/ft(
=
Victor Saouma
36.3 k
36.3 k
1 ft
)
12 in
0
0
1 0 1
1 0
1
Compression
0
0
0.00919
0.0174
(26.64-a)
(26.64-b)
2623
Draft
8. Determine the structures MAXA vector
1 3
9 14
2
5
8 13 19 25
4
7 12 18 24
6
11 17 23
[K] =
10
16 22
15 21
20
6
MAXA =
10
15
20
(26.65)
Thus, 25 terms would have to be stored.
Example 26-4: Analysis of a Frame with MATLAB

The simple frame shown in Fig. 26.13 is to be analysed by the direct stiffness method. Assume:
E = 200, 000 MPa, A = 6, 000 mm2 , and I = 200 106 mm4 . The complete MATLAB solution is shown
below along with the results.
50kN
4 kN/m
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
8m
3m
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
7.416 m
8m
Figure 26.13: Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code

% zero the matrices
k=zeros(6,6,2);
K=zeros(6,6,2);
Gamma=zeros(6,6,2);
% Structural properties units: mm^2, mm^4, and MPa(10^6 N/m)
A=6000;II=200*10^6;EE=200000;
% Convert units to meter and kN
A=A/10^6;II=II/10^12;EE=EE*1000;
% Element 1
i=[0,0];j=[7.416,3];
[k(:,:,1),K(:,:,1),Gamma(:,:,1)]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j);
% Element 2
i=j;j=[15.416,3];
[k(:,:,2),K(:,:,2),Gamma(:,:,2)]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j);
% Define ID matrix
ID=[
-4 1 -7;
-5 2 -8;
-6 3 -9];
% Determine the LM matrix
LM=[
-4 -5 -6 1 2 3;
1 2 3 -7 -8 -9];
% Assemble augmented stiffness matrix
Kaug=zeros(9);
Victor Saouma
2624
Draft
for elem=1:2
for r=1:6
lr=abs(LM(elem,r));
for c=1:6
lc=abs(LM(elem,c));
Kaug(lr,lc)=Kaug(lr,lc)+K(r,c,elem);
end
end
end
% Extract the structures Stiffness Matrix
Ktt=Kaug(1:3,1:3);
% Determine the fixed end actions in local coordinate system
fea(1:6,1)=0;
fea(1:6,2)=[0,8*4/2,4*8^2/12,0,8*4/2,-4*8^2/12];
% Determine the fixed end actions in global coordinate system
FEA(1:6,1)=Gamma(:,:,1)*fea(1:6,1);
FEA(1:6,2)=Gamma(:,:,2)*fea(1:6,2);
% FEA_Rest for all the restrained nodes
FEA_Rest=[0,0,0,FEA(4:6,2)];
% Assemble the load vector for the unrestrained node
P(1)=50*3/8;P(2)=-50*7.416/8-fea(2,2);P(3)=-fea(3,2);
% Solve for the Displacements in meters and radians
Displacements=inv(Ktt)*P
% Extract Kut
Kut=Kaug(4:9,1:3);
% Compute the Reactions and do not forget to add fixed end actions
Reactions=Kut*Displacements+FEA_Rest
% Solve for the internal forces and do not forget to include the fixed end actions
dis_global(:,:,1)=[0,0,0,Displacements(1:3)];
dis_global(:,:,2)=[Displacements(1:3),0,0,0];
for elem=1:2
dis_local=Gamma(:,:,elem)*dis_global(:,:,elem);
int_forces=k(:,:,elem)*dis_local+fea(1:6,elem)
end
function [k,K,Gamma]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j)
% Determine the length
L=sqrt((j(2)-i(2))^2+(j(1)-i(1))^2);
% Compute the angle theta (carefull with vertical members!)
if(j(1)-i(1))~=0
alpha=atan((j(2)-i(2))/(j(1)-i(1)));
else
alpha=-pi/2;
end
% form rotation matrix Gamma
Gamma=[
cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0 0
0
0;
-sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0 0
0
0;
0
0
1 0
0
0;
0
0
0 cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0;
0
0
0 -sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0;
0
0
0 0
0
1];
% form element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system
EI=EE*II;
EA=EE*A;
k=[EA/L,
0,
0, -EA/L,
0,
0;
0,
12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2,
0, -12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2;
Victor Saouma
2625
Draft
0,
6*EI/L^2,
4*EI/L,
0, -6*EI/L^2,
2*EI/L;
-EA/L,
0,
0, EA/L,
0,
0;
0, -12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2,
0, 12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2;
0,
6*EI/L^2,
2*EI/L,
0, -6*EI/L^2,
4*EI/L];
% Element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system
K=Gamma*k*Gamma;
This simple proigram will produce the following results:
Displacements =
0.0010
-0.0050
-0.0005
Reactions =
130.4973
55.6766
13.3742
-149.2473
22.6734
-45.3557
int_forces =
int_forces =
141.8530
2.6758
13.3742
-141.8530
-2.6758
8.0315
149.2473
9.3266
-8.0315
-149.2473
22.6734
-45.3557
We note that the internal forces are consistent with the reactions (specially for the second node of
element 2), and amongst themselves, i.e. the moment at node 2 is the same for both elements (8.0315).
Example 26-5: Analysis of a simple Beam with Initial Displacements

The full stiffness matrix of a beam element is given by
[K] =
v1
V1
12EI/L3
2
M1
6EI/L 3
V2 12EI/L
M2 6EI/L2
1
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
v2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
(26.66)
This matrix is singular, it has a rank 2 and order 4 (as it embodies also 2 rigid body motions).
66
We shall consider 3 different cases, Fig. 26.14
Cantilivered Beam/Point Load

1. The element stiffness matrix is
k=
Victor Saouma
3 12EI/L3
4 6EI/L2
1
12EI/L3
2
6EI/L2
4
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
1
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
2626
Draft
Figure 26.14: ID Values for Simple Beam

2. The structure stiffness matrix is assembled
1
1
12EI/L2
2 6EI/L2
3 12EI/L3
4 6EI/L2
K=
2
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
3. The global matrix can be rewritten as

12EI/L2
6EI/L2
P
2
6EI/L
4EI/L
0
=
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
R3 ?
2
6EI/L
R4 ?
2EI/L
3
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
1 ?
2 ?
3
4
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
L2 /2EI
L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
4EI/L
5. Next we compute the equivalent load, Pt = Pt Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by

L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
P

2
0
L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
Pt Ktu u =
L /2EI
12EI/L3 6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
0
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
0
0
0
Victor Saouma
P
0
0
0
6. Now we solve for the displacement t = K1

tt Pt , and overwrite Pt by
L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3 6EI/L2
1
2
2
L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
= L /2EI
3
2
0
12EI/L
6EI/L
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
2
0
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L
3 /3EI
P
L
Pt
P L2 /2EI
0
0
P
0
0
0
2627
Draft
7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Ru = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru
P L3 /3EI
3
L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3 6EI/L2
P L /3EI
2
L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
P L2 /2EI
L /2EI
P L2 /2EI
= 12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
R
3
R4
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
0
P L3 /3EI
P L2 /2EI
=
P
PL
Simply Supported Beam/End Moment

3
3 12EI/L3
1 6EI/L2
4 12EI/L3
2
6EI/L2
k=
1
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
4
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L

1
1
4EI/L
2 2EI/L
3 6EI/L2
4 6EI/L2
K=
2
2EI/L
4EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
3. The global stiffness matrix can be rewritten as

0
4EI/L
2EI/L
6EI/L2
M
2EI/L
4EI/L
6EI/L2
=
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
R3 ?
6EI/L2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3
R4 ?
4. Ktt is inverted
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
L3 /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
L/6EI
L/3EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
5. We compute the equivalent
0
Pt Ktu u
6EI/L2
2
6EI/L
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
M
0
0
0
M
0
0
Victor Saouma
load, Pt = Pt Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by Pt

3
L /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2

L/3EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
0
M
0
0
6. Solve for the displacements, t = K1

tt Pt , and overwrite Pt by t
L3 /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2
L/3EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
= L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
2
2
0
6EI/L
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
6EI/L
M L/6EI
1 ?
2 ?
3
4
M L/3EI
0
0
0
M
0
0
2628
Draft
7. Solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru
M L/6EI
L3 /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2
L/6EI
L/3EI
6EI/L
6EI/L2
M L/3EI
6EI/L2
2
3
=
6EI/L
12EI/L
12EI/L3
R1
R2
6EI/L2
M L/6EI
M L/3EI
M/L
M/L
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3
M L/6EI
M L/3EI
0
0
Cantilivered Beam/Initial Displacement and Concentrated Moment

k=
2 12EI/L3
3 6EI/L2
4 12EI/L3
1
6EI/L2
3
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
4
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
3
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
3
12EI/L
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
K=
1
4EI/L
2 6EI/L2
3 2EI/L
4 6EI/L2
2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
3. The global matrix can be rewritten as

4EI/L
6EI/L2
M
2
3
R2 ?
6EI/L
12EI/L
=
2EI/L
6EI/L2
R3 ?
2
3
6EI/L
R4 ?
12EI/L
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
1 ?
2
3
4
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
2EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
4EI/L
6EI/L2
5. Next we compute the equivalent load, Pt = Pt Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by Pt
L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
3
2
3
0
12EI/L
6EI/L
12EI/L
Pt Ktu u =
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
00

12EI/L3
0
2
M + 6EI /L
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
Victor Saouma
0
0
0
6. Now we solve for the displacements, t = K1

tt Pt , and overwrite Pt by t
0
2
L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
M + 6EI /L
2
3
2
3
0
12EI/L
6EI/L
12EI/L
0
= 6EI/L
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
0
00

12EI/L3
0
M L/4EI + 3 /2L
26.4 Computer Program Organization
2629
Draft
7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru
L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
M L/4EI + 30 /2L
2
3
2
6EI/L
12EI/L
6EI/L
12EI/L3
R2
=
R3
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
R4
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
M L/4EI + 30 /2L
26.4
66
0
0
0
M L/4EI + 30 /2L
3M/2L 3EI0 /L3

M/2 3EI0 /L2
3M/2L +
3EI0 /L3
Computer Program Organization
The main program should,

1. Read
(a) title card
(b) control card which should include:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Type of structure: beam, grid, truss, or frame; (2D or 3D)
Number of different element properties
Number of load cases
2. Determine:
(a) Number of spatial coordinates for the structure
(b) Number of local and global degrees of freedom per node
3. For each node read:
(a) Node number
(b) Boundary conditions of each global degree of freedom [ID]
(c) Spatial coordinates
Note that all the above are usually written on the same data card
4. For each element, read:
(a) Element number
(b) First and second node
(c) Element Property number
5. For each element property group read the associated elastic and cross sectional characteristics.
Note these variables will depend on the structure type.
6. Determine the vector u which stores the initial displacements.
7. Loop over all the elements and for each one:
Victor Saouma
2630
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(a) Retrieve its properties
(b) Determine the length

(c) Call the appropriate subroutines which will determine:
i. The stiffness matrix in local coordinate systems [k(e) ].
ii. The angle and the transformation matrix [(e) ].
8. Assembly of the global stiffness matrix
(a) Initialize the global stiffness matrix to zero
(b) Loop through each element, e, and for each element:
i. Retrieve its stiffness matrix (in local coordinates) [k(e) ] and transformation matrix [(e) ].
ii. Compute the element stiffness matrix in global coordinates from [K(e) ] = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ].
iii. Define the {LM} array of the element
iv. Loop through each row i and column j of the element stiffness matrix, and for those
degree of freedom not equal to zero, add the contributions of the element to the structures
stiffness matrix K S [LM (i), LM (j)] = K S [LM (i), LM (j)] + K (e) [i, j]
9. Extract the structures stiffness matrix [Ktt ] from the augmented stiffness matrix.
10. Invert the structures stiffness matrix (or decompose it).
11. For each load case:
(a) Determine the nodal equivalent loads (fixed end actions), if any.
(b) Assemble the load vector
(c) Load assembly (once for each load cae) once the stiffness matrix has been decomposed, than
the main program should loop through each load case and,
i. Initialize the load vector (of length NEQ) to zero.
ii. Read number of loaded nodes. For each loaded node store the non-zero values inside the
load vector (using the [ID] matrix for determining storage location).
iii. Loop on all loaded elements:
A. Read element number, and load value
B. Compute the fixed end actions and rotate them from local to global coordinates.
C. Using the LM vector, add the fixed end actions to the nodal load vector (unless the
corresponding equation number is zero, ie. restrained degree of freedom).
D. Store the fixed end actions for future use.
(d) Apply Eq. 26.31 to determine the nodal displacements t = K1
tt (Pt Ktu u )
(e) Apply Eq. 26.32 to determine the nodal reactions Rt = Kut t + Kuu u
(f) Determine the internal forces (axial, shear and moment)
i. For each element retrieve:
A. nodal coordinates
B. rotation matrix [(e) ].
C. element stiffness matrix [k(e) ].
ii. Compute nodal displacements in local coordinate system from (e) = [(e) ] {}
iii. Compute element internal forces from {p} = [k(e) ] (e)
iv. If the element is loaded, add corresponding fixed end actions
v. print the interior forces
Victor Saouma
26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB
Draft
26.5
2631
Computer Implementation with MATLAB
67 You will be required, as part of your term project, to write a simple MATLAB (or whatever other
language you choose) program for the analysis of two dimensional frames with nodal load and initial
displacement, as well as element load.
68 To facilitate the task, your instructor has taken the liberty of taking a program written by Mr. Dean
Frank (as part of his term project with this instructor in the Advanced Structural Analysis course, Fall
1995), modified it with the aid of Mr. Pawel Smolarki, and is making available most, but not all of it to
you. Hence, you will be expected to first familiarize yourself with the code made available to you, and
then complete it by essentially filling up the missing parts.
26.5.1
Program Input
From Dean Franks Users Manual

