Computer Concepts

Computer System Concepts BCA I
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INTRUDUCTIUN
A computer is a programmable device which responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-
defined manner and executes a prerecorded list of instructions. A computer is an electronic device
which takes input from the user, processes it, stores it and gives output in desired form. The
computer as a system is a combination of hardware and software components that jointly offer the
necessary services to the user. Computer is derived from the Latin word Computure which means
to calculate.
CHARACTERISTICS UF CUMPUTERS
1. Speed: The speed of computer for performing a single operation can be measured in terms of
Milliseconds, Microseconds, Nanoseconds and Picoseconds.
1/ 1000 or (10
-3
) sec..1 Millisecond (ms)
1/ 1000000 or (10
-6
) sec....1 Microsecond (s)
1/ 1000000000 or (10
-9
) sec .1 Nanosecond (ns)
1/ 000000000000 or (10
-12
) sec1 Picosecond (ps)
1/ 000000000000000 or (10
-15
) sec..1 Femtosecond (fm)
2. Storage: The storing capacity is measured in terms of Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes and
Terabytes.
4 bits..................................1 Nibble
8 bits..................................1 Byte
1024 Bytes............................................................1 Kilobyte (KB)
1024 Kilobytes.......................................................1 Megabyte (MB)
1024 Megabytes.....................................................1 Gigabyte (GB)
1024 Gigabytes .....................................................1 Terabyte (TB)
3. Accuracy and Reliability: Computer can perform all the calculations and comparisons
accurately. Sometimes, errors may be produced by computers due to the fault in the machine or
due to mistakes in the programs. If the input data are not correct, this may also lead to incorrect
output.
4. Automatic: Computers is an automatic machine. Everything that is given to computer are
processed and done by computer automatically according tothe instruction provided.
5. Versatility: Computer has a wide range of application areas i.e., computer can do many types of
jobs. It can perform operations ranging from simple mathematical calculations to highly complex
and logical evaluations for any extended period of time. Some of the application areas of computers
are Education, Science and Technology, Business, Medicine, Astronomy etc.
. Diligence: A computer can perform repetitive tasks without being bored, tired and losing
concentration. It can continuously work for several hours without human intervention after the
data and programs are fed to it. There is no ageing effect on computer i.e. efficiency does not
decrease over the years of use.
LIMITATIUNS UF CUMPUTERS
1. Sometime the failure indevices and programs can produce unreliable information.
2. Computer is a dull machine. It doesnt have intelligence on it.
3. It cannot operate without human involvement.
4. Computers lack emotions.
ADVANTACES AND DISADVANTACES UF CUMPUTERS
Advantages
a. Computers are always accurate and reliable than human.
b. They are faster than human in calculations.
c. They never feel exhausted and tired like human being.
d. They can perform complicated and difficult works which are hard for us.
e. They are versatile i.e. master in all types of work and fields like education, hospital, banks, etc.
f. It is used for communication between many peoples.
Disadvantages
a. They cannot operate without batteries or electricity.
b. Failure in devices and wrong informationby users makes it unreliable.
c. It is an expensive device.
d. They can be used for computer crimes like hacking, sending viruses, etc.
APPLICATIUN UF CUMPUTER IN DIFFERENT FIELDS
1. Banking: Banks use computer for general-purpose computations, to handle transaction. These
days bank provide the ATM service where user can withdraw their money any time from ATM
machine by using the ATM card.
2. Commercial Enterprises: Many business companies use computer to help in the control of their
day-to-day transaction. Computers are used for keeping record of the employees, managing the
stock of company, etc.
3. Communication: Computers are massively used in communication. Communicating is done by
emails, chatting, videoconference, e-fax, etc with the help of internet.
4. Desktop Publisbing System: A desktop publishing package is more powerful, attractive and
efficient than word processor package. The system includes computer and a number of peripherals
with powerful software that can produce various layouts with pictures and text printed in a variety
of attractive way, which are used in manuals, bulletins, newsletters etc.
5. Education: Computers are used as teaching aid, information resource, and computing and
research tool. When computer is used as a teaching aid, it is referred to as Computer Assisted
Instruction (CAI). Software for CAI can be prepared in a variety of modes, such as tutorial,
discovery, problem solving, modeling, and drilling and practice modes.
. Healtb and Medical Field: Computers are widely used in hospitals to help doctors in diagnosis,
getting information on patients, diseases, treatment, drugs, keeping patients record etc. Examples:
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), CT scan machine, Eye testing machines, Ultrasonic machine,
etc.
7. Home: Home computers can be used in recreational activities. Home computers can also be used
in storing personal information such as birth dates, addresses, telephone numbers, photo albums,
to keep the record of family expenses etc. People use home computers to listen songs, watching
movies, accessing the Internet, etc.
8. Industries: Computers are extensively used in industries for automatic control of machines,
process, measurement and display of electrical and physical quantities.
9. Military: Smart weapons use microprocessor-based control systems. Modern tanks, torpedoes,
missiles etc. employ computerized control systems. A guided missile uses internal computer for its
control.
10. Multimedia: In recording and film studio computer are used intensively. The music can be
recorder in different tracks and later merge to a single music. Movie editing can be done frame by
frame.
11. Uffice: Computers are used in preparing reports, memorandum, and copy of advertisement,
letter, publicity, contracts, forms, notes, and notices etc., which are the basic works of an office.
Computer helps user in preparing, storing, retrieving and displaying text. In offices accounting,
billing preparation of payrolls, data analysis, auditing, investment, inventory control, preparation
of budgets, sales analysis etc. are also performed. In most of the computerized offices, word
processing and spread applications are used.
12. Researcb: Scientific and engineering design and research work involve complex and massive
computations. So computers are must for this type of work.
13. Simulation: Computer simulation involves typing to predict what will happen in a real-life
situation from model of that situation. Computer Aided Design (CAD) is widely used in the design of
electronic circuits, ships, roads cars etc.
HISTURY UF CUMPUTERS
The computer, which is one of the most advanced discoveries of mankind, has got a long history.
Around 3000 years before the birth of Jesus Christ, there were no any kinds of number system. So,
people had to remember a lot of information. They felt the need to count the things. Then they
started counting using their fingers. But the limited number of fingers had made it difficult for them
to remember more facts. So, they used stones for counting or they made scratches on wall or tied
knots in a rope.
The history of computer is classified on the basis of age as follows:
1) Age of Mechanical Calculators
2) Age of Electromechanical Computers
3) Age of Electronic Computers
1] ACE UF MECHANICAL CALCULATURS
a. Abacus: It is manual calculating device. Basically an abacus consists of wires having pebbles or
beads. The frame consists of two parts upper & lower. The upper part is called heuven whereas
lower part is called eurth. The heaven consists of two beads whereas the earth part consists of
five beads to each wire. The value of a bead on heaven part is five & one in earth part. Each abacus
consists of eleven wires. Its exact origin is unknown. It may have originated in china, Egypt or
Greece.
Fig: Abacus
b. Pascal's Calculator: In 1642, French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented the first real
calculating machine that could add and subtract numbers quickly, which was named as Pascals
Calculator or Puxcullne. It consists of numbered toothed wheels, each wheel having numbers from
0 to 9. A complete turning of first
Wheel causes the 2nd wheel to move the next number. It has a simple monitor to see the result, too.
Calculation including addition and subtraction was possible up to 8 digits, which was a great
achievement at that time. The disadvantage of this machine was that it could not carry out
multiplication and divisions.
Fig: Pascaline
c. Babbage's Difference and Analytical engine: In 1822, a professor of mathematics, Charles
Babbage developed a machine called Difference engine in Cambridge University. It was made to
calculate various mathematical function and logarithmic tables. Difference machine was intended
to be steam powered, fully automatic, even to the printing of the resulting tables and commanded
by a fixed instruction program. While working on the difference table, in 1833, he developed the
new idea to build an Analytical Engine, which was to become a real ancestor of the modern day
computer. Thats why he is known as futher of computer. The analytical machine would operate
on words of 50 digits and was able to store 1000 such numbers. The instructions for the machine
were to be stored on punched cards like on Jacquard loom. He wanted to input data with the help of
punched card and output (result) to be printed on copper plates. Babbages analytical engine and
modern day computer are similar in their structure. But unfortunately, due to the lack of time and
equipments, he was unable to complete this machine, so the world had to wait for another hundred
years.
Fig: Analytical Engine (Left) and Difference Engine (Right)
d. Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace: After the death of Babbage, an English mathematician, Ada
Lovelace, a long-time supporter of Babbage was successful in discovering some of the key elements
of programming and program design. She got the idea of loop in the program. Not only this, she
made the first program to be used in Babbages machine. So she is called the flrxt progrummer.
To honor her contribution, the programming language used in American defense was named as
ADA
e. Holleritb's macbine: In 1887, an American statistician, Herman Hollerith constructed a
tabulating machine, to compute the statistics of 1890 US census. He used the punched cards to
store data, with the holes representing data values. This machine can read 200 punched cards per
minute. So, Holleriths punched cards method become very popular and widely used. In 1896, he
established the Tabulating Machine Company to make and sell his invention. Later in 1923, this
firm merged with other companies to form the IBM Corporation, which is the most popular and
biggest company in computer manufacturing.
Fig: Pascaline
years.
ADA
Fig: Pascaline
years.
ADA
2] ACE UF ELECTRUMECHANICAL CUMPUTERS
f. Mark-I: In 1937, Harvard professor, Howard Aiken, constructed an electromechanical computer
named Mark-I (also known as Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator), which could perform
according to pre-programmed instruction automatically. Thus it is also called the first computer. It
was based on Charles Babbages principle after 100 years of his death. Although it was very huge
with dimension 51 ft. long, 8 ft. height and 3ft. wide using 18,000 vacuum tubes (electronic) with 7
lakhs 50 thousands parts, it was the milestone in history of
computer. In 1944, Howard Aiken modified Mark-I and
invented Mark-II, which used 19000 valves.
Fig: Mark I
g. ABC {Atanasoff Berry Computer]: In 1938, John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry designed ABC
(Atanasoff Berry Computer) for solving systems of simultaneous equation. It used 18000 valves
and other 45 valves for internal logic and capacitors for storage of electrical charges. It used
punched cards as secondary storage.
3] ACE UF ELECTRUNIC CUMPUTERS
b. )obn Von Neumann: In 1944, Hungarian mathematician, Jon von Neumann gave the ideas:
Computer instruction as well as the data being manipulated could be stored internally in the
machine. So he is called the futher of xtoreJ progrum. Before that, program required for the
computer were integrated and written permanently in chips, so modification of program was not
possible. But after Neumann, such programs were stored inside computer in some storage media,
so modification was easy and flexible.
i. ENIAC {Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator]: In 1946, J. Presper Eckert and John
W. Mauchly developed ENIAC. At that time ENIAC was the largest single electronic apparatus in the
world. It was a large-scale, general-purpose digital electronic computer built from 17468 vacuum
tubes. It was the first and last computer, which used decimal number system instead of binary
system.
Fig: ENIAC
|. EDSAC {Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer]: It was invented by Maurice Wilkes in
1949. It also used vacuum tubes. Although started after EDVAC, it was completed before EDVAC. So,
it became thefirst stored program computer.
k. EDVAC {Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer]: It was developed by J. P. Eckert
and J. Mauchly in 1952. Although started before, it was completed after EDSAC. It also used vacuum
tubes and some internal storage.
Fig: EDVAC
l. UNIVAC {Universal Automatic Computer]: It was developed by J. P. Eckert and J. Mauchly in
1961. It was the first computer manufactured for commercial use and general purpose digital
computer. Before this, all the computers were either for defenses or census.
Fig: ENIAC
Fig: EDVAC
Fig: ENIAC
Fig: EDVAC
Fig: UNIVAC
CENERATIUNS UF CUMPUTERS
In 1962, scientists decided to classify computer into different classes according to the Jevice
tecbnoloqy andsystem orcbitecture. The computers are classified into five groups. These groups are
calledgeneration of computer. The classification, their time period and memory device are given
below.
Ceneration Time Duration Electronic Device Used
First Generation 1942-1956 Vacuumtubes or valves
Second Generation 1956 1963 Transistors
Third Generation 1963- 1971 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Fourth Generation 1971-till now VLSI or Microprocessor
Fifth Generation 1990 onwards Bio-chips, superconductors
FIRST CENERATIUN {1942-195]
The computer, using vucuum tubex or vulvex as memory devices, are called first generation
computers. Vacuum tubes are the devices in which a stream of electrons is controlled by electric
and magnetic fields. Because, a vacuum must be provided in the form of an evacuated enclosure in
which the electrons can move without collisions with gas molecules, these devices were called
vacuum tubes. Lee De Forest invented it in 1908.
Cbaracteristics:
1. Very big size and slower than other generation
2. They produced large amount of heat and prone to frequent hardware failure
3. Punch cards were used as secondary storage.
4. Machine level programming used.
5. Cost was very high and not available for commercial use.
. Computing time is milliseconds
Examples: Mark-I, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer), EDSAC (Electronic Delay
Storage Automatic Computer), UNIVAC (Universal Automatic computer).
SECUND CENERATIUN {195-193]
Second generation of the computer started after the invention of trunxlxtorx. John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain and William Shockley invented the transistor in 1947 at Bell Laboratory. There are two
kinds of transistors, the bipolar transistor (also called the junction transistor) and the field effect
transistor (FET). All computers, which use transistors as memory device, are categorized as
second-generation computer.
Cbaracteristics:
1. Transistors were smaller, faster, occupied less space and higher reliable compared to vacuum
tubes. One transistor can do the tasks of 1,000 vacuum tubes.
2. Transistors required less electricity and emitted less heat than vacuum tubes.
3. Magnetic cores were developed for primary storage and magnetic tape and magnetic disk for
secondary storage.
4. Second-generation computer replaced machine language with assembly language (abbreviated
or mnemonic form) to replace long difficult binary codes for giving instructions.
5. High level languages such as COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) and FORTRAN
(Formula Translator) came in commonuse during this time.
. The operating speed was increased up to the microseconds range.
Examples: The examples of the second-generation computers are IBM 1401, IBM 1600, 7070,
7080, 7080, and ICL 1950/ 10 and Honey well 400 series.
THIRD CENERATIUN {193 - 1971]
The third generation computers replaced transistors with IntegruteJ clrcultx {IC] popularly
known as chips. An IC is an electronic circuit with a large number of components (many transistors,
resistors and capacitors) built on a small silicon chip. The third generation computer use SSI (Small
Scale Integration) and MSI (Medium Scale Integration) circuits for internal operations.
Cbaracteristics:
1. Using ICs proved to be highly reliable, relatively inexpensive and faster.
2. Less human labor was required at assembly stage.
3. Operation speed increased beyond nanoseconds.
4. Computers became portable. They were smaller in size but had high memory.
5. The computer used programming languages such as Pascal and FORTRAN.
Example: IBM 360 series, IBM 370 series, ICL 1900 series, ICL 2900, UNIVAC 9000
FUURTH CENERATIUN {1971-PRESENT]
The fourth generation computer use LSI (large Scale Integration) and VLSI (Very large Scale
Integration) circuits for internal operations. VLSI has squeezed hundreds of LSI (1000 transistors)
onto a single chip.
Cbaracteristics:
1. Highly accurate and totally reliable.
2. Operation speed increased beyond Picoseconds and MIPS (Million of Instruction per Seconds)
3. This chip reduced the physical size of the computer and increased their power.
4. Magnetic and optical storage devices.
Examples: IBM PC, Apple/ Macintosh, Wang Laser, Letron etc.
FIFTH CENERATIUN {FUTURE CENERATIUN]
The fifth generation computer will use AI (Artificial Intelligence) and be based on advances in
silicon technology, i.e. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) termed as super- conductor or bio- chips. Scientists
are now at work on these computers.
Cbaracteristics:
1. They will be able to understand natural language, speak command, capacity to see their
surrounding and will have thinking power called Artificial Intelligence (AI).
2. In contrast to present DIPS/ LIPS (Data/ Logic Information Processing System), the 5
th
generation
computer will have KIPS (knowledge Information Processing System)
3. It will support parallel processing in full fledge.
Examples: There are different programs under way to develop fifth generation computer.
ICOT program in Japan.
MCC and DARPA project of USA.
Alvey project of UK.
The famous 5th generation computer is fictional HAL9000.
CULUSSUS MACHINE
The Colossus machines were electronic computing devices used by British codebreakers to read
encrypted German messages during World War II. These were the worlds first programmable (if
not fully) digital electronic computing devices. Colossus used state-of-the-art vacuum tubes
(thermionic valves), thyratrons and photomultipliers to optically read a paper tape and then
applied a programmable logical function to every character, counting how often this function
returned "true". Although machines with many valves were known to have high failure rates, it was
recognised that valve failures occurred most frequently with the current surge at power on, so the
Colossus machines, once turned on, were never powered down unless they malfunctioned.
Fig: Colossus Computer
INTERNATIUNAL BUSINESS MACHINE
International Business Machines Corporation (known as IBM or Big Blue) is a multinational
computer technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, USA. The
company is one of the few information technology companies with a continuous history dating
back to the 19th century. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardwareandsoftware, and offers
infrastructure services, hosting services, and consulting services in areas ranging frommainframe
computerstonanotechnology.
The company which became IBM was founded in 1888 as the Tabulating Machine Company by
Herman Hollerith, in Broome County, NY. It was incorporated as Computing Tabulating Recording
Corporation (CTR) onJune 16, 1911, and was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1916. IBM
adopted its current name in 1924, when it became aFortune 500company.
IBM has been known through most of its recent history as the world's largest computer company,
but in 2007 it fell to second place behind Hewlett Packard. IBM holds morepatents than any other
U.S. based technology company. It has engineers and consultants in over 170 countries and IBM
Research has eight laboratories worldwide. IBM employees have earned three Nobel Prizes, four
Turing Awards, fiveNational Medals of Technology, and fiveNational Medals of Science. As a chip
maker, IBM is among theWorldwide Top 20 Semiconductor Sales Leaders.
TURINC MACHINE
Turing machines are extremely basic abstract symbol-manipulating devices which, despite their
simplicity, can be adapted to simulate the logic of any computer that could possibly be constructed.
They were described in1936byAlan Turing. Though they were intended to be technically feasible,
Turing machines were not meant to be a practical computing technology, but athought experiment
about the limits of mechanical computation; thus they were not actually constructed.
INTECRATED CIRCUITS
Inelectronics, anintegrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip)
is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive
components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor
material.
SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI, ULSI
The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-Scale Integration" (SSI),
they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens.
The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices
which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI).
Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-Scale Integration" (LSI) in
the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.
The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the
present, was "Very Large-Scale Integration" (VLSI). This could be said to start with hundreds of
thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several hundred million
transistors as of 2007.
To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "Ultra-Large Scale
Integration" was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million transistors.
MICRUPRUCESSUR
A microprocessor is aprogrammabledigital electronic component that incorporates the functions
of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single semiconducting integrated circuit (IC). The
microprocessor was born by reducing the word sizeof the CPU from 32 bits to 4 bits, so that the
transistors of its logic circuits would fit onto a single part. One or more microprocessors typically
serve as the CPU in acomputer system, embedded system, or handheld device.
CUMPUTER SYSTEM
Computer System is a group of physical parts that are integrated to achieve the objectives. A
completecomputer system consists of 4 parts: hardware, software, people, and data.
A computer system needs to do the following operations:
Input: i.e. to accept the data/ instructions from users
Process: i.e. to process the data
Storage: i.e. to store or holdsthe data
Uutput: i.e. to provide the final result to users.
This cycle of operation of a computer is referred asInput-Process-Uutput or IPU cycle.
CUMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Every computer is constructed by combining various parts. All these parts work in an organized
way to perform calculations, organize data, and communicate with other computer systems. The
design, arrangement, construction or organization of the different parts of a computer system is
called as computer arcbitecture.
Computer system architecture (Anatomy) is concerned with the structure of computer. In other
words, the style of construction & organization of many parts of the computer system is called as
computer architecture.
Computer System Architecture consists of the variouscomponents such as:
Input Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Memory Unit (MU)
Output Unit
Fig: Block diagram of computer system architecture
HARDWARE AND SUFTWARE
Hardware refers to all the physical parts that make up a computer. That is, all the electric,
electronic, and mechanical devices of the computer are hardware. Examples of hardware are
keyboard, mouse, monitor, and printer. So, hardware is those parts of the computer, which we can
touch.
Software is a set of electronic instructions that make computer perform tasks. In other words,
software tells the hardware what to do. Without software, hardware is useless. Hardware needs
instructions to process data into information. Those instructions are supplied from software.
Software is also referred to as a set of program. Computer uses varieties of programs. Some
programs are developed for computers own use and internal maintenance. Other types of
programs are used for calculating and processing data.
1. INPUT UNIT
Input means data or instructions given to the computer. Similarly, input unit refers to the part of
the computer, which supplies input. Every computer needs input to work or do a task. Computers
are machines and do not understand human language. So, inputs must be given in the form, which
CPU
ALU
CU
Input Unit Output Unit
Primary Memory
Secondary Memory
the computer understands. That is, inputs must be given in themacbine language (binary code).
This is achieved through the input unit.
The input unit allows user to enter data and instructions into a computer. Input unit is also
responsible to convert data and instructions from human-readable form to machine code.
Hardware, which is used to send input to the computer is called input device. Varieties of input
devices are used for sending inputs. Keyboard, mouse, joystick, and microphone are the most
commonly used input devices.
Functions of theinput unit can be summarized as followings:
Provides users facility to send data and instructions
Converts data and instructions from human-readable from to machine code
Supplies data and instructions to the computers storage unit for processing
2. CENTRAL PRUCESSINC UNIT {CPU]
The procedure that converts raw data into useful information is called processing. In the
computer, processing is done bycentral processing unit (CPU]. CPU is perhaps the most vital part
of the computer. It is often regarded as "brain" of the computer. It is because CPU performs
computers entire work of calculating and processing. In personal computer (PC), this job is done
bymicroprocessor.
In addition to the processing, the CPU also controls all other units of the computer. It accepts inputs
from input device, keep them into memory, processes them, and send outputs to the output device.
The CPU is made up of three units. They are:
a. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
b. Memory Unit (MU)
c. Control Unit (CU)
a. Aritbmetic and Logic Unit {ALU]
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is the part of the CPU, where all the processing jobs are performed.
As the name suggests, two types of operations are done inside the ALU aritbmetic operation and
logical operation. Arithmetic operation means calculations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division on data. Similarly, logical operation means comparison of data like
equal to, greater than, less than, and not equal.
All the operations in the ALU are done under directions of the control unit. Once data enter into
memory, the data necessary for processing are transferred into the ALU. When processing
completes, the data is again transferred back into the memory unit. This transfer of data from the
memory unit to the ALU and vice-versa is also done under the directions of the control unit.
Main functions of the ALU are given below.
Carries out arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
Performs logical operations such as comparison among data (equal to, greater than, less than
and not equal to).
Works under the direction of the control unit
b. Control Unit {CU]
Control unit is the most vital part of the CPU. It reads every instruction stored into the memory.
There after, it issues control signals necessary to execute the instruction. The control unit, actually,
ensures that every instruction is read, understood, and executed in sequence.
The CU coordinates and controls all the parts of the computer. It is the nerve center of the
computer. It coordinates and controls the interpretation, flow and manipulation of all data and
information. It also controls the flow of data from input devices to memory and from memory to
output device.
Main functions of the Control Unit are as hereunder.
Receivesinputs send by input device, and store them into memory unit
Bring instruction from the memory unit, and decode the instruction (interpret what the
instruction is saying)
Controls movement of data in and out of the ALU.
Directs the ALU to process data
Control the movement of data and instruction in and out of the memory unit
Controls movement of processed data (information) to output device
Directs output device to produce information
Directs and controls reading and writing of data on storage unit
CACHE MEMURY
In computer, data moves between RAM and the CPU frequently. In fact, RAM is very much slower
than the CPU. Hence, moving data between RAM and the CPU is a time consuming process. It makes
the CPU often idle and waiting for data. A solution to this problem is a special type of memory
calledcacbe memory (pronouncedcuxh).
The cache memory (also calledRAM cacbe) exists between RAM and the CPU. A Cache memory is a
high-speed memory placed in between central processing unit (CPU) and RAM to increase the
speed of processing. The speed of processor is faster than the RAM; hence the cache memory is
used in between CPU and main memory (RAM) so that the speed of operation of main memory and
cache memory together can meet the speed requirement of the highspeed CPU.
The cache memory is very small, expensive and has high speed. Todays PCs have 256 KB, 512 KB
or even 1024 KB cache memory. Cache memory is generally built directly into the microprocessor
chip.
Actually, the cache memory stores only a few and frequently used data and instructions. When the
CPU needs data, it first searches in the cache memory. If the data is not there, it searches RAM. This
helps the CPU to work faster and increase processing speed. Below is the figure that shows how the
cache memory works with the CPU and the main memory (RAM).
Fig: Use of cache memory
Main Memory
Cache
Memory
CPU
RECISTERS
Registers are primarily used to store data temporarily during the execution of a program. They are
used as temporary memory locations in the sense that the information or data is held in them only
for as long as it is necessary for one instruction. Registers can be of different sizes & capacities.
Some registers are special purpose registers and some are general-purpose registers. General
purpose registers store data and intermediate results during the execution of a program. General-
purpose registers are also accessible to programmer through instructions. Special purpose
registers like PC (Program Counter) holds the address of the next instruction to be executed and SP
(Stack Pointer) holds the address of the first location of the stack.