69 It is essential that the structure be idealized such that it can be discretized. This discretization should
define each node and element uniquely. In order to decrease the required amount of computer storage
and computation it is best to number the nodes in a manner that minimizes the numerical separation of
the node numbers on each element. For instance, an element connecting nodes 1 and 4, could be better
defined by nodes 1 and 2, and so on. As it was noted previously, the user is required to have a decent
understanding of structural analysis and structural mechanics. As such, it will be necessary for the user
to generate or modify an input file input.m using the following directions. Open the file called input.m
and set the existing variables in the file to the appropriate values. The input file has additional helpful
directions given as comments for each variable. After setting the variables to the correct values, be sure
to save the file. Please note that the program is case-sensitive.
70 In order for the program to be run, the user must supply the required data by setting certain variables
in the file called indat.m equal to the appropriate values. All the user has to do is open the text file
called indat.txt, fill in the required values and save the file as indat.m in a directory within MATABs
path. There are helpful hints within this file. It is especially important that the user keep track of
units for all of the variables in the input data file. All of the units MUST be consistent. It is suggested
that one always use the same units for all problems. For example, always use kips and inches, or kilonewtons and millimeters.
26.5.1.1
Input Variable Descriptions
A brief description of each of the variables to be used in the input file is given below:
npoin This variable should be set equal to the number of nodes that comprise the structure. A node
is defined as any point where two or more elements are joined.
nelem This variable should be set equal to the number of elements in the structure. Elements are
the members which span between nodes.
istrtp This variable should be set equal to the type of structure. There are six types of structures
which this program will analyze: beams, 2-D trusses, 2-D frames, grids, 3-D trusses, and 3-D frames. Set
this to 1 for beams, 2 for 2D-trusses, 3 for 2D- frames, 4 for grids, 5 for 3D-trusses, and 6 for 3D-frames.
An error will occur if it is not set to a number between 1 and 6. Note only istrp=3 was kept.
nload This variable should be set equal to the number of different load cases to be analyzed. A load
case is a specific manner in which the structure is loaded.
ID (matrix) The ID matrix contains information concerning the boundary conditions for each node.
The number of rows in the matrix correspond with the number of nodes in the structure and the number
of columns corresponds with the number of degrees of freedom for each node for that type of structure
type. The matrix is composed of ones and zeros. A one indicates that the degree of freedom is restrained
and a zero means it is unrestrained.
nodecoor (matrix) This matrix contains the coordinates (in the global coordinate system) of the
nodes in the structure. The rows correspond with the node number and the columns correspond with
the global coordinates x, y, and z, respectively. It is important to always include all three coordinates
for each node even if the structure is only two- dimensional. In the case of a two-dimensional structure,
the z-coordinate would be equal to zero.
71
Victor Saouma
2632
Draft
lnods (matrix) This matrix contains the nodal connectivity information. The rows correspond with
the element number and the columns correspond with the node numbers which the element is connected
from and to, respectively.
E,A,Iy (arrays) These are the material and cross-sectional properties for the elements. They are
arrays with the number of terms equal to the number of elements in the structure. The index number of
each term corresponds with the element number. For example, the value of A(3) is the area of element
3, and so on. E is the modulus of elasticity, A is the cross-sectional area, Iy is the moment of inertia
about the y axes
Pnods This is an array of nodal loads in global degrees of freedom. Only put in the loads in the
global degrees of freedom and if there is no load in a particular degree of freedom, then put a zero in its
place. The index number corresponds with the global degree of freedom.
Pelem This an array of element loads, or loads which are applied between nodes. Only one load
between elements can be analyzed. If there are more than one element loads on the structure, the
equivalent nodal load can be added to the nodal loads. The index number corresponds with the element
number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its place. These should be in local
coordinates.
a This is an array of distances from the left end of an element to the element load. The index number
corresponds to the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its
place. This should be in local coordinates.
w This is an array of distributed loads on the structure. The index number corresponds with the
element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its place. This should be
in local coordinates
dispflag Set this variable to 1 if there are initial displacements and 0 if there are none.
initial displ This is an array of initial displacements in all structural degrees of freedom. This
means that you must enter in values for all structure degrees of freedom, not just those restrained. For
example, if the structure is a 2D truss with 3 members and 3 node, there would be 6 structural degrees
of freedom, etc. If there are no initial displacements, then set the values equal to zero.
angle This is an array of angles which the x-axis has possibly been rotated. This angle is taken
as positive if the element has been rotated towards the z-axis. The index number corresponds to the
element number.
drawflag Set this variable equal to 1 if you want the program to draw the structure and 0 if you do
not.
26.5.1.2
Sample Input Data File
The contents of the input.m file which the user is to fill out is given below:
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: indat.m (EXAMPLE 2D-FRAME INPUT DATA)
%
% Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main data input file for the computer aided
% structural analysis program CASAP. The user must supply
% the required numeric values for the variables found in
% this file (see users manual for instructions).
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% HELPFUL INSTRUCTION COMMENTS IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NPOIN EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF NODES IN THE STRUCTURE
npoin=3;
% SET NELEM EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN THE STRUCTURE
Victor Saouma
2633
Draft
nelem=2;
% SET NLOAD EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF LOAD CASES

nload=1;
% INPUT THE ID MATRIX CONTAINING THE NODAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (ROW # = NODE #)
ID=[1 1 1;
0 0 0;
1 1 1];
% INPUT THE NODE COORDINATE (X,Y) MATRIX, NODECOOR (ROW # = NODE #)
nodecoor=[
0 0;
7416 3000;
15416 3000
];
% INPUT THE ELEMENT CONNECTIVITY MATRIX, LNODS (ROW # = ELEMENT #)
lnods=[
1 2;
2 3
];
% INPUT THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES ASSOCIATED WITH THIS TYPE OF STRUCTURE
% PUT INTO ARRAYS WHERE THE INDEX NUMBER IS EQUAL TO THE CORRESPONDING ELEMENT NUMBER.
% COMMENT OUT VARIABLES THAT WILL NOT BE USED
E=[200 200];
A=[6000 6000];
Iz=[200000000 200000000];
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
INPUT THE LOAD DATA. NODAL LOADS, PNODS SHOULD BE IN MATRIX FORM. THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND
TO THE GLOBAL DEGREE OF FREEDOM IN WHICH THE LOAD IS ACTING AND THE THE ROW NUMBER CORRESPONDS
WITH THE LOAD CASE NUMBER. PELEM IS THE ELEMENT LOAD, GIVEN IN A MATRIX, WITH COLUMNS
CORRESPONDING TO THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND ROW THE LOAD CASE. ARRAY "A" IS THE DISTANCE FROM
THE LEFT END OF THE ELEMENT TO THE LOAD, IN ARRAY FORM. THE DISTRIBUTED LOAD, W SHOULD BE
IN MATRIX FORM ALSO WITH COLUMNS = ELEMENT NUMBER UPON WHICH W IS ACTING AND ROWS = LOAD CASE.
ZEROS SHOULD BE USED IN THE MATRICES WHEN THERE IS NO LOAD PRESENT. NODAL LOADS SHOULD
BE GIVEN IN GLOBAL COORDINATES, WHEREAS THE ELEMENT LOADS AND DISTRIBUTED LOADS SHOULD BE
GIVEN IN LOCAL COORDINATES.
Pnods=[18.75 -46.35 0];

Pelem=[0 0];
a=[0 0];
w=[0 4/1000];
% IF YOU WANT THE PROGRAM TO DRAW THE STUCTURE SET DRAWFLAG=1, IF NOT SET IT EQUAL TO 0.
% THIS IS USEFUL FOR CHECKING THE INPUT DATA.
drawflag=1;
% END OF INPUT DATA FILE
26.5.1.3
Program Implementation
In order to run the program, open a new MATLAB Notebook. On the first line, type the name of the
main program CASAP and evaluate that line by typing ctrl-enter. At this point, the main program reads
the input file you have just created and calls the appropriate subroutines to analyze your structure.
In doing so, your input data is echoed into your MATLAB notebook and the program results are also
displayed. As a note, the program can also be executed directly from the MATAB workspace window,
without Microsoft Word.
Victor Saouma
2634
Draft
26.5.2
Program Listing
26.5.2.1
Main Program
%**********************************************************************************************
%Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main program, Computer Aided Structural Analysis Program
% CASAP. This program primarily contains logic for calling scriptfiles and does not
% perform calculations.
%
% All variables are global, but are defined in the scriptfiles in which they are used.
%
% Associated scriptfiles:
%
% (for all stuctures)
% indat.m (input data file)
% idrasmbl.m
% elmcoord.m
% draw.m
%
% (3 - for 2D-frames)
% length3.m
% stiffl3.m
% trans3.m
% assembl3.m
% loads3.m
% disp3.m
% react3.m
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMMENT CARDS ARE IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NUMERIC FORMAT
format short e
% CLEAR MEMORY OF ALL VARIABLES
clear
% INITIALIZE OUTPUT FILE
fid = fopen(casap.out, wt);
% SET ISTRTP EQUAL TO THE NUMBER CORRESPONDING TO THE TYPE OF STRUCTURE:
% 3 = 2DFRAME
istrtp=3;
% READ INPUT DATA SUPPLIED BY THE USER
indat
% REASSAMBLE THE ID MATRIX AND CALCULATE THE LM VECTORS
% CALL SCRIPTFILE IDRASMBL
idrasmbl
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX
elmcoord
% 2DFRAME CALCULATIONS
Victor Saouma
2635
Draft
% CALCULATE THE LENGTH AND ORIENTATION ANGLE, ALPHA FOR EACH ELEMENT
% CALL SCRIPTFILE LENGTH3.M
length3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN LOCAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE STIFFL3.M
stiffl3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE TRANS3.M
trans3
% ASSEMBLE THE GLOBAL STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
% CALL SCRIPTFILE ASSEMBL3.M
assembl3
%
PRINT STRUCTURAL INFO
print_general_info
% LOOP TO PERFORM ANALYSIS FOR EACH LOAD CASE
for iload=1:nload
print_loads
% DETERMINE THE LOAD VECTOR IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE LOADS3.M
loads3
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS
% CALL SCRIPTFILE DISP3.M
disp3
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS AT THE RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM
% CALL SCRIPTFILE REACT3.M
react3
% CALCULATE THE INTERNAL FORCES FOR EACH ELEMENT
intern3
% END LOOP FOR EACH LOAD CASE
end
% DRAW THE STRUCTURE, IF USER HAS REQUESTED (DRAWFLAG=1)
% CALL SCRIPTFILE DRAW.M
draw
st=fclose(all);
% END OF MAIN PROGRAM (CASAP.M)
disp(Program completed! - See "casap.out" for complete output);
26.5.2.2
Assembly of ID Matrix
%************************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: IDRASMBL.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file re-assambles the ID matrix such that the restrained
% degrees of freedom are given negative values and the unrestrained
Victor Saouma
2636
Draft
% degrees of freedom are given incremental values begining with one

% and ending with the total number of unrestrained degrees of freedom.
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Fall 1995
%
%
%************************************************************************************************
% TAKE CARE OF SOME INITIAL BUSINESS: TRANSPOSE THE PNODS ARRAY
Pnods=Pnods.;
% SET THE COUNTER TO ZERO
count=1;
negcount=-1;
% REASSEMBLE THE ID MATRIX
if istrtp==3
ndofpn=3;
nterm=6;
else
error(Incorrect structure type specified)
end
% SET THE ORIGINAL ID MATRIX TO TEMP MATRIX
orig_ID=ID;
% REASSEMBLE THE ID MATRIX, SUBSTITUTING RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM WITH NEGATIVES,
% AND NUMBERING GLOBAL DEGREES OF FREEDOM
for inode=1:npoin
for icoord=1:ndofpn
if ID(inode,icoord)==0
ID(inode,icoord)=count;
count=count+1;
elseif ID(inode,icoord)==1
ID(inode,icoord)=negcount;
negcount=negcount-1;
else
error(ID input matrix incorrect)
end
end
end
% CREATE THE LM VECTORS FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
LM(ielem,1:ndofpn)=ID(lnods(ielem,1),1:ndofpn);
LM(ielem,(ndofpn+1):(2*ndofpn))=ID(lnods(ielem,2),1:ndofpn);
end
% END OF IDRASMBL.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.3
Element Nodal Coordinates
%**********************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: ELEMCOORD.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file assembles a matrix, elemcoor which contains the coordinates
% of the first and second nodes on each element, respectively.
%
Victor Saouma
2637
Draft
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX, ELEMCOOR FROM NODECOOR AND LNODS
for ielem=1:nelem
elemcoor(ielem,1)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),1);
%elemcoor(ielem,3)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),3);
%elemcoor(ielem,6)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,2),3);
end
% END OF ELMCOORD.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.4
Element Lengths
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : length3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the length of each element and the
% angle alpha between the local and global x-axes. This file can be used
% for 2-dimensional elements such as 2-D truss, 2-D frame, and grid elements.
% This information will be useful for transformation between local and global
% variables.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% ielem = counter for loop
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,4) = xj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,1) = xi-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,5) = yj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,2) = yi-coordinate of element ielem
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMPUTE THE LENGTH AND ANGLE BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL X-AXES FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
L(ielem)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
alpha(ielem)=
% END OF LENGTH3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.5
Element Stiffness Matrices
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: stiffl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
Victor Saouma
2638
Draft
% Main program: casap.m