3. MEMURY UNIT {MU]
Memory unit is the area, where the computer keeps programs, files, data, and instructions. All
these things are only stored temporarily. Memory unit is built inside the computer, so it is also
known asinternal memory.
The CPU needs data and instructions to operate the computer. These things must be stored in an
area somewhere inside the computer. When data and programs are not in use, they must be kept
permanently in another safe area. In computer, all these areas are called memory. Therefore,
memory is the area in the computer, which holds data, instructions or programs.
As input unit sends data or instructions, the computer at first keeps them into the memory unit.
When the computer completes processing of data, it again keeps them into memory unit. When a
user launches a program, it is also loaded into and run from memory unit. Thus memory unit is a
space, which is allocated for temporary storage of data and programs.
Memory is a part of computer (device) that is used to store data as well as instructions (programs).
Physically, memory consists of chips either on the motherboard or on a small circuit board
attached to the motherboard.
There are mainly two types of memory: Primary Memory and Secondary Memory.
Primary Memory
Primary memory is also called main memory. Primary memories are made up of semiconductor
materials and consist of large number of 8-bit registers, arranged in a sequence (lines). A register
can store eight binary bits. Primary memoryis of two types:
ReadOnly Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is also called secondary storage, auxiliary storage, mass storage or, simply
storage. It holds large volume of data, programs, information and games for future uses. Secondary
memory is non-volatile. It can keep data, programs, and information permanently even when
electrical power is removed from the computer.
The secondary memory is used to store data, information and programs permanently. So, they are
often referred as storage memory. The capacity of secondary memory is larger than the main
memory. The two main categories of storage technology used today are magnetic storage and
optical storage. The common secondary or auxiliary memories used in computer are floppy disks,
hard disks and compact disk.
Followings are the functions of the memory unit.
Stores data and instructions sent from input units
Stores data and instructions before they undergo processing (or store raw data)
Stores data and instructions during their processing
Stores data and instructions after their processing (or store useful information)
Loads and unloads programs run by users
Loads files opened by users
1 RANDUM ACCESS MEMURY {RAM]
The read and write memory of a computer is known as RAM. The users of the computer can write
information into RAM and read information from RAM. The main drawback of RAM memory is that
it is a volatile memory, i.e., when the power goes off, the contents of RAM gets erased. RAM is
available in the form of a chip with different memory capacity ranging, from 640 Kilobytes to 256
Megabytes. Increasing RAM capacity improves system performance.
There are two types of RAM:
Static RAM
Dynamic RAM
Static RAM {SRAM]
A static RAM retains stored data and programs as long as power supply is on.
Its cost is high.
It is made up of flip flops and it stores the bit as a voltage.
Speed is high.
Produce more heat.
Larger than DRAM
Dynamic RAM {DRAM]
It loses the storedinformation in a very short time even though the power supply is on.
Cost of DRAM is less (low price)
Made up of transistors and logic gates, and stores the bit as a charge.
Speed is lower than SRAM.
Produce less heat.
Smaller than SRAM.
2 READ UNLY MEMURY {RUM]
The read only memory (ROM) is a memory unit that performs the read operation only; it does not
have write capabilities. The information stored in a ROM is made permanent during the hardware
production and cannot be altered. ROMs are non-volatile memory, i.e. information stored in ROM is
not lost even if the power supply goes off. So, ROMs are used for storing the programs to boot the
computer handling the operating system and monitor program controlling a machine. They are
slower than RAM. Actually, the ROM is built and assembled in the motherboard.
There are various types of ROM:
a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
c. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
PRUM{Programmable RUM]
A PROM is a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been
written onto a PROM, it remains there forever and cannot be changed. They are manufactured as
blank memory. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM
programmer or PROM burner. The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning
the PROM.
EPRUM {Erasable Programmable RUM]
EPROM is a special type of memory that retains its contents until it is exposed to ultraviolet light
for 10 to 20 minutes. The ultra-violet light clears its contents, making it possible to reprogram the
memory. For erasing purpose, the EPROM chip has to be removed from computer.
EEPRUM {Electrically Erasable Programmable RUM]
It is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. The time
required to erase this type of PROM is very short (few seconds). Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMS do
not need to be removed from the computer to be modified.
Fig: Types of memory
4. UUTPUT UNIT
When the ALU completes processing, it returns back the data into memory unit. The memory unit,
thereafter, transfers the processed data towards output unit. Finally, the output unit shows the
processed data in suitable form. Thus, function of the output unit is to present processed data
(information) in human-readable form to the user.
Computer uses different types of hardware to show information. All those hardware are called
output devices. Every output device is capable of presenting information in user- understandable
form. The most common output device is the monitor. Other output devices used in computer are
printer and speaker. There are two types of output devices.
Softcopy Uutput devices: Softcopy output refers to the output displayed on the screen. The output
on the screen is lost when computer is turned off. The most common output device is monitor.
Sound produced by voice output device (speaker) is also softcopy output.
Hardcopy Uutput devices: Hardcopy output refers to recording letters, graphics or pictures on a
permanent medium such as paper. Such output can be read immediately or stored and read later.
The most commonly used hardcopy output devices are printers and plotters.
MEMORY
Main Memory Secondary Memory
Volatile
Memory
(RAM)
Non-volatile
Memory
(ROM)
Optical
Storage
Magnetic
Storage
SRAM DRAM
PROM EEPROM
EPROM
Disk Drum Tape
Floppy
Disk
Hard disk
CDROM CDR CDRW DVD
Some main functions of the output unit are:
Receives information (in binary form) transferred from the memory unit
Converts the information from binary form into human-readable form
Use a hardware to show the information to user
Introduction to Computer Software
Computer has no use without software. Software is a part of computer, which processes data & give
the information. The logical components or set of procedures or routines or instructions are called
software. The computer would be just a useless metallic box if there were no software.
Computer softwarecomes in following forms:
System Software
Application Software
Utility Software
{1] System Software
The system software consists of computer programs, which facilities the operation of computer by
the user installation. The software, which contributes to the control of the computer system, is
called as system software. The sub division of system software is as follows: Operating Systems,
Translators like Assemblers, Interpreters, Compilers, & Programming languages.
System software refers to general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling all
operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It communicates with printers,
card reader, Disks, and tapes etc. It monitors the use of hardware like memory, CPU, etc. System
software allows application packages to be run on the computer with less time and effort.
Remember that it is not possible to run application software without system software.
The development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive knowledge of
computer technology. Due to its complexity it is not developed in house. Computer manufactures
build and supply this system software with the computer system. DOS, UNIX and WINDOWS are
some of the widely used system software.
{2] Application Software
Application software is the set of programs designed to satisfy user's specific needs. Although
application software packages differ in their use of specific commands and functions, most of them
have some features in common: cursors, scrolling, menus, pull down menu, help screens, dialog
boxes, OLE (object Linking and embedding), and tutorial and documentation. For example: Word
Processing software, Spreadsheet software, DBMS software, Graphic software, Multimedia
software, Communication software, and integrated software.
a. Word processing software
Word processing software allows us to use computers to create, edit, revise, store and print
documents. It enables the user to easily insert, delete, and move words, sentences and paragraphs.
Word-processing programs also offer a number of features for dressing up document with
variable margins, type sizes and styles. The user can do all these manipulations on screen before
printing out hard copy. Some word processing packages, including WordPerfect, Microsoft Word,
and Ami-Pro provide desktop- publishing features that enable users to integrate or combine
graphics and text on a professional looking page.
b. Desktop Publisbing Software
Desktop publishing abbreviated DTP, involves using microcomputer and mouse, scanner, laser
printer and DTP software for mixing text and graphics to produce high quality printed output.
Principal desktop publishing programs are Adobe PageMaker, Quark Xpress and First publisher.
c. Electronic spreadsbeet software
The electronic spreadsheet allows users to create tables and financial schedules by entering data
into rows and columns arranged as a grid on a display screen. Its automatic calculation abilities can
save the user almost a lifetime of tedious arithmetic. Spreadsheet can also display data in graphic
form, such as in pie charts or bar charts. Today the principal spreadsheets are Excel, Lotus1-2-3
and Quattro Pro.
d. Database Management system software
Database management system (DBMS) software consists of programs for storing, indexing,
retrieving and manipulating large amount of data. With database management system software, we
can compile huge amounts of data and manipulate, store and retrieve it without having to touch a
single file.
e. Crapbics Software
Graphics software enables users to produce many types of graphics creations, which come in two
forms:
Analytical grapbics: Analytical graphics are basic graphical forms used to make numerical data
easier to understand. The most common analytical graphics forms are bar graphs, line charts,
and pie charts or a combination of these forms. Most analytical graphics programs come as
part of spreadsheet packages.
Presentation grapbics: Presentation graphics are graphics used to communicate or make a
presentation of data to others such as clients or supervisors. Presentations may make use of
analytical graphics, but they look much more sophisticated. Examples of well-known graphics
packages are PhotoShop, paintbrush, Hollywood (film editing software), Freelance plus etc.
f. Multimedia software
Multimedia software is able to manipulate elements of text, graphics, sound, video and animation.
All these elements may be pulled together and presented for instructional or entertainment
purposed such as a history of the exploration of the moon or a biography of a particular musical
composer.
g. Communication Software
Communication software includes programs that access software and data from, and transmit data
to, a computer in a remote location. Popular microcomputer communications programs include
Smartcom, Crosstalk, ProComm, Pc-Dial and PC Talk.
b. Integrated software
It is a collection of several applications in a single package with a common set of commands and the
ability to work together and share data. The objective is to allow the user to perform a variety of
tasks without having to switch software programs and learn different commands and procedures
to run each one. Integrated software combines the basic capabilities of word processing, electronic
spreadsheet, graphics, DBMS, and data communication.
{3] Utility Software
Utility software generally used to support existing programs in a computer system. Many operating
systems have utility software built in for common purposes such as copying the content of one disk
to another to recover damaged files etc. Most common examples of utility software are:
a. Defragmentation:
A file that is split up on the disk is called as fragmented because its parts are physically separated.
The problem with fragmented files is that it takes the hard drive longer to read &write them
because the disk must reposition its R/ W heads several times while working with the same files. A
utility program that defragments files on a disk can speed upthe disk drive.
b. Data compression:
Data compression is the ability to reduce the storage requirements of a file using mathematical
algorithms. This facility is generally provided with communication. Data compression techniques
are built with modems so they can send files faster. Examples: PKZIP, WINZIP etc.
c. Backup software:
Backup software is designed to help us to copy large group of files from our hard disk to some
other storage media such as diskettes, magnetic tape, record able CDs etc.
d. Data recovery software:
Data recovery utility can recover data files that have been mistakenly deleted. Trash for Mac &
Recycle Bin for windows O.S. is its examples.
e. Antivirus Utilities:
Tracking viruses down, eradicating them & preventing their spread are the major objectives of
anti-virus utilities. Examples: Symantec Antivirus, Norton Antivirus etc.
Uperating System
An operating system is a collection of programs that controls the over all operation of the computer
system. Operating system controls and co-ordinates the use of the hardware among the various
application programs for the various users. So it acts as an lnterfuce or plutformbetween the user
and the computer hardware.
An operating system manages and coordinates the function performed by the computer hardware,
including the CPU, input/ output devices, secondary storage device, and communication and
network equipment. Operating systems are the most important program that runs on a computer.
Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. It perform
basic task, such as recognizing input from keyboard, sending output to display units, keeping track
of files and directories on the disks, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drivers and
printers.
Without an operating system, no computer can be operated. When an application program runs,
the OS also works with hand. Examples: MS-DOS, Windows 3.1, Windows 95, Windows 98,
Windows 2000, Windows ME, Windows XP, UNIX, LINUX, MINIX, etc.
Urganization of an Uperating System
Flg: Position of 0S in Computer system
Operating System has layer architecture i.e. each functionality creates one layer. The bottommost
layer is theborJwore. The heart of OS, which controls overall functionality of computer system, is
called Kernel and remains always in the main-memory. Outside this layer is utility Softwore onJ
opplicotions. The uppermost layer consists of users.
UPERATINC SYSTEM TYPES
Ascomputers have progressed and developed so have the types of operating systems. Below is a
basic list of the different types of operating systems and a few examples of Operating Systems that
fall into each of the categories. Many computer Operating Systems will fall into more than one of
the below categories.
CUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics and icons and is
commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. Below are some examples of GUI Operating
Systems.
System 7.x
Windows 98
Windows CE
Multi-user - A multi-user Operating System allows for multiple usersto use the same computer at
the same time and/ or different times. Below are some examples of multi-user Operating Systems.
Users
App||cat|ons & Software
Cperat|ng System]kerne|
nardware
Linux
UNIX
Windows 2000
Multiprocessing - An Operating System capable of supporting and utilizing more than one
computer processor. Below are some examples of multiprocessing Operating Systems.
Linux
UNIX
Windows 2000
Multitasking - An Operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run
at the same time. Below are some examples of multitasking Operating Systems.
UNIX
Windows 2000
Multitbreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of software program to run
concurrently. Operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux
UNIX
Windows 2000
INTRUDUCTIUN TU UPERATINC SYSTEMS
An operating system is a collection of programs that controls the over all operation of the computer
system. Operating system controls and co-ordinates the use of the hardware among the various
application programs for the various users. So it acts as an lnterfuce or plutformbetween the user
and the computer hardware.
An operating system manages and coordinates the function performed by the computer hardware,
including the CPU, input/ output devices, secondary storage device, and communication and
network equipment. Operating systems are the most important program that runs on a computer.
Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. It perform
basic task, such as recognizing input from keyboard, sending output to display units, keeping track
of files and directories on the disks, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drivers and
printers.
Without an operating system, no computer can be operated. When an application program runs,
the OS also works with hand. Examples: MS-DOS, Windows 3.1, Windows 95, Windows 98,
Windows 2000, Windows ME, Windows XP, UNIX, LINUX, MINIX, etc.
URCANIZATIUN UF UPERATINC SYSTEM
Users
Applications & Software
Operating System/Kernel
Hardware
Flg: Position of 0S in Computer system
Operating System has layer architecture i.e. each functionality creates one layer. The bottommost
layer is theborJwore. The heart of OS, which controls overall functionality of computer system, is
called Kernel and remains always in the main-memory. Outside this layer is utility Softwore onJ
opplicotions. The uppermost layer consists of users.
IMPURTANCE UF UPERATINC SYSTEM
Operating System is important because it-
Acts as an interface between user and computer hardware
Runs all the application programs, system software, games, etc
Controls overall operation of computer
Manages Files and Documents
Manages user requirements for programs, storage space and priority
Organize and control hardware and software
Initialize the hardware of the computer system
Provides the management, scheduling and interaction of tasks
Maintains the system and handle errors
Protect hardware, software & data from improper use.
Manages the use of main memory
Checks equipment malfunctions & displays error messages.
TYPES UF UPERATINC SYSTEM
In general, operating systems are organized by the size, type, and purpose of the computer on
which they run. Below is a basic list of the different types of operating systems.
{1] Single-UserJPC Uperating System
Single user operating system provides an environment where single user can work. All the
resources of the system are available tothe single user. Example: MS-DOS.
{2] Multi-UserJServer Uperating System
This type of OS can fulfill the need of a number of users. This system divides the total time into a
number of time slices and schedules the tasks one after another in a given priority. Example: UNIX,
LINUX, Windows 2000 Server etc.
{3] Multiprocessing Uperating System
Multiprocessing is the ability of the computer to simultaneously execute several programs in
multiple CPU. If two or more processors are present in a computer system & are sharing the same
memory, in such case, two programs may be processed at the same time. Thus in multiprocessing,
more than one processor (i.e. CPU) are involved.
Multiprocessing system is one in which more than one processor are linked together sharing main
memory and other I/ O devices. These processors can execute different independent program
simultaneously. Example: MVS (Multiple Virtual Storage)
{4] Multitasking Uperating System
Multitasking means being able to run more than one program simultaneously. For example, a user
could be running a word processing package, printing a document, copying files to the floppy disk
and backing up selected files to a tape unit. Each of these tasks the user is doing appears to be
running at the same time. In multitasking, only single processor (i.e. CPU) is involved.
{5] Multiprogramming Uperating System
While CPU is executing a program, another program has to wait until it finishes the job. If the first
program requires certain I/ O operation, the CPU waits for the I/ O operation to get over and that
wait time is called CPUs lJle tlme. In place of making CPU sit idle, another program takes over the
use of CPU reducing its idle time. So operating system is responsible for increasing CPU utilization.
This function is termed as Multiprogrammingor CPU xcheJullng.
Multiprogrammingimproves the overall efficiency of the computer system by getting more work
done in less time as the CPU may be shared among a number of active programs, which are present
in the memory at same time. In multiprogramming, only single processor (i.e. CPU) is involved.
{] Multitbreading Uperating System
A thread is a separate part of a process (program). A process can consist of several threads, each of
which execute separately. Thus the operating system that supports multiple threads (sub-
programs) within a single application is called as multithreading operating system. For example,
one thread could handle screen refresh and drawing, another thread printing, another thread the
mouse and keyboard.
{7] Embedded Uperating System
Embedded systems run as computer but not generally thought as computer, such as TV set,
microwave ovens and mobile phones. These often have some characteristics of real-time systems
but also have size, memory, and power restrictions that make them special. Example: PalmOS and
Windows CE (Consumer Electronics).
{8] Real-time Uperating System
A computer is sometimes expected to control the operation of a physical system without human
intervention. Due to variation of the physical system, the computer has to act instantaneously to
correct the variations. Any delay in response from the computer would be disastrous. System
software can be installed inside the computer to work instantaneously for critical jobs. This
software is called real-time operating system and the process is called real-time processing.
Real time operating systems are on-line systems that respond to input immediately. These
operating systems are designed for the purpose of controlling and monitoring external activities
with time constraint. These systems are characterized by having time as a key parameter. If the
action absolutely must occur at a certain moment, we have ahurJ reul-tlme xyxtem. Another kind
of real-time system is a xoft reul-tlme xyxtem, in which missing an occasional deadline is
acceptable.
Example: CCP (Communication Control Program) and BLMX (Broad Level Multitasking Executive)
{9] Smart Card Uperating System
The smallest operating systems run on smart cards, which are credit card sized devices containing
a CPU chip. They have very severe processing power and memory constraint. They can be general
purpose or specific purpose.
{10] Network Uperating System
The Network OS works under the client-server mechanism. Client-Server is a mechanism in which
co-operation and intercommunication between various elements of network takes place and one
machine (i.e. Server) serves others (i.e. Clients) for various functions. In a Network OS, the users
are aware of the existence of multiple computers and can use the functionality of remote machines.
Example: Novell Netware.
{11] Distributed Uperating System
A distributed OS is one that appears to its user as a traditionally uni-processor system, even though
it is actually composed of multiple processors or computers. It aim user feels like he is working in a
terminal in front of him, but actually the work may take place in any machine in network.
{12] Unline Processing Uperating System
To get immediate respond from the computer for any request of the user, it is possible to share
large volume of data in disk storage so that datacan be retrieved fast. To retrieve data available in
the disk immediately, system software has been designed & this software is called on-line
operating system and the process is called online processing.
Example: In computerized banks, the accounts of all the customers are stored in disk using the on-
line O.S. the account of any customer can be retrieved immediately from the disk.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
{1] Process Management
A process (or job) is a program in execution. The main objective of the process management
module of an operating system is to manage the processes submitted to the system in such a
manner to minimize the idle time of the various processors (CPU, I/ O processors, etc.) of the
computer system.
In early system, the method of job execution was known as themanual loading mecbanism; jobs
are manually loaded one after another by the operator. Problem was that a lot of computer time
was wasted since the computer remained idle while operator loaded and unloaded jobs and
prepared the system for a new job.
{2] Memory Management
A memory management is a procedure for managing the various programs residing in memory. In
order to execute a program, it must be loaded into memory. As the program executes, the CPU
reads program instructions and data from memory by generating addresses of the allocated
memory. When the program terminates, its memory space is declared free and the next program
may be given the same memory area.
Memory management technique is used by the multiprogramming operating system. There can be
many programs loaded in the memory along with operating system. If there were programs larger
than main memory of the computer, operating system uses free space of secondary memory (i.e.
hard disk) which is termed as virtual memory. So a part of the program will reside in main
memory and the other part will reside in secondary memory.
{3] File Management
The operating system manages the different files in the computer system. It provides following
facilities.
Maintain a mechanism of files and directories.
Creation and deletion of files.
Maintain authority over files by allowing different types of access permission and priority.
Access to files for reading and writing
Protect files against system failure
Implements different types of efficient searching mechanism of files.
Sharing of files between various users
{4] IJU Management
Computer systems include a wide variety of Input / Output devices. Such as printers, mouse,
keyboard, hard disk etc. whose speed differs from each other. OS handles such different speed I/ O
devices. Operating system also manages the input to a computer system and output from a
computer system. This applies to the flow of data among computers terminals and other devices
such as printers. Application programs use the operating system to handle input and output
devices as needed.
{5] Resource Allocation
There are various other resources in computer. They must be distributed efficiently between the
programs without conflicts. For example program A capture the tape drive and ask for CD-RW and
program B capture CD-RW drive and ask for tape drive. Then such situation creates Deadlock.
OS avoids such condition and resources are efficiently distributed.
{] Security
Another important function of OS is to provide security from unwanted intruders like human,
viruses, etc. One of the major tasks of OS is to secure the data and program space of each job while
loaded into the memory.
Other security includes-
a. User autbentication: User identification must be checked by the system, before the user can
actually use the facility.
b. Access control: When a user passes the authentication phase and is allowed to use the
computing facility, away is needed to prohibit the user from accessing those resource
informationthat he/ she is not authorized to access.
c. Cryptograpby: Even if a user somehow manages to gain access to some information, which
he/ she is not authorized to access, away is needed to ensure that the user cannot make use of
that information. This requirement is taken care by the cryptography mechanism.
{7] Interrupt bandling
An interrupt is a signal generated or request raised by a source such as I/ O devices. Interrupts are
always given priority in computer system & occurs as soon as the device requires service. OS have
one special program to serve the interrupts, Interrupt Service Routine, in which each hardware
component is identified by its own Interrupt Request (IRQ) number like IRQ 1, IRQ 2 etc. When an
interrupt is raised Interrupt Service Routine checks that interrupt request from where it occurred
with the help of IRQ number and transfer to the processor.
{8] User Interface
With an operating system, we see and interact with a set of items on the screen what we called is
user interface. There are mainly of two types of user interface:
Crapbical User Interface {CUI]:
Most current operating systems, including all versions of windows, Macintosh operating system,
OS/ 2, LINUX, provides graphical user interface. Graphical user interface are so called because they
use a mouse to point at graphical object on the screen. Some components of graphical user
interface are: Desktop, Icons, task bar, start button, Menus, Dialog Box, etc.
Command Line User Interface {CUI]:
It is also called as Cbaracter User Interface. Command-line user interface does not use the
pointing devices rather it has an environment that use typewritten commands. Each and every
command should be remembered to execute certain operations. For examples DOS use prompt to
receive certain command that are composed of strings like dir, copy etc.
{9] Interrupts Handling
Interrupts are hardware triggered signals which cause the CPU to stop what it is doing and jump to
a special subroutine. Interrupts normally arrive from hardware devices, such as when the user
presses a key on the keyboard, or the disk device has fetched some data from the disk. They can
also be generated in software by errors likeJlvlxlon by zero or lllegul memory uJJrexx. When the
CPU receives an interrupt, it saves thecontents of its registers on the hardware stack and jumps to
a special routine which will determine the cause of the interrupt and respond to it appropriately.
Types of interrupts:
Aritbmetic or logic errors: (internal interrupts): When the arithmetic and logic unit detect any
error, it generates signal, which causes an interrupts e.g. overflow or underflow may cause an
error signal or output may be requested to a non-existent device or attempt to divide by zero or
illegal operationcode.
Hardware Interrupts: Interrupt will be produced if the hardware of a computer develops a fault
e.g. parity errors. The I/ O control for each device and its associated hardware normally takes care
of parity checking (to verify that data is transferred without corruption). If a parity error is
detected, the kernel is notified by an interrupt; kernel determined the cause of the interrupt.
IJU interrupts: When an I/ O device requires service; it generates signal or request (an interrupt
occurs). Such typeof interrupt is called as I/ O interrupts.
External interrupt: Interrupts caused by events occurring outside the processor such as I/ O,
high voltage, power failure transferring data etc, are called external interrupt.
Software Interrupts: Interrupts causedby malfunctioning of the programs is known as software
interrupts. Example: Divide by zero, illegal memory address etc.
MAJOR PC OPERATING SYSTEMS
{1] UNIX
a. UNIX is older than all the other PC OS and in many ways it served as a model for them.
b. UNIX is amultitasking and multi-user OS developed by Bell Lab in 1969.
c. UNIX also supports multiprocessor systems.
d. UNIX was designed for engineers and programmers and is very strong and powerful OS for
them. But for non-technical persons, it is an extremely difficult OS.
e. It runs on mini, mainframe, super computers and notebook
{2] DUS
a. DOS is popular in two flavor: Microsofts MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) and IBMs
PC-DOS (Personal Computer Disk Operating System)
b. MS-DOS is a single user operating system developed in 1981 by Microsoft Company, USA.
c. MS-DOS does not take large amount of memory.
d. It works on Command Line interface (CLI) or Character User Interface (CUI).
e. Most users needed to learn only small set of commands.
f. DOS itself does not support multitasking, multi-user and multiprocessor.
g. MS-DOS file names are limited to eight characters.
b. Hardware is difficult to install and configure under DOS.