%
% When this file is called, it computes the element stiffenss matrix
% of a 2-D frame element in local coordinates. The element stiffness
% matrix is calculated for each element in the structure.
%
% The matrices are stored in a single matrix of dimensions 6x6*i and
% can be recalled individually later in the program.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which the appear)
%
% nelem = number of element in the structure
% k(ielem,6,6)= element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
% E(ielem) = modulus of elasticity of element ielem
% A(ielem) = cross-sectional area of element ielem
% L(ielem) = lenght of element ielem
% Iz(ielem) = moment of inertia with respect to the local z-axis of element ielem
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
for ielem=1:nelem
k(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
end
% END OF STIFFL3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.6
Transformation Matrices
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : trans3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% This file calculates the rotation matrix and the element stiffness
% matrices for each element in a 2D frame.
%
%
% ielem = counter for the loop
% rotation = rotation matrix containing all elements info
% Rot = rotational matrix for 2d-frame element
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
% K = element stiffness matrix in global coordinates
% k = element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% FOR EACH ELEMENT IN THE STRUCTURE
for ielem=1:nelem
% SET UP THE ROTATION MATRIX, ROTATAION
rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
ktemp=k(1:6,1:6,ielem);
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Rot=rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem);
K(1:6,1:6,ielem)=
Victor Saouma
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2639

end
% END OF TRANS3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.7
Assembly of the Augmented Stiffness Matrix
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : assembl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% This file assembles the global structural stiffness matrix from the
% element stiffness matrices in global coordinates using the LM vectors.
% In addition, this file assembles the augmented stiffness matrix.
%
% Variable Descritpions (in order of appearance):
%
% ielem = Row counter for element number
% nelem = Number of elements in the structure
% iterm = Counter for term number in LM matrix
% LM(a,b) = LM matrix
% jterm = Column counter for element number
% temp1 = Temporary variable
% number_gdofs = Number of global dofs
% new_LM = LM matrix used in assembling the augmented stiffness matrix
% aug_total_dofs = Total number of structure dofs
% K_aug
= Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt
= Structural Stiffness Matrix (Upper left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix)
% Ktu = Upper right part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kut = Lower left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kuu = Lower rigth part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
%
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% RENUMBER DOF INCLUDE ALL DOF, FREE DOF FIRST, RESTRAINED NEXT
new_LM=LM;
number_gdofs=max(LM(:));
new_LM(find(LM<0))=number_gdofs-LM(find(LM<0));
aug_total_dofs=max(new_LM(:));
% ASSEMBLE THE AUGMENTED STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
K_aug=zeros(aug_total_dofs);
for ielem=1:nelem
Tough one!
end
% SET UP SUBMATRICES FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ktt=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
Ktu=
Kut=
Kuu=
% END OF ASSEMBL3.M SCRIPTFILE
Victor Saouma
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26.5.2.8
Print General Information
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_general_info.m
%
%
% Prints the general structure info to the output file
%
%
By Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
%
%**********************************************************************************************
fprintf(fid,\n\nNumber of Nodes: %d\n,npoin);
fprintf(fid,Number of Elements: %d\n,nelem);
fprintf(fid,Number of Load Cases: %d\n,nload);
fprintf(fid,Number of Restrained dofs: %d\n,abs(min(LM(:))));
fprintf(fid,Number of Free dofs: %d\n,max(LM(:)));
fprintf(fid,\nNode Info:\n);
for inode=1:npoin
fprintf(fid,
Node %d (%d,%d)\n,inode,nodecoor(inode,1),nodecoor(inode,2));
freedof= ;
if(ID(inode,1))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, X );
end
if(ID(inode,2))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, Y );
end
if(ID(inode,3))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, Rot);
end
if freedof==
freedof= none; node is fixed;
end
fprintf(fid,
Free dofs:%s\n,freedof);
end
fprintf(fid,\nElement Info:\n);
for ielem=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,
Element %d (%d->%d),ielem,lnods(ielem,1),lnods(ielem,2));
fprintf(fid,
E=%d A=%d Iz=%d \n,E(ielem),A(ielem),Iz(ielem));
end
26.5.2.9
Print Load
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_loads.m
%
%
% Prints the current load case data to the output file
%
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Load_case=iload
if iload==1
fprintf(fid,\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n);
end
fprintf(fid,Load Case: %d\n\n,iload);
fprintf(fid,
Nodal Loads:\n);
for k=1:max(LM(:));
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM==k);
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
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switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof= M;
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
if Pnods(k)~=0
fprintf(fid,
Node: %2d %s = %14d\n,node, dof, Pnods(k));
end
end
fprintf(fid,\n
Elemental Loads:\n);
for k=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,
Element: %d
Point load = %d at %d from left\n,k,Pelem(k),a(k));
fprintf(fid,
Distributed load = %d\n,w(k));
end
fprintf(fid,\n);
26.5.2.10
Load Vector
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: loads3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program: casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the fixed end actions for elements which
% carry distributed loads for a 2-D frame.
%
%
% b(ielem) = distance from the right end of the element to the point load
% L(ielem) = length of the element
% a(ielem) = distance from the left end of the element to the point load
% Ffl = fixed end force (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% w(ielem) = distributed load on element ielem
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% Pelem(ielem) = element point load on element ielem
% Mfl = fixed end moment (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% Ffr = fixed end force (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% Mfr = fixed end moment (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% feamatrix_local = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in local coordinates
% feamatrix_global = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in global coordinates
% fea_vector = vector of feas in global dofs, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_abs = vector of feas in every structure dof
% dispflag = flag indicating initial displacements
% Ffld = fea (vert force) on left end of element due to initial disp
% Mfld = fea (moment) on left end of element due to initial disp
% Ffrd = fea (vert force) on right end of element due to initial disp
% Mfrd = fea (moment) on right end of element due to initial disp
% fea_vector_disp = vector of feas due to initial disp, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of feas due to initial disp, used to calc reactions
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE FIXED END ACTIONS AND INSERT INTO A MATRIX IN WHICH THE ROWS CORRESPOND
% WITH THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND WITH THE ELEMENT LOCAL DEGREES
% OF FREEDOM
for ielem=1:nelem
b(ielem)=L(ielem)-a(ielem);
Ffl=((w(ielem)*L(ielem))/2)+((Pelem(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^3)*(3*a(ielem)+b(ielem));
Mfl=((w(ielem)*(L(ielem))^2))/12+(Pelem(ielem)*a(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^2;
Ffr=((w(ielem)*L(ielem))/2)+((Pelem(ielem)*(a(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^3)*(a(ielem)+3*b(ielem));
Victor Saouma
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Mfr=-((w(ielem)*(L(ielem))^2))/12+(Pelem(ielem)*a(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^2;
feamatrix_local(ielem,1:6)=[0 Ffl Mfl 0 Ffr Mfr];
% ROTATE THE LOCAL FEA MATRIX TO GLOBAL
feamatrix_global=...
end
% CREATE A LOAD VECTOR USING THE LM MATRIX
% INITIALIZE FEA VECTOR TO ALL ZEROS
for idofpn=1:ndofpn
fea_vector(idofpn,1)=0;
end
for ielem=1:nelem
for idof=1:6
if ielem==1
if LM(ielem,idof)>0
fea_vector(LM(ielem,idof),1)=feamatrix_global(idof,ielem);
end
elseif ielem>1
if LM(ielem,idof)>0
fea_vector(LM(ielem,idof),1)=fea_vector(LM(ielem,1))+feamatrix_global(idof,ielem);
end
end
end
end
for ielem=1:nelem
for iterm=1:nterm
if feamatrix_global(iterm,ielem)==0
else
if new_LM(ielem,iterm)>number_gdofs
fea_vector_react(iterm,1)=feamatrix_global(iterm,ielem);
end
end
end
end
% END OF LOADS3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.11
Nodal Displacements
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : disp3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it computes the displacements in the global
% degrees of freedom.
%
%
% Ksinv = inverse of the structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt = structural stiffness matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements for the global degrees of freedom
% Pnods = vector of nodal loads in the global degrees of freedom
% fea_vector = vector of fixed end actions in the global degrees of freedom
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
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%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CREATE A TEMPORARY VARIABLE EQUAL TO THE INVERSE OF THE STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ksinv=inv(Ktt);
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Delta=
%
PRINT DISPLACEMENTS WITH NODE INFO
fprintf(fid,
Displacements:\n);
for k=1:size(Delta,1)
LM_spot=find(LM==k);
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=delta X;
case {2,5}, dof=delta Y;
otherwise, dof=rotate ;
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
fprintf(fid,
(Node: %2d %s) %14d\n,node, dof, Delta(k));
end
fprintf(fid,\n);
% END OF DISP3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.12
Reactions
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : react3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the reactions at the restrained degrees of
% freedom.
%
% Variable Descriptions:
%
% Reactions = Reactions at restrained degrees of freedom
% Kut = Upper left part of aug stiffness matrix, normal structure stiff matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of feas in restrained dofs
%
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Reactions=
fprintf(fid,
Reactions:\n);
for k=1:size(Reactions,1)
LM_spot=find(LM==-k);
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switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof=M ;
end
%PRINT THE REACTIONS
fprintf(fid,
(Node: %2d %s) %14d\n,node, dof, Reactions(k));
end
fprintf(fid,\n);
% END OF REACT3.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.13
Internal Forces
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : intern3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the internal forces in all elements
% freedom.
%
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Pglobe=zeros(6,nelem);
Plocal=Pglobe;
fprintf(fid,
Internal Forces:);
%LOOP FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
%FIND ALL 6 LOCAL DISPLACEMENTS
elem_delta=zeros(6,1);
for idof=1:6
gdof=LM(ielem,idof);
if gdof<0
elem_delta(idof)=
else
elem_delta(idof)=
end
end
%SOLVE FOR ELEMENT FORCES (GLOBAL)
Pglobe(:,ielem)=K(:,:,ielem)*elem_delta+feamatrix_global(:,ielem);
%ROTATE FORCES FROM GLOBAL TO LOCAL COORDINATES
%ROTATE FORCES TO LOCAL COORDINATES
Plocal(:,ielem)=
%PRINT RESULTS
fprintf(fid,\n
Element: %2d\n,ielem);
for idof=1:6
if idof==1
fprintf(fid,
At Node: %d\n,lnods(ielem,1));
end
if idof==4
fprintf(fid,
At Node: %d\n,lnods(ielem,2));
end
switch(idof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof=M ;
end
fprintf(fid,
(Global : %s ) %14d,dof, Pglobe(idof,ielem));
Victor Saouma
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fprintf(fid,
2645
(Local : %s ) %14d\n,dof, Plocal(idof,ielem));
end
end
fprintf(fid,\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n);
26.5.2.14
Plotting
%************************************************************************************************
% SCRIPTFILE NAME : DRAW.M
%
% MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
% Description : This file will draw a 2D or 3D structure (1D structures are generally
% boring to draw).
%
% Input Variables : nodecoor - nodal coordinates
% ID - connectivity matrix
% drawflag - flag for performing drawing routine
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Fall 1995
%
% (with thanks to Brian Rose for help with this file)
%
%************************************************************************************************
% PERFORM OPERATIONS IN THIS FILE IF DRAWFLAG = 1
if drawflag==1
if istrtp==1
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==2
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==3
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==4
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==5
drawtype=3;
elseif istrtp==6
drawtype=3;
else
error(Incorrect structure type in indat.m)
end
ID=orig_ID.;
% DRAW 2D STRUCTURE IF DRAWTYPE=2
if drawtype==2
% RETREIVE NODAL COORDINATES
x=nodecoor(:,1);
y=nodecoor(:,2);
%IF 2D-TRUSS, MODIFY ID MATRIX
if istrtp==2
for ipoin=1:npoin
if ID(1:2,ipoin)==[0;0]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[0;0;0]
elseif ID(1:2,ipoin)==[0;1]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[0;1;0]
elseif ID(1:2,ipoin)==[1;1]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[1;1;0]
end
Victor Saouma
2646
Draft
end
end
%if size(ID,1)==2
% ID=[ID;zeros(1,size(ID,2))];
%end
% IF GRID, SET ID=ZEROS
if istrtp==4
ID=ID*0;
end
% SET UP FIGURE
handle=figure;
margin=max(max(x)-min(x),max(y)-min(y))/10;
axis([min(x)-margin, max(x)+margin, min(y)-margin, max(y)+margin])
axis(equal)
hold on
% CALC NUMBER OF NODES, ETC.
number_nodes=length(x);
number_elements=size(lnods,1);
number_fixities=size(ID,2);
axislimits=axis;
circlesize=max(axislimits(2)-axislimits(1),axislimits(4)-axislimits(3))/40;
% DRAW SUPPORTS
for i=1:number_fixities
% DRAW HORIZ. ROLLER
if ID(:,i)==[0 1 0]
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i),cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
% DRAW PIN SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 1 0]
plot([x(i),x(i)-circlesize,x(i)+circlesize,x(i)],[y(i),y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize,y(i)],r)
% DRAW HOERIZ. ROLLER SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[0 1 1]
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i),y(i)],r);
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i),cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)+circlesize,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
% DRAW VERT. ROLLER SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 0 0]
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2,r)
% DRAW ROLLER SUPPORT WITH NO ROTATION
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 0 1]
plot([x(i),x(i)],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)-circlesize*2],r);
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2,r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+circlesize,r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize,r)
end
% DRAW HORIZ. PLATFORM
if min(ID(:,i)==[0 1 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[1 1 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[0 1 1])
plot([x(i)-circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*1.5],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
Victor Saouma
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Draft
plot([x(i)+circlesize*0,x(i)-circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*(0.5)],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1,x(i)+circlesize*0],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1.5,x(i)+circlesize*.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
% DRAW FIXED SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 1 1]
plot([x(i)-circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*1.5]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*0,x(i)-circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*(0.5)],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1,x(i)+circlesize*0],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1.5,x(i)+circlesize*.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
% DRAW VERT. PLATFORM
elseif min(ID(:,i)==[1 0 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[1 0 1])
xf=[x(i)-circlesize,x(i)-circlesize*2];
yf=[y(i),y(i)- circlesize];
plot(xf,yf,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*.5,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*1,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*1.5,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*2,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)+ circlesize*1.5],r)
plot(xf,yf-circlesize*.5,r)
plot(xf,yf-circlesize*1,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)- circlesize*2],r)
plot([xf(1),xf(1)],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)-circlesize*2],r);
end
end
% DRAW ELEMENTS
for i=1:number_elements
plot([x(lnods(i,1)),x(lnods(i,2))],[y(lnods(i,1)),y(lnods(i,2))],b);
if i==1
end
end
% DRAW JOINTS
for i=1:number_nodes
if ~max(ID(:,i))
plot(x(i),y(i),mo)
end
end
% DRAW ELEMENT NUMBERS
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,blue)
text( (x(lnods(i,1))+x(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(y(lnods(i,1))+y(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
% DRAW JOINT NUMBERS
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,magenta)
text(x(i)+circlesize,y(i)+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
if exist(filename)
title(filename)
end
Victor Saouma
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Draft
hold off
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,white)
% DRAW 3D STRUCTURE IF DRAWTYPE=3
elseif drawtype==3
% RETREIVE NODE COORIDINATES
x=nodecoor(:,1);
y=nodecoor(:,2);
z=nodecoor(:,3);
% SET UP FIGURE
handle=figure;
margin=max([max(x)-min(x),max(y)-min(y),max(z)-min(z)])/10;
axis([min(x)-margin, max(x)+margin, min(y)-margin, max(y)+margin, min(z)-margin, max(z)+margin])
axis(equal)
hold on
% RETREIVE NUMBER OF NODES, ETC.
number_nodes=length(x);
number_elements=size(lnods,1);
axislimits=axis;
circlesize=max([axislimits(2)-axislimits(1),axislimits(4)-axislimits(3),axislimits(6)-axislimits(5)])/40;
% DRAW ELEMENTS
plot3([x(lnods(i,1)),x(lnods(i,2))],[y(lnods(i,1)),y(lnods(i,2))],[z(lnods(i,1)),z(lnods(i,2))],b);
end
% DRAW JOINTS
plot3(x(i),y(i),z(i),mo)
end
% DRAW ELEMENT NUMBERS
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,blue)
text( (x(lnods(i,1))+x(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(y(lnods(i,1))+y(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(z(lnods(i,1))+z(lnods(i,2)
end
% DRAW JOINT NUMBERS
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,magenta)
text(x(i)+circlesize,y(i)+circlesize,z(i)+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
if exist(filename)
title(filename)
end
xlabel(x)
ylabel(y)
zlabel(z)
% DRAW GROUND
X=x;
Y=y;
Z=z;
X=axislimits(1)-margin:margin:axislimits(2)+margin;
Y=axislimits(3)-margin:margin:axislimits(4)+margin;
Z=zeros(length(X),length(Y));
mesh(X,Y,Z)
Victor Saouma
2649
Draft
size(X)
size(Y)
size(Z)
hold off
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,white)
hAZ=uicontrol(style,slider,position,[.7 .95 .3 .05],units,normalized,min,0,max,360,...
callback,[az,el]=view; az=get(gco,val); view(az,el););
hEL=uicontrol(style,slider,position,[.7 .89 .3 .05],units,normalized,min,0,max,180,...
callback,[az,el]=view; el=get(gco,val); view(az,el););
hdef=uicontrol(style,pushbutton,callback,view(-37.5, 30),position,[.88 .83 .12 .05],units,normalized,Strin

%set(handle,units,normalized)
%text(.68,.95,azimuth)
%text(.68,.89,elevation)
end
end
% END OF DRAW.M SCRIPTFILE
26.5.2.15
Sample Output File
CASAP will display figure 26.15.