{3] USJ2
a. Single user, multitasking, GUI based OS used for 32-bit micro-computer
b. Especially designed for 80286 and 80386 processors
c. It includes all basic MS DOS commands and some new commands to support multitasking.
d. OS/ 2 provided networking support, true multitasking and multi-user support.
e. OS/ 2 became the first OS to provide built-in speech recognition technology.
f. It could run on a wide range of hardware platforms, from PCs to multiprocessor systems with
up o 64 processors.
{4] Mac US
a. It is an operating system for apple computers.
b. It has first truly graphical user interface for consumers.
c. Mac OS was aheadof Windows with many other features, such as built-in network support and
Plug and Play hardware support.
d. It supports multitasking OS.
e. It can handle up to 128KB memory.
f. The file name under Apple DOS may have up to 64 characters long with both upper and lower
case letters.
g. The main drawback of this OS was it works only on Mac Computers and compatible hardware.
{5] Windows 3.x
a. First came in mid-1980s with popularity of Mac GUI OS.
b. Initially it is a GUI that runs on top of DOS. Windows was not originally an OS but an operating
environment.
c. Windows 3.0 release in 1990 was first successful version; prior two versions did not sell very
well.
d. Windows 3.0 was succeeded in providing a GUI.
e. It has capability to load more than one program into memory at a time.
f. Users could also run their old DOS programs under Windows, either in full-screen mode or
within a window.
g. During the early 1990s, Windows 3.0, Windows 3.1 and Windows 3.11(called Windows for
Workgroups) became the market leaders.
b. Can access 1MB of memory
i. Plug and Play capabilities were not introduced.
|. The system was not reliable and Windows users frequently lost data to crashes.
k. Windows for Workgroup was network enabled (two computers running Windows for
Workgroups could be networked together without the need to purchase a separate network OS)
{] Windows 95 and 98
a. In 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, a complete OS and a successor to DOS for desktop
computers.
b. Windows 95 is a 32-bit, preemptive multitasking operating system with a revised GUI.
c. Offers Plug and Play standard for connecting new hardware.
d. Windows 98 offer all the features of Windows 95 along with the Internet Explorer Web browser
e. Windows 98 also adds support for new and emerging technologies and expands other hardware
support including USB devices, DVD.
f. Windows 98 provide feature called windows Update that enables Windows to connect to
Microsoft periodically via Internet to update OS.
{7] Windows NT Server
a. Incorporates all the features of Windows NT Workstation but also has other capabilities.
b. Designed as file and print servers
c. Offers expanded security features for grouping and authenticating users and controlling their
access to network resources.
d. Support RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) for disk duplexing, disk striping and
disk mirroring.
{8] Windows 2000
Windows 2000 combines the user-friendly interface and features of Windows 98 with the file
system, networking, power and stability of Windows NT. Different versions of Windows 2000 are
available:
Profexxlonul: This version is found primarily on office PCs. it includes support for symmetric
multiprocessing (SMP) with up to two processors. SMP is a protocol that allows the OS and
applications to run on multiple processors at the same time, improving performance on huge
jobs.
Server: This version is for a network server for the average business, with SMP support for up
to two processors.
{9] Linux
Between the release of Windows 95 and Windows 98, the computer worlds attention focused on
another new operating system, called Linux. Initial idea was of Linus Torvalds, student at the
University of Helsinki in 1991, who decided to name new OS as Linux, a combination of his name
and UNIX. Some of the features of Linux are:
a. Native Linux is driven by a command-line interface, but a windows-based GUI is also available.
b. Linux is a multitasking, multi-user operating system.
c. It includes most of the commands of UNIX.
d. It runs on widely available IBM PCs, DECs Alpha processors SUNs SPARC processor, PowerMac
computers etc.
e. Popular among ISP as low-cost server platform
SOME TERMS IN OPERATING SYSTEM
{1] Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is a sophisticated and powerful technique used to open programs larger than the
main memory of the computer system using the free spaces of auxiliary storage. It is a way of
making the physical memory of a computer system effectively larger than it really is. The system
does this by determining which parts of its memory are often sitting idle, and then makes a
command decision to empty their contents onto a disk, thereby freeing up useful RAM. More often
programs are large and contain sections of code which are visited rarely if ever at all by the
majority of users- so if they are not used, why keep them in RAM?
It is not necessary to have the entire program in primary storage at a time only the part on which
the computer is working is needed. For this, O/ S divided a program into pages. Only those pages,
which are required at a particular time, are kept in main memory. The remaining pages are stored
on the secondary online storage. The remaining pages can be loaded in the main memory
immediately if they were required. Hence the secondary storage where the remaining pages are
stored act as a main memory. This area of secondary storage is calledasvirtuol memory.
Role of Virtual Memory:
(a) Portability: programs work regardless of how much actual memory present
(b) Convenience: programmer can use e.g. large sparse data structures with impunity
(c) Efficiency: no need to waste (real) memory oncode or data which isn't used.
{2] Kernel
Kernel is the heart of the operating system and remains in the main memory. It is the core of a
multitasking operating system that deals with the basic system resources. The kernel drives
physical devices and handles I/ O, memory management and process scheduling.
{3] Spooling
The full form of SPOOL is Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-Line. Spooling is a way of
processing dataseriolly. Print jobs are spooled to the printer, because they must be printed in the
right order (it would not help the user if the lines of his file were liberally mixed together with
parts of someone else file). During a spooling operation, only one job is performed at a time and
other jobs wait in a queue to be processed.
{4]Buffering
A buffer is simply an area of memory which works as a waiting area. Buffers are therefore needed
to store incoming or outgoing information temporarily, while it is waiting to be picked up by the
other parts. It is afirst-in first-out (FIFO) data structure or queue.
{5] Context Switcbing
When the processor is switched from one process to another, the state (processor registers and
associated data) must be saved, because at some later date the process will be restarted and
continue as though it was never interrupted. Once this state has been saved, the next waiting
process is activated. This involves loading the processor registers and memory with all the
previously saved data and restarting it at the instruction that was to be executed when it was last
interrupted. The process of switching from one process to another is calledcontext switcbing.
{] Paging
Most virtual systems use a technique called paging. In paging, primary memory is partitioned into
same size called page. Instead of loading entire job at once, few pages are loaded into the page-
frame of memory. After the execution of such pages, they are kept back into secondary storage and
remaining part is again loaded in main memory.
User programs and utility software may not occupy the main memory all the time. They are
brought from the secondary memory (e.g. hard disk) to the primary memory whenever required.
Since, the program size is growing all the time, so it is not possible to load all the programs into the
memory. Those parts of the program which are currently running are brought into the main
memory and when theexecution is finished, other part of the same program is again brought into
the main memory. This process is known aspaging.
{7] CPU Scbeduling
On most multitasking systems, only one process can truly be active at a time - the system must
therefore share its time between the executions of many processes. This sharing is called
scbeJulinq. (Scheduling =time management.)
Different methods of scheduling are appropriate for different kinds of execution. A queue is one
form of scheduling in which each program waits its turn and is executed serially. This is not very
useful for handling multitasking, but it is necessary for schedulingdevices which cannot be shared
by nature. An example of the latter is the printer. Each print job has to be completed before the next
one can begin; otherwise all the print jobs would be mixed up and interleaved resulting in
nonsense.
{8] Process
From a user's point of view, the operating systemexecutes the programs: on batch system (here,
program is called jobs), on interactive system (here, program is called processes). But Process
doesnt mean Program; a program is static, while a process is dynamic. In fact, a process is a
program in execution.
A process in a computer system may be in one of a number of different possible states, such as-
Ready - it can run when the processor becomes free
Running - it currently has the processor
Blocked - it cannot run because the processor is busy
{9] Tbreads
A thread is a separate part of a process. A process can consist of several threads, each of which
execute separately. For example, one thread could handle screen refresh and drawing, another
threadprinting, another thread the mouse and keyboard.
{10] Batcb Processing
It is the earliest type of data processing mechanism which allowed only one program to run at a
time. The program was entered into the computer, then run till completed. The data used by the
program could not be modified while the program was running. Any errors in the program or data
mean starting all over again.
CUMPUTER PRUCRAM
A computer program is a set of commands that tells the CPU what to do. It is also called as software
or an application.
PRUCRAMMINC LANCUACE
Programming language is a computer language, human-created language used to write instructions
for a computer. It is the language used for communicating with the computer. It is the set of rules
that provides the computer to perform certain operations. A language that is acceptable to a
computer system is called acomputer language or programming language
PRUCRAMMINC
The process of writing instructions in such a language for an already planned program is called
coding or programming.
CUMPUTER LANCUACE CLASSIFICATIUNS
All computer languages can be broadly classified into the following categories:
Low-Level Language
o Machine Language (1st Generation Language)
o Assembly Language (2nd Generation Language)
High-Level Language
o Procedural-oriented Language (3rd Generation Language)
o Problem-oriented Language (4th Generation Language)
o Natural Language (5th Generation Language)
LUW- LEVEL LANCUACE
Oldest programming language
Use of binary numbers (1s and 0s)
Directly controls CPU, Memory, and registers
Two types Machine language and Assembly language
{1] MACHINE LANCUACE
It is the first generation language (1GL). It is a language computer can understand. It is composed
of 0s and 1s. The machine language of a computer is normally written as strings of binary 1s and
0s. This type of program or source code written in binaryform is called Machine Code.
Example: To write an instruction ADD 2 and 3 then we may have to write 01100001(i.e. ADD)
00000010(i.e. 2) and 00000011(i.e. 3)
Advantages of Macbine Language
Program written in machine language can be executed very fast by the computer because no
translation is required.
It is the language of the computer
It operates directly on hardware levels
Limitations of Macbine Language
Difficult to write, even if one bit change whole meaning may change.
Lots of inputs required even for doing very small program.
Because the internal design of every type of computer is different from every other type of
computer, the machine language also differs from computer to computer. (i.e. machine
dependent language)
Writing a program in machine language is so difficult and time consuming that it is rarely
used today.
Programmer need to know the track of memory locations
{2] ASSEMBLY LANCUACE
Use alphanumeric mnemonic codes, instead of numeric codes for the instruction while writing
source code. These symbolic languages must be translated to machine language using assembler.
They are called as second generation language (2GL).
Example: MOV AX, 08
MOV BH, 30
MOV CX, 05
ADD AX, BH, CX
Advantages of Assembly Language
Assembly languages are easier to understand and use.
Less effort needed to write a program
Easier to understand the mnemonics
Programmers need not keep the track of the memory locations
Programs can be revised quite easily
Limitations of Assembly Language
Due to their close correspondence with machine language, different assembly languages had
to be developed for each type of CPU (i.e. they are processor dependent)
Programs written in one system could not be run on other systems without introducing
significant changes.
It is not a user-friendly language
Programmers have to write a long sequence of instructions even for a small program
An assembler is needed to convert the assembly language to machine language
Slow execution speed than machine language
ASSEMBLER
The assembler is program that translates an assembly language program into an equivalent
machine language. The assembly language program is referred to as Source Program whereas;
the machine language program is referred as Object Program. Assembler also assembles the
machine language programs into main memory of the computer and makes it ready for execution.
Fig: Assembler
HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE
High-level languages were designed to overcome their limitation such as machine dependent and
machine level coding. They are similar to written English. Their syntax is more like a human
language.
Advantages of Higb-level language
1. Macbine independence: A program written in a high-level language can be executed on many
different types of the computers.
2. Easier to learn and use: High-level languages are easier to learn, because they are similar to
the natural language used by us in our day-to-day life.
3. Fewer errors: While programming in a high-level language, a programmer need not worry
about how and where to store the instructions and data of the program, and need not write
machine-level instructions for the steps carried out by the computer.
4. Lower program preparation cost: Writing programs in high-level languages require less
time and effort, which ultimately lads to lower program preparation cost.
5. Better documentation: The statements of program written in a high-level language are very
similar to the natural language statement use d by us in our day-to-day life. Hence a
programmer familiar with the problem domain can easily understand them. As a result, very
few, or practically no separate comment is required in program written in high-level language.
. Easier to maintain: Programs written in high-level language are easier to maintain, they are
easier to understand, and hence, it is easier to locate, correct and modify instructions as and
when desired.
Disadvantages of Higb-level language
More time toexecute
No direct mechanism to control computer hardware.
Programs execute more slowly.
The languages use computer resource less efficiently.
A compiler is needed to translate high-level language into machine language
ASSEMBLY
LANGUAGE
ASSEMBLER
MACHINE
LANGUAGE
Source Program Object Program
A set of rules must be followed when writing the codes
Higb level languages are of tbree types:
Procedural-Oriented Languages
Problem-Oriented Languages
Natural Languages
{3] PRUCEDURAL- URIENTED LANCUACE
General-purpose programming languages are called procedural languages or third generation
language (3GL). They are languages such as Pascal, BASIC, COBOL and FORTAN, which are designed
to express the logic, the procedure, of a problem. Because of their flexibility, procedural languages
are able to solve a variety of problems.
Advantages of Procedural - Uriented language
Easier to work as program statement resembles English-like phrases
Machine-independent codes
Once coded, it is easy to modify the program
Disadvantages of Procedural - Uriented language
Programs execute more slowly
These type of languages use computer resources less efficiently
They use a text environment for programming
{4] PRUBLEM- URIENTED LANCUACE
This is also known as 4GL. This is one step ahead from 3GL. These are result oriented and included
database query language. There are fewer options for programmers, but the programs are mush
easier to write than in lower level languages. 4GL programs are also needed to be translated either
by compiler or interpreter. In fact, 4GL cannot be used for all-purpose. They are dedicated for some
particular application developments. Example of 4GL is C, C++, SQL (structured Query language),
Delphi, ASP, PHP, VB.NET, VisualAge, etc.
COMPILER
Since computer can directly execute only machine language programs, a high-level language
program must be converted into its equivalent machine language program before it can be
executed on the computer. This is done with the help of translator program, which is known as a
compiler. A compiler is a translator program, which translates a high-level languages program into
its equivalent machine language program. Compiler is language dependent. FORTAN compiler cant
compile COBOL program. In additional to translating, compiler also automatically detects and
indicates certain type of errors in source programs.
Fig: Compiler
INTERPRETER
An interpreter is another type of translator, which is used for translating programs written in high-
level languages. The working principle is different from that of compiler in the sense that
interpreter reads each line at a time and execute. So result is program execution not an object
program. As compared to compiler, error is detected and brought to the attention as soon as the
program is interpreted. The main disadvantage of the interpreter is that they are slower than
compiler. Both interpreter and compiler can be combined. Interpreter debug program and then
after a bug-free state is reached, the program are compiled.
Fig: Interpreter
LINKER
Linker is a program that combines all the object program and library program collectively to
convert them to final executable program. Linkers are found in high-level languages like C, C++,
VC++, Java, etc.
High Level
Language
COMPILER
Machine
Language
High Level
Language
INTERPRETER
Machine
Language
High Level
Language
COMPILER
Machine
Language
Source Program
Object Program
LINKER
Object
Program
Library
Program
Fig: Linker
D DI IF FF FE ER RE EN NC CE ES S B BE ET TW WE EE EN N C CU UM MP PI IL LE ER R A AN ND D I IN NT TE ER RP PR RE ET TE ER R
C CU UM MP PI IL LE ER R I IN NT TE ER RP PR RE ET TE ER R
A compiler converts all of the source code into
machine code, creating an executable file. The
content of this executable file is called object code.
An interpreter converts each program
statement into machine code just before the
program statement is to be executed
Executable file can be executed from command
line.
Interpreter should be loaded each time to run
the source code
It is better than interpreter is because program can
be executed faster and efficiency once the object
code has been executed.
They are slower and less efficiency than
compiler because interpreter required every
time to execute program.
C Compiler, Pascal Compiler, C++Compiler Lisp, Basic, Perl, Visual Basic etc.
Compiler is complex & difficult to design. Interpreter is simple & easy to design.
Compiled code runsfaster Interpreted code runs slower
Compiler requires large memory space. Interpreter does not require much memory
Space.
It requires less time to execute the program. It requires more time to execute the program.
Compiler translate whole program at atime. Interpreters translate line by line at a time.
Table: Differences between compiler and interpreter
{5] NATURAL LANCUACE
It is also known as 5
th
generation language. It is still in development and most probably is the
language of 5
th
generation computer. In such a language we would write statements that look like
normal sentence. Natural languages have two characteristics:
They are designed to make the connections that humans have with computer more natural
more humanlike.
They are designed to allow the computer to become smarter to actually simulate the
learning process by remembering and improving upon earlier information.
SUFTWARE LIFE CYCLE
It is a standard process followed in order to conduct all the steps necessary to analyse, design,
implement, and maintain software. It is a systematic process of building a software system. It is
often known as system development life cycle (SDLC). SDLC is composed of series of phase like -
Problem Definition, System Analysis, System Design, System Implementation, System Testing &
Verification, and System Maintenance. Together these phases are called life cycle because they
cover the entire life of software system.
PRUBLEM DEFINITIUN
At this stage, the problem to be solved or the task to be performed is defined. I/ O and
processing requirements are also specified. The programmer needs to know exactly what the
program is required to do.
SYSTEM ANALYSIS
This phase is concerned with what the system will do? It is not is concerned with how. In this
phase, developers use various tools like Data Flow Diagram (DFD) and Entity-Relationship Diagram
(E-R Diagram) to show the internals of the proposed system. The entire system is divided into
small parts and the data used by systems are analyzed.
SYSTEM DESIGN
This phase is concerned with how the system works? Each nodules are further broken down into
smaller pieces and elaborates minutely with the help of Flow-Chart or Pseudocode. The design
process may follow Top-down approach or Bottom-up approach.
SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
In this stage, the instructions written in Pseudocode are written in a programming language. The
programming language may be C, C++, BASIC, and Pascal etc. If programs have to be written in a
very strict format, and are to be typed by someone other than the programmer, then they are first
written on special forms called CoJinq Sbeet.
SYSTEM TESTING/ VERIFICATION
At this stage, the program is tested to check whether it performs the required task or solves the
given problem. Here, errors in the program are also detected and corrected. The testing can be
broadly categorized into two types:
Black Box Testing: Known input is provided and checked whether system generates expected
output or not.
Wbite Box Testing: Every possible course of action inside the code is checked thoroughly.
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
This is a continuous process and is done until the lifetime of software. A software system never
becomes 100% corrects and it needscontinuous maintenance. No matter how good the new system
is, how well it was installed, and how well it may be currently operating, sooner or later it will need
to be modified due to one or more of the following reasons:
Changes in business condition or operations of the organization using the system
Changes in organizational policies or enforcements of new laws
Changes in user need, such as demand for additional features or output reports
Changes in technology, such as availability of new and more powerful processors, more efficient
storage, more convenient I/ O device, new system software etc
System maintenance is an important phase of the overall life cycle of a computerized system, and
its importance should not be under estimated. In fact, several studies have show that, on an
average, the maintenance cost of a computerized system is two to four times more than the initial
development cost. This means that more than half of the programming tasks in this world involve
program maintenance.
TYPES UF PRUCRAMMINC ERRURS
1. Syntax Error: Syntax error result when the rules or syntax of the programming language are not
followed. Such program errors typically involve incorrect punctuation, incorrect word sequence,
undefined terms, or misuse of terms. For example, the statement C(A+B/ 2 has a syntax error,
because of the missing closing parenthesis, which should be place in the appropriate place,
depending on the logic of the program. A program cannot be successfully compiled and executed
until all its syntax error has been corrected.
2. Logical Error: A logic error is an error in planning the programs logic. Such errors cause the
program to produce incorrect output. That is, a program, which is free of syntax errors, but has
one or more logic errors, will besuccessfully compiled and executed, but will not produce correct
result. The problem is that, since the program contain logic error, the logic being followed during
its execution will not be correct. Hence, the program will not produce the desired results.
For example if instruction should be A=B+C, but has been coded as A=BC, it is an example of
logic error, because the result produced by the program will not be correct.
D DI IF FF FE ER RE EN NC CE ES S B BE ET TW WE EE EN N L LU UC CI IC C E ER RR RU UR R A AN ND D S SY YN NT TA AX X E ER RR RU UR R
L LU UC CI IC C E ER RR RU UR R S SY YN NT TA AX X E ER RR RU UR R
Documentation, reference or guidelines of logic is
not available to end-users
Set of rules, syntaxes, documents and
reference to end-users are made available by
the developers.
Users can solve syntax related errors but not logic
errors. Logic errors can be solved only by specific
programmers.
Users of program can correct errors in
syntax.
Cannot be identified by the compilers and
interpreters during execution.
These errors are identified by compilers and
interpreters.
Cost is high, since program development team
(analysts, programmers, etc.) are needed to be
involved to solve.
Cost is low, since users may correct this
problem.
Difficult to find the error and is time consuming
task to fix the problem.
Easier to track the error and fix them.
Result is shown even if there is a logical error but
it is of no use as it provides false output.
Output is not shown unless bugs are solved
and the result obtained is useful.
Example: I =(P*T+R)/ 100; Example: I =P*T*R/ 100
PRUCRAMMINC TUULS
Some of the programming tools are as follows:
1. Algorithms
2. Flowcharts
3. Pseudocodes
4. Decision table
5. Decision tree
ALCURITHMS
Algorithm is a step-by-step description of how to solve a particular problem. Algorithms are
converted into codes or programs by theprogrammers. Algorithms make the program development
easier for the programmers.
The desirable features of an algorithm are:
Each step of the algorithm should be simple.
It should be unambiguous in the sense that the logic should be clear.
It should be effective.
It must end in finite number of steps.
It should be an efficient as possible.
One or more instructions should not be repeated infinitely.
Desirable result must be obtained on the algorithm termination
Example: Algorithm to multiply two numbers a, b.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input numbers a and b
Step 3: Multiply a and b & store on c, i.e. c =a*b
Step 4: Display the value of c
Step 5: Stop
FLUWCHARTS
The pictorial representation of the programs or the algorithm is known as flowcharts. It is nothing
but a diagrammatic representation of the various steps involved in designing a system. A flowchart
consists of a set of flowchart symbols connected by arrows. Each symbol contains information about
what must be done at that point & the arrow shows the flow of execution of the algorithm, i.e., they
show the order in which the instructions must be executed. The purpose of using flowcharts is to
graphically present the logical flow of data in the system and defining major phases of processing
along with the various media to be used.
Symbols used in designing Flowcbart (also called as basic symbols)
Terminal Symbol: It is used to indicate a point at which the flowchart begins or ends. The words
START & END are written within the terminal symbol.
Process Symbol: This symbol represents some operations on data.
IJU symbol: It is used to represent the logical positioning of input/ output operation.
Decision symbol: This symbol represents a logical operation showing a decision point in a
program.
Connector symbol: It is used to indicate a junction at whom the flowchart comes from a part of
the flowchart on another page.
Flow symbol: A flow symbol is an arrow that shows the flow of program logic in a flowchart.
Example: AFlowchart to calculate the product of two numbers
Process / Statement
Condition \
Decision
Input / Output Start / End
Data Flow
Connector
START
READ a & b
C = a x b
END
PRINT C
Advantages of Flow Cbart
A flowchart is a pictorial representation of a program. Hence it is easier for a programmer to
explain the logic of a program throughflowchart.
Easy to convert flowchart to programming language
Easy to detect, locate and remove bugs in a program
Efficient means of communication
Limitations of Flow Cbart
Very time consuming and laborious job
Redrawing a flowchart is a tedious task
Howmuch to include in flowchart is unclear.
Occupies space while documentation
Translation of flowchart to computer program is difficult
PSEUDUCUDES
Pseudocodes are phrases written in ordinary natural language, which cannot be understood by the
computer. It is a structure way of writing program and resembles to computer instruction.
Example: Suppose that National Book Center decides to prepare a Book club. Members of the club
are entitled to special discounts on the purchase of books; the discount of 15% if their purchase
exceeds Rs. 5000 otherwise 10%. Non-members arent normally given any discount. However if
their purchase exceeds Rs.5000 a discount of 7% is given.
The following is the Pseudocode version of the above discount policy
IF Member THEN
IF Purchase >Rs 5000THEN
Discount is 15%
ELSE
Discount is 10%
ENDIF
ELSE [purchaser is not a member]
IF Purchase >Rs.5000THEN
Discount is 7%
ELSE
No discount
ENDIF
ENDIF
Advantages of Pseudocode
1. Converting a Pseudocode to a programming language is much easier.
2. Easier to modify.
3. Involves much less time and effort
Disadvantages of Pseudocode
1. Complex to understand for beginners
2. No common standard
DECISIUN TABLE
A decision table allows an analyst to set out in a clear way what could be a confusing situation. It
consists of two parts: Conditions & Actions
Example: Suppose that National Book Center decides to prepare a Book club. Members of the club
are entitled to special discounts on the purchase of books; the discount of 15% if their purchase
exceeds Rs. 5000 otherwise 10%. Non-members arent normally given any discount. However if their
purchase exceeds Rs.5000 a discount of 7% is given.