8000
6000
4000
2
2000
1
0
2000
4000
6000
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
Figure 26.15: Structure Plotted with CASAP

Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
of
of
of
of
of
Nodes: 3
Elements: 2
Load Cases: 1
Restrained dofs: 6
Free dofs: 3
Node Info:
Node 1 (0,0)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Node 2 (7416,3000)
Free dofs: X Y Rot
Node 3 (15416,3000)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Element Info:
Element 1 (1->2)
Element 2 (2->3)
Victor Saouma
E=200 A=6000 Iz=200000000

E=200 A=6000 Iz=200000000
2650
Draft
_________________________________________________________________________
Load Case: 1
Nodal Loads:
Node: 2 Fx = 1.875000e+001
Node: 2 Fy = -4.635000e+001
Elemental Loads:
Element: 1
Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 0
Element: 2
Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 4.000000e-003
Displacements:
(Node: 2 delta X) 9.949820e-001
(Node: 2 delta Y) -4.981310e+000
(Node: 2 rotate ) -5.342485e-004
Reactions:
(Node: 1
(Node: 1
(Node: 1
(Node: 3
(Node: 3
(Node: 3
Fx) 1.304973e+002
Fy) 5.567659e+001
M ) 1.337416e+004
Fx) -1.492473e+002
Fy) 2.267341e+001
M ) -4.535573e+004
Internal Forces:
Element: 1
At Node: 1
(Global :
(Global :
(Global :
At Node: 2
(Global :
(Global :
(Global :
Element: 2
At Node: 2
(Global
(Global
(Global
At Node: 3
(Global
(Global
(Global
Fx )
Fy )
M )
1.304973e+002
5.567659e+001
1.337416e+004
(Local : Fx )
(Local : Fy )
(Local : M )
1.418530e+002
2.675775e+000
1.337416e+004
Fx ) -1.304973e+002
Fy ) -5.567659e+001
M ) 8.031549e+003
(Local : Fx ) -1.418530e+002
(Local : Fy ) -2.675775e+000
(Local : M ) 8.031549e+003
: Fx ) 1.492473e+002
: Fy ) 9.326590e+000
: M ) -8.031549e+003
(Local : Fx ) 1.492473e+002
(Local : Fy ) 9.326590e+000
(Local : M ) -8.031549e+003
: Fx ) -1.492473e+002
: Fy ) 2.267341e+001
: M ) -4.535573e+004
(Local : Fx ) -1.492473e+002
(Local : Fy ) 2.267341e+001
(Local : M ) -4.535573e+004
_________________________________________________________________________
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 27
COLUMNS
27.1
Introduction
Columns resist a combination of axial P and flexural load M , (or M = P e for eccentrically applied
load).
27.1.1
Types of Columns
Types of columns, Fig. 27.1

Tied column
tie steel
main longitudinal steel reinforcement
Spiral column
Composite column
Pipe column
Figure 27.1: Types of columns
Lateral reinforcement, Fig. 27.2

1. Restrains longitudinal steel from outward buckling
2. Restrains Poissons expansion of concrete
3. Acts as shear reinforcement for horizontal (wind & earthquake) load
4. Provide ductility
very important to resist earthquake load.
27.1.2
3
Possible Arrangement of Bars
Bar arrangements, Fig. 27.3
272
COLUMNS
Draft
P
Spiral
tied
Figure 27.2: Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement
4 bars
6 bars
8 bars
Corner column
10 bars
12 bars
Wall column
16 bars
14 bars
Figure 27.3: Possible Bar arrangements
Victor Saouma
27.2 Short Columns
273
Draft
27.2
Short Columns
27.2.1
Concentric Loading
No moment applied,
Elastic Behaviour
P
= fc Ac + fs As
= fc (Ac + nAs )
Ultimate Strength
Pd
Pn
=
=
Pn
.85fc Ac + fy As
note:
1. 0.85 is obtained also from test data
2. Matches with beam theory using rect. stress block
3. Provides an adequate factor of safety
27.2.2
5
Eccentric Columns
Sources of flexure, Fig. 27.4
ML
MR
Figure 27.4: Sources of Bending

1. Unsymmetric moments M L = M R
2. uncertainty of loads (must assume a minimum eccentricity)
3. unsymmetrical reinforcement
6
Types of Failure, Fig. 27.5

1. large eccentricity of load failure by yielding of steel
2. small eccentricity of load failure by crushing of concrete
3. balanced condition
Assumptions As = As ; =
Victor Saouma
As
bd
As
bd
= fs = fy
274
COLUMNS
Draft
Pn
P0
e=0
Compression
failure range
Radial lines show
Mn
constant e=
Pn
e small
Load path for

givin e
Tension failure
range
eb
e=
e large
Mn
M0
Figure 27.5: Load moment interaction diagram

27.2.2.1
Balanced Condition
There is one specific eccentricity eb =
M
P
such that failure will be triggered by simultaneous
1. steel yielding
2. concrete crushing
From the strain diagram (and compatibility of concrete and steel strains), Fig. 27.6
.003
fy
Es
u
d=
u + y
(27.1-a)
(27.1-b)
.003
fy
Es
+ .003
(27.1-c)
(27.1-d)
Furthermore,
s
cd
s
c
c
cd
c
c
=
=
(27.2-a)
(27.2-b)
thus the compression steel will be yielding (i.e. s = y ) for c = .003 and d = 2 in if c > 6 in
10
Equilibrium:
Pn
fs
As
=
=
=
Pn
.85fc ab + As fy As fs a = .85fc b
a = 1 cb
fy
.003
c =
d
b
fy
As
+.003
Pn,b = .851 fc bd
.003
fy
Es
+ .003
(27.3)
Es
or
Pnb = .851 fc bd
Victor Saouma
87, 000
fy + 87, 000
(27.4)
27.2 Short Columns
275
Draft
d
d
h/2
As
As
b
cs
s
A sf y
s
Pn
A sf s
c
A sf s
0.85fc
Asf s
Asf y
a
e
e
Figure 27.6: Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column
Victor Saouma
276
COLUMNS
Draft
11 To obtain Mnb we take moment about centroid of tension steel As of internal forces, this must be
equal and opposite to the externally applied moment, Fig. 27.6.
a
Mnb = Pnb eb = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
Mext
12
(27.5)
Mint
Note: Internal moments due to As fy and As fy cancel each other for symmetric columns.
27.2.2.2
Tension Failure
Case I, e is known and e > eb In this case a and Pn are unknowns, and for failure to be triggered by
fy in As we must have e > eb .
Can still assume As fy = As fy
Pn
.85fc b
Fy = 0 Pn
.85fc ab a =
M = 0 Pn e
a
Pn (d ) + As fy (d d )
2
(27.6-a)
(27.6-b)
Two approaches
1. Solve iteratively for those two equations
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Assume a (a < h2 )
From strain compatibility solve for fsc , center steel stress if applicable.
Fy = 0 solve for Pn
M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement, solve for Pn
If no convergence among the two Pn , iterate by solving for a from Fy = 0
2. Combine them into a quadratic equation in Pn
e
e
1
Pn = .85fc bd ( 1) +
d
d
where
=
=
+ 2 1
d
d
e
+
d
(27.7)
As
As
bd = bd
fy
.85fc
In this case, we only have two unknown, Pn and fs .

a
fs
=
def
fs
C
Pn
=
=
Mn
1 c
(27.8-a)
fy
(27.8-b)
cd
fy
c Es
c
0.85fc ab
C + As fs As fy
ha
h
+ as fs
d
C
2
2
(27.8-c)
(27.8-d)
(27.8-e)
+ As fs d
h
2
(27.8-f)
Note this approach is favoured when determining the interaction diagram.
Victor Saouma
27.2 Short Columns
277
Draft
27.2.2.3
Compression Failure
Case II c is known and c < cb ; Pn is unknown

Case I e is known and e < eb ; Pn , a and fs are unknown
Compression failure occurs if e < eb u = .003, assume fs = fy , and fs < fy
From geometry
c
=
=
fs
Es
dc
u
d fs = Es u
c
+ u
E s u
a
1
(27.9-a)
a
1
.85fc ab + As fy As fs
(27.9-b)
a
Pn e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
(27.9-c)
2
this would yield a cubic equation in Pn , which can be solved analytically or by iteration
Pn
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Assume a (a h)
Solve for M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement & solve for Pn
From strain compatibility solve for fs
Check that Fy = 0 & solve for a
If ai+1 = ai go to step 2
In this case
a
fs
fs
C
Pn
Mn
27.2.3
1 c
dc
fy
c
cd
fy
= c Es
c
= 0.85fc ab
= C + As fs + As fs
ha
h
+ As fs
d
= C
2
2
=
(27.10-a)
c Es
(27.10-b)
(27.10-c)
(27.10-d)
(27.10-e)
+ As fs d
h
2
(27.10-f)
ACI Provisions
Case II: c is known and c > cb ; fs , fs , and Pn are unknown

1.
min = 1%
max = 8%
f
A
s = 0.45( Agc 1) fyc
= 0.7 for tied columns
= 0.75 for spiral columns
ACI 10.9.1
ACI 10.5
(27.11)
2. where
s
minimum ratio of spiral reinforcement
Ag gross area of section
Ac area of core
3. A minimum of 4 bars for tied circular and rect
4. A minimum of 6 bars for spirals(10.9.2)
5. increases linearly to 0.9 as Pn decreases from 0.10fc Ag or P0 , whichever is smaller, to zero
(ACI 9.3.2).
6. Maximum strength is 0.8P0 for tied columns ( = 0.7) and 0.85P0 for spirally reinforced columns
( = 0.75).
Victor Saouma
278
COLUMNS
Draft
27.2.4
13
Interaction Diagrams
Each column is characterized by its own interaction diagram, Fig. 27.7
Tied:
Pn(max)=0.80P0
Spirally reinf: Pn(max)=0.85P0
P0
Pn(max)
Compression
control region
e
ure
Pn-Mn
Pn(max)
(MnPn)
min
Pu-Mu
(MnbPnb)
ed
nc
la
Ba
fail
Tension
control region
eb
0.10fcAg
Mn
Mn
Figure 27.7: Column Interaction Diagram
27.2.5
Design Charts
To assist in the design of R.C. columns, design charts have been generated by ACI in term of non
A +A
fy
Pn
vs bhM2nf = he for various t where t = sbh s and = .85f
dimensionalized parameters = bhf
14
Example 27-1: R/C Column, c known

A 12 by 20 in. column is reinforced with four No. 4 bars of area 1.0 in2 each, at each corner.
fc = 3.5 ksi, fy = 50 ksi, d = 2.5 in. Determne: 1) Pb and Mb ; 2) The load and moment for c = 5 in; 3)
load and moment for c = 18 in.
Solution:
Balanced Conditions is derived by revisiting the fundamental equations, rather than mere substitution into previously derived equation.
d
cb
h d = 20 2.5 = 17.5 in
.003
.003
d = 50
17.5 = 11.1 in
fy
29,000 + .003
E + .003
(27.12-a)
(27.12-b)
a
fs
=
def
fs
Pnb
Mnb
=
=
Victor Saouma
1 cb = (0.85)(11.1) = 9.44 in
(27.12-c)
fy = 50 ksi
(27.12-d)
11.1 2.5
cd
c = (29, 000)(
(0.003) = 67.4 ksi > fy fs = 50 ksi(27.12-e)
Es
c
11.1
(27.12-f)
0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(9.44)(12) = 337 k
C + As fs As fs = 337 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(50) = 337 k
a
Pnb e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
9.44
+ (2.0)(50)(17.5 2.5) = 3, 280 k.in = 273 k.ft
337 17.5
2
(27.12-g)
(27.12-h)
(27.12-i)
27.2 Short Columns
Draft
eb
279
3, 280
= 9.72 in
337
(27.12-j)
Tension failure, c = 5 in
fs
fs
def
=
=
fy = 50 ksi
cd
c Es
c
(27.13-a)
fy
(27.13-b)
a
C
=
=
=
5.0 2.5
= 43.5 ksi
5.0
1 c = 0.85(5.0) = 4.25 in
0.85fc ab
(0.85)(3.5)(4.25)(12) = 152 k
Pn
C + As fs As fy
(27.13-g)
152 + (2.0)(43.5) (2.0)(50) = 139 k
(27.13-h)
Mn
=
=
(27.13-c)
(0.003)(29, 000)
h
ha
h
+ as fs
d + As fs d
about section centroid
C
2
2
2
20
20 4.25
20
(152)
+ (2.0)(43.5)
2.5 + (2.0)(50) 17.5
2
2
2
(27.13-d)
(27.13-e)
(27.13-f)
(27.13-i)
(27.13-j)
2, 598 k.in = 217 k.ft
(27.13-k)
2, 598
= 18.69 in
139
(27.13-l)
Compression failure, c = 18 in
a
fs
fs
C
Pn
Mn
1 c = 0.85(18) = 15.3 in
dc
fy
= c Es
c
17.5 18.0
= 2 ksi As is under compression
= (0.003)(29, 000)
18.0
cd
fy
= c Es
c
18.0 2.5
= 75 ksi > fy fs = 50 ksi
= (0.003)(29, 000)
18.0
= 0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(15.3)(12) = 546 k
(27.14-a)
(27.14-b)
(27.14-c)
(27.14-d)
(27.14-e)
(27.14-f)
C + As fs + As fs
(27.14-g)
546 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(2) = 650 k
(27.14-h)
h
ha
h
+ As fs
d + As fs d
about section centroid
= C
2
2
2
20
20 15.3
20
= (546)
+ (2.0)(50)
2.5 + (2.0)(2.0) 17.5
2
2
2
=
e =
(27.14-i)
(27.14-j)
2, 000 k.in = 167 k.ft
(27.14-k)
2, 000
= 3.07 in
650
(27.14-l)
Example 27-2: R/C Column, e known