Condition Member Y Y N N
Purchase above Rs 5000 Y N Y N
Action 15% Discount
10% Discount
7% Discount
No Discount
DECISIUN TREE
A decision tree is another way of presenting a potentially confusing situation in a clear, concise &
unambiguous manner.
Following figure illustrates the decision tree for the discount policy.
Discount
Policy
Member
<=5000 >5000
10%
15%
Non-Member
<=5000 >5000
0% 7%
PRUCRAM STRUCTURES
Any program logic, no matter how complex, could be expressed by using only the following three
simple control structures:
a. Sequence Logic
b. Selection Logic and
c. Iteration (or Looping) Logic
{a] Sequence Logic
Sequence logic is used for performing instruction one after another in sequence. The logic flow is
from top to bottom.
{b] Selection Logic
Selection is a special kind of branching, in which one group of statements is selected from several
available groups, i.e., it allows alternative actions to be taken according to the conditions that exist
at particular stages in program executions. Conditions are normally in theform of expressions that
when evaluated give Boolean results (true or false). Selection logic is depicted as:
a. IF THEN
b. IF THEN ELSE
c. SWITCH-CASE
Fig: Sequential statement
Statement1
Statement2
Statement3
Statement 1
Statement 2
..
..
..
Statement n
.
Flg: PseuJocoJe
IF
Condition
Statement1
F T
IF (CONDITION)
THEN
Statement1
ENDIF
Fig: Flowchart and Pseudocode for IF THEN selection structure
Fig: Flowchart and Pseudocode for IF THEN ELSE selection structure
Fig: Pseudocode for Switch-Case selection structure
IF
Condition
Statement1 Statement2
F T
IF (CONDITION)
THEN
Statement1
ELSE
Statement2
ENDIF
SWITCH (EXPRESSION)
CASE TYPE1:
Statement1
break;
CASE TYPE2:
Statement2
break;
DEFAULT:
Statement
END CASE
{c] Iteration Logic
Many programs require that a group of instructions to be executed repeatedly, until some logical
conditions has been satisfied i.e., the same sequence of statements needs to be performed again and
again for a number of times. The repeated performance of the same statements is called looping.
There are number of statements used to carry out looping operations such as
a. WHILE loop
b. DO WHILE
Fig: Flowchart and Pseudocode for WHILE and DO WHILEselection structure
CHARACTERISTICS UF A CUUD PRUCRAM
To be a good program, the program should have following characteristics:
1. Integrity: This refers to the accuracy of the calculations. It should be clear that all other
program enhancements would be meaningless if the calculations were not carried out
correctly.
Initialization
WHILE (EXPRESSION)
Statement1
Statement2
..
Increment or Decrement
END WHILE
DO
Statement 1
Statement 2
Statement n
WHILE (Condition)
Initialization
Statements
Logical
Expression
T
F
Increment
Decrement
Statement 1
Statement n
Condition
?
2. Clarity: If a program is clearly written, it should be possible for another programmer to flow
the program logic without undue effort.
3. Simplicity: Keeping things as simple as possible usually enhance the clarity & accuracy of a
program, consistent with the overall program objectives.
4. Efficiency: This is concerned with the execution speed & memory utilization. The program
execution speed should be fast & the program should not use unnecessary memory.
5. Modularity: Many programs can be broken down into a series of understandable subtasks. It
is a good programming practice to implement each of these subtasks as a separate program
module
. Cenerality: Usually we want a program to be as general as possible. Considerable amount of
generality can be obtained with very little additional programming effort.
7. Reliability: It is the ability of a program to perform its function correctly, i.e., the program can
be depended upon always to do what it is supposed to do.
8. Maintainability: The program will be easy to change or modify when the need arises.
9. Portability: The program will be transferable to a different computer with minimum of
modification. A program written in high-level language is more portable than an assembly
language.
10. Readability: The program will be easy to read and understand. This helps the programmer to
change or modify the program as needed.
11. Robustness: Program must be fault-tolerant as much as possible. Although program cannot be
100% perfect, it must be built in such a way that, if some unavoidable circumstance appears,
then it must tackle with this without being crashed.
12. Performance: The program causes the tasksto be done quickly and efficiently.
13. Security: A program must be secure enough so as to avoid tampering from unauthorized
people. Loopholes in the program must be avoided as much as possible.
Word Processing Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft word is very powerful, advance and useful word-processing software which is developed
by Microsoft Corporation, USA. It has all kind of word processing facilities like To create, edit,
format, save and print document, to check spellings and grammar, to search for synonyms and
antonyms (thesaurus), to work with newspaper columns, tables, to add footnotes and endnotes,
page number, special symbols, bookmarks, comments, to insert the picture, objects (e.g. video clips,
audio clips, power point presentations, equations, AutoCAD drawings etc.).
The file of Ms-Word is calledJocument and theextension isJoc.
In spite of above-mentioned matters, there are many other features available in WinWord, which
help us to furnish a document (e.g. report, letter, essay etc.) in such a way that we can produce the
professional outlook. Now a day, WinWord is considered as the best word-processing software.
Features of Word Processing Software
Formatting of documents
Most of the word processing features are used toformot the document. The process of formottinq a
document includes
changing the appearance of text
changing the layout of text on the page
inserting pictures, symbols and other graphic elements
Therefore, formatting includes most of the tasks before printing a final document. The main
objective of formatting is to makes a document attractive. Formatting is of three categories:
cborocter formot, poroqropb formot andJocument formot.
Speller {Spell Cbecker]
Speller is one of the most important features of a Word Processor. Every Word Processor contains
a small dictionary inside it. This dictionary can be used to check spelling errors. Using this facility is
very easy. A user can click a "Spellinq onJ 6rommor" button and check spelling within the
document. The speller catches spelling mistakes. It also provides options for replacing with correct
word and ignoring word.
Crammar Cbecker
It is another important feature of a Word Processor. It works like speller but it inspects a document
for grammatical problems. A grammar checker compares each sentence to a set of standard
grammatical rules and informs you. If it finds a problem, it provides grammatically correct options.
Tbesaurus
Thesaurus is a source of alternative words in any Word Processor. It provides antonyms and
synonyms of words. A user can select a word and use thesaurus tool to display words with the
same meaning (synonym) and opposite meaning (antonym).
Table
This feature allows user to createtobles in just a few steps. Some of the features of a table are:
User can mention number of rows and columns in a table
new rows or columns can be inserted
existing rows or columns can be deleted
Rows or columns can be merged or splitted
in-build model are available to change outlook of a table
Mail Merge
A mail merge is the process of combining a form letter with the contents of o Jotobose. The
database usually contains name and address list of people. So, mail merge prepares an individual
letter for all the persons in the database. The mail merge feature makes it easy to send the same
letter to a list of different people with the correct name and address printed on each letter.
Crapbics and Sound
With a Word Processor, usecan easily addqropbic imoqes such as photos, drawings, or clipart to a
document. After graphic has been imported, user can move, size, crop, and add borders to it. Word
Processor provides a collection of graphic image files. User can select any one of them and put on a
document.
User can embed sounJ file in a document in the same way that he or she embeds a graphic file.
When user embeds a sound file, it appears as an icon on the document. Clicking the icon plays the
sound file.
Template
Templotes are pre-designed documents that blank. The fonts, paragraph formats, heading, rules,
graphics, headers, or footers and margins are preset in a template. A Word Processor contains
varieties of templates. User can open a document template, type text into it and save it.
Spreadsbeet Software
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Company developed this program, so it is known as Microsoft Excel. It is a spreadsheet
program where we can insert data, process them, sort them, filter them and create chart from the
data etc., in this program we can perform various kinds of Mathematical, financial, statistical,
engineering calculations. Using this program we can create bill, voucher, salary sheet, income&
expenses statement, mark sheet, purchase book, sales book, balance sheet etc.
The file of Ms-Excel is calledworkbook and its extension isxls.
Worksbeet: - The large working area of a workbook is called worksheet. There are 65,536 rows
and 256 columns in a worksheet.
Cell: - Tbe intersection between row and column is called Cell. Each cell contains 32000
Characters.
Features of Spreadsbeet Software
Big and powerful worksbeet
Worksheet provides a very large space to enter and edit data. A typical worksheet can
accommodate ten or more pages of data. Collection of worksheet is called workbook. A worksheet
contains thousands of individual cells. Every cell is capable of storing data and making calculation.
Each cell is referred by a unique address calledcell oJJress.
Formulas and Functions
The power of Spreadsheet lies in formulo. A formula calculates numbers based on values or
formulas in other cell. User can create many kinds of formulas manually to do basic arithmetic
operations, calculus, or trigonometric operations, and so on. Spreadsheet also comes with many
built-in functions. The functions perform specialized calculations automatically, such as monthly
payment of a loan, depreciation of an asset, etc.
Formatting numbers
Spreadsheet programs offer numerous formats specifically for numbers. Numbers can appear as
rupees, or dollars and cents, percentages, dates, times and fractions. They can be shown with or
without commas and decimal points.
Cbarts
A popular feature of Spreadsheet software is its ability to generate cborts based on numeric data.
Chart makes data easier to understand and analyze. Creating a chart is very simple in Spreadsheet
software. Every Spreadsheet software offer varieties of charts, such as column chart, line chart, pie
chart, etc.
Analysis tools
Modern spreadsheet software provides various tools to analyse data. User can create a report
summarizing the different cases. One can also use these tools to find the value that meets specified
conditions.
Database management
A worksheet can offer large volume of records. These records form a database. A Spreadsheet
program provides various tools, which can be used to sort, update, search, and manage database.
Presentation Software
Microsoft Power Point
Power Point is presentation software where we can make a slide, design, format, animation, sound,
set effect in particular slide, etc. This is mostly used in display project overview, display program by
Ms-PowerPoint. It is developed by Microsoft Corporation USA.
The file of Ms-PowerPoint is calledsliJe and its extension isppt.
Slide sbow {presentation]
This option is use to present the slides in full screen mode with different slide transition and
animation effect. After crating and formatting the slides
Features of Presentation Software
Varieties of output
User can get the presentation from different output media. He or she can:
show presentation on thecomputers monitor
print the slides on transparent sheets, and show them through0ver-beoJ projector
useviJeo projector to show full-fledge multimedia presentation
Uutlining
Outlining tool enables user to organize slides contents. It actually arranges the contents and views
them in order.
Animation
User can useonimotion toolsto applyspeciol effects on text or images. Animation makes text pop up
or crawl onto the screen. Use can also create animatedtronsitions, a special effect that causes slides
to bend together when user switch from one slide to another.
Annotations
This tool allows user to prepare a set of notes (called onnototions) to accompany the slides. These
notes are visible only to user, or user can print them with or without actual slide.
Sound and video
Slide presentations can be full-fledged multimedia events. User can embed sound or video object
into a slide. Then play the object by double-clicking its icon during a presentation.
Utber embedded ob|ects
User can embed different types of objects, such as links to Web pages or other applications, in a
presentation. When a user clicks such link in a slide, the Web page opens or other application runs.
Web Page conversion
Like Word Processors and other software, Presentation Program let user save document in HTML
format. With this, a presentation file can be used as a web page, or it can be available on-line.
Database Software
Microsoft Access
Microsoft Access is a powerful multi-user RDBMS (Relational Database Management system)
developed by Microsoft Corporation and can be used to store and manipulate large amounts of
information and perform repetitive tasks. Access stores an entire database application within a
single file with a.mJb extension, which can contain data objects, like tables, indexes and queries, as
well as application objects like forms, reports, macros, and visual basic code.
Although the term database typically refers to a collection of related data tables, an Access
database includes more than just data. In addition to tables, an Access database file contains
several different types of database objects:
Saved queries for organizing data,
Forms for interacting with the data on screen,
Reports for printing results,
Features of Database Software
Microsoft Access 2000 offers a variety of features for different database needs and can be used to
different types of applications such as:
Personal Applications
Small Business Applications
Departmental Applications
Corporation-wide Applications
As a front end for enterprise wide client/ server Applications
Intranet / Internet Applications
Database
A database is a collection of data organized in a manner, which allows retrieval and use of that data,
by anyone needing it. A database is organized and designed to allow a large number of users to
draw information from it for many different purposes in many different formats.
DBMS {Database Management System]
A database-management system (DBMS) consists of a collection of interrelated data and a set of
programs to access those data. The collection of data, usually referred to as the database, contains
information about one particular enterprise.
The Primary goal of a DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and efficient to
use in retrieving and storing database information.
Database systems are designed to manage large bodies of information. The management of data
involves both the definition of structures fro the storage of information and the provision of
mechanisms for the manipulation of information. In addition, the database system must provide for
the safety of the information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access. If
data are to be shared amongseveral users, the system must avoid possible anomalous results. The
importance of information in most organizations - which determines the value of the database- has
led to the development of a large body of concepts and techniques for the efficient management of
data.
Some popular DBMS are FoxPro, Clipper, SYBASE, MS-ACCESS, ORACLE, MS SQL Server, MY SQL,
etc.
Computer Crapbics
Computer graphics is a field related to the generation of graphics using computers. It includes the
creation, storage, and manipulation of images of objects. These objects come from diverse fields
such as physical, mathematical, engineering, architectural, abstract structures and natural
phenomenon. Computer graphics today is largely interactive; that is, the user controls thecontents,
structure, and appearance of images of the objects by using input devices, such as a keyboard,
mouse, or touch-sensitive panel on the screen.
INPUT - UUTPUT DEVICES
Input-output (I/ O) devices are the primary means by which one can interact with computer. The
computer devices are also called peripberol Jevices. Peripheral devices of computer can be divided
into internal (installed inside the computer) & external (existing outside the computer but
connected electronically to it). All the peripherals of the computer are connected to the ports.
An input device converts incoming data & instructions into a pattern of electronic signals in binary
code i.e. combination of 0s & 1s to a digital computer, whereas an output device reverses the
processing, translating the digital signals into a form understandable to the user.
INPUT DEVICES
The raw data & program are entered in the computer through input device. It reads the raw data
prepared by the user & sends then into the computer as a series of electronic pulses. The devices
which, read the data and program into the computer, are called input devices, i.e., data and
programs are entered into the computer system for processing through input device. An input
device converts input data into suitable form acceptable to a computer. So, it is a means of
communication between user and the computer. Examples of input devices are keyboard, mouse,
joysticks, optical character reader, light pen, touch panel.
Keyboard
A keyboard is the primary & most user-friendly input device. Both data & instructions can be
entered into the computer with the help of the keyboard. It is an essential device for interactive
processing in the sense that the user can issue commands through the keyboard to the CPU &
receive the response immediately on monitor. Computer keyboards are similar to typewriter
keyboards but contain additional keys. There are separate keys for each number, letters & symbols.
The data can be sent to the CPU either serially or in parallel. The keyboards therefore can be divided
into two types: serial keyboard & parallel keyboard.
Serial Keyboard
It sends the data bit by bit in a serial way. Thus, there is an only one line that carries data from
keyboard to the CPU. A serial to parallel converter is required at the computer end to convert serial
data into parallel.
Parallel Keyboard
It sends all the bits of the data simultaneously on separate lines. Thus, there are as many data lines
as there are bits in the data.
At microcomputer level, IBM personal computer hasthree different PC keyboards-
1. XT (Extended Technology):
It has 83 keys.
2. AT (Advanced Technology):
It has 101 keys.
3. Enhanced Keyboard:
It has 103 keys.
Alpbanumeric Keys
Letters and numbers along with Tab, Caps Lock, Backspace and
Enter
Modifier Keys Shift, Ctrl, Alt
Function keys F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F7, F8, F9, F10, F11, F12
Numeric Keypad Ten digits (0-9) and mathematical operators (*, -, / , +, %, }, {, <, >,
?, etc)
Cursor-Movement Keys Arrow keys, Home/ End and Page Up/ PageDown
Speclul-Purpoxe Keyx
Insert, Delete, Esc, Print Screen, Scroll Lock, Pause, Start and
Shortcut
How the Computer Acceptx Input From the KeybourJ?
A tiny computer chip, called the keyboorJ controller, notes that a key has been pressed. The
Keyboard controller places a code into part of its memory, called the keyboorJ buffer, indicating
which key was pressed. A buffer is a temporary storage area that holds data until it can be
processed. This code is called the keys scon coJe. The keyboard controller then signals the
computers system software that something has happened at the keyboard. It does not specify what
has occurred just that something has. The signal the keyboard sends to the computer is a special
kind of message called an interrupt request. An interrupt is a signal; it notifies a program that an
event has occurred. The keyboard controller sends an interrupt request to the system softwore
when it receives a complete keystroke. For example, if you type the letter r", the controller
immediately issues an interrupts request. If you hold down the shift key before typing the letter
R", the controller waits until the whole key combination has been entered.
When the system software receives an interrupt request, it evaluates the request to determine the
appropriate response. When a key-press has occurred, the system reads the memory location in the
keyboard buffer that contains the scan code of the key that was pressed. It then passes the keys
scancode to the CPU. The keyboard buffer can store many keystrokes at one time. This capability is
necessary because some time elapsed between the pressings of a key and computers reading of
that key from the keyboard buffer. With the keystrokes stored in the buffer the program can react
to them when it is convenient.
In many newer systems, the keyboard controller handles input from the computers mouse and
stores setting for both the keyboard ands the mouse.
Shortcut
Shortcut
Fig: How a Keyboard Works?
Mouse
Mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbert of Standford Research Center in 1963 & pioneered by
Xerox in the 1970's. It is hand held device with a roller on its base is moved over the surface. As the
ball is moved over the surface in any direction, themotion is converted to digital values & is used to
determine the direction & magnitude of the mouse's cursor on the screen.
Mouse is one of the most widely used input devices of the computer. A mouse is a small had held
device whose relative motion across the surface can be measured. Because mice are the relative
devices, they can be picked up; move and then put down again without any changes in reported
position. For this the computer maintains the current mouse position, which is incremented or
decremented by the mouse movement.
Mouse is a small plastic box with two or three buttons on the top and a ball at the bottom, which
rolls on a flat surface. As the ball moves across flat surface (mouse pad), the visible indicator (i.e.
pointer/ cursor) on the screen, moves in the direction of mouse movement. We can select the
commands, draw pictures, and edit text etc. by pressing the mouse button. The mouse is important
for graphical user interface because we can simply point to options or objects & click a mouse
button. Such applications are often called point & click programs.
There are basically three types of mice-
Mecbanical Mouse
Mechanical mouse has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all directions.
Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction of rolling ball & move on the screen
accordingly.
0ptomecbonicol House
Optomechanical mice are same as a mechanical mouse but uses optical sensors to detect motion of
the ball. A ball rolls on two shafts. The shaft turns optical shaft-angle encoders to convert motions
to electrical signals. This type of mouse is easier to clean as compared to clean a mechanical mouse.
Uptical Mouse
The optical mouse is used on a special pad having grids of altering light and dark lines. A LED on
the bottom of the mouse directs a beam of light down onto the pad, from which it is reflected and
sensed by the detectors on the bottom of the mouse. As the mouse is moved, the reflected light
beam is broken each time a dark line is crossed. The number of pulses so generated, which is equal
to the number of lines crossed, is used to report mouse movements to the computer.
Mouse can be connected to PC in one of the three ways.
1. Serial mouse connect directly to the serial port (9-pin).
2. PS/ 2 mouse connect directly to the PS/ 2 port (6-pin).
3. Cordless mouse does not connect physically but can be connected with infrared or radio waves.
Using the mouse involves five techniques:
1. Pointing: Move the mouse to move the on-screen pointer.
2. Clicking: Press andrelease the left mouse button once.
3. Double-clicking: Press and release the left mouse button twice.
4. Dragging: Hold down the left mouse button as you move the pointer.
5. Rigbt-clicking: Press and release the right mouse button
Trackball
A trackball is a pointing device that works like an upside-down mouse. A track ball is really a
variation on the mouse. You rest your thumb on the exposed ball and your fingers on the buttons.
The track ball is held stationary while the ball is manually rotated by hand in any direction. The
track balls are intended for use where the desktop space is limited or not available. To move the
pointer around the screen, you roll the ball with your thumb. The advantage over mice is that it is
stationary so it does not require much space to use and it can be place on any type of the surface
)oystick
A joystick is a device consisting of a hand held stick that pivots about one end and can be moved left
or right, forward or backward. It lets the user move an object on thescreen. A potentiometer senses
the movements of the stick. A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring or comparing the
movement of mouse from original position. As the stick is moved around, the movements are
translated into binary instructions with the help of electrical contacts in its base.
Children can play with a set in two crossed grooves & can be moved left or right, forward or
backward. A joystick is generally used to control the velocity of the screen cursor movement rather
than its absoluteposition.
Ligbt Pen
Light pen is an input device that contains a photocell mounted in pen-shaped tube. When the pen is
moved over the surface of the screen, it detects the light emitted from the screen and generates
electric pulses. The pulses are transmitted to a processor that identifies the pixel (picture element)
the light pen is pointing to. It enables a user to write words or draw pictures directly into the
computer. It is useful for graphic work like CAD (Computer Aided Designing) package.
Because of the following drawbacks the light pens are not popular now-a-days:
It obscures the screen image as it is pointing to the required spot.
The light pen cannot report the coordinates of a point that is completely black
It gives sometimes-false reading due to background lighting.
Prolong use of it can cause arm fatigue.
Digitizer
Digitizer also known as toblet is a flat surface ranging in size from about 6" X 6" up to 48" X 72" or
more, which can detect the position of a movable stylus (pencil-shaped device) or puck (mouse-
type device). Thestylus has a pressure sensitive switch on its tip, which closes when the stylus is
pressed. Thepuck has thin cross-hair cursor for accuracy in digitizing drawing that is placed on the
tablet and push button for command entry.
A tablet digitizes an object detecting the position of the stylus or puck. They are used to scan over
the object and input the set of the discrete coordinate position. These positions can then be joined
with the straight lines segment to approximate the shape of an original object.
There are mainly three types of the tablets-
Electrical Tablet
Sonic Tablet
Resistive Tablet
Electrical Tablet
Most tablets use an electrical sensing mechanism to determine the position of the stylus. In one of
such arrangement, a grid of wire on to inch center is embedded in the tablet surface.
Electromagnetic signals generating by the electric pulses applied in sequence to the wired in the
grids induce an electrical signal in a wire coil in the stylus. The signal strength is also used to
determine roughly how a\ far the stylus from the tablet. A signal is sent to the computer when the
tip is pressed against the tablet, or when the button on the puck is pressed. The information
provided by the tablet repeats 30-to-60 times per second.
Sonic Tablet
The sonic tablet uses sound waves. An electrical spark at the tip of the stylus creates sound burst,
then the position of the stylus is calculated using the delay between when the spark occurs and
when it arrives at each microphone. The main advantage of sonic of sonic tablet is that it does not
require dedicate working area. Thisfacilitates digitizing drawing upon the thick books.
Resistive Tablet
This tablet is just a piece of a glass coated with a thin layer of conducting material. When a battery-
powered stylus is activated at a certain position, it emits high-frequency radio signals, which
induces the radio signals on the conducting layer. The strength of the signal received at eh edged of
the tablet is used to calculate the position of the stylus.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustration printed on paper and translates the
information into a form that the computer can use. The resulting image (text or illustration) can be
stored in a file as Bitmap or JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group), displayed on a screen, and
manipulated by programs.
A light source is moved across a printed page. The light bounces off the page and is passed through
the lens and onto light-sensitive diodes, which convert the light to electricity. A circuit board
converts the electricity to numbers and sends the informationto the computer.
There are two types of scanners-
Hand-held Scanner
Flatbed Scanner
Hand-beld Scanner
A hand held scanner is around 13cm long and 15 cm wide with a handle to enable it to be held
conveniently in hand. A set of light emitting diodes is enclosed in it. It is placed over the material to
be scammed and slowly dragged from the top to the bottom.
Flatbed Scanner
A flat bed scanner consists of a box with a glass plate on top and cover, which covers the glass plate.
The document to be scanned is placed above the glass plate. The light beam is situated below the
glass plate and is moved from left to right horizontally.
Bar Code Reader
Bar Code Reader is a photoelectric scanner that read bar code, an identification code printed on
product containers that gives its value (price) and other information (quality, manufacturer etc.).
Bar code is a printed series of parallel bars or lines of varying width that is used for entering data
into a computer system. They are mostly used by supermarkets, bookshops etc.
The bars are typically black on a white background & their width & quantity vary according to
applications. The bars are used to represent 0 & 1, sequence of which in turn can represent numbers
from 0 to 9 & be processed by a digital computer. An optical scanner reads bar code information,
which is apart of a computer system.
Magnetic Ink Cbaracter Reader
This method of input is very common in computerized banks. MICR reads cheques & deposit slips
magnetically of the banking industry. The account number of the customer is pre-printed on the
cheque using "moqnetic ink". Magnetic ink is a special type of ink containing iron-oxide particles,
which is used to write characters. MICR reads the cheque first magnetizing the magnetic characters
printed on the cheque & the sensing the signal induced by each passing character under a reading
head.
The dataso captured is fed to the computer system.
Uptical Cbaracter Recognition
Optical character recognition is a process of recognizing pre-printed characters & distinguishes one
character from other provided characters to meet OCR standards. OCR can also read characters
produced by typewriters. There are many OCR front standards such as OCR-A, OCR-B etc. It can be
observed that OCR reader can read alphabets, numbers & special characters that are printed or
typed on the paper. An optical reader uses photoelectric device to scan the input.