Victor Saouma
2710
COLUMNS
Draft
For the following column, determine eb , Pb , Mb fc = 3, 000 psi and fy = 40, 000 psi. The area of each
bar is 1.56 in2 .
12"
20"
3"
3"
24"
c
y
.003
Cc
Balanced Condition:
y
cb
a
Cc
=
=
sc
fsc
fy
40
= .001379
=
Es
29, 000
u
(.003)(21)
= 14.4 in
d=
u + y
.003 + .001379
1 cb = (.85)(14.4) = 12.2 in
.85fc ab = (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) = 624 k
.003
(14.4 12) = .0005
14.4
(29, 000)(.0005) = 15 ksi center bars
Cs
(.0005)(29, 000)(2)(1.56) = 45.2 k
(27.15-g)
Pnb
624 + 45.2 = 671 k
(27.15-h)
(27.15-a)
(27.15-b)
(27.15-c)
(27.15-d)
(27.15-e)
(27.15-f)
assuming that both edge bars are yielding and cancel each other.
Alternatively
Pnb = 624 + (2 1.56)[15 (.85)(3)] (4 1.56)(.85)(3) = 647 k
Note the difference
671647
647
(27.16)
100 = 3.7%
Taking moment about centroid of section

Mnb
Pnb e
(27.17-a)
a
+ Asc fy (9) + As (fy .85fc )(12 d )
= .85fc ab 12
2
12.2
+ 4(1.56)(9)(40)
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) 12
2
+4(1.56)(40 .85 3)(12 3)
=
eb
3, 671 + 2, 246 + 2, 103
(27.17-b)
(27.17-c)
(27.17-d)
8, 020 k.in; 668 k.ft
(27.17-e)
8, 020
= 12.4 in
647
(27.17-f)
e= .1 h e = (.1)(24) = 2.4 in < eb failure by compression. Pn , a and fs are unknown
Victor Saouma
27.2 Short Columns
2711
Draft
12
h-c-d
.003
23.5
1. Assume a = 20 in
c=
a
20
= 23.5 in
=
1
.85
(27.18)
2. For center steel (from geometry)

sc
c h2
.003
c
(27.19-a)
sc
(27.19-b)
fsc
c h2
.003
c
Es sc
c
c
(27.19-d)
Es
29, 000
h
2
(27.19-c)
.003
23.5 12
.003 = 42.5 ksi > fy fsc = fy
23.5
(27.19-e)
3. Take moment about centroid of tensile steel bar

Pn e
Pn (9 + 2.4)
Pn
a
h
0.85fc ab(d ) + As fy (h 2d ) + Asc fy ( d )
(27.20-a)
2
2
20
(27.20-b)
= (.85)(3)(20)(20)(21 ) + 4(1.56)(40)(24 6) + 2(1.56)(40)(9)
2
= 11, 220 + 4, 493 + 259.7
(27.20-c)
= 1, 476 k
(27.20-d)
=
4. Get s in tension bar

s
h d 23.5
s
fs
.003
c
.003
(24 3 23.5)
=
23.5
= .000319
= Es = (29, 000)(0.000319) = 9.25 ksi
=
(27.21-a)
(27.21-b)
(27.21-c)
(27.21-d)
5. Take F = 0 to check assumption of a
e=h
Pn
0.85fc ab + As fy + Asc fsc + As fs
(27.22-a)
1, 476 k
1, 476
(.85)(3)(a)(20) + (6)(1.56)(40) + (4)(1.56)(9.25)
(27.22-b)
51a + 374.4 + 57.7
20.4 in
(27.22-c)
(27.22-d)
Pn
Mn
1, 476 k
(27.22-e)
(1, 476)(2.4) = 3, 542 k.in = 295 k.ft
(27.22-f)
1. In this case e = 24 in > eb failure by tension. Pn and a are unknown.
Victor Saouma
2712
COLUMNS
Draft
2. Assume a = 7.9 in c =
a
1
7.9
.85
= 9.3 in
3. Steel stress at centroid

c
.003
sc
fsc
12 c
sc
12 9.3
.003 = .00087
9.3
(29, 000)(0.00087) = 25.3 ksi
(27.23-a)
(27.23-b)
(27.23-c)
4. Iterate
F = 0 Pn
(.85)fc ab + Asc fsc
(27.24-a)
= (.85)(3)(7.9)(20) 2(1.56)(25.3)
(27.24-b)
(27.24-c)
= 403 79 = 324 k
a
M = 0 Pn (e + h/2 d ) = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
dd
)
(27.24-d)
Asc fsc (
2
7.9
) + 4(1.56)(40)(21 3)
Pn (24 + 9) = (.85)(3)(7.9)(20)(21
2
+2(1.56)(25.3)(9)
(27.24-e)
(27.24-f)
Pn (33) = 6, 870 + 4, 493 710 = 10, 653 k.in
Pn = 323 k
(27.24-g)
5. Determine Mn
Mn = Pn e = (323)(24) = 7, 752 k.in = 646 k.ft
(27.25)
% e is known solve for P_n and M_n

%
% input data
b=20;h=24;A_s=4*1.56; Ap_s=A_s;A_sc=A_s/2;fp_c=3;f_y=40;E_s=29000;dp=3;
d=h-dp;
% solve for balanced conditions first
epsi_y=f_y/E_s;
c_b=0.003*d/(0.003+epsi_y);
a=0.85*c_b;
C_c=0.85*fp_c*a*b;
epsi_sc=0.003*(c_b-h/2)/c_b;
f_sc=E_s*epsi_sc;
C_s=epsi_sc*E_s*A_s;
P_nb=C_c+A_sc*f_sc
M_nb=0.85*fp_c*a*b*(h/2-a/2)+Ap_s*f_y*(h/2-dp)+Ap_s*(f_y-0.85*fp_c)*(h/2-dp)
e_b=M_nb/P_nb
%
% e=0.1h failure by compression; assume a=20
%
e=0.1*h;
error=1.;
a=17;
iter=0;
while abs(error) > 0.1
iter=iter+1;
c=a/0.85;
epsi_sc=0.003*(c-h/2)/c ;
f_sc=E_s*epsi_sc;
if(f_sc>f_y)
f_sc=f_y;
end
M_n=0.85*fp_c*a*b*(d-a/2)+Ap_s*f_y*(h-2*dp)+A_sc*f_y*(h/2-dp);
P_n=M_n/(h/2-dp+e);
epsi_s=0.003*(h-dp-c)/c;
f_s=abs(E_s*epsi_s);
a_new=(P_n-Ap_s*f_y-A_sc*f_sc-A_s*f_s)/(0.85*fp_c*b);
error=(a_new-a)/(a_new);
Victor Saouma
27.2 Short Columns
Draft
2713
a=a_new;
end
iter
P_n
M_n=P_n*e
%
% e=h; failure by tension
%
e=h;
error=1.;
a=10;
iter=0;
while abs(error) > 0.1
iter=iter+1;
c=a/0.85
epsi_sc=0.003*(c-h/2)/c ;
f_sc=E_s*epsi_sc;
if(f_sc>f_y)
f_sc=f_y;
end
P_n_1=0.85*fp_c*a*b+A_sc*f_sc
P_n_2=(0.85*fp_c*a*b*(d-a/2)+Ap_s*f_y*(d-dp)+A_sc*f_sc*(d-dp)/2)/(e+h/2-dp);
a_new=(P_n_2-A_sc*f_sc)/(0.85*fp_c*b);
error=(a_new-a)/a_new;
a=a_new;
end
iter
P_n_1
M_n=P_n_1*e
%================================
Balanced Conditions
d=21
epsi_y=0.0014
c_b=14.3858
a=12.2280
C_c=623.6256
epsi_sc=4.9754e-04
f_sc= 14.4286
C_s= 90.0343
P_nb= 668.6427
M_nb= 8.0203e+03
e_b= 11.9948
Failure by Compression
e=2.4000
error=1
a=17
iter=0
iter=1
c=20
epsi_sc=0.0012 05
f_sc=34.8000
M_n=1.6454e+04
P_n=1.4433e+03
epsi_s=1.5000e-04
f_s=4.3500
a_new=20.7445
error=0.1805
a= 20.7445
iter= 2
c=24.4053
epsi_sc=0.0015
f_sc=44.2224
f_sc=40
M_n=1.6860e+04
P_n=1.4789e+03
epsi_s=-4.1859e-04
f_s=12.1392
Failure by Tension
e=24
error=1
Victor Saouma
2714
COLUMNS
Draft
a=10
iter=0
iter=1
c=11.7647
epsi_sc=-6.0000ef_sc=-1.7400
P_n_1=504.5712
P_n_2=381.9376
a_new=7.5954
error=-0.3166
a=7.5954
iter=2
c=8.9358
epsi_sc=-0.0010
f_sc=-29.8336
P_n_1=294.2857
P_n_2=312.6867
a_new=7.9562
error=0.0453
a=7.9562
iter=2
P_n_1=294.2857
Example 27-3: R/C Column, Using Design Charts

Design the reinforcement for a column with h = 20 in, b = 12 in, d = 2.5 in, fc = 4, 000 psi,
fy = 60, 000 psi, to support PDL = 56 k, PLL = 72 k, MDL = 88 k.ft, MLL = 75 k.ft,
Solution:
1. Ultimate loads
Pu
Mu
=
=
(1.4)(56) + (1.7)(72) = 201 k

(1.4)(88) + (1.7)(75) = 251 k.ft
Pn
Mn
=
=
201
0.7
251
0.7
= 287 k
= 358 k.ft
(27.26)
2. Chart parameters
e
h
e
h
(358)(12)
= 0.75
(287)(20)
20 (2)(2.5)
= 0.75 interpolate between A3 and A4
20
Pn
287
= 0.3
=
bhfc
(12)(20)(4)
(27.27-b)
(0.3)(0.75) = 0.225
(27.27-d)
(27.27-a)
(27.27-c)
3. Interpolating between A.3 and A.4 t = 0.4

4. Reinforcement
t
=
=
At
bh
fy
.85fc
At =
(0.4)(b)(h)(.85)(fc )
1
= 5.45 in2 (27.28-a)
= (0.4)(12)(20)(.85)(4)
fy
(60)
(27.28-b)
use 4 # 9 & 2 # 8, At = 5.57 in2
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 28
DESIGN II
28.1
Frames
28.1.1
Beam Column Connections
The connection between the beam and the column can be, Fig. 28.1:
Flexible
Rigid
)
M=K(
s s b- c
b = c
Semi-Flexible
Figure 28.1: Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints

Flexible that is a hinge which can transfer forces only. In this case we really have cantiliver action
only. In a flexible connection the column and beam end moments are both equal to zero, Mcol =
Mbeam = 0. The end rotation are not equal, col = beam .
Rigid: The connection is such that beam = col and moment can be transmitted through the connection.
In a rigid connection, the end moments and rotations are equal (unless there is an externally applied
moment at the node), Mcol = Mbeam = 0, col = beam .
Semi-Rigid: The end moments are equal and not equal to zero, but the rotation are different. beam =
col , Mcol = Mbeam = 0. Furthermore, the difference in rotation is resisted by the spring Mspring =
Kspring (col beam ).
28.1.2
Behavior of Simple Frames
For vertical load across the beam rigid connection will reduce the maximum moment in the beam (at
the expense of a negative moment at the ends which will in turn be transferred to the columns).
The advantages of a rigid connection are greater when the frame is subjected to a lateral load. Under
those conditions, the connection will stiffen the structure and reduce the amount of lateral deflection,
Fig. 28.2.
Fig. 28.3 illustrates the deformation, shear, moment and axial forces in frames with different boundary
conditions under both vertical and horizontal loads.
282
Draft
DESIGN II
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
PI
Figure 28.2: Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads, (Lin
28.1.3
Eccentricity of Applied Loads
A concentric axial force P and moment M , applied on a support sytem (foundation, columns, prestressing) can be replaced by a static equivalent one in which the moment M is eliminated and the force
P applied with an eccentricity
e=
M
P
(28.1)
The induced stresses can be decomposed into uniform (P/L) (assuming a unit width) and linearly
varying one ( = M/S) and the end stresses are
min
max
L
P
+
L
(28.2-a)
(28.2-b)
We note that the linearly varying stress distribution must satisfy two equilibrium requirements: F = 0,
thus the neutral axis (where the stress is equal to zero) passes through the centroid of the section, and
M = 0, i.e. Mint = Mext .
7
If we seek the eccentricity ecr for which max equals zero, then =
The net tensile force due to the eccentric load is

T =
P
L
1 L
2 2
(28.3)
If we want this net tensile force to be equal and opposite to the compressive force, then
T
=
=
L
4
P
A
P
L
applied at 23 L2 from the centroid
(28.4)
Thus the net internal moment is