OCR is an input device, which is used to read an image, characters of different fonts printed on any
paper. The printed characters are examined by passing them under a light and lens system. A light
source converts the alphabets, number and special characters into electrical pulses, which are then
sent to the computer for processing. If there is no dark spot it is represented by 0 and if there is a
dark spot it is represented by 1.Such representation is called the bit map of the image. Nowadays,
advanced OCR system can also read handwritten text.
Uptical Mark Recognition
It is an input device that can detect the presence or absence of a pencil or pen mark on a paper.
Light is shown onto the marked paper and the reflected light is observed. The presence of a mark is
confirmed due to lesser light being reflected from that portion of the paper.
OMRs are mostly used for
Objective type answer papers in examinations.
Order forms containing a small choice of items
Market survey, population survey etc.
Time sheets of factory employees in which start and stop time may be marked.
Toucb Screen
Touch screens allow the user to point directly, usually to select from a menu of choices on the
screen. Most touch screen computers use sensors in or near the computers' screen that can detect
the touch of a finger. Touch screen accept input by allowing the user to place a fingertips directly on
the computer screen. Touch screen are appropriate in environments where dirt or weather would
render keyboards & pointing devices useless & where a simple interface is important.
Many techniques have been used to make the screen sensitive-
Infrared screens employ light-emitting diodes (LED) and photo detector cells forming matrix of
beams covering the screen in the horizontal and vertical dimensions. LEDs emit infrared light,
and photo detectors receive it. When the user touches the screen, some light beams are
interrupted, and the computer then senses the position of the finger.
Capacitive screen uses a device, which can sense changes in capacitance when and where the
user touches the screen with stylus or finger.
In pressure sensitive mechanism, two layers of Mylar containing rows of invisible wires are
separated by a small space. The sheets are placed in such a way that the wires run horizontally
in one sheet and vertically in the other. When the user applies pressure on the screen, the wires
at that point make contact and a circuit is closed. This is sensed and fed to the computer.
Disadvantages
Although touch screens provide a natural interface for computer novices, they are unsatisfactory
for most applications because the finger is such as relatively large object. It is impossible to point
accurately to small areas of the screen. In additional, it is tiring job to the arm for using it a long
period.
Speecb Input Devices
A unit, which takes as its input spoken words, and converts them to a form, which can be
understood by a computer, is called a speech input unit. Now, that sound capabilities are a
standard part of computers, microphones are becoming increasingly important as input devices. A
sounJ corJ can translate the electrical signals from the microphones into a digitized form that the
computer can store & process. Sound cards can also translate digitized sounds back into Analog
signals that can be sent to the speaker.
There is also demand for translating spoken words into text, much as there is a demand for
translating handwriting into text. Translating voice to text is a capability known as voice recoqnition.
With it you can speak with computer rather than to type & you can control the computer with
simple commands such as "shut down".
Voice recognition software takes the individual sound in a language, called pboneme & translates
into text or commands. By understanding we mean that the unit can uniquely code each spoken
word and can interpret and initiate action based on the word. Giving a spoken command is much
quicker than typing out such a command. Speech input unit is particularly useful in situation where
commands are to be given to a remote computer using a telephone or when ones hand are not free.
Speech input units may be classified as:
Single word recognition unit and
Continuous speech recognition unit
By single word recognition we mean recognizing single word command such as START, YES, NO,
SHUTDOWN, etc. By continuous speech we mean a sentence spoken continuously such as HOW
MANY WORDS ARE THER IN THIS DOCUMENT? Recognizing single words is easier than
recognizing spoken sentence.
Digital Camera
Digital camera is the input device that input images into the computer. Digital camera uses digital
photographic technique i.e. it outputs the images by means of digital phenomenon. Normally, film
camera capture images on a specially coated films whereas the digital camera captures images
electronically.
The digital camera implements the image sensor to convert the light directly into series of pixel
values that make up the image to be taken. The more pixels your camera has, the more detail it can
capture. Over the last few years, digital cameras have become more and more sophisticated
enabling many advanced features including noise filtering, instant red-eye removal, high-quality
prints extracted from video, image and video stabilization, in-camera editing of pictures and
wireless transmission of photos.
Advantages of Digital Pbotograpby
Instant review of pictures with no waiting for films to be developed
Payment will be done for printing successful and good quality photos
There is no need toscan the pictures before printing
Picture quality do not deteoriate
UUTPUT DEVICES
CPU processes the information that is entered through the input devices and produces the
meaningful information. These information can appear in variety of form as a binary number, as
picture, as text, as sound or as printed pages. An output device is any device that is capable of
representing that information from the computer. Output device includes monitors, speaker,
printers, plotters, etc.
Classification of Uutputs - based on type of output produced
Softcopy Uutput
Softcopy output refers to the output displayed on the screen. The output on the screen is lost when
computer is turn off. The most common output device is monitor. Sound produced by voice output
device(speaker) is also softcopy output.
Hardcopy Uutput
Hardcopy output refers to recording letters, graphics or pictures on a permanent medium such as
paper. Such output can be read immediately or stored and read latter. The most commonly used
hardcopy output devices are printer and plotters.
Monitors
Monitor, also called display screen, is a most commonly used output device that produces soft copy
output. Monitor is also known asvisuol Bisploy 0nit (VDU).
Classification of Monitors - based on colors
Monocbrome Monitor
Monochrome Monitor can display only two colours. One is foreground and another is for
background. The color can be black and white, black and green, amber (brown yellow color) and
black.
Cray-scale Monitor
A Gray-Scale monitor is special type of monochrome monitors capable of displaying different shade
of Gray.
Color Monitor
Color monitor can display anywhere from 16 colors to 16 millions colors. Colors monitors are some
times called RGB monitors because they accept three signals red, green, and blue.
Classification of monitors - based on tecbnology
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors
Flat Panel Display Monitors
CRT Monitors
A monitor consists of the display device- the picture tube along with the related circuitry that
converts the signal send by the computer in a form that can be used by the display. The picture
tube, called cathode ray tube or CRT, is a core of monitor.
It has many other elements such as a shadow mask and a phosphors coating that enables it to
display picture along with the display electrons. The simplest way of explain the functioning of the
monitor screen is by what we call CRT electrons guns. The electrons are filtered through a shadow
mask and hit the phosphors- coated screen to produce the image. This process is monitored and
controlled by various display electronics.
The most important component in the component in the monitors electronic is the video amplifier
increase the strength of single volt signals that are received from your PC, to the thousand of
voltage that are required to drive the electron beam.
The Cathode- Ray Tube is a major component of any monitor. It essentially is a glass tube partially
evacuated and filled with inert gas at a very low pressure. The cathode (a negatively charged
electrode) beams a ray of electrons towards a positively charged the anode. At the end of their
flight, the electron crash into a coating made fromphosphor compounds that convert the kinetic
energy of the electroninto visible light- glowing to produce the picture.
Color CRTs use thousand of triangle painted across the inner surface of the tube. Every triad
consists of three dots of the primary colours red, green and blue (RGB) arrayed next to each other.
One triad of the dots makes up a picture cell called apixel.
To generate beam that light up the phosphor on the screen, a CRT uses one or more electron guns.
An electron gun is an electron emmitter (a cathode) that draw the electron into sharp and high
speed beams. These are threeseparate electron beam, one each for red, blue and green colors.
These beam have to go through asboJow mosk, which is a layer between the phosphors triad and
electron guns. The shadow mask cause the three beams to land on the phosphors in a distinct
traingle so that each beam illuminates only the right color dot. Each traid has a corrosponding
hole in a shadow mask, which prevent the beam from illuminating the wrong color phosphors.
beams
Electron gun
Shadow Mask Screen
To move the beam across the breadth of the tube face, a group of powerful electromagnets are
arranged around the tube, forming a yoke. They bend the electron beam in the course of its flight.
Monochrome CRTs have a single electron gun that continuously sweeps across the screen. Most
color tube has three guns arranged in a triangle. They emit their
electrons continuously and the three resulting beam are steered by
the yoke.
Flat Panel Monitors
G B
R
Red
Blue
Green
G
There are several types of flat-panel of monitors, but the most common is the liquid crystal display
monitor. The LCD monitors creates images with a special kind of liquid crystal that is normally
transparent but become opaque when charged with the electricity.
One disadvantage of LCD monitors is that, unlike phosphors, the liquid crystal does not emit light,
so there is not enough contrast between image and background to make them clear under all
conditions. The problem is solved by backlighting the screen. Although this makes the screen easier
to read, it requires additional power.
Another disadvantage of LCD monitors is their limited viewing angle i.e. the angle from which the
display images can be viewed clearly. LCD monitors use transistor for pixel but not the electron
beam. The electricity coming from transistor determines the colour displayed by a pixel.
Depending upon the arrangement of transistors, flat-panel screens are divided into Passive Matrix
LCD & Active Matrix LCD
Passive Matrix LCD is less expensive than Active matrix monitors are. One Disadvantage is that,
Passive matrix have narrow viewing area as compared to that the Active matrix. In apassive-matrix
display, a transistor controls a whole row or column of pixels.
Active Matrix LCD technology assigns a transistor to each pixel, and each pixel is turned on and off
individually. These enhancements allow the pixel to be refreshed much more rapidly. In an active-
matrix display, each pixel is controlled by its own-transistor. Active matrix screens are much
brighter & sharper than passive matrix screens.
Cas-Plasma Display
It is like a neon bulb, in which the display uses a gas that glows &emits light in the presence of an
electric current. At present, ELD & gas-plasma technologies are more expensive & they are not used
as often as LCD technology.
Cbaracteristics of Monitors
Size
Resolution
Refresh Rate
Dot Pitch
Convergences
Size
The most important aspect of monitors is its screen size. A typical size of small VGA monitors is 14
inches. Just as the television set, monitors screen size are measured by the length of diagonal of
their picture tubes
Refresb Rate
Display monitors must refresh many times per second. The refresh rate determines how many
times per second the screen is to be refreshed. The refresh rate for a monitor is measured in Hertz
(HZ) and is called vertical frequency or vertical refresh rate. The faster the refresh rate, theless the
monitors flickers.
Convergence
Convergence refers to how sharply an individual colour pixel appears. If the dots are badly miss
converged, the pixel will appear blurrily.
Resolution
The resolution of monitors indicates how densely the pixels are packed. The clarity or sharpness of
a display screen is called its resolution. Pixel is short for picture element. The resolution of a
computer monitors is classified by the number of pixel on the screen, expressed as matrix. For
example, a resolution of 640 X 480 means that there are 640 pixels horizontally across the screen
and 480 pixels vertically down the screen. The number of bit is used to represent single pixel that
determine how many colour or shades of grey can be displayed. For example, an 8-bit colour
monitors use 8 bit for each pixel, making it possible to display 2 to the 8
th
power (i.e. 256) different
colours of grey.
Dot Pitcb
Dot pitch is the distance between the two phosphors dots that makes up the single pixel. Each RGB
triad contains three phosphors dot - red, green and blue. If these dots are not close enough
together, the image on the screen will not be crisp. Smaller dot pitch means clearer and sharper
pictures. In general dot pitch should not be greater than 0.28mm
Printers
Printer is a hard o/ p device that prints text or other information on paper and in many cases
transparencies and other media. There are many two types of printers which fall into following
categoriesImpact Printer & Non impact Printer.
When evuluutlng prlnterx, followlng crlterlu muxt be conxlJereJ-
Image Quality
Image quality, also known as print resolution, is usually measured in dots per inch (dpi).
The more dots per inch a printer can produce, the higher its image quality. Most common
print resolutionis 300 or 600 dpi.
Initial Cost
Consumer printers cost $250 or less, but professional printers can cost thousands of dollars.
Speed
Printer speed is measured in the number of pages per minute (ppm) the device can print. A
print speed goes up, so does cost.
Cost of Uperation
The cost of ink or toner and maintenance varies with the types of printer. Many different
types of printer paper are available, too, and the choice can affect the cost of operation.
Impuct Prlnter
In impact printer, the hammer of the printer strikes against an ink ribbon to make marks on the
paper. This includes. The working of an impact printer is exactly similar to a typewriter. Examples
are-
1. Cbaracter Printers
a. Dot-Matrix printers
b. Daisy-Wheel printers
2 Line Printers
a. Drum printers
b. Chain printers
Cbaracter Printers
A character printer produces character at a time as a printed output. Depending upon the type of
print head, the character printers can be broadly classified as: Daisy Wheel Printer and Dot matrix
Printer
Daisy Wbeel Printer
The letter printer or continuous character printer is daisy wheel printer. It is a very high quality
but equally slow printer. The daisy wheel is a disc made of plastic or metal on which characters
stand out along the outer edge. While printing, the wheel is moved across the paper to the printing
position & rotated until the required character on the top is found. The speed of a daisy wheel
printer is 90 cps (character per second). It is only for text printing.
Dot Matrix Printers
This type of printer creates character from a set of dots. The print head consists of vertical array of
pins. While printing, the head moves across the paper to the printing position & selected pins are
activated to strike against an inked ribbon to form a pattern of dots on the paper. To print the full
character, the print head moves a predetermined number of positions to complete the matrix. The
matrix contains 7 rows & 5 columns. The numbers of pins in the print head are either 9 or 24, the
bottom 2 pins being used to form alower case letters.
It is a very versatile device because it is capable of printing in various languages with fronts of
different types & sizes. It can also give graphic output. The major reason for its popularity is that
dot matrix printers are cheaper than other printers. The speed of a typical dot matrix printer has
300-400 cps.
Advantages
1. They are generally cheaper as they use simple technology.
2. It only requires paper & the carbon ribbon.
3. It does not require air condition environment.
Disadvantages
1. They are noisy.
2. The quality of print is poor.
3. Not good for continuous printing
Fig: How a Dot Matrix Printer creates an image.
Line Printers
Line printer is a high-speed printer capable of printing an entire line at a time. The lineprinters are
divided into two groups: Drum Printer and Chain Printer
Drum Printers
Drum printer consists of drum having letters marked on them, & rotates at uniform speed. The
paper passes between the drum & the hammers strike the character image through a carbon, when
the required characters pass the print location. It is capable of printing at a very high-speed ranging
125 to 3000 lines per minute & is very expensive.
Cbain Printers
Chain printer consists of a set of slugs mounted on a chain, which rotates horizontally in front of
the paper. The chain containing letters rotates at a rapid speed. Hammers are present in each print
position. It strikes as soon in front of its print position.
Non impoct Printer
In Non-Impact printer, the ink is sprayed tothe paper so that the letters or objects get printed. This
includes Ink-Jet printer, Laser printer and Thermal printer.
Line Printers
Drum Printers
Cbain Printers
Non impoct Printer
Line Printers
Drum Printers
Cbain Printers
Non impoct Printer
Ink-)et Printer
An ink-jet printer produces a character by shooting small droplets of ink onto the paper. One
simple technique is the thermal heating process. In this method, ink is heated from one end to more
than 300
0
c & the vaporized ink forms a bubble. When the bubble expands, a drop of ink is forced
out. The print quality of an ink-jet is generally 300 dpi to 600 dpi. An ink-jet printer can also
generate colored graphics images.
Fig: How an Ink-jet printer creates an image.
Advantages
High quality print.
Price is lower than Laser printer
Color ink-jet printers provide an inexpensive way to print full color documents.
Performance: 2-4 page per minutes.
Disadvantages
Expensive than dotmatrix printer.
It needs special type of ink.
Ink clogging (blocking) in the printer head is the main problem with an ink-jet printer.
Tbermal Printer
As the name suggests this printer uses heat to make a mark on the heat sensitive paper. Similar to
the dot-matrix printer, the print head containing needles is pressed against the paper. By applying
heat to the selected pins, the paper changes color to for a pattern of dots. The printer is
comparatively quicker than the dot matrix printers. The disadvantage is that a special heat
sensitive paper is required.
Laser Printer
LASER Light Amplification Stimulated Emission and Radiation
Laser printer uses a laser beam to produce an image on a drum, coated with photosensitive
material. With this, certain parts of the drum surface get electrically charged and special ink is
sprinkled on the drum, which sticks electro statically to the charged area of the drum, forming the
image. As the drum rotates, the imageis transferred onto the paper through a combination of heat
and pressure.
Laser printer is reliable printers with high quality output. The resolution of laser printer ranges
from 300 dpi to 1600 dpi. The standard speed of laser printer is 4 to 8 pages per minute.
Fig: How a Laser printer creates an image.
Speecb Uutput Unit
A speech output unit is one, which reads stings of characters stored in a computers memory and
converts them into spoken sentences. Electronic chip have been designed which accepts ASCII
characters of a sentence, combine sequence of words into sound, amplifies them and output them
through a speaker.
Sound Cards
Sound card is a circuit board that converts sound from analog to digital form, and vice-versa, for
recording or playback. It actually has both input and output functions. If you want to use your
computers microphone to record your voice, for instance, you connect the microphone to the
sound cards input jack.
Headpbones and Headsets
Headphones include a pair of speakers, which are attached to an adjustable strap that can be
custom fitted to the wearer head. A headset includes one or two speakers and a microphone, all
mounted to an adjustable head strap.
How a computer uses a speaker to produce a sound?
Plotters
A plotter is a special kind of output device that looks like a printer that is used for drawing pictures
on paper based on commands from a computer. It is typically used to print large-format images,
such as construction or engineering drawing created in a CAD where precision is mandatory.
Plotter differs from printer in that they draw lines using a pen as a result they can produce
continuous lines whereas printers can only simulate lines by printing closely spaced series of dots.
Multi color plotter use different colored pens to draw different colors. Plotter is considerably
expensive than printer.
Plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines using a pen. As a result, they can produce
continuous lines, whereas printers can only simulate lines by printing a closely spaced series of
dots. Multi color plotters use different colored pens to draw different colors.
Plotters are more expensive than printers. They are used to print large-format images, such as
construction or engineering drawing.
There are two types of plotters:
Drum Plotters
Flat-Bed Plotters
Brum Plotters
In adrum plotter, the paper on which the graph is to be drawn is mounted on a rotating drum. A
pen, which can move linearly, i.e. perpendicular to the direction of drum rotation, is mounted on a
carriage. The drum can rotate in either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction under the control of
the plotting instructions sent by the computer. The pen can move left to right or right to left. The
pen can also move up or down. The graph-plotting program controls the movement of the pen and
drum. The program can thus draw various graphs an also annotate them by using the pen to draw
characters.
Ilot-BeJ Potters
A flat bed plotter has a stationary horizontal plotting surface on which paper is fixed. The pen is
mounted on a carriage which can move in either X or Y direction. The pen can also be moved up or
down. A graph plotting computer program is used to move the pen to trace the desired graph.
PC Pro|ectors
A PC projector connects to a PC and is used to project images on a large screen. Many PC projectors
provide the same resolutions and color levels as high-quality monitors. Digital light processing
(DLP) projectors use a microchip containing tiny mirrors to produce very sharp, bright images.
Secondary Memory
- Also known as auxiliary storage or secondary storageor backup memory
- This is a long term, non-volatile memory
- Useful for transferring data/ programs from one computer to another
- They function as a backup device that allows us to keep useful data which are needed in future
There are three types of secondarymemory-
1. Magnetic Storage Devices
2. Optical Storage Devices
3. Solid-State Devices
1 Magnetic Storage Devices
Magnetic storage devices uses surface coated with a magnetically sensitive material, such as iron
oxide, chromium oxide, etc which reacts to a magnetic field. The orientation of a magnetic filed can
be used to represent data. A magnet has one important advantage over transistor; it can be
represent 0 and 1 without a continual source of electricity. The surfaces are coated with millions of
tiny particles so that data can be stored on them. Each of these particles can act as a magnet, taking
on a magnetic field when subjected to an electromagnet. The read/ write heads contain
electromagnets, which generate magnetic fields in the surface and thus magnetizethe surface of the
disk below the head. When binary 1 is to be stored, the information is sent to the head, and it
magnetizes a spot below with left to right pole alignment SN. Similarly the binary 0 is stored with
right to left pole alignment NS.
When formatting a disk, a set of magnetic concentric circles, called tracks are created. Most high-
density diskettes have 80 tracks on each side of the disk. The tracks are numbered from the
outermost circle to the innermost, starting with zero. Each track on adisk is also split into smaller
parts known as sectors. All the sectors on the disk are numbered in one long sequence. Each sector
can store up to 512 bytes.
Modern mass storage devices include all types of disk drives and tape drives. Mass storage is
distinct from primory memory, which refers to temporary storage areas within the computer.
Unlike main memory, mass storage devices retain data even when the computer is turned off.
Magnetic storage devices are of two types- Magnetic Disks and MagneticTapes
How data are represented on a magnetic storage device?
The purpose of a storage device is to hold the data even when the computer is turned off so that the
data can be used whenever it is needed. Storage involves the process of writing data to storage
media and reading data from the storage medium. The surface of the disks is all coated with a
magnetically sensitive material, such as iron oxide, which reacts to the magnetic field.
When the iron particles are polarized, they become magnet, i.e. their particles have certain
alignment. The alignment of different iron particles has different orientation of a magnetic field,
which can be used to represent the data. The surface of magnetic disks and magnetic tapes are
coated with millions of tiny particles so that data can be stored on them. Each of these particles can
act as a magnet, taking on a magnetic field when subjected to an electromagnet.
The read/ write head of a hard disk drive, floppy drive, and tape drive contains electromagnets,
which generates magnetic fields in the strings of 1s and 0s by alternating the directions of the
current in the electromagnets.
To read data from the magnetic surface, the process is reversed. The read/ write head passes over
the disk while no current is flowing through the electromagnet. Because the storage medium has a
magnetic field but the head does not. The storage media charges electromagnet, which causes a
small current to flow through the head in one direction or the other depending on the polarity of
the field. The disk drive senses the direction of flow as the storage medium passes by the head, and
the data is sent from the read/ write head into memory.
How data is organized on a magnetic disk?
Magnetic disks are the most important and common secondary storage devices in a computer
system. They are direct access or random access devices. A magnetic disk is a circular disk, which is
made of metal (Aluminium) or a thin plastic (Mylar) coated with metallic oxide on both sides that
can be magnetized. It allows the recording of data in the form of magnetized spots.
The datais stored on the disks in a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Tracks are
divided intosectors and the number of sectors per track varies from computer to computer.
The read/ write head is fixed to an arm that can move in and out over the surface of the disk, i.e.,
head can be moved quickly and directly to any disk location to store or retrieve data. So access of
data in magnetic disk is faster.
Magnetic disks are available in the following forms: Floppy Disk, Zip Disk & Hard Disk
Magnetic Tape Storage
Magnetic tape looks like the tape used in music cassettes plastic tape with a magnetic coating. As in
other magnetic media, data is stored as extremely small magnetic spots. Tapes come in a number of
forms, including l/ 2-inch-wide tape wound on a reel, l/ 4-inch- wide tape in data cartridges and
cassettes, and tapes that look like ordinary music cassettes but are designed to store data instead of
music. The amount of data on a tape is expressed in terms of density, which is the number of
characters per inch (cpi) or bytes per inch (bpi) that can be stored on the tape.
The highest-capacity tape is the digital audio tape, or DAT, which uses a different method of
recording data. Using a method called helical scan recording, DAT wraps around a rotating
read/ write head that spins vertically as it moves. This places the data in diagonal bands that run
across the tape rather than down its length. This method produces high density and faster access to
data.
Tape now has a limited role because disk has proved the superior storage medium. Disk data is
quite reliable, especially within a sealed module. Furthermore, as we will see, disk data can be
accessed directly, as opposed to data on tape, which can be accessed only by passing by all the data
ahead of it on the tape. Consequently, the primary role of tape today is as an inexpensive backup
medium.
Hard Disk
Hard disk is a secondary storage medium that stores large amount of data, is made from metal. It
holds more data and is faster than floppydisk (capacity- 10 GB, 20 GB, 40 GB etc. and speed 3600
rpm to 7200 rpm).
A single hard disk may consist of single or multiple platters (disks). Each platter requires two
read/ write heads, one for each side. All the heads are attached to a single access arm (comb like
structure) so that they cannot move independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks and
a track location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder. The motor rotates the platters on
the central spindle. The read/ writehead along with arm does not physically touch the disk surface;
it floats above the surface of the disk and detects the data.
If there are 100 tracks per surface in a disk having 8 surfaces, then the number of cylinders is equal
to 100 and each cylinder will have 8 tracks. If a certain amount of data is to be stored on the hard
disk, the recording always starts from the first sector of the first track of the first cylinder. When
the system has filled the track with data, it moves to the next surface on the same track i.e. from
surface 1 to surface 2 at the same arm position. Thus no time is wasted because switching from one
head to another is done electronically and no seek time is involved.
Floppy Disks
They are soft magnetic disks made up of flexible Mylar or a plastic, coated with magnetic
substances. A diskette is usually encased in a hard plastic shell with a sliding shutter. A diskette
can record data as magnetized spots on tracks on its surface. It is also known as floppies or
diskettes. A disk drive for a floppy is called Diskette drive or floppy disk drives.
It is called floppy because it can be blend and flops if you wave it. Diskettes are used to transfer
files between computers, as a means for distributing software, and as a backup medium. Diskettes
come in two sizes: 5.25-inch and 3.5-inch.
Floppy Disks
Floppy Disks
Working of Diskettes:
Floppy drive includes a motor that rotates the disk on the spindle and read/ write heads that can
move to any spot on the disk surface as the disk spins. This capability is important because it allow
the head to access data randomly rather than sequentially. In other words, the head can skip from
one spot to another without having to scan through all of the data between.
Diskette spins at approximately 300 revolutions per minute. Therefore, the time required for one
revolution is 0.2 seconds. If the read/ write head needs to move from outermost track to innermost
track, it almost takes about 0.17 second. The maximum time to position, the read/ write head over
specified location on the diskette is known as access time. And the average access time for diskette
is 0.2 second.
Capacity of Floppy Disk:
Capacity =No. of tracks per surface x No. of sectors per track x No. of bytes per sector x No. of sides
of a disk
For Example: 3.5floppy disk has following capacity-
=80 x 18 x 512 x 2
=1474560 Bytes
=1440 KB
=1.4065 MB (i.e. 1.44 MB)
Zip Disks
Personal computer users, who never seem to have enough hard disk storage space, may turn to a
removable hard disk cartridge. Once full, a removable hard disk cartridge can be replaced with a
fresh one. In effect, a removable cartridge is as portable as a diskette, but the disk cartridge holds
much more data.
Removable units also are important to businesses concerned with security, because the units can
be used during business hours but hidden away during off hours. A disadvantage of a removable
hard diskis that it takes longer to access data than a built-in hard drive.
The disk cartridges look like a floppy disk, but are slightly bigger in all dimensions. Older Zip disks
hold 100MB; newer ones hold 250MB and cost $8-$10 a piece
2. Uptical Storage Devices
Optical disc is a secondary storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by
lasers. These storage devices works on a principle similar to magnetic storage devices, however,
they use laser technology to read and write data.
A laser beam is projected on the reflecting surface to read data from the disc. By detecting the light
intensity reflected from the surface, the information stored on the disc. By detecting the light
intensity reflected from the surface, the information stored onthe disc can be accessed.
Data is laid out on a CD-ROM disk in a long, continuous spiral that starts at the outer edge and
winds inward to the centre. Data is stored in the form of lands, which are flat areas on the metal
surface, and pits, which are depressions or hollows. A land reflects the laser light into the sensor
indicating 1 and a pit scatters the light indicating 0.
There are six basic types of optical discs.
- CD-ROM
- CD-R
- CD-RW
- DVD-ROM
- DVD-R
- DVD-RW
CD-RUM {Compact Disc - Read Unly Memory]
CD-ROM is a type of optical disc capable of storing large amount of data. A single CD-ROM has the
storage capacity of 600 floppy disks. It contains pre-recorded data that can be read only (i.e., can
not be erased and modified/ changed). A laser beam is used to write into and read data from CD-
ROM.
CD-ROM discs are plastic discs coated with Aluminium on the surface. A layer of thin transparent
plastic is further deposited on the disc. Information on a CD-ROM is written as a single continuous
spiral, unlike magnetic discs with discrete cylinders and tracks.
The CD-ROMs take longer time to read data as compared to hard disks (slower than hard disk).
These discs are specially used for software and multimedia system (to store data, sound and
pictures).
A CD-ROM is prepared by using a high power laser to burn 1-micron (10
6
of a meter) holes in a
master disc.
How a CD-RUM drive reads data from tbe surface of a compact disc?
Data is stored in the form of lands, which are flat areas on the metal surface, and pits, which are
depressions or hollows. A land reflects the laser light into the sensor indicating a data bit of 1 and a
pit scatters the light indicating a data bit of 0.
To store data, the disk's metal surface is covered with tiny dents (pits) and flat spots (lands), which
cause light to be reflected differently. When an optical drive shines light into a pit, the light cannot
be reflected back. This represents a bit value of 0 (off). A land reflects light back to its source,
representing a bit value of 1 (on).
CD-R {Compact Disc - Recordable]
It is also known as WORM (Write Once Read Many). With a WORM disc drive, you can write data
onto a WORM disc, but only once. The writing process is normally slower than the reading process.
After writing onto a WORM disc, it behaves just like a CD-ROM.
CD-RW {Compact Disc- Re-Writable]
CD-R/ W disc is a new type of CD disc that enables the users to read and write data many times.
With CD-R/ W drives and discs, you can treat the optical disc just like magnetic disk, writing data
onto it again and again.
DVD-RUM {Digital Versatile Disc- Read Unly Memory]
DVD-ROM is also called as Digital Video Disc Read Only Memory. DVD-ROM is a high-density
medium capable of storing a full-length movie on a single disc. It uses special data compression
technology to store data on a disc.
DVD-R {Digital Versatile Disc- Recordable]
DVD-R lets us record data into a special recordable digital video disc, using DVD-RW drive. Once
data are written, they cant be erased and re-written.
DVD-RW {Digital Versatile Disc- Re-Writable]
DVD-RW lets us record, erase, and re-record data into a special recordable digital video disc, using
DVD-RW drive. They can read and write all type of CDs and DVDs.
Drive Type Name of tbe Drive Tbe drive can
CD-ROM Compact Disc Read
Only Memory
Read CD-ROM and CD-R
CD-R Compact Disc-
Recordable
Read CD-ROM and CD-R. Write once on special discs
(CD-R)
CD-RW Compact Disc- Re-
Writable
Read CD-ROMs, CD-R, CD-RW. Writes, reads, and re-
writes on special discs (CD-RW).
DVD-ROM Digital Versatile Disc-
Read Only Memory
Read DVD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW
DVD-R Digital Versatile Disc-
Recordable
Read DVD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW and DVD-ROM. Write
once on special discs named (DVD-R)
DVD-RW Digital Versatile Disc-
Re-Writable
Reads all CD formats. Reads DVD ROM, DVD-R, and
DVD-RW. Writes, reads, and re-writes DVD discs
Heosurinq Brive Performonce:
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performunce of the Jlxk Jrlve.
1. Average Access Time
2. Data Transfer Rate
3. File Compression
4. Drive Interface Standard
Average Access Time:
For storage device, average access time (or seek time) is the amount of time the device takes to
position its read/ write head over any spot in the medium. For example, standard hard disk,
average access time ranges from 6 ms to 12 milliseconds. Diskette drives offer an average access
time of 100 milliseconds. Tape drives have the slowest average access time among all magnetic
storage devices. Optical devices also are slower compared to hard disks average access time.
Data Transfer Rate:
Before execution of any program, it has to be loaded in memory. The amount of data that can be
loaded from disk to memory in one second is data transfer rate. It measures the amount of data a
drive can transfer from disk to memory. Data transfer rate for diskette is about 45 kbps, CD ROM
has about 900 kbps and for hard disk, it is 15-80 mbps.
File Compression:
File compression or data compression is the technology for shrinking the size of a file, there by
freeing space for more data and program to reside on disk. Entire hard disk, floppy disk, or
individual file can be compressed by as much as a 3:1 ration. File compression is performed by
software that uses mathematical algorithms to squeeze data into smaller chunks by removing
information that is not vital for file or data. When file is turned to its original state, this data is re-
inserted so that the original data is reproduced exactly as it was before compression. Some
examples of compression software are WinZip, PKZip, Drive Space 3 and RAR etc.
Drive Interface Standards:
Drive interface is also known as disk controller. It is an intermediary device between the CPU and
disk drive. A disk controller connects the disk drive to computers bus, enabling the drive to
exchange data with other device.
There are mainly two types of drive interface:
1. EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronic)
2. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
SCSI disk interface is far better than EIDE because SCSI supports more data transfer rate than that
of EIDE. Most of the desktop computers use EIDE interfaces while the computer that requires high
performance uses SCSI.
3. Solid-State Storage Devices
Solid-state storage devices are unique among todays storage devices because they do not use disks
or tapes and have no moving parts. They are neither magnetic nor optical devices. Instead, it relies
on ICs to hold data. Some solid-state devices are non-volatile, while others are volatile in nature.
Solid-state storage devices store data on memory circuits rather than disks or tapes. They store
data electronically, not in a magnetic or optical form. Examples of such devices include flash
memory, smart card, and solid-state disks.
Flasb Memory
A flash memory is a special type of memory that combines special features of RAM and ROM. Like
RAM, flash memory lets a user or program access data randomly and allows us to write and read
data any no. of times. Like ROM, flash memory is non-volatile, so data is retained even when power
is off.
Flash memory is commonly used in digital cameras, mobile phones, and multimedia players such
as MP3 player, MP4 player, etc.
Smart Cards
A smart card is a device which contains asmall chip that stores data. Using a special type of device,
called a smart card reader, the user can read data from the card, add new data, or revise existing
data.
Solid-state Disks
A solid-state disk (SSD) is not a disk at all. Rather, this device uses very fast memory chips, such as
synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM), to store data.
Large-scale SSD systems can store a terabyte or more of the data. SSDs are used primarily for
enterprise-level network storage, to make data available to a large number of users at one time.
Network
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
Printers, CD-ROMs, Scanners, etc), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams.
A computer network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.
Interconnected meaning two computers have the ability to exchange information using copper
cabling, fibre optics, or radio.
Autonomous meaning where no one computer controls any other computer (i.e. no computer
can forcibly start or stop another computer)
Computers can be PCs, workstations and other specialised computers such as hubs, switches
and routers
Types of Networks
Local Area Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is generally
limited to a geographic area such as a room of a building, a whole building, or adjacent buildings. In
a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the
software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by the computers
attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server are called workstotions. The
workstations can be less powerful than the file server, and they may have additional software on
their hard drives. On most LANs, cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each
computer.
Metropolitan Area Network
Networks, which are bigger than LANs are known as Metropolitan Area Network. MAN covers a
wide geographical area than LAN. A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic
areas, such as cities or districts. By interconnecting smaller networks within a large geographic
area, information is easily disseminated throughout the network. Network between two buildings
in different locations within a medium sized city can be referred as a MAN. The best-known
example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities.
One example of a MAN is the Nepal Bank Limited Network located in Kathmandu. It connects all of
the branches situated in Kathmandu valley to a centralized mainframe at the New Road
Headquarter office of the bank by using dedicated phone lines, coaxial cabling, and wireless
communications providers.
Wide Area Network
Local area networks works well but have physical and distance limitation. Because they are not
adequate for all business communication, there must be connectivity between LANs and other type
of environment. A network can support data communication over a state, a country or even a globe.
When a network does this it is called a Wide Area Network. WAN is expanded over a very big
geographical area. Using a WAN, a person in Kathmandu can communicate with places like Tokyo
in a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A good example of a WAN is the
Internet.
Fig: Wide Area Network
Difference between LAN and WAN
LAN is restricted to limited geographical area of few kilometres. But WAN covers great distance
and operate nationwide or even worldwide.
In LAN, the computer terminals and peripheral devices are connected with wires and coaxial
cables. In WAN there is no physical connection. Communication is done through telephone lines
and satellite links.
Cost of data transmission in LAN is less because the transmission medium is owned by a single
organization. In case of WAN the cost of data transmission is very high because the transmission
mediums used are hired either telephone lines or satellite links.
The speed of data transmission is much higher in LAN than in WAN. The transmission speed in
LAN varies from 10 to 100 Mbps. In case of WAN the speed ranges from 1800 to 9600 bits per
second (bps).
Few data transmission errors occur in LAN compared to WAN. It is because in LAN the distance
covered is negligible.
Network Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network.
These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access
method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.
Protocols are software and must be installed in network components. Computers can communicate
only if the protocol used by a computer in the network is compatible with the protocol used by
another computer.
The most commonly used protocols today are:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
IP (Internet Protocol)
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
POP (Post Office Protocol)
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
Etbernet
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an access method called
CSMA/ CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection). This is a system where each
computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. If the network is clear,
the computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer
will wait and try again when the line is clear.
Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When this happens a collision
occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to
retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by
collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not normally affect the speed of transmission
on the network.
The Ethernet protocol allows for bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over twisted
pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps.
Fast Etbernet
To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed a new
standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires
the use of different, more expensive network concentrators/ hubs and network interface cards. In
addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary.
Cigabit Etbernet
The most recent development in the Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed
of 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet is primarily used for backbones on a network at this time. In the future,
it will probably be used for workstation and server connections also. It can be used with both fiber
optic cabling and copper. The 1000BaseTX, the copper cable used for Gigabit Ethernet, is expected
to become theformal standard in 1999
Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used
involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so that the signal travels
around the network from one computer toanother in a logical ring. A single electronic token moves
around the ring from one computer to the next. If a computer does not have information to
transmit, it simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If a computer wishes to transmit
and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds around the ring
until it comes to the computer for which the data is meant. At this point, the data is captured by the
receiving computer.
The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It can
operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps.
Network Hardware
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network.
Network Interface Cards
Network Interface Card is a card that acts as the physical interface or connection between the
computer and the network cable. The cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer on
the network. The NIC receives incoming data from the cable and translates it into bytes the
computers CPU can understand.
The role of the NIC is to-
Prepare Data from the computer for the network cable.
Send the data to another computer.
Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
Most NICs are internal, with the card fitting into an expansion slot inside the computer. Laptop
computers can now be purchased with a network interface card built-in or with network cards that
slip into aPCMCIAslot.
Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a network.
It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for the type of workstation you are using.
The three most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards, LocalTalk connectors,
and Token Ring cards.
ConcentratorsJHubs
Hub is a device with multiple ports for connecting different computers on the networks. It accepts
data, amplify them and then transmit. It is used to split network segments and propagate signals
through it. Its big disadvantage is that it cant filter network traffic and it imposes limitation to the
number of computer that can be connected.
A concentrator (also called as a hub) is a device that provides a central connection point for cables
from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each
workstation to a central concentrator. Hubs are multislot concentrators into which can be plugged
a number of multi-port cards to provide additional access as the network grows in size. Some
concentrators are passive, that is they allow the signal to pass from one computer to another
without any change. Most concentrators are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it
moves from one device to another. Active concentrators are used like repeaters to extend the
length of a network.
Concentrators are
Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports
Often used in a star or star-wired ring topology
Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may storenet modems, bridges, or routers
Repeaters
Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost the signal with
a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts
it. Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a concentrator.
A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star topology with
unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters.
The most common configuration is for each workstation to be connected by twisted-pair cable to a
multi-port active concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass through it
allowing for the total length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.
It receives signals, amplifies them and sent it. It increases the distance over which a network can
extend. For example, using a UTP cable, we can send data up to maximum of 100 meters only
without amplification. If the data travel beyond that distance without amplification, then it
becomes weaker and after some time the signal will be destroyed. A repeater provides solution for
such problem.
Bridges
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more efficient
networks. A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can pass
packets of information to the correct location. Most bridges can "listen" to the network and
automatically figure out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can
inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side of the network.
The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the network.
You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps
information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through.
Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They must,
however, be used between networks with the sameprotocol.
It is a device, which connects different network segments and passes data with the same
communications protocols. It is the connecting device between two or more hubs. Bridges are more
intelligence than hubs because they can see the address and forward data looking at them.
Routers
A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a super intelligent
bridge. Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination address and
origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know
when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.
While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network, routers know the
addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network. Routers can even "listen" to the
entire network to determine which sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those
sections until they clear up.
If you have a college LAN that you want to connect to the Internet, you will need to purchase a
router. In this case, the router serves as the translator between the information on your LAN and
the Internet. It also determines the best routeto send the data over the Internet.
Routers can
Direct signal traffic efficiently
Route messages between any two protocols
Route messages betweenlinear bus, star, andstar-wired ringtopologies
Route messages acrossfiber optic, coaxial, andtwisted-pair
MUDEM
Modem (modulator and Demodulator) is a device, which has responsibility of modulating (coding)
the data before transmission and demodulating (decoding) the same data with the same rule at the
receiving end. It is used in Internet to transmit data because copper wire can transmit only analog
signals but the signals produced by a computer is digital.
Data communication over analog telephone lines is possible with a device called modem. A modem
simply connects a digital computer with an analog telephone line and establishes a link between
two separate points.
In standard telephone service, sound wave is transmitted over a telephone wire as an electric
signal. Both the sound wave and telephone signals (electric signals) are onoloq signals. Since a
computer's data (text, voice, images, etc.) areJiqitol, the device calledmoJemis needed.
The modem, at the sender's end, translates the digital signals into analog signals that can travel
over standard telephone lines. In its moJulotion pbose, the modem turns the computer's digital
signals into analog signals.
At the receiving end the reverse takes place- called JemoJulotion. In JemoJulotion pbose, the
modem receives analog signals from telephone line and translates them back to digital signals. The
data, now in digital form, are compatible for storage in the computer.
Network Cabling
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. The type of cable
chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.
Twisted Pair Cables
These are the type of cables made by inter-twining two separate insulated wires together. This is a
common form of wiring in which two conductors is wound around each other for the purposes of
canceling out electromagnetic interference which can cause crosstalk. The number of twists per
meter makes up part of the specification for a given type of cable. The greater the number of twists,
the more crosstalk is reduced. It is of two types-
UTP {Unsbielded Twisted Pair] Cable
UTP cable is not surrounded by any shielding. It is the primary wire type for the local loop of
telephone networks and is very common for computer networking. Unshielded twisted pair is the
most popular and is generally the best option for college networks.
Fig: Unshielded Twisted Pair
The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The
EIA/ TIA (Electronic Industry Association/ Telecommunication Industry Association) has
established standards of UTP and rated five categoriesof wire.
Categories of Unsbielded Twisted Pair
Type Use
Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
Network Cabling
Twisted Pair Cables
Type Use
Network Cabling
Twisted Pair Cables
Type Use
Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)
Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)
Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)
Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps(Fast Ethernet)
STP {Sbielded Twisted Pair] Cable
This cable has a conductive braided or foil casing for each pair and offers good protection from
interference and crosstalk. It was commonly used for token ring networks.
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical interference; however, the
extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks
using Token Ring topology.
Coaxial Cable
It is also called as Coax. It is an electrical cable consisting of a round conducting wire, surrounded
by an insulating layer, surrounded by a cylindrical conducting sheath, and usually surrounded by a
final insulating layer. Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield
helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
It is designed to carry high-frequency or broadband signals like radio signals, video signals, and
measurement signals. The inner insulator, also called the dielectric, has a significant effect on the
cable's properties, such as its characteristic impedance and its attenuation.
Fig: Coaxial Cable
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition,
it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two
types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being
200 meters.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500
meters.
Fiber Uptic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical
interference. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This
capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and
interactive services. It is more difficult to install and modify the fiber optic cable. 10BaseF refers to
the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.
Fig: Fiber Optic Cable
Uses
They can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networkingbecause it is flexible and
can be bundled as cables.
They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to be
brought to bear on a target without a clear line-of-sight path.
Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. Example: Endoscopy Machines
Microwaves Systems
Microwaves are electromagnetic radiation with very short wavelengths. As they have short
wavelength, they have high frequencies. Frequencies used for commercial microwave transmission
typically range between 2GHz and 23 GHz. The frequency at which microwave radio signals are
transmitted is commonly called Radio frequency (RF). Radio frequencies that are used for
commercial microwave transmission are 2,4,6,11,18 and 23 GHz.
Terrestrial microwave systems follow a line-of sight path during transmission. A narrowly focused
beam of Electro-Magnetic Radiation (EMR) is generated by the transmitter. It is then sent from one
microwave tower to the next, until it reaches the final destination. Moreover, the signals become
weaker after travelling a certain distance and require power amplification. In order to overcome
the problem of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak signals, microwave systems use
repeaters at intervals of about 25 to 30 kms.
Communication Satellites
Communication Satellite systems use a satellite as a repeater. Satellite systems have receivers and
transmitters located in ground stations. The repeater is the satellite that orbits in space. A
communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer space. In satellite
communication, microwave signal is transmitted from a transmitter on earth to the satellite at
space. The satellite amplifies the weak signal using a device called transponder and transmits it
back to the receiver.
Satellite communication systems have the following advantages
A satellite can be used for data transmission between any points of a very large area.
A satellite having many transponders has enormous data communication capability.
A satellite communicationsystem, however, suffers from the following disadvantages
The initial cost of placing a satellite into its orbit is very high.
Delay in information delivery due to need for signal to transmit from earth station to space
satellite and then to earth stationagain.
Atmospheric disturbance, like thunder and lightening, affect the transmission of a satellite
communication system.
Topology
Topology is the physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on a network. The
physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method
used to pass information between workstations.
Bus Topology
A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with aterminator at each end. All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. Ethernet andLocalTalk networks
use a bus topology.
Advantages of a Bus Topology
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Ease of installation
If a computer fails, the network stays up
Fig: Bus Topology
Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
The heavier the traffic, the slower the network
The bus topology is not very scalable (i.e. Being able to make changes easily within the size
and layout of your network.)
Star Topology
A star topology is designed with each node(file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub or concentrator. Data on a star network passes through the hub
or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub or concentrator manages and controls
all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is
common withtwisted pair cable; however, it can also be used withcoaxial cableor fiber optic cable.
The protocols used with star configurations are usuallyEthernet or LocalTalk.
Advantages of a Star Topology
Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
With a hub, if one link fails, the remaining workstations are not affected
Easy to modify and add new computers.
Centralized monitoring and management.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled the entire network comes down
More expensive than bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
Fig: Star Topology
Tree Topology
A tree topology combines characteristics of bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-
configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the
expansion of an existing network, and enable colleges to configure a network to meet their needs.
Fig: Tree Topology
Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Mexh 1opologlex
A mesh topology is not very common in computer networking, but you will have to know it for the
exam. The mesh topology is more commonly seen with something like the national phone network.
With the mesh topology, every workstation has a connection to every other component of the
network, as illustrated in Figure below-
Figure: Mesh Topology
Advantages of a Mesb Topology
The biggest advantage of a mesh topology is fault tolerance. If there is a break in a cable segment,
traffic can be rerouted. This fault tolerance means that the network going down due to a cable fault
is almost impossible.
Disadvantages of a Mesb Topology
A mesh topology is very hard to administer and manage because of the numerous connections.
Another disadvantage is cost. With a large network, the amount of cable needed to connect and the
interfaces on the workstations would be very expensive.
Rlng 1opology
In a ring topology, all computers are connected with a cable that loops around. As shown in Figure
below, the ring topology is a circle that has no start and no end. Terminators are not necessary in a
ring topology. Signals travel in one direction on a ring while they are passed from one computer to
the next. Each computer checks the packet for its destination and passes it on as a repeater would.
If one of the computers fails, the entire ring network goes down.
Mexh 1opologlex
Rlng 1opology
Mexh 1opologlex
Rlng 1opology
Figure: Ring Topology
Advantages of Ring Topology
Equal access for all computers to communicate on the network.
Even performance despite many users.
Provides good performance for each workstation
Signal degeneration islow
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the network.
If the cable link is broken the entire network could go down
Network reconfiguration disrupts operations.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more of the topologies mentioned above. Networks
are widely designed by using this type of topology. Some of the commonly used hybrid topology is
star-bus topology and star-ring topology.
Fig: Hybrid Topology (Star-Bus Topology)
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology
No disruptions to the network while connecting or removing devices
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
Requires more cable length
high cost in implementation
More difficult to configure
Network Uperating System
Network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of multiple computers across a
network. The network operating system acts as a director to keep the network running smoothly.
The two major types of network operating systems are: Peer-to-Peer andClient/ Server
The following list includes some of the more popular peer-to-peer and client/ server network
operating systems. Examples: Artisoft's LANtastic, AppleShare, Banyan VINES, Microsoft Windows
for Workgroups, Microsoft Windows NT Server, Novell's NetWare, and Microsoft's LAN Manager
are examples of network operating systems.
Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located on their
computers and to access shared resources found on other computers. However, they do not have a
file server or a centralized management source. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are
considered equal; they all have the same abilities to use the resources available on the network and
therefore are known as peers. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium
local area networks. AppleShare and Windows for Workgroups are examples of programs that can
function as peer-to-peer network operating systems.
Each computer functions as both a client and a server. There is no dedicated server. Peer-to-Peer
networks are also called workgroups. The term workgroup describes a small group of individual,
typically ten or fewer, who work together.
Peer to Peer networks are of good choices for environments where:
There are fewer users.
Users share resources.
Security is not an issue.
No centralized control needed.
Fig: Peer-to-Peer Network
Advantages of a peer-to-peer network
Less initial expense- No need for a dedicated server.
Setup - An operating system (such as Windows 95) already in place may only need to be
reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.
Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network
Decentralized- No central repository for files and applications.
Security- Does not provide the security available on a client/ server network.
ClientJServer
In an environment with more users, a peer-to-peer network with computers acting as both server
and client will probably not be adequate. Therefore a network must have dedicated server. A
dedicated server is one that only functions as a server and it is not used as a client or workstation.
Client Server networks has become the standard model for networking.
Client/ server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file servers. The file servers become the heart of the system,
providing access to resources and providing security. Individual workstations (clients) have access
to the resources available on the file servers. The network operating system allows multiple users
to simultaneously share the same resources irrespective of physical location. Novell Netware and
Windows NT Server are examples of client/ server network operating systems.
Client/ server computing is also a commonly used model on the Internet. Users typically have client
software (called Web Browser) that provides an easily used interface for interacting with this giant
WAN. Other types of processing, such as receiving, storing, sending e-mail message and serving
information are carried out by remotecomputers (calledWeb Server) running the server part of the
relevant software.
Fig: Client/ Server Network
Advantages of a clientJserver network
Centralized- Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
Scalability- Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
Flexibility- New technology can be easily integrated into system.
Interoperability- All components (client/ network/ server) work together.
Accessibility- Server can be accessed remotely and acrossmultiple platforms.