Mint = 2T
Victor Saouma
P 2L
PL
2L
=2
=
32
432
6
(28.5)
28.1 Frames
283
Draft
2
Frame Type
L
W=wL, M=wL/8, M=Ph
Moment
Shear
Deformation
w/2
Axial
M
-w/2
w/2
w/2
a
h
P
p
POST AND BEAM STRUCTURE

M
w/2
M
-w/2
w/2
w/2
c
-M/L
p
SIMPLE BENT FRAME
M/L
-M/L
w/2
M
-w/2
w/2
w/2
e
-M/L
M/L
-M/L
f
p
THREE-HINGE PORTAL
w/2
-w/2
M
M/h
-M/h
M/h
M/2
-M/L
M/2
p/2
THREE-HINGE PORTAL
w/2
0.4M
0.4M
-0.36M/h
w/2
M/2
-M/L
0.4M/h
0.64M
0.36M/h
-w/2
M/2
w/2
0.45M
0.45M
w/2
M/4
-0.5M/L
0.68M/h
0.55M
0.68M/h
-0.68M/h
-w/2
M/L
-M/L
p/2
TWO-HINGE FRAME
w/2
M/4
p/2
RIGID FRAME
M/4
M/4
M/2L
p/2
p/2
-M/2L
w/2
p/2
p/2
M/L
p/2
p/2
w/2
-M/L
w/2
Figure 28.3: Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames
Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Victor Saouma
284
DESIGN II
Draft
To satisfy the equilibrium equation, this internal moment must be equal and opposite to the external
moment Mext = P ecr hence
PL
= P ecr
(28.6)
6
Mext
Mint
or
ecr =
L
6
(28.7)
in other words to avoid tensile stresses on either side, the resultant force P must be placed within the
midle third kernel, Fig. 28.4
L/2
L/2
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/6
L/2
L/2
L/3
P
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/6
L/3
L/3
L/6
P/A
+
M/S
Figure 28.4: Axial and Flexural Stresses
10
This equation is fundamental in preventing tensile forces in

1. Prestressed concrete beams: If the prestressing cable is within the kernel (i.e middle third), then
there will not be any tensile stresses caused by prestressing alone.
2. Foundations: If the eccentricity is within the middle kernel, then we have compressive stresses only
under the foundation and no undesirable uplift.
3. Buildings: If the eccentricity of the vertical load is within the middle third, all columns will be
loaded under compression only.
28.1.4
Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch
Adapted from (Kinney 1957)

Design a two-hinged, solid welded-steel arch rib for a hangar. The moment of inertia of the rib is to
vary as necessary. The span, center to center of hinges, is to be 200 ft. Ribs are to be placed 35 ft center
to center, with a rise of 35 ft. Roof deck, purlins and rib will be assumed to weight 25 lb/ft2 on roof
surface, and snow will be assumed at 40 lb/ft2 of this surface. Twenty purlins will be equally spaced
around the rib.
1. The center line of the rib will be taken as the segment of a circle. By computation the radius of
this circle is found to be 160.357 ft, and the length of the arc AB to be 107.984 ft.
2. For the analysis the arc AB will be considered to be divided into ten segments, each with a length
of 10.798 ft. Thus a concentrated load is applied to the rib by the purlins framing at the center of
each segment. (The numbered segments are indicated in Fig. ??.
3. Since the total dead and snow load is 65 lb/ft2 of roof surface, the value of each concentrated force
will be
(28.8)
P = 10.798 35 65 = 24.565 k
Victor Saouma
28.1 Frames
285
Draft
Figure 28.5: Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch

4. The computations necessary to evaluate the coodinates of the centers of the various segments,
referred to the hinge at A, are shown in Table 28.1. Also shown are the values of x, the horizontal
projection of the distance between the centers of the several segments.
5. If experience is lacking and the designing engineer is therefore at a loss as to the initial assumptions
regarding the sectional variation along the rib, it is recommended that the first analysis be based
on the assumption of a constant moment of inertia. Even the experienced engineer will often find
that this is the best procedure.
6. The value of H having thus been determined, moments and axial thrusts are computed throughout
the rib. Cross-sectional areas at the various sections are then designed for these moments and axial
thrusts. A new value for H, as well as revised values for moments and axial thrust throughout the
rib, are determined for the new rib with the varying cross section. Stresses are checked in the rib,
and the whole process is repeated if necessary. This procedure will be followed in the present case.
7. By the general method, assuming that end A is on rollers,
Ah + HA AhAh = 0
(28.9)
8. Deflections will be computed by virtual work, and thus this expression becomes
M
M
S + HA
EI
M
S = 0
EI
(28.10)
9. Since E and S are constant and, for the first analysis, the moment of inertia is constant, the
final expression for HA is
M M
(28.11)
HA =
M M
All the computations necessary for the first evaluation of HA are shown in Table 28.2 yielding
HA =
M M
2 2, 158, 100
= 333.97k
=
2 6461.9
2M M
(28.12)
10. The moments at the centers of the various segments of the rib, using the approximate value just
determined for HA , are computed in Table 28.3, where a moment is considered to be positive if it
tends to cause compression on the upper surface of the rib.
Victor Saouma
286
DESIGN II
Draft
Segment
sin
cos
x =
R sin
(ft)
y =
R cos
(ft)
x =
100 x
(ft)
y =
y 125.36
(ft)
x
(ft)
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
38 34 49
36 39 05
32 47 36
28 56 07
25 04 38
21 13 09
17 21 40
13 30 11
09 38 42
05 47 13
01 55 44
0.62361
0.59695
0.54161
0.48382
0.42384
0.36194
0.29840
0.23350
0.16754
0.10083
0.03367
0.78173
0.80229
0.84063
0.87516
0.90574
0.93220
0.95444
0.97236
0.98586
0.99490
0.99943
100.000
95.725
86.851
77.584
67.966
58.040
47.851
37.443
26.866
16.169
5.399
125.36
128.65
134.80
140.34
145.24
149.48
153.05
155.92
158.09
159.54
160.27
160.36
0
4.275
13.149
22.416
32.034
41.960
52.149
62.557
73.134
83.831
94.601
100.000
0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.91
35.00
4.275
8.874
9.267
9.618
9.926
10.189
10.408
10.577
10.697
10.770
5.399
Table 28.1: Geometry of the Arch
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
(2)
(3)
x
(ft)
0.0
4.275
13.149
22.416
32.034
41.960
52.149
62.557
73.134
83.831
94.601
100.00
y = M
(ft k)
0.0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.91
35.00
(4)
Shear
to
right
(k)
245.650
221.085
196.520
171.955
147.390
122.825
98.260
73.695
49.130
24.565
0.000
(5)
(6)
x
(ft)
M
increment
(ft k)
(7)
M
simple
beam
(ft k)
4.275
8.874
9.267
9.618
9.926
10.189
10.408
10.577
10.697
10.770
5.399
1,050
1,962
1,821
1,654
1,463
1,251
1,023
779
526
265
0
1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790
(8)
(9)
M M
M M
3,500
28,400
72,400
129,100
191,800
254,800
312,400
360,000
394,100
411,600
10.9
89.2
224.4
395.4
582.2
767.0
934.4
1,071.4
1,168.4
1,218.6
2,158,100
6,461.9
Table 28.2: Calculation of Horizontal Force
Victor Saouma
28.1 Frames
287
Draft
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
y
(ft)
0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.19
35.00
M
simple
beam
(ft k)
HA y
(ft k)
Total M
at segment
(ft k)
1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790
1,100
3,150
5,000
6,640
8,060
9,250
10,210
10,930
11,420
11,660
11,690
50
140
170
150
110
50
+10
+70
+110
+130
+100
Table 28.3: Moment at the Centers of the Ribs

11. The thrust N , normal to the cross section at the center of each segment, must be computed before
the section requirements can be determined. As a matter of interest the various values of S, the
total shear on the cross section, will also be computed for the center of each segment.
12. N and S are obtained by combining components of H and the vertical shear V at the center of
each segment, a combination which is shown in Fig. 28.6 From this figure it is apparent that
in
os
Hc
Hs
Vc
os
in
Vs
Figure 28.6: Normal and Shear Forces

S
V cos H sin
(28.13-a)
= V sin + G cos
(28.13-b)
13. Values of S and N are computed in Table . The values of S are included in support of the statement
previously made to the effect that shearing forces are small in the usual arch rib.
14. Inspection of the values for the moment M in Table 28.3 and for the thrust N in Table 28.3 will
indicate that segment 3 is critical in the region of negative moment and segment 10 in the region of
positive moment. The necessary sections for the rib, at the centers of these two segments, must be
determined in accordance with the specifications of the American Institute of Steel Construction
before Table 28.5 can be completed.
15. Flanges are 12 in. 1 in., and the allowable stress for bending is FB =20 k/in2 . The web thickness
is 34 in., and the allowable axial stress1 is FA =17,000-0.485 L/r.
1 In
this equation the value of L is 10.798, since ribs are laterally braced at purlin framing points.
Victor Saouma
288
Draft
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
DESIGN II
V (k)
245.6
221.1
196.5
172.0
147.4
122.8
98.3
73.7
49.1
24.6
0.0
V cos
192
177
165
150
133
114
94
72
48
244
0
H sin
-208
-199
-181
-162
-142
-121
-100
-78
-56
-34
-11
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
S (k)
-16
-22
-16
-12
-9
-7
-6
-6
-8
-10
-11
V sin
153
132
106
83
62
44
29
17
8
2
0
+H cos
+ 261
+268
+281
+292
+303
+311
+319
+325
+329
+332
+334
+334
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
N (k)
414
400
387
375
365
355
348
342
337
334
334
334
Table 28.4: Values of Normal and Shear Forces

16. Thickness of flange and web plates and width of web plates are matters of judgment. The total
depth determined for the center of segment 3 is used from the center of this segment to the end of
the rib. The depth determined for the center of segment 10 is arbitrarily used for the rib depth at
the crown. The total depth of the rib from the center of segment 3 to the crown is made to vary
linerarly. The adequacies of the sections thus determined for the centers of the several segments
are checked in Table 28.5.
17. It is necessary to recompute the value of HA because the rib now has a varying moment of inertia.
Equation 28.11 must be altered to include the I of each segment and is now written as
HA =
M M /I
M M /I
(28.14)
18. The revised value for HA is easily determined as shown in Table 28.6. Note that the values in
column (2) are found by dividing the values of M M for the corresponding segments in column (8)
of Table 28.2 by the total I for each segment as shown in Table 28.5. The values in column (3) of
Table 28.6 are found in a similar manner from the values in column (9) of Table 28.2. The simple
beam moments in column (5) of Table 28.6 are taken directly from column (7) of Table 28.2.
19. Thus the revised HA is
HA =
2
2
M M /I
= f rac2 1, 010.852 3.0192 = 334.81k
M M /I
(28.15)
20. The revised values for the axial thrust N at the centers of the various segments are computed in
Table 28.7.
21. The sections previously designed at the centers of the segments are checked for adequacy in Table
28.8. From this table it appears that all sections of the rib are satisfactory. This cannot be
definitely concluded, however, until the secondary stresses caused by the deflection of the rib are
investigated.
28.1.5
Temperature Changes in an Arch
Adapted from (Kinney 1957)

Determine the effects of rib shortening and temperature changes in the arch rib of Fig. 28.5. Consider
a temperature drop of 100 F.
1. In order to determine the effects of rib shortening it is first necessary to find the horizontal displacement of end A which will result if the elastic axial strains, which occur in the actual loaded
arch, are introduced into the rib while end A is on rollers. It is then necessary to find the horizontal
Victor Saouma
28.1 Frames
Draft
Victor Saouma
(2)
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
Total
depth
(in.)
23.00
23.00
23.00
23.00
22.07
21.13
20.20
19.27
18.32
17.40
16.47
16.00
(3)
Area
(in2 )
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.05
38.35
37.65
36.95
36.24
35.55
34.85
34.50
(4)
I
(in4 )
3483
3483
3483
3483
3172
2865
2585
2329
2071
1838
1631
1527
(5)
M
(ft k)
50
140
170
150
110
50
10
70
110
130
100
(6)
Axial
thrust N
(k)
414
400
387
375
365
355
348
342
337
334
334
334
(7)
fa =
(8)
fb =
(9)
N
A
Mc
I
Allowable
Fa
(k/in2 )
15.88
15.88
15.88
15.88
15.90
15.92
15.94
15.96
15.97
15.99
16.01
16.03
(k/in2 )
10.4
10.1
9.7
9.4
9.3
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.6
9.7
(k/in2 )
2.0
5.9
6.8
6.3
4.9
2.3
0.5
3.7
6.3
7.9
6.3
(10)
fa
Fa
0.66
0.63
0.61
0.60
0.59
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.60
(11)
fb
Fb
0.10
0.28
0.34
0.32
0.24
0.11
0.02
0.19
0.31
0.40
0.32
(12)
Decimal
of
capacity
0.66
0.73
0.89
0.94
0.91
0.82
0.70
0.61
0.77
0.90
1.00
0.92
289
Table 28.5: Design of the Arch
2810
Draft
DESIGN II
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Segment
Mn
I
m2
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
1.00
8.16
20.79
40.67
66.95
98.57
134.13
173.82
214.41
252.35
0.0031
0.0256
0.0644
0.1247
0.2032
0.2967
0.4012
0.5174
0.6357
0.7472
1010.85
3.0192
Revised
HA y
(ft k)
1,100
3,160
5,020
6,660
8,080
9,270
10,240
10,960
11,450
11,690
11,720
(5)
M
simple
beam
(ft k)
1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790
(6)
Revised
moment
(ft k)
-50
-150
-190
-170
-130
-70
-20
+40
+80
+100
+70
Table 28.6:
Segment
V sin
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
153
132
106
83
62
44
29
17
8
2
0
H cos
262
269
282
293
303
312
320
326
330
333
335
335
Revised
N
(k)
415
401
388
376
365
356
349
343
338
335
335
335
Table 28.7:
N
A
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
(k/in2 )
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.5
9.4
9.3
9,3
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.6
9.7
Mc
I
(k/in2 )
2.0
6.0
7.6
7.1
5.7
3.3
1.0
2.1
4.5
6.1
4.4
N/A
FA
0.66
0.64
0.62
0.60
0.59
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61
Mc /I
FB
0.11
0.30
0.38
0.36
0.29
0.17
0.05
0.11
0.23
0.31
0.23
Decimal
of
capacity
0.66
0.75
0.92
0.98
0.95
0.87
0.75
0.63
0.69
0.82
0.91
0.84
Table 28.8:
Victor Saouma
28.1 Frames
2811
Draft
N
(k)
401
388
376
365
356
349
343
338
335
335
Segment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
N = cos
(k)
0.8023
0.8406
0.8752
0.9057
0.9322
0.9544
0.9724
0.9859
0.9949
0.9994
A
(in2 )
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.05
38.35
37.65
36.95
36.24
35.55
34.85
N N
A
8.07
8.21
8.30
8.49
8.68
8.86
9.04
9.22
9.41
9.60
87.88
N
A
0.0162
0.0178
0.0193
0.0210
0.0227
0.0242
0.0256
0.0268
0.0286
0.0278
0.2300
Table 28.9:
displacement of end A, caused by a horizontal force of 1 k acting at A, considering both flexural
and axial strains in the rib. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening
caused by the real loads, is given by
N N
L
(28.16)
AE
where N is the axial thrust taken from Table 28.7, N is the axial thrust caused by a 1 k fictitious
horizontal force acting at A and equal to cos in Table 28.1, L is the length of each segment,
and A is the right sectional area.
2. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening caused by a 1 k horizontal
force acting at A, is given by
N
N L
(28.17)
AE
3. The necessary computations for evaluating these two deflections of A are shown in Table 28.9.
4. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening caused by the real load, is
N
2 87.88 10.798 12
N
L =
= 0.760 in
AE
30, 000
(28.18)
5. That resulting from the rib shortening caused by a 1 k horizontal load at A is