Disadvantages of a clientJserver network
Expense- Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
Maintenance- Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
Dependence- When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.
Novell Netware
It is a network operating system developed by Novell, Inc that initially used cooperative
multitasking to run various services on a PC. NetWare evolved from a very simple concept: one or
more dedicated servers were connected to the network, and disk space was shared in the form of
volumes.
NetWare was based on the NetWare Core Protocol (NCP), which is a packet-based protocol that
enables a client to sendrequests to and receive replies from a NetWare server.
The following are Different Versions of Novell Netware with their specific features:
Netware 3.x: Netware Loadable Module (NLM)
NetWare 4.x: Novell Directory Services
Netware 5.x: Network Storage Services, Java Virtual Machine etc.
Netware 6.x: SMP Support, Domain Controller etc.
Novell Open Enterprise Server: A dual Kernel Product that ran on Linux Platform
Windows NT
Microsoft released Windows NT (New Technology), a 32-bit operating system for PCs, in 1993. It
was originally designed as the successor to DOS but by the time it was ready for release, it has
become too large to run on most of the PCs. As the result
Microsoft separated Windows NT into two products:
Windows NT Workstation
Windows NT Server.
1 Windows NT Workstation
It can run on a broader range of CPUs.
Typically used on individual, stand-alone PCs that may or may not be part of a network.
It incorporates much greater security than Microsofts other OS like users must have an account;
resources can be configured to limit access to specific user.
Use new file system NT File System (NTFS), a high performance file system that replaces the
older FAT file system introduced by MS-DOS.
It is more fault-tolerant than other Microsofts OS
Alsointegrates features that provide for disk mirroring.
2 Windows NT Server
Incorporates all the features of Windows NT Workstation but also has other capabilities.
Deigned as file and print servers
Offers expanded security features for grouping and authenticating users and controlling their
access to network resources.
Support RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) for disk duplexing, disk striping and disk
mirroring.
Windows 2000
Windows 2000 combines the user-friendly interface and features of Windows 98 with the file
system, networking, power and stability of Windows NT. Different versions of Windows 2000 are
available:
WlnJowx 2000 Profexxlonul: This version is found primarily on office PCs. it includes support
for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) with up to two processors. SMP is a protocol that allows
the OS and applications to run on multiple processors at the same time, improving performance
on huge jobs.
WlnJowx 2000 Server: This version is for a network server for the average business, with SMP
support for up to two processors.
WlnJowx 2000 AJvunceJ Server: This version is a more powerful version of the server edition.
It includes support for SMP with up to four processors, enhanced balancing of network and
component loads, and support for more RAM. Another important feature is print server
clustering. With clustering, Windows 2000 can group print server to provide alternate printers if
one print server fails.
UNIX
UNIX isolder than all the other PC OS and in many ways it served as a model for them.
UNIX is a multitasking and multi-user OS developed by Bell Lab in 1969.
UNIX also supports multiprocessor systems.
UNIX was designed for engineers and programmers and very strong and powerful OS for them.
But for non-technical persons, it is an extremely difficult OS.
It runs on mini, mainframe, super computers and notebook
It is also used with powerful 32-bit microcomputers.
Initially UNIX has command-line interface but developers have created windows-based GUIs for
UNIX such as MOTIF and OpenLook.
UNIX has cryptic instruction.
LAN Manager
The LAN Manager was a Network Operating System (NOS) from Microsoft, developed in
cooperation with3Com. LAN Manager is based on theOS/ 2andNBF protocol. There was alsoLAN
ManagerJX (LMX) for UNIXbased systems. In 1990, Microsoft announced LAN Manager 2.0 with a
lot of improvements. The latest version, LAN Manager 2.2, which included an MS-OS/ 2 1.31 base
operating system, remained Microsoft's strategic server system until the release of Windows NT
Advanced Server in 1993.
LANtastic
LANtastic is a peer-to-peer local area network operating system for DOS, Microsoft Windows,
Novell NetWare and OS/ 2. LANtastic supports Ethernet, ARCNET and Token Ring adapters. Its
multi-platform support allows a LANtastic client station to access any combination of Windows or
DOS operating systems, and its interconnectivity allows sharing of files, printers, CD-ROMs and
applications throughout an enterprise.
LANtastic was especially popular before Windows 95 arrived with built-in networking and was
nearly as popular as the market leader at the time, Novell. LANtastic was originally developed by
Artisoft Inc. inTucson, Arizona. Following the release of TeleVantage, Lantastic and Artisoft's other
legacy products were acquired by SpartaCom Technologies in 2000. SpartaCom is now known as
Converging Technologies.
The current version is LANtastic 8.01. It can connect PCs running DOS 5.0 with Windows 3.x or
higher o.s. including Windows XP.
Tbe Internet
The Internet is an interconnected network of thousands of networks and millions of computers
linking businesses, education institutions, government agencies and individuals together. The
Internet provides around 400 millions people around the world and is increasing at a rapid rate. No
one controls the Internet or how it functions, nor it is owned by anybody, yet it has provided the
infrastructure for a transformation in commerce, scientific research, and culture.
Intranet and Extranet
Before the advent of the World Wide Web, most corporate networks basically supported file
sharing and e-mail. However, corporate and academic networks are being configured more
frequently to resemble the Internet. Two common types of corporate spin-offs of the web are
called intranets and extranets. These systems are designed to support data sharing, scheduling and
workgroup activities within an organization.
An intranet is a Local area Network or wide area network that uses TCP/ IP protocol but belongs
exclusively to a corporation, school, or organization. An intranet is a private network that uses
internet protocols, network connectivity, and possibly the public telecommunication system to
securely share part of an organization's information or operations with its employees. The intranet
is accessible only to the organizations workers. If the intranet is connected the Internet, then it is
secured by a firewall to prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to it.
Anextranet is an intranet that can be accessed by outside users over the Internet. To gain entrance
to the extranets resource, an external user (such as a business partner) typically must log on to the
networks by providing a valid user ID and password.
Some Definitions
10Base2 - Ethernet specification for thin coaxial cable. It transmits signals at 10 Mbps
(megabits per second) with a distance limit of 185 meters per segment.
10Base5 - Ethernet specification for thick coaxial cable. It transmits signals at 10 Mbps
(megabits per second) with a distance limit of 500 meters per segment.
10BaseF - Ethernet specification for fiber optic cable. It transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits
per second) with a distance limit of 2000 meters per segment.
10BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cable (category 3, 4, or 5),
transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 100 meters per
segment.
100BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is used to transmit
data at 100 Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 100 meters per segment.
100BaseTX -Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is used to transmit
data at 1 Gbps (gigabits per second) with a distance limitation of 220 meters per segment.
Token - A special packet that contains data and acts as a messenger or carrier between each
computer and device on a ring topology. Each computer must wait for the messenger to stop at
its node before it can send data over the network.
Terminator - A device that provides electrical resistance at the end of a transmission line. Its
function is to absorb signals on the line, thereby keeping them from bouncing back and being
received again by the network.
Protocol -A formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a
network exchange information.
PCMCIA - An expansion slot found in many laptop computers.
Node - End point of a network connection. Nodes include any device attached to a network such
as file servers, printers, PCs, Laptops, or workstations.
Multiplexer - A device that allows multiple logical signals to be transmitted simultaneously
across a single physical channel.
File Server - A computer connected to the network that contains primary files/ applications and
shares them as requested with the other computers on the network. If the file server is
dedicated for that purpose only, it is connected to a client/ server network. An example of a
client/ server network is Novell Netware. All the computers connected to a peer-to-peer
network are capable of being the file server. Two examples of peer-to-peer networks are
LANtastic and Windows for Workgroups.
Expansion Slot - Area in a computer that accepts additional input/ output boards to increase
the capability of thecomputer.
CSMAJCD - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection is a network access method in
which devices that are ready to transmit data first check the channel for a carrier. If no carrier is
sensed, a device can transmit. If two devices transmit at once, a collision occurs and each
computer backs off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. This is
the access method used by Ethernet.
DATA
Datais a collection of facts unorganized, but able to be organized intouseful information. Data are
raw facts and figures in isolation. These isolated facts and figures convey meanings but generally
are not useful by them. For example: Aryan, lives, boy, chabahil, etc.
INFURMATIUN
Information is the product or result of processing data into a meaningful form. In other words, we
can say that information is a data which is placed in a meaningful form to the users. For example:
Aryan is a boy and he lives in chabahil.
DATABASE
A database is a collection of interrelated data that is organized so that its contents can easily be
accessed, managed and updated. In other words, a database is an organized collection of data.A
database contains a collection of related items or facts arranged in a specific structure. The simple
example of a non-computerized database is a telephone directory.
A collection of data designed to be used by different people is called a database. It is a collection of
interrelated data stored together, with controlled redundancy to serve one or more applications in
an optimal fashion. The data are stored in such a fashion that they are independent of the programs
of people using the data.
Fig: An outline view of a Database System
DATABASE MANACEMENT SYSTEM {DBMS]
A database management system(DBMS) is a software tool that allows multiple users to store,
access, and process data or facts into useful information. In other words, a database management
system(DBMS) is asystemor softwaredesigned to manage adatabase, and run operations on the
data requested by numerous clients.
DBMS is a complex software system that constructs, expands and maintains the database. The
primary goal of DBMS is to provide an environment, i.e. both convenient & effective to use in
retrieving & storing database. DBMS is an interface between application program and physical data
files. The common language for accessing most database systems is SQL (Structured Query
Language).
Some popular DBMS includes dBase, Visual FoxPro, Oracle, DB2, Informix, MS SQL Server, MySQL,
and Microsoft Access
Note: Database System=Database +DBMS +application programs (or, queries)
UB)ECTIVE UF DBMS
Some of the objectives of DBMS are as follows:
Provides relevant data to users
Easy access to data and information
Provides quick response to the user request for data
Eliminates the duplicate data
Allows multiple users to access and share data
Allows the scalability of database
Protects data from unauthorized access
Provides an abstract view of data that hides details of data from users
Creates relationships between items of data
D DI IF FF FE ER RE EN NC CE E B BE ET TW WE EE EN N D DA AT TA AB BA AS SE E A AN ND D D DB BM MS S
Database DBMS
Language).
UB)ECTIVE UF DBMS
Database DBMS
Language).
UB)ECTIVE UF DBMS
Database DBMS
It is collection of data or related information It is a software package to manage the database
It consists of data It manages data stored in database
It is a part of DBMS It is asoftware system that contains database
E.g. Phone book, Attendance Register, etc. E.g. FoxPro, Access, Oracle, etc.
A AD DV VA AN NT TA AC CE ES S U UF F D DB BM MS S
1. Makes easy to add new data.
2. Makes easy to modify the database.
3. Makes easy to delete existing data
4. Organized the datain proper sequence.
5. It reduces the data redundancy to a large extent.
. It can control data inconsistency to a large extent.
7. Maintains data integrity i.e. accurate, consistent and up-to-date data
8. Make easy to access the data for the authorized user.
9. Allow multiple users to be active at one time (i.e. data in the database may be shared among
several users)
10. Protecting data against unauthorized access.
11. Allow for growth in the database system.
D DI IS SA AD DV VA AN NT TA AC CE ES S U UF F D DB BM MS S
1. Complex to understand and implement
2. Costly
3. Too many rules
4. Fast changing technology
5. Change of losing the data
. Chance of data leakage and hacking
7. Unavailability of trained manpower
STRUCTURE OF DATABASE
Database resembles a 2-dimensional toble consisting of rows and columns, similar to the structure
of a spreadsheet. In a database, data are most commonly stored in such table.
The entire collection of related data, in the table, is referred to as a file. Each row represents a
recorJ, which is a set of data. Each column represents, afielJ, which groups each piece of data into
specific category.
CUST_NO COMPANY TITLE F_NAME L_NAME CITY
R045 Speedy Travels Travel Agent Rakesh Sharma Biratnagar
F500 FW Taylor College Teacher Bijay Mishra Kathmandu
G930 GatewayInc. System
Manager
Yash Bhattarai Pokhara
S225 Spencer's Plaza Director Rita Gurung Dharan
Field
(A database file)
Record Data
SUME KEY TERMS IN DBMS SYSTEM
Field: A field is the smallest, atomic part of a database. It is a piece of information about an
element; element may be a person, student or employee. Fields contain one piece of information
of entry. They are combined to form a record.
Record: A record is information about an element. A record can have much information under
separate heading called fields. One full set of fields i.e. all the related information about one
person or object is called the record.
Table: A complete collection of records is called a table. A table is a logical grouping of related
information. A table contains rows and columns. Each column of a table represents field and each
row represents record.
DBA {Database Administrator]
DBA is a special person (super users) who controls both the data and the programs that access
those data, i.e. controls overall system. The DBA is responsible for ensuring that the data in the
database meets the information needs of the organization. The DBA must have a sound knowledge
of the structure of the database & of the DBMS. The DBA must also be thoroughly conversant with
the organization, its system & the information needs of the managers.
A DBA needs the following:
a. Knowledge of the operating system in which database server is running.
b. Knowledge of SQL
c. Sound knowledge in database design
d. General understanding of network architectures
e. Knowledge about the database server.
RolesJFunctionsJResponsibilities of database administrator {DBA]
The DBA is responsible for ensuring that:
a] The data in the database meets the information needs of the organization
b] The facilities for retrieving data and for structuring reports are appropriate to the needs of
the organization.
c] The DBA is responsible for the data dictionary (data about data or metadata, i.e. define the
structure of data) and manuals for users describing the facilities the database offers and how
to make use of these facilities.
d] Another function of DBA is to supervise the modification (insert, delete and update) of data.
e] The DBA is also responsible for security of database and requirements of privacy.
f] The DBA is also responsible for database integrity maintenance (changes made to the
database, do not result in a loss of data).
g] The DBA is also responsible for periodic appraisal of the data held in the database to ensure
that is complete, accurate and not duplicated.
DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of a database system is greatly influenced by the underlying computer system on
which the database system runs.
{1] Centralized Database System
Centralized database systems are those that run on a single computer system and do not interact
with other computer systems i.e. these database systems are used only in single user system
(personal computers). A typical single user system is a desktop unit used by a single person, has
only one CPU, oneor two hard disks and has an operating system that may support only one user.
Centralized database works on a client-server basis. The structure of a centralized databases
system is shown in figure.
Fig: A centralized Database System
{2] Distributed database system
Fig: A Distributed Database System
D DI IF FF FE ER RE EN NC CE E B BE ET TW WE EE EN N C CE EN NT TR RA AL LI IZ ZE ED D A AN ND D D DI IS ST TR RI IB BU UT TE ED D D DA AT TA AB BA AS SE E S SY YS ST TE EM M
Client 1 Client 2
Client 4 Client 3
SERVER
Database
Network
A distributed database system is a collection of databases that shares a common schema and
coordinates to access no local data, i.e., in a distributed database system, the database is stored on
several computers. The computers in a distributed system communicate with one another through
various communication media, such as networks or telephone lines. They do not share main
memory or disks. The computer in a distributed system is called site or nodes. The general
structure of distributed system is shown in the figure below.
Centralized Database System Distributed Database System
Data reside in a single location The data reside in several locations
DATABASE MUDELS UR DATA MUDELS
A data or database model is the organizing principle that specifies particular mechanisms for data
storage and retrieval. The model explains, in terms of services available to an interfacing
application, how to access a data element when other related data elements are known. The
primary difference between the different database models lie in the methods of expressing the
relationships and constraints among the data elements. Database Models may be classified as
follows:
The Hierarchical database model
The Network database model
The Relational database model
The Object-Oriented database model
Entity-Relationship model
{1] THE HIERARCHICAL DATABASE MUDEL
In a bierarcbical database model, records are organized in a tree-like structure by type.
Hierarchical model database is one of the oldest database models. The relationship between record
types is said to be a parent-child relationship, in which any child typerelates only to a single parent
type.
Hierarchical database structure is used where data elements of applications need to be neatly
organized in the formof a hierarchical tree structure. However, the main limitation of this structure
is that it does not support flexible data access, because only following the path down the tree
structure can access the data elements.
Files are kept on the basis of location of disk
drives and names.
Files are kept on the basis of names rather than
location.
It does not contain several sites or nodes (i.e.,
does not contain several computers)
It contains several computers (sites) and
communicates with one another through
communication media
Once the database system fails, it doesnt
operate
If one site fails, the remaining sites may able to
continue operating
No risk of data lost High risk of data theft, hacking, etc.
Suitable for a single organization like school,
college, industries, etc. of a location.
Suitable for a large organization spread in
different geographical locations.
Low cost High cost
Operations
Human
Resources
Division
Marketing
Development Acquisitions
Fig: Exampleof a Hierarchical database model
Let us consider two record types TEACHER and COURSE, then their relationship in hierarchical
data model can be shown as per below.
R1 R2
(Representing relationship in hierarchical data model)
Advantages of Hierarcbical database model
1. Easiest model of database
2. Searching is fast if root node is known
3. Handles one-to-one relation very efficiently
Disadvantages of Hierarcbical database model
1. Old and outdated database model
2. Non-Flexible database model
3. Cant handle many-to-many relationship
4. Increases redundancy
{2] THE NETWURK DATABASE MUDEL
Thenetwork database model is very similar to hierarchical structure except that any one record
type can relate to any number of other record types (i.e. Allows more general connections among
the nodes). Suppose an employee works for two departments. The strict hierarchical arrangement
is not possible here and the tree becomes a more general graph-a network. The network model
was evolved to specifically handle non- hierarchical relationships. Moreover, in this type of
database, the database management system permits the extraction of the needed information by
beginning from any data element in the database structure, instead of starting from the root data
element.
Bijay Gaurighat Chabahil
Adhir Ramshahpath Putalisada
k
106 40000
103 56000
COURSE
C_NO C_NAME
T_NO T_NAME ADDRESS
T_NO T_NAME ADDRESS
TEACHER
C_NO C_NAME
Sami
r
Siddhipath Jhapa
Srija Kopila marg Dhangadi
Fig: Example of a Network database model
Advantages of Network database model
1. Accepts many-to-many relationship
2. More flexible model
3. Reducesredundancy
4. Searching is faster due to multidirectional pointers
Disadvantages of Network database model
1. Complex type of database model
2. Less secured than the hierarchical database model
3. Needs large storage
{3] THE RELATIUNAL DATABASE MUDEL
Relational database model stores and displays data in tabular format of rows and columns. In a
relational database two tables can be linked or relate with each other by a common field in both
table. Relational database is made up of tables that contain data records. Each of the records is
composed of fields.
A field is the smallest, atomic part of a database. The relational database model presents the data as
collections of tables. Instead of modeling the relationships in the data according to the way that it is
physically stored, the structure is defined by establishing relations between simple tables. A table is
a logical grouping of related information. This information is arranged in rows and columns, similar
to a spreadsheet; we have column for each categoryof data that we want.
Account-
No.
Brancb-
name
Balance
101 Jhapa 10000
102 Chabahil 24000
103 Dhangadi 56000
105 Putalisada
k
39670
106 New Road 40000
105 39600
101 10000
Fig: Example of a Relational database model
Advantages of Relational database model
1. Accepts many-to-many relationship
2. More flexible model
3. Reduces redundancy
4. Normalization of database is possible
5. Referential Integrity can be implemented
. One table can be linked with several other tables
Disadvantages of Relational database model
1. Complex type of database model
2. Makes database non-user friendly due to many tables
3. Hard to manage all tables
4. Too many rules
RELATIUNAL DATABASE MANACEMENT SYSTEM {RDBMS]
An RDBMS is a database management system where all data visible to the user is organized strictly
as tables of data values. All database operations work on these tables. A relational database
management system (RDBMS) is a database management system (DBMS) that is based on the
relational model.
The organizing principle in a relational database is thetable. Each table in a database has a unique
table name that identifies its content. A relutlon is a formal term for a table. A row or record in the
table is formally called atuple. The number of tuples in a relation is called thecurJlnullty, and the
number of attributes is called theJegree.
An important property of a relation is that the rows are unordered. A row cannot be identified by
its position in the table. Every table must have some column, or combination of column, that
Customer-name Account-No.
Adhir 106
Bijay 105
Bijay 102
Srija 103
Samir 101
Customer-
name
Customer-
street
Customer-
city
Adhir Ramshahpath Putalisadak
Samir Siddhipath Jhapa
Bijay Gaurighat Chabahil
Srija Kopila Marg Dhangadi
Ceneral Terms Relational Model Terms
Table Relation
Row Tuple
Number of rows Cardinality
Field Attribute
Number of columns Degree
Unique identifier Primary Key
Pool of values Domain
uniquely identify each row in the table. At any given time, no two rows of the table contain the
same values in that column or column combination. This column or column combination is called
the prlmury key of the table. A Jomuln is a pool of values from where one or more attributes
(columns) draw out their values.
CUMPUNENTS UF DBMS
a] Entity: An entity is any object, place, person, concept or activity about which an enterprise
record data. An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects. They
are named and represented by a box (i.e. rectangle). Example:
b] Relationsbip: A relationship is an association among entities. The relationship may represent
an event that links the entities or may represent a logical affinity that exists between the
entities. For example, there is a relationship between student and instructors. This
relationship represents the fact that an instructor teaches several students, and a student is
taught by several instructors. This relationship can be named teacbes.
Types of Relationsbips
There are three types of relationships:
1. One-to-one
2. One-to-many or many-to-one
3. Many-to-many
Consider the following example. For one CAR there can be only one DRIVER. One car driver cannot
drives more than one car. This is aone-to-one relationship.
NAME
1001 Adhir Baneswor
1002 Samir Kusunti
1003 Bijay Chabahil
Tuples
Attributes
Domain
Primary
Key
INSTRUCTOR STUDENT
INSTRUCTOR STUDENT TEACHES
DRIVER
CAR DRIVES
ID
ADDRESS
A STUDENT can admit in only one STREAM (e.g. arts, science, etc), but many students will make an
admission for a given stream. This is amany-to-one relationship.
A STUDENT can take many COURSE and many students can register for a given course. This is a
many-to-many relationship.
c] Attributes: An attribute is a property of a given entity. They are descriptive properties
possessed by each member of an entity. Attributes are depicted as ellipses, labelled with the
name of the property. The key attributes (i.e. primary key) are underlined. Primary Keys are
those that uniquely identify an entity. In the following example, a particular student can be
uniquely identifies from the roll number rather than the name. It is possible for more than one
student to have same name but a roll number is never duplicated.
d] Identifiers: Every entity must have an identifier (i.e. key). Any attribute or set of attributes
that uniquely identifies a row in table can be a candidate for a primary key. Such an attribute
is called aconJiJote key. Keys can be simple or composite. A simple key comprises a single
attribute. Acomposite key, on the other hand, is made up of two or more attributes. The field
in the related table that the primary field refers to is called the foreiqn key. Together, a
primary key and foreign key create a parent-child relationship between the tables that
connect them.
THE ENTITY-RELATIUNSHIP MUDEL
E-R model is the most popular data model. It is the widely used in practice as an appropriate tool
for database design. The E-R model can be expressed graphically by theF-R Jioqrom(or FRB).
STUDENTS STREAM
ADMISSION
STUDENT
COURSE ENROLLS
Address Name
Roll-No. Class
STUDENT
The E-R (entity-relationship) data model views the real world as a set of basic ob|ects (entities)
andrelationsbips among these objects. This represents the overall logical structure of the DB.
{E-R Diagram]
Some of the notations used in E-R Diagram are:
Rectangles represent entity
Diamonds represent relationship
Lineslink attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationship sets
Ellipses represent attributes
Double ellipses represent multi-valued attributes
Dashed ellipses denote derived attributes
Underline indicates primary key attributes
Fig: E-R Diagram with Composite, Multi-valued, and Derived Attributes
{E-R Diagram]
NURMALIZATIUN
Normalization is a step-by-step decomposition of a complex relation into simple relations. It is the
process of organizing data in a database to reduce the redundancies. As the time passes, there will
many
one
STUDENT
ROLL_NO NAME
ADDRESS REG_DATE
TEACHING TEACHER
T_CODE NAME
GRADE SUBJECT
be need for most databases to grow by adding new attributes. Tuples will be added and deleted.
Information stored may undergo updating also. In such situations, the performance of a database is
entirely dependent upon its design.
Normalization results in the formation of tables that satisfy certain specified constraints and
represent certain normal forms. Normal forms are table structure with minimum redundancy.
Normalization helps simplify the structure of tables. A fully normalized record consists of:
A primary key that identifies an entity
A set of attributes that describe the entity
When a table undergoes normalization, a new table is generated. Such talbes are called Normol
form. Normal forms are the tables with minimum redundancy. The formal classifications used for
describing database normalization are callednormal forms (NF). Edgar F. Codd originally defined
the first three normal forms. The first normal form requires that tables be made up of a primary
key and a number of atomic fields, and the second and third deal with the relationship of non-key
fields to theprimary key.
Ub|ective of normalization
To reduce redundancy.
Toavoid the inability to represent certain information, i.e., to avoid insertion anomaly.
To avoid the loss of information i.e. to avoid deletion anomaly.
To avoid update anomaly.
{1]First normal form {1NF]
First normal form(1NF) lays the groundwork for anorganised database design. It
Ensures that each table has a primary key
Eliminates repeating groups by defining keyed and non-keyed attributes appropriately.
Ensures atomicity i.e. each attribute must contain a single value, not a set of values.
{2] Second normal form {2NF]
In 2NF, if a table has a composite key, all attributes must be related to the whole key.
The database must meet all the requirements of the first normal form.
Data which is redundantly duplicated across multiple rows of a table is moved out to a separate
table.
A relation is said to be in 2NF if & only if it is in 1NF & all attributes dependent upon the whole key,
and not just part of the key.
{3] Tbird normal form {3NF]
Third normal form(3NF) requires that data stored in a table be dependent only on the primary key,
and not on any other field in the table. The 3NF differs from thesecond normal formin that all non-
key attributes in 3NF are required to be directly dependent on each candidate key of the relation. A
relation is said to be in 3NF if & only if it is in 2NF &
every non-key attributes is functionally dependent
on just theprimary key.
The database must meet all the
requirements of the second normal form.
Any field which is dependent not only on the
primary key but also on another field is
moved out to a separate table.
E EX XA AM MP PL LE E U UF F N NU UR RM MA AL LI IZ ZA AT TI IU UN N: :
ECUDE DEPT PRU)CUDE HUURS
E101 Systems P27 90
P51 101
P20 60
E305 Sales P27 109
E508 Admin P51 NULL
P27 72
Table 1: Un-
normalized
Data
Table 2: A table in 1NF
E101 Systems P27 90
E101 Systems P51 101
E101 Systems P20 60
E305 Sales P27 109
E508 Admin P51 NULL
E508 Admin P27 72
ECUDE PRU)CUDE HUURS
E101 P27 90
E101 P51 101
E101 P20 60
E305 P27 10
E508 P51 NULL
E508 P27 72
ECUDE DEPT
E101 Systems
E305 Sales
E508 Admin
Consider the following table where the primary key here is ECODE. The attribute DEPT is
dependent on ECODE. The attribute DEPT_HEAD is dependent on DEPT. DEPT_HEAD is the code of
the department head. Notice that there is an indirect dependence on the primary key.
ECUDE DEPT DEPT_HEAD
E101 Systems E901
E305 Sales E906
E402 Sales E906
E508 Admin E908
E607 Finance E909
E608 Finance E909
The above table is therefore reduced to the following two tables:
ECUDE DEPT
E101 Systems
E305 Sales
E402 Sales
E508 Admin
E607 Finance
E608 Finance
DATA REDUNDANCY
Since the files may be created by many users over a long period, the various file are likely to have
different style and format. Moreover, the same information may be duplicated in several files. For
example, the address and telephone number of a particular student may be appears in a file that
consists of saving-account records and in a file that consists of fixed account records. Such
conditions are calleddata redundancy. This redundancy leads to higher storage and access cost.
The data redundancy may lead data inconsistency that is the various copies of the same data may
no longer agree. For example, a changed customer address may be reflected in saving account
record but not elsewhere in the system. Here the same information becomes mismatch. Such
condition is calleddata inconsistency.
DEPT DEPT_HEAD
Systems E901
Sales E906
Admin E908
Finance E909
DATA INTECRITY
Specifically, data integrity in arelational databaseis concerned with three aspects of the data in a
database: Accuracy, Correctness, and Validity. Data integrity is the consistency of the data. That is
when some change occurs in a data item, every file, which contains that field, should be updated to
reflect the change for consistency. As well as data values stored must satisfy certain type of
consistency constraints. For example, the balance of a bank account may never fall below a
minimum amount.
The data value stored in the database must satisfy the certain types of consistency constraints or
limitations. For example, the marks obtained by the students should not exceed more than 100 if
the full mark of that subject is 100. It should be easy to define such restriction and constraints.
DBMS easily solve such integrity problem.
If data is always accessed through the DBMS, the DBMS can enforce integrity constraints. For
example, before inserting age of student, the DBMS can check that it is not negative or zero. To get
correct information from computer, data (in a database) must have integrity.
Boto inteqrity is the measurement to which data is correct and consistent. A misspelled name of
person in an employee database is an example of incorrect data. When a database contains these
types of errors, it loses integrity. Therefore, if there is more error in data, the data have less
integrity. When there is less error in data, the data have more integrity.
6orboqe in, qorboqe out {6l60) is the computer term that denotes you cannot create correct
information from incorrect data. If you enter incorrect data into a computer {qorboqe in), the
computer will produce a incorrect information{qorboqe out).
DATABASE LANCUACES
Database design is a process of modeling an enterprise in the real world. In fact, a database itself is
a model of the real world that contains selected information needed by the enterprise. Many
models and languagessome formally and mathematically defined, some informal and intuitive
are used by designers.
Some of the languages used are as follows:
1. Data Description Language {DDL]
Data Description Language (DDL) is used to specify the database schema. The result of
compilation of DDL statement is a set of tables that is stored in a special file called data
dictionary or data directory.
Adata dictionary is a file that contains metadata i.e., data about data. It stores the description
of structure of data within database. The description of the structure of data includes the table
names that contain data, the column names, the data types and width of column. So, data
dictionary is consulted before actual data are read or modified in the database system. Data
Dictionary is created when a database is created. The DBMS automatically updates the data
dictionary. It consists of a set of tables and views, which is a reference for all database users.
2. Data Manipulation Language {DML]
Data Manipulation Language (DML) is a language which enables users to access and manipulate
data. Data manipulation means: insertion, deletion, modification and retrieval of information
to/ from the databases.
a. Procedural DML: It requires a user to specify what data are needed & how to get
those data.
b. Non-procedural DML: It requires a user to specify what data are needed without specifying
how to get those data.
3. Structure Query Language {SQL]
Structured Query Language (SQL, pronounced sequel or ess-que-ell) is used to build and
manipulate relational databases. SQL is a non-procedural language. Most RDBMS follows the
client-server architecture. The data is stored and managed by the server and user request to the
server. Information is derived when data is processed. In order to retrieve information in
RDBMS, queries are used.
Aquery language is a language in which a user requests information from a database. In other
words, a query is a more powerful type of filter that can gather information from multiple tables
in a relational database. These are typically higher-level than programming languages. A query
allows retrieving the information required at any point in time. A query is statement sent by the
client to the server. The process the query, retrieves the required information, and sends it back
to the client.
SQL is an international standard for database query languages and has been adopted by many
computer manufactures and database product suppliers, e.g. IBM, Digital, INTEGERS, ORACLE,
and SYBASE etc. SQL was originally developed in IBM research in the early 1970s. SQL is not a
completeprogramming language. In reality, SQL is more like a data sub-language consisting of
many specialized statements (commands) for database management tasks. These statements
are then embedded into another real programming language (host language), like Visual Basic,
Java. SQL is not a stand-alone product; it cant be used by itself. SQL is an important part of a
database management system a language for communicating with database engines for that
matter.
The SQL is a language that enables us to create & operate on relational database. The basic
structure of an SQL expression consists of three clauses: SELECT, FROM & WHERE.
SELECT fielJ list
FRUMtoble nome
WHERE conJition
Example: Consider the table-2 from above. Here, if we select the ecode from table-2 where
department is admin than we get -
SELECT ecoJe
FROMtoble-2
WHEREJept="oJmin"
E508 Admin P51 NULL
E508 Admin P27 72
4. Unified Modeling Language {UML]
Unified Modeling Language (UML) is designed for software engineering of large systems using
object-oriented (OO) programming languages. It is the tool for communicating with the client in
terms that are used in the enterprise. This language is used for object-oriented database design.
DATABASE INSTANCES AND SCHEMAS
Databases change over time as information is inserted and deleted. The collection of information
stored in the database at a particular moment is called an lnxtunce of the database. The overall
design of the database iscalled the databasexchemu. Schemas are changed infrequently, if at all.
The concept of database schemas and instances can be understood by analogy to a program written
in a programming language. A database scbemo corresponds to the variable declarations (along
with associated type definitions) in a program. Each variable has a particular value at a given
instant. The values of the variables in a program at a point in time correspond to an instonce of a
database schema.
PURPUSE UF DATA MUDELS
A Boto HoJel is a collection of conceptual tools used for describing data and their relationships in
the database.
Data model plays an important role in database design. A physical and logical structure of a
database is defined by the data model.
A database model is the organizing principle that specifies particular mechanisms for data storage
and retrieval. The model explains, in terms of services available to an interfacing application, how
to access a data element when other related data elements are known.
DATA SECURITY
Data security is the means of ensuring that datais kept safe fromcorruptionand that access to it is
suitably controlled. Thus data security helps to ensureprivacy. It also helps in protecting personal
data. Data security is to ensure the Data theft, Data privacy, Data remanence, Data corruption, etc of
the database.
Security refers to the protection of data against unauthorized access. Not every user of the database
system should be able to access all the data. For example, in a banking system, payroll personal
need to see only that part of the database that has information about the various bank employee.
They do not need to access to information about customer accounts. Security mechanism of a DBMS
makes sure that only authorized users are given access to the data in database.
A database very often keeps sensible data about the users of the database. The data are placed in
the files of the database and should be kept in a secure room. But there is no guarantee that the
disk drives cant be stolen by an organized group of intruders. So, sensitive data like credit card
numbers, addresses, health status, etc. can be misused. The databases are constructed to use many
hard disk drives can be placed on different disks. But there are some guidelines that apply to all
databases. Incorporating these guidelines into the strategy will ensure more reliable and more cost
effective backups.
The main guidelines are:
Always maintain a log of your backup schedule
Occasionally store backups in a separate location
Spread your database across several disks
Always consider your existing hardware configuration and system workload
Determine the volatility and value of your data
Verify the integrity of your database regularly
Verify the integrity of your backup media after each backup
The following are some techniques that are employed to achieve different levels of security in
computer systems:
Cryptoqropbic tools can be used to defend the data in transit between systems, reducing the
probability that data can be intercepted or modified in between.
Stronq Autbenticotion techniques can be employed to ensure that the two end points taking part
in transition are who they say they are.
Secure cryptoprocessors can be used to leverage physical security techniques into protecting the
security of the computer system.
Cboin of Trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all the software loaded has been
certified as authentic by the system designers.
HonJotory Access Control can be used to ensure that privileged access is withdrawn when
privileges are retracted.
Copobility & Access Cotrol list techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation.
Anti-virus softwore deletes or disables viruses on the computer, protecting against the them.
Iirewolls, the hardware and/ or software components protect the computer system from the
intruders, not allowing anything to enter into without correct markings.
lntrusion-Jetection System is used to detect people that are in the network but doing things that
can be hazardous to the whole system.
Bockups are a way of securing the information by keeping another copy of all the required files
and documents.
QUESTIUNS UNLEASED
Theseare the most probable questions from this chapter that would be asked in your board exam. So,
try to solve them in your own answers. You may take help of your reference books from your library,
from Internet or consult with your friends.
1. What is RDBMS? What is normalization and why normalization is important in RDBMS?
2. Define the terms field and record with an example in terms of DBMS.
3. What is the difference between data and information?
4. What is data model? Describe about different types of database (data model) with suitable
example.
5. What is data dictionary? Explain the normalization process in the database design with
example.
. What do you mean by DBMS? Explain its major functions.
7. What is database? How is it different from a file?
8. What do you mean by data sequencing? Differentiate between random access and sequential
access.
9. Briefly explain the principle difference between a relation database and a flat-file system.
10. Who is database administrator? Explain the duties and responsibilities of database
administrator.
11. Give two advantages of using a database rather than a number of separate files. Differentiate
between database and DBMS.
12. Explain the benefits of centralized database. Explain the top-down methodology of database
design.
13. What are Domains andTuples? What are the characteristics of good data model?
14. What do you understand by the term data integrity? Why is it important thing to be considered
while designing the database? State and describe different types of data integrity.
15. What is data security? How it can be implemented?
1. What is data redundancy? Explain with examples.
17. What are the advantages of DBMS?
18. Write short notes on
Data Modeling
DML
Data Dictionary
SQL
E-R Model
Distributed Database system
Network database model
RDBMS
Normalization
Data Integrity
CYBER LAWS, ETHICS & PULICIES UF NEPAL
Introduction to Computer Crime
Similar to other various aspects of our lives, major crimes have gone high tech. But its important
to remember that its not the computers that commit crimes - itsthe crime of people that use the
computers, and the outcome of their mistake to business and society is huge.
Computer Crime is the name given to any type of electronic fraud, which covers credit and debit
cards, electronic funds transfer, software piracy and any other general misuse of a computer
system. Some crimes can remain undiscovered for long periods, or are never reported at all and
many companies that have been victims of fraud are thus unwilling to expose the fact.
The worldwide access of information through computers has let criminals carry out such
negative actions without difficulty. Proper security measures, both technical and moral, should
be implemented in practice to stop the future disasters that may take place.
Examples of Computer Crime
The following are some examples of computer crime:
Unauthorized use
Altering web sites
Denial of service (DoS) attacks
Malicious computer programs: Viruses, hacking
Harassment & stalking
Privacy defiance
Introduction to Digital Signatures
A digital signature is an electronic signature that is used to authenticate the identity of the sender
of a message or the signer of a document, to ensure that the original content of the message or
document is unchanged.
Introduction to Public Key Infrastructure {PKI]
It is a security management system including hardware, software, people, processes and policies,
dedicated to the management of Digital Certificates (keys) for the purposes of secure exchange of
electronic messages.
The sender sends the message encrypted with the public key of the receiver (accessible to all),
which the receiver decrypts with his/ her private key (known only to him/ her).
A PKI is also called atrust bierorcby.
Cyber and Telecommunication Laws
After the rapid and unregulated initiation of Internet, cyber law is a new and even growing
phenomenon that includes the wide variety of political, societal and legal issues related to the
Internet.
The term refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of Internet and the World Wide Web.
Anything concerned with or related to any legal aspects concerning any activity of citizens and
others in Cyberspace (The space within the worldwide Internet) comes within the area of Cyber
law. As Internet is growing rapidly, Cyberspace, thus Cyber Law is becoming the preferred subject
of query for the entire world.
The following are some of the scopes that are covered by the boundary of Cyber Laws:
Intellectual Property
Digital Signatures System
Computer Crime
Privacy
Freedom of Expression
Jurisdiction
Intellectual Property Law
It presents a set of exclusive rights in relation to the manner in which specific idea or information is
expressed. It denotes the definite legal rights that the authors, investors and other Intellectual
Property holders may hold an expertise. These laws are designed to protect various forms of
intangible subject matters like
Copyright exists in many computer related creative works like software, source code
discovery etc.
Patent right exists in software and hardware tasks that lets the inventor to exploit the
invention right for certain period of time.
Public Key of
Receiver
Private Key of
Receiver
Sender encrypts the
message with the
receiver's public key.
Sende
r
Receiver
Message1
Message2
Message2
Receiver decrypts the
message with his/her
private key.
Trademark is a distinctive sign that distinguishes the products and software of one business
from that of another.
Industrial design right protects the appearance of one business from that of another (spare
parts, textures etc).
A trade secret is confidential information related to the work procedure of the organization.
Computer Crime Law
As the vast use of computers in business, education and personal use is expanding almost like
nothing else, similar is the case in computer crimes and cyber faults. Computer crime is growing
fast because the evolution of technology is fast, but the evolution of law is slow. While only limited
number of nations has passed laws related to computer crime, the situation is an international
problem that requires a long term solution.
Protection measures such as hardware identification, access control software, disconnecting
critical bank applications etc should be developed. However, computers don't commit crimes;
people do, proper ethical and moral standards should be acted out to reduce the probabilities of
fraud.
)urisdiction Law
The term jurisdiction is synonymous to "power". Any court possesses jurisdiction over the matters
only to the extent granted to it by the constitution on behalf of which it functions. The question of
whether a given court has the power to determine a jurisdictional question is itself a jurisdictional
question.
Cyber Law 201 B.S.: Nepal
Nepal started its milestone journey in IT development in 2061 B.S. in direct consent of His Majesty
The King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev. After approval from the cabinet, the much awaited IT
landmark, The Cyber Law 2061 B.S., also known as the Electronic Transaction and Digital Signature
Act (ETDSA) was released on 2061 B.S.
According to the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), the Law strongly defines the standard
acts related to the following:
All the transactions and signatures carried out via electronic means receive legal
recognitions, thus paving the way for the development of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) in the country.
The act fills the emptiness in the cyber industry.
It would bring about changes in the markets of software andhardware industries in Nepal.
It would be implemented in all government offices, its related organizations and local
bodies.
It has strong provisions for punishment against cyber crimes. The cyber criminals can be
fined up-to NRs. 5,00,000 or liable to imprisonment of up-to five years or both.
The act has provisions for office of the controllers that issue license of certification to the IT
Industries.
Computer Etbics
It is a branch of practical principles that deals with how the computer experts should make
decisions in regard to the social and professional behavior. The term was first devised by Mr.
Walter Maner in mid 70
s
. But, only since the beginning of 90
s
it started being incorporated in
professional and intellectual development sceneries.
With therapid growth of Internet, privacy issues as well as technological concerns have called into
question ethical behavior in technology. The core issues of Computer Ethics incorporate:
Technological impact on the society
Plagiarism
Intellectual property rights
Copyrights
Piracy
Hacking
Internet Pornography & Adult Sites
Harassment & Stalking etc.
Copyrigbts
At its most general, it is literally "the right to copy" an original creation. In most cases, these rights
are of limited duration.
Copyright law covers only the particular form or manner in which ideas or information have been
manifested, the "form of material expression". It is not designed or intended to cover the actual
idea, concepts, facts, styles, or techniques which may be embodied in or represented by the
copyright work.
Harassment
It is irritating the defendant by sending obscenities and insulting comments, focusing on gender,
race, religion, nationality etc. This often occurs in chat rooms, through newsgroups, and by sending
hate e-mail to interested parties.
Hacking
It defined as, "deliberately gaining unauthorised access to an information system" and, in
extreme cases, it may amount to industrial espionage or a national security crime when the
defendant accesses commercially or nationally sensitivematerials.
Types:
1. White Hacking: The hackers motivate the Information Holders to furthur secure their
data by pointing to their flaws without doing any kind of offensive destruction.
2. Black Hacking: The hackers break into other's information system to have an
unauthorized access.
The terms grey hackers or brown hackers are often used to describe ones, who lie on the
borderline of above two.
Hacking frequently involves people acting in different states.
Piracy
The theft of software, the copying of licensed software without permission, and software
counterfeiting are some examples of piracy. These are not only a matter for the securit personnels
but can also involve customs officers, agencies tasked to protect consumers and holders, and
agencies responsible for ensuring that advertising is not misleading.
Privacy
Privacyis the ability of an individual or group to stop information about themselves from becoming
known to people other than those whom they choose to give the information. Sometimes it may be
voluntarily sacrificed, normally in exchange for perceived benefits, very often with specific dangers
and losses.
Plagiarism
It is the use of another persons work (this could be his or her words, products or ideas) for
personal advantage, without proper acknowledgement of the original work, and with the intention
of passing it off as one's own work.
It may occur deliberately (with the intention to deceive) or accidentally (due to poor referencing).
It encompasses copying material from a book, copying and pasting information from the World
Wide Web, receiving help from unauthorized sources on coursework, and copying answers from a
fellow student during an examination (presuming the copied work isnt attributed). Plagiarism and
cheating are not the same; cheating takes many forms, including but not limited to deliberate
plagiarism.
Internet Pornogrpby
It is pornography (the representation of the human body or human sexual behaviour with the goal
of sexual stimulation) that is distributed via the Internet, primarily via websites, peer-to-peer file
sharing software and through newsgroups. While pornography had been traded over the Internet
via individuals in the 1980s and early 1990s, it was the invention of the World Wide Web in 1993
as well as the opening of the Internet to the general public around the same time that led to an
explosion in pornography over the Internet.
Etbical Standards
A number of definitive sets of ethics have been developed to restrict the professionals in making
harsh decisions and redirect them towards the right behavioral approach. Some of them include:
Associotion for Computinq Hocbinery (ACM) codes of ethics is a four point standard that
governs the ethical behavior among the computer professionals.
0niform Computer lnformotion Tronsoction Act (UCITA) defines a set of standards related to
the legal and ethical behavior during the computer contract process.
IT Policy, Nepal 2002:
The Information Technology (IT) policy, Nepal was adopted in 2002 A.D. i.e. 2057 B.S. to define the
visions, background, objectives & strategies of computer education in Nepal. Below, we briefly
discuss the important ones:
Vision
To place Nepal on the6lobol Hop of lnformotion Tecbnoloqy within the next five years.
Nepal is renowned for its natural beauty. In the current world of Information &
Communication Technology, its very important to place it on the global IT map and make
people remember Nepal for its technological developments.
Background
Nepal is a developing country. Information Technology can be used as a major development
tool in the growth of various sectors like education, healthcare, agriculture etc. This will
definitely bring about economic consolidation, development of democratic norms and
values, proportional distribution of economic resources and means and enhancement of
public awareness. This in the long run will raise the living standards of the people and, most
importantly, contribute significantly to poverty alleviation.
Formation of an efficient information technology will place countrys disadvantages, result
of its geographical conditions towards the minority. With plump economic disparity
between the country with and without sufficient IT development, it is very much possible
that the international community will extend its support to developing countries in the
development of information technology. Such assistance will definitely be significant for the
national development of a developing country like Nepal. Hence, an Information Technology
(IT) policy is essential for the development of information technology for the up grading of
national economy.
Ub|ectives
The information technology (IT) policy shall be developed to attain the following objectives.
1. To make information technology accessible to the general public and increase
employment through this means.
2. To build a knowledge-based society.
3. To establish knowledge-based industries.
Strategies
The following are some of the major the strategies adopted to attain the information
technology objectives just mentioned above:
o Carry on research, develop and expand information technology with a high priority
to participation of the private sector.
o Prepare capable manpower with the involvement of both public and private sectors
for sustainable development and expansion of information technology.
o Encourage native and foreign investment for the development of information
technology and infrastructure pertaining to information technology.
o Legalize and promote e-commerce.
o Assist in e-governance by using information technology.
o Utilize information technology in the development of rural areas.
o Include computer education in curriculum from the school level.
o Increase export of services related to information technology.
Information Tecbnology Policy
Some of the policies to be followed for the implementation of the above-mentioned
strategies shall be as follows:
o To declare information technology sectors a prioritized sector.
o To follow a single-door system for the development of information technology.
o To create a conductive environment that will attract investment in the private sector,
keeping in view the private sector's role in the development of information
technology.
o To provide internet facilities to all Village Development committees of the country in
phases.
o To computerize the records of each governmental office and build websites for them
for the flow of information.
o To increase the use of computers in the private sector.
o To develop physical and virtual information technology park in various places with
the private sector's participation for the development of information technology.
o To use information technology to promote e-commerce, e-education, e-health, among
others, and to transfer technology in rural areas.
o To establish National Information Technology Centre.
o To establish a national level fund by mobilizing the resources obtained from His
Majesty's Government, donor agencies, and private sectors so as to contribute to
research and development of information technology and other activities pertaining
to it.
o To establish venture capital funds with the joint participation of public and private
sectors.
o To draft necessary laws that provides legal sanctions to the use of information
technology.
o To gradually use information technology in all types of governmental activities and
provide legal sanctions to its uses in such activities.
Action Plan
The following action plan shall be carried out to implement the national information
technology policy and fulfill its objectives:
o Porticipotion of privote sector in infrostructure Jevelopment:
o lnfrostructure Jevelopment
o Eumon Resource Bevelopment
o Bisseminotion of lnformotion Tecbnoloqy
o Promotion of F-commerce
o 0tber reloteJ Iocilities
Legal Provisions
Necessary laws shall be enacted to regulate transactions to be carried out through
information technology, as well as other necessary arrangements pertaining to this
technology, and to protect intellectual property right.
Modification to tbe Policy
The IT policy may be reviewed and modified every two years in conformity with
technological development and expansion of services as a result of rapid developments in
the information technology sector. Nonetheless, at the suggestion of various sectors, it may
be appraised and modified if necessary even prior to it.
Summary
As the use of computers is growing worldwide, so is thecrimes related to computers.
Computer crime is the faults made by computer system users through the use of computers.
Computers don't commit crime by themselves.
Some of the computer crimes are: Hacking, Harassment, Stalking, Plagiarism, Piracy, Privacy
Disclosure, Pornography etc.
Public Key Infrastructure is used for information privacy and authentication over
transmission over electronic media.
Cyber Law and Computer Ethics are used in practice to control computer crime.
Cyber and Telecommunication Laws include all the regulatory aspects concerned with
Internet and the World Wide Web.
Computer Ethics covers all the practical principles that deal with how the computer experts
should make decisions in regard to the social and professional behavior.
Cyber Law 2061 B.S. and IT Policy 2002 A.D., Nepal was released to cover all aspects related
to electronic data transmission and digital signatures.
Questions
1. What is Computer Crime? Illustrate with some examples.
2. Explain Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) with necessary diagram.
3. List some of the provisions provided by the Cyber Law 2061 B.S. of Nepal.
4. What do you understand by Digital Signatures?
5. What do you understand by Computer Ethics? Illustrate with examples.
6. Briefly describe the importance of IT Policy 2002.
7. What are the areas covered by strategies, objectives, action plans of IT Policy 2002, Nepal?
8. List and explain different points of ethics to be followed by computer users.
9. Briefly describe different standards listed under the Cyber Law 2061 B.S. of Nepal.
10. Is Cyber Law 2061 and IT Policy 2002 sufficient to cover all the electronic data
transmission? Give your own view.
11.Write short notes on:
Intellectual Property Law
Copyright Law
Hacking
Plagiarism etc.

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