N
2 0.2300 10.798 12
N
L =
= 0.002 in
AE
30, 000
(28.19)
6. The relative value of the horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the flexural strain caused
by a 1 k horizontal force at A, has previously been determined in column (3) of Table ??. The
absolute value for this displacement is
2 3.019 10.798 1728 1728
= 3.755 in .
30, 000
(28.20)
7. The total value for the displacement of A due to both flexural and axial strains resulting from a 1
k horizontal force at A is therefore
3.755 + 0.002 = 3.757 in
(28.21)
8. The reduction in HA due to rib shortening is given by

0.760
= 0.20 k
3.757
Victor Saouma
(28.22)
2812
DESIGN II
Draft
9. An additional reduction in HA will result from any drop in the temperature of the rib below
that temperature at which the arch is erected. This occurs, of course, because some additional
shortening of the rib will result. The decrease in the length of the horizontal projection of the rib
resulting from a temperature drop of 100 F will be
L = 0.0000065 100 200 12 = 1.56 in
10. The resulting decrease in HA will be
(28.23)
1.56
= 0.42 k
3.757
(28.24)
11. The total decrease in HA due to both rib shortening and temperature drop is
0.20 + 0.42 = 0.62 k
(28.25)
This will have the effect of increasing the moment near the center of the span.
12. Inspection of column (6) in Table 28.8 indicates that segment 10 should be checked for possible
overstress as the result of this increase. The increase in moment at segment 10 will be given by
M = HA (yfor segment10) = 0.62 34.91 = 21.6 ft k
(28.26)
13. The moment of 100 ftk, as previously determined for segment 10, is accurate only in the first two
places, and hence the revised total moment for segment 10 will be
100 + 20 = 120 ft k
(28.27)
14. The thrust of 335 k, previously determined for segment 10, is accurate to three places. The change
in HA due to rib shortening and temperature change must therefore be rounded to 1 k in order to
determine the corrected thrust in segment 10. This corrected thrust will be
335 1 = 334 k
(28.28)
15. The extreme fiber stress is

f=
120 8.23 12
Mc
2
=
= 7.25 k/in
I
1631
(28.29)
16. The section at segment 10 is checked, as indicated in Table 28.8, by

334/34.85 7.25
N/A Mc /I
+
= 0.60 + 0.36 = 0.96
+
=
FA
FB
16.01
20
(28.30)
and obviously the section at segment 10 is adequate.

17. No consideration has been given to the effects of a temperature rise, since such a rise can occur
only during the summer months when no snow loading is possible. Consequently, this phase of the
problem has no practical significance.
18. The method of analysis just demonstrated will apply equally well to a reinforced concrete or a
timber two-hinged arch. As previously stated, however, very few reinforced concrete arches are
built with two hinges.
19. Of special note here is the fact that, in addition to axial strain and temperature drop, the shrinkage
of the concrete in a reinforced concrete rib will also cause rib shortening. The shrinkage coefficient
should be determined for the mix to be used and applied in the analysis in the same general way
as demonstrated above for the temperature coefficient.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 29
INFLUENCE LINES (unedited)

UNEDITED
An influence line is a diagram whose ordinates are the values of some
function of the structure (reaction, shear, moment, etc.) as a unit load
moves across the structure.
The shape of the influence line for a function (moment, shear, reaction,
etc.) can be obtained by removing the resistance of the structure to that
function, at the section where the influence line is desired, and applying
an internal force associated with that function at the section so as to
produce a unit deformation at the section. The deformed shape that the
structure will take represents the shape of the influence line.
292
Draft
INFLUENCE LINES (unedited)
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 30
ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL
RELIABILITY
30.1
Introduction
C
Traditionally, evaluations of structural adequacy have been expressed by safety factors SF = D
, where
C is the capacity (i.e. strength) and D is the demand (i.e. load). Whereas this evaluation is quite simple
to understand, it suffers from many limitations: it 1) treats all loads equally; 2) does not differentiate
between capacity and demands respective uncertainties; 3) is restricted to service loads; and last but
not least 4) does not allow comparison of relative reliabilities among different structures for different
performance modes. Another major deficiency is that all parameters are assigned a single value in an
analysis which is then deterministic.
1
2 Another approach, a probabilistic one, extends the factor of safety concept to explicitly incorporate
uncertainties in the parameters. The uncertainties are quantified through statistical analysis of existing
data or judgmentally assigned.
This chapter will thus develop a procedure which will enable the Engineer to perform a reliability
based analysis of a structure, which will ultimately yield a reliability index. This is turn is a universal
indicator on the adequacy of a structure, and can be used as a metric to 1) assess the health of a
structure, and 2) compare different structures targeted for possible remediation.
30.2
Elements of Statistics
Elementary statistics formulaes will be reviewed, as they are needed to properly understand structural
reliability.
5 When a set of N values xi is clustered around a particular one, then it may be useful to characterize
the set by a few numbers that are related to its moments (the sums of integer powers of the values):
Mean: estimates the value around which the data clusters.

=
1
N
xi
(30.1)
i=1
it is the arithmetic average of all the data points.

Expected Value: If data are not available, an expected value is assigned based on experience and
judgment, and E(x) = x .
Both the mean and the expected values are termed first moment, and they correspond to the
centroid of a probability density distribution.
E(x) = x
=
=
xf (x)dx
N
i=1 xf (x)
Continuous systems
Discrete systems
(30.2)
302
ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY
Draft
Median: of a sorted series (xi1 < xi < xi+1 ) is defined as:

xmed =
N odd
x N +1
2
1
even
2 (x N + x N +1 ) N
2
(30.3)
=
or
1
N (xi )2
N 1 i=1
(30.4)
1 N
(xi )2
(30.5)Note
Variance: is an indication of the width of the cluster: 2 =
N i=1
that if N is less than 10, it is more appropriate to use the second equation, otherwise use the first
one.
Standard Deviation: is defined as the square root of the Variance
=
(30.6)
Coefficient of Variation: is the standard deviation normalized with respect to the mean:
V=
(30.7)
When insufficient data are available to accurately compute the moments, the coefficient of variation
is often estimated on the basis of experience.
Covariance: Pairs of random variables may be correlated or independent. If correlated, then the
likelihood of y depends on the likelihood of x. Thus, covariance xy measures the combined effect
of how two variables vary together.
xy =
1
N
(xi x )(yi y )
(30.8)
i=1
Correlation Coefficient: xy is a nondimentional measure of the degree of correlation

xy =
xy
x y
(30.9)
A correlation coefficient of 1.0 or 1.0 indicates a perfect linear correlation. A positive value
indicates that the variables either increase or decrease together, a negative one indicates that one
value increases while the other decreases. A zero value indicates that there is no linear correlation
between the variables.
Skewness: characterizes the degree of asymmetry of a distribution around its mean. It is defined in a
non-dimensional value. A positive one signifies a distribution with an asymmetric tail extending
out toward more positive x
3
xi
1
(30.10)
Skew = N
N i=1
Kurtosis: is a nondimensional quantity which measures the flatness or peakedness of a distribution.

It is normalized with respect to the curvature of a normal distribution. Hence a negative value
would result from a distribution resembling a loaf of bread, while a positive one would be induced
by a sharp peak:
4
1
xi
3
(30.11)
Kurt = N
i=1
N
the 3 term makes the value zero for a normal distribution.

The expected value (or mean), standard deviation and coefficient of variation are interdependent:
knowing any two, we can determine the third.
Victor Saouma
30.3 Distributions of Random Variables
303
Draft
30.3
7
Distribution of variables can be mathematically represented.
30.3.1
8
Uniform Distribution
Uniform distribution implies that any value between xmin and xmax is equaly likely to occur.
30.3.2
9
Distributions of Random Variables
Normal Distribution
The general normal3.0

(or 2.5
Gauss)
distribution
given0.0by, 0.5
Fig. 30.1:
2.0
1.5 1.0 is0.5
1.0 1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.40
0.35
0.30
PDF
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
CDF
0.00
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
x
Figure 30.1: Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function
(x) =
10
1 x 2
1
e 2 [ ]
2
(30.12)
A normal distribution N (, 2 ) can be normalized by defining
y=
(30.13)
and y would have a distribution N (0, 1):

y2
1
(y) = e 2
2
(30.14)
11 The normal distribution has been found to be an excellent approximation to a large class of distributions, and has some very desirable mathematical properties:
Victor Saouma
304
Draft
1. f (x) is symmetric with respect to the mean .
2. f (x) is a bell curve with inflection points at x = .

3. f (x) is a valid probability distribution function as:
f (x) = 1
(30.15)
4. The probability that xmin < x < xmax is given by:

xmax
P (xmin < x < xmax ) =
f (x)dx
(30.16)
xmin
5. Cumulative distribution functions (cdf) of the normal distribution defined as:

1
(s) =
2
e 2 [
1
x 2
] dx
(30.17)
and is expressed in terms of the error function (erf).

6. The cdf of normalized normal distribution function is given by:
1
(s) =
2
x2
2
dx
(30.18)
and is usually tabulated in books.
30.3.3
Lognormal Distribution
12 A random variable is lognormally distributed if the natural logarithm of the variable is normally
distributed.
13
It provides a reasonable shape when the coefficient of variation is large.
30.3.4
Beta Distribution
14 Beta distributions are very flexible and can assume a variety of shapes including the normal and
uniform distributions as special cases.
15
On the other hand, the beta distribution requires four parameters.
16
Beta distributions are selected when a particular shape for the probability density function is desired.
30.3.5
BiNormal distribution
30.4
Reliability Index
30.4.1
Performance Function Identification
Designating F the capacity to demand ratio C/D (or performance function), in general F is a function
of one or more variables xi which describe the geometry, material, loads, and boundary conditions
17
F = F (xi )
(30.19)
and thus F is in turn a random variable with its own probability distribution function, Fig. 30.2.
18 A performance function evaluation typically require a structural analysis, this may range from a
simple calculation to a detailled finite element study.
Victor Saouma
30.4 Reliability Index
305
Draft
30.4.2
Definitions
Reliability indices, are used as a relative measure of the reliability or confidence in the ability of
a structure to perform its function in a satisfactory manner. In other words they are a measure of the
performance function.
19
20 Probabilistic methods are used to systematically evaluate uncertainties in parameters that affect
structural performance, and there is a relation between the reliability index and risk.
Reliability index is defined in terms of the performance function capacity C, and the applied load or
demand D. It is assumed that both C and D are random variables.
21
The safety margin is defined as Y = C D. Failure would occur if Y < 0 Next, C and D can be
combined and the result expressed logarithmically, Fig. 30.2.
22
X = ln
C
D
(30.20)
Failure would occur for negative values of X

23 The probability of failure Pf is equal to the ratio of the shaded area to the total area under the
curve in Fig. 30.2.
10
140
Demand
8
=300; =50
=150; =30
PDF
100
Capacity
80
60
pdf ln(C/D)
120
6
ln(C/D)
4
Failure
40
0
1.00
20
0
0.0
0.50
0.00
0.50
ln(C/D)
1.00
1.50
2.00
Failure
100.0
200.0
300.0 Definition
400.0
500.0
Figure
30.2:
of Reliability
Index
Tensile Stress [psi]
C
If X is assumed to follow a Normal Distribution than it has a mean value X = ln D
standard deviation .
24
25
and a
We define the safety index (or reliability index) as the distance between mean performance value
ln C/D
=
(30.21)
ln C/D
and the limit state normalized with respect to the standard deviation
ln C/D
ln 1 +
26
2
ln
C/D
C/D
(30.22)
2
C/D
C
The limit state is defined as a ratio of capacity to demand approaching unity (i.e. ln D
0).
Alternatively, the reliability index can be expressed in terms of the individual means of C and D, and
their respective coefficients of variations
27
=
Victor Saouma
C
ln D
VC2 + VD2
(30.23)
306
Draft
1
For standard distributions and for = 3.5, it can be shown that the probability of failure is Pf = 9,091
4
or 1.1 10 . That is 1 in every 10,000 structural members designed with = 3.5 will fail because of
either excessive load or understrength sometime in its lifetime.
28
30.4.3
Mean and Standard Deviation of a Performance Function
29 In general, some of the analysis parameters are constants, and others are variables. The variables will
be characterized by a mean and a standard deviation, and a distribution function.
30 The objective is to determine the mean and standard deviation of the performance function defined
in terms of C/D.
31
Those two parameters, in turn, will later be required to compute the reliability index.
30.4.3.1
Direct Integration
32 Given a function random variable x, the mean value of the function is obtained by integrating the
function over the probability distribution function of the random variable
g(x)f (x)dx
[F (x)] =
(30.24)
33
For more than one variable,
[F (x)] =
F (x1 , x2 , , xn )F (x1 , x2 , , xn )dx1 dx2 dxn
(30.25)
34 Note that in practice, the function F (x) is very rarely available for practical problems, and hence this
method is seldom used.
30.4.3.2
35
Monte Carlo Simulation
The performance function is evaluated for many possible values of the random variables.
36 Assuming that all variables have a normal distribution, then this is done through the following algorithm
1. initialize random number generators

2. Perform n analysis, for each one:
(a) For each variable, determine a random number for the given distribution
(b) Transform the random number
(c) Analyse
(d) Determine the performance function, and store the results
3. From all the analyses, determine the mean and the standard deviation, compute the reliability
index.
4. Count the number of analyses, nf which performance function indicate failure, the likelihood of
structural failure will be p(f ) = nf /n.
37 A sample program (all subroutines are taken from (Press, Flannery, Teukolvsky and Vetterling 1988)
which generates n normally distributed data points, and then analyze the results, determines mean and
standard deviation, and sort them (for histogram plotting), is shown below:
Victor Saouma
Draft
307
Victor Saouma
program nice
parameter(ns=100000)
real x(ns), mean, sd
write(*,*)enter mean, standard-deviation and n
read(*,*)mean,sd,n
c initialize
tmp=gasdev(-1)
do i=1,n
c obtain gausian distribution and adjust for mean and standard deviation
x(i)=gasdev(1)*sd+mean
end do
c compute mean and standard deviation
call moment(x,n,ave,adev,sdev,var,skew,curt)
c sort and print results
call sort(n,x)
write(*,*)(x(i),i=1,n)
write(*,*) average standard deviation,ave,sdev
stop
end
c----------------------------------------------------------------------------function gasdev(idum)
c*** Function to produce a normally distributed variable with zero
c
mean and unit ariance.
data iset/0/
if (iset.eq.0) then
1
v1=2.*ran1(idum)-1.
v2=2.*ran1(idum)-1.
r=v1**2+v2**2
if(r.ge.1..or.r.eq.0.)go to 1
fac=sqrt(-2.*log(r)/r)
gset=v1*fac
gasdev=v2*fac
iset=1
else
gasdev=gset
iset=0
endif
return
end
c----------------------------------------------------------------------------function ran1(idum)
c *** Returns a uniform random variable between 0.0 and 1.0,
c
set idum to any negative value to initialize, or reinitialize the sequence
dimension r(97)
parameter (m1=259200,ia1=7141,ic1=54773,rm1=3.8580247e-6)
parameter (m2=134456,ia2=8121,ic2=28411,rm2=7.4373773e-6)
parameter (m3=243000,ia3=4561,ic3=51349)
data iff /0/
if (idum.lt.0.or.iff.eq.0) then
iff=1
ix1=mod(ic1-idum,m1)
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix2=mod(ix1,m2)
ix3=mod(ix1,m3)
do 11 j=1,97
r(j)=(float(ix1)+float(ix2)*rm2)*rm1
11
continue
idum=1
endif
j=1+(97*ix3)/m3
if(j.gt.97.or.j.lt.1)pause
ran1=r(j)
r(j)=(float(ix1)+float(ix2)*rm2)*rm1
return
end
c-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
308
Draft
Victor Saouma
subroutine moment(data,n,ave,adev,sdev,var,skew,curt)
c given array of data of length N, returns the mean AVE, average
c
deviation ADEV, standard deviation SDEV, variance VAR, skewness SKEW,
c
and kurtosis CURT
dimension data(n)
if(n.le.1)pause n must be at least 2
s=0.
do 11 j=1,n
s=s+data(j)
11
continue
ave=s/n
adev=0.
var=0.
skew=0.
curt=0.
do 12 j=1,n
s=data(j)-ave
adev=adev+abs(s)
p=s*s
var=var+p
p=p*s
skew=skew+p
p=p*s
curt=curt+p
12
continue
adev=adev/n
var=var/(n-1)
sdev=sqrt(var)
if(var.ne.0.)then
skew=skew/(n*sdev**3)
curt=curt/(n*var**2)-3.
else
pause no skew or kurtosis when zero variance
endif
return
end
c-----------------------------------------------------------------------------subroutine sort(n,ra)
dimension ra(n)
l=n/2+1
ir=n
10
continue
if(l.gt.1)then
l=l-1
rra=ra(l)
else
rra=ra(ir)
ra(ir)=ra(1)
ir=ir-1
if(ir.eq.1)then
ra(1)=rra
return
endif
endif
i=l
j=l+l
20
if(j.le.ir)then
if(j.lt.ir)then
if(ra(j).lt.ra(j+1))j=j+1
endif
if(rra.lt.ra(j))then
ra(i)=ra(j)
i=j
j=j+j
else
j=ir+1
endif
go to 20
endif
ra(i)=rra
go to 10
end
309
Draft
38 As an example, using the above program, and assuming a normal distribution with a mean of 100.
and a standard deviation of 20, results shown in Table 30.1 are obtained.
n
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
100.33
100.49
100.123
99.964
100.029
7.17
9.73
9.73
9.88
9.97
xmin
91.05
77.01
72.54
66.20
53.65
xmax
111.29
120.92
131.43
134.31
145.39
Table 30.1: Tabulated Results of a Simple Monte-Carlo Simulation.

39 Note that for monte carlo simulations to be effective, hundreds (and occasionally thousands) of analyses must be performed.
30.4.3.3
Point Estimate Method
40 As noted above, even for the simplest problem a successful Monte-Carlo simulation can be computationally very expensive. This is even more though when the evaluation of the performance function can
only be achieved through a finite element analysis.
41 Whereas in the Monte Carlo simulations numerous random analyses had to be performed, in this
method we select only few points such that they match the mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of
skewness of the distribution1 , (Harr 1987, Wolff 1985).
42
This is accomplished by limiting ourselves to all possible combinations of i i .
43
For each analysis we determine SFF, as well as its logarithm.
Mean and standard deviation of the logarithmic values are then determined from the 2n analyses,
and then is the ratio of the mean to the standard deviation.
44
30.4.3.4
Taylors Series-Finite Difference Estimation
In the previous method, we have cut down the number of deterministic analyses to 2n , in the following
method, we reduce it even further to 2n + 1, (US Army Corps of Engineers 1992, US Army Corps of
Engineers 1993, Bryant, Brokaw and Mlakar 1993).
45
46 This simplified approach starts with the first order Taylor series expansion of Eq. 30.19 about the
mean and limited to linear terms, (Benjamin and Cornell 1970).
(30.26)
F = F (i )
where i is the mean for all random variables.
47
For independent random variables, the variance can be approximated by
1 Such
V ar(F ) = F2
F
xi
F
i
xi
Fi+ Fi
2i
(30.27-a)
(30.27-b)
a simplification is behind the development of the Whitney stress block in the ACI code; a complex stress
distribution is replaced by a simpler one (rectangular), such that both have the same resultant force and location.
Victor Saouma
3010
Draft
Fi+
Fi
F (1 , , i + i , , n )
(30.27-c)
F (1 , , i i , , n )
(30.27-d)
where i are the standard deviations of the variables. Hence,

F =
Fi+ Fi
2
(30.28)
ln F
F
(30.29)
Finally, the reliability index is given by

=
48
The procedure can be summarized as follows:

1. Perform an initial analysis in which all variables are set equal to their mean value. This analysis
provides the mean .
2. Perform 2n analysis, in which all variables are set equal to their mean values, except variable i,
which assumes a value equal to i + i , and then i i .
3. For each pair of analysis in which variable xi is modified, determine
(a) The standard deviation, which will provide an indication of the sensitivity of the results to
variation of this particular variable.
(b)
Fi+ Fi
2
4. The standard deviation is then determined by simply adding all the

analyses. by the mean.
Fi+ Fi
2
terms. from the 2n
5. Having determined the mean and standard deviation of C/D, the corresponding values for the
logarithm of C/D, ln C/D and ln C/D , and are determined from Eq. 30.22.
30.4.4
Overall System Reliability
49 Reliability indices for a number of components, or a number of modes of performance may be used
to estimate the overall reliability of a structure.
50
We consider two extreme cases:
Series System: Such a system will perform poorly if any one component perform unsatisfactorily. If
a system has n components in series, the probability of unsatisafcatorily performance of the ith
component is pi and its reliability Ri = 1 pi , then the reliability of the system, or probability
that all components will perform satisfactorily is
R
= R1 R2 Ri Rn
= (1 pi )(1 p2 ) (1 pi ) (1 pn )
(30.30-a)
Parallel Systems: Such a system will only perform unsatisfactorily if all component perform unsatisfactorily. Hence the reliability is
R = 1 p1 p2 pi pn
30.4.5
(30.31)
Target Reliability Factors
51 Reliability indices are a relative measure of the current condition and provide a qualitative estimate
of the structural performance.
52 Structures with relatively high reliable indices will be expected to perform well. If the value is too
low, then the structure may be classified as a hazard.
53
Target values for are shown in Table 30.2, and in Fig. 30.3
Victor Saouma
3011
Draft
Probability of Failure in terms of
10
Good
10
Poor
10
Unsatisfactory
10
Above Average
Below Average
10
Hazardous
1/(Probability of Failure)
10
10
10
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Figure 30.3: Probability of Failure in terms of
Victor Saouma
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Draft

Expected Performance
High
Good
Above Average
Below Average
Poor
Unsatisfactory
Hazardous
5
4
3
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Failures
3/10 million
3/100,000
1/1,000
6/1,000
2.3/100
7/100
16/100
Table 30.2: Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures
30.5
Reliability Analysis
The steps involved in a reliability analysis are:

1. Model Develop a model which describes the performance mode and limit state to be evaluated.
2. Limit state determine the limit states in terms of ratios of capacity to demand.
3. Parameters Identify material properties and structure geometric parameters which enter into the
analysis/ Separate those which may be considered constants from those which should be treated
as random variables.
4. Variables Assign means, standard deviation, and coefficients of correlations to random variables
based on available or obtainable information. These may be derived from distributions, calculated
directly from data, or assigned judgmentally.
5. Performance function Formulate the performance function C/D, in terms of constants and variables
that describe the performance mode of interest.
6. Means and standard deviations of performance functions Determine the means and standard deviations of the performance function (C/D) for the performance modes of interest.
7. Calculate reliability index Calculate using any of the methods described above.
Victor Saouma
Draft
Bibliography
318, A. C.: n.d., Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, (ACI 318-83), American Concrete
Institute.
Arbabi, F.: 1991, Structural Analysis and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Benjamin, J. and Cornell, C.: 1970, Probability, Statistics, and Decision for Civil Engineers, McGraw
Hill, New York.
Billington, D.: 1979, Robert Maillarts Bridges; The art of Engineering, Princeton University Press.
Billington, D. and Mark, R.: 1983, Structural studies, Technical report, Department of Civil Engineering,
Princeton University.
Bryant, L., Brokaw, J. and Mlakar, P.: 1993, Reliability modeling of concrete overstressing, Technical
report, JAYCOR, Vicksburg Mississippi. Report Submitted to U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station.
Chajes, A.: 1983, Prentice-Hall.
Gerstle, K.: 1974, Basic Structural Analysis, XX. Out of Print.
Harr, M.: 1987, Reliability Based Design in Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill, New York.
Kinney, J.: 1957, Indeterminate Structural Analysis, Addison-Wesley. Out of Print.
Lin, T. and Stotesbury, S.: 1981, Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers, John
Wiley.
of Steel COnstruction, A. I.: 1986, Manual of Steel Construction; Load and Resistance Factor Design,
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Penvenuto, E.: 1991, An Introduction to the History of Structural Mechanics, Springer-Verlag.
Press, W., Flannery, B., Teukolvsky, S. and Vetterling, W.: 1988, Numerical Recipies in Fortran, The
Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press.
Salmon, C. and Johnson, J.: 1990, Steel Structures; Design and Behavior, Harper Colins. Third Edition.
Schueller, W.: 1996, The design of Building Structures, Prentice Hall.
UBC: 1995, Uniform building code, Technical report, International COnference of Building Officials.
US Army Corps of Engineers: 1992, Reliability assessment of navigation structures, ETL 1110-2-532,
Department of the Army, US Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C.
US Army Corps of Engineers: 1993, Reliability assessment of navigation structures; stability of existing gravity structures, ETL 1110-2-321, Department of the Army, US Army Corps of Engineers,
Washington, D.C.
White, R., Gergely, P. and Sexmith, R.: 1976, Structural Engineering, John Wiley & Sons. Out of Print.
Wolff, T.: 1985, Analysis and Design of Embankment Dam Slopes: A Probabilistic Approach, PhD thesis,
Purdue University.

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Structural Engineering II

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Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

Structural Engineering can be characterized as

-Really Unknown Source

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING I; CVEN 3525

4 EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

7 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI and AISC CODES

9 STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

10 INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

11 ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

12 DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

13 ENERGY METHODS; Part I

13.3.1 External Virtual Work W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14 BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

16 STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS

18 UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

19 Beam Columns, (Unedited)

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING II; CVEN 3235

20 ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

E 20-2 Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21 STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

23 KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

23.5.1.4 Distribution Factor (DF) . . . . . . . . . . .

24 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I

25 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II

26 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

26.3.2 Local and Global Element Stiffness Matrices ([k(e) ] [K(e) ])

29 INFLUENCE LINES (unedited)

Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D) .

Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel . . . . . .

Cable Structure Subjected to q(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Load Life of a Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eiffel Tower (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . .

Stress Concentration Around Circular Hole

Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Curvature of a flexural element . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.1 Load Deflection Curves . . .

15.1 Stability of a Rigid Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.1 SSRC Column Curve and AISC Critical Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Examples of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18.1 I Shaped Beam in Slightly Buckled Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

20.13Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2013

Sign Convention, Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . .

24.1 Cracked Section, Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams . . . .

26.1 Global Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28.1 Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30.1 Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Unit Weight of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Properties of Major Structural Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Usual Gage Lengths g, g1 , g2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

12.1 Conjugate Beam Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215

g1 (x)g2 (x)dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Example of Nodal Definition .

Geometry of the Arch . . . . . . .

30.1 Tabulated Results of a Simple Monte-Carlo Simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Structures and their Surroundings

Structural design is affected by various environmental constraints:

Architecture & Engineering