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Chapter 32
Maxwell's
Equations
CHAPTER 32 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
(28-18)
(29-18)
32-2
Maxwell's Equations
E dA =
Q in
0
(29-5)
dA
closed
surface
= E 4r2
=
(1)
Qin
0
where Qin = Q .
Figure 1
32-3
B
Figure 2
B dA = 0
(2)
32-4
Maxwell's Equations
MAXWELLS CORRECTION
TO AMPERES LAW
As we mentioned in the introduction, Maxwell detected a logical flaw in Amperes law which, when
corrected, gave him the complete set of equations for
the electric and magnetic fields. With the complete set
of equations, Maxwell was able to obtain a theory of
light. No theory of light could be obtained without the
correction.
Amperes law, Equation (29-18), uses the line integral
to detect the solenoidal component of the magnetic
field. We had
Ampere's
Law
B d = 0 ienclosed
(29-18)
i
r
(a)
(b)
+
+
+
+
+
+
Figure 4
Charging up a capacitor.
Figure 3
32-5
path 1
path 2
path 3
B d = 0 i
path 1 goes
around a current i
(3)
B d = 0 i
path 2 goes
around a current i
(4)
(5)
Bd = 0
Path 3
+
+
+
+
+
+
i
i
i
Path 2
Q
=
;
0
0 A
E =
Q = 0 EA
dQ
dt
(7)
d
EA
dt
(8)
capacitor
plate of
area A
i
i
i
i
i
i
Figure 5
+Q
+
+
+
+
+
+
E
E
E
i
i
i
Q
Figure 6
Figure 5a
(6)
32-6
Maxwell's Equations
(9)
dE
(10)
dt
dE
dt
corrected
Ampere's (11)
law
paths 3
B d = 0 i
B d = 00
( E = 0 )
dE
dt
(12)
(i = 0)
dE r
(14)
dt
Equation (14) tells us that because we have an increasing electric field between the plates, and thus an
increasing electric flux through our path, there must be
a magnetic field around the path.
(13)
2
E
r
Figure 8
Figure 7
32-7
(16)
dE r
d total r2
= 0 0 E
dt
dt
R2
2
= 0 i r
(17)
R2
where in the last step we used Equation (10) to replace
0 0 dE total /dt by a term of the same magnitude,
namely 0 i.
0 0
B2r = 0i
B =
0i
;;;
;
B
R2
magnetic
field between
capacitor plates
2 R 2
(18)
circular
Magnetic
Field
B
circular
Path of
radius r
(15)
i
r
Figure 11
B(r)
Figure 9
32-8
Maxwell's Equations
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
Now that we have corrected Amperes law, we are
ready to write the four equations that completely
govern the behavior of classical electric and magnetic
fields. They are
(a)
(b)
closed
surface
closed
surface
E dA =
Q in
0
Gauss'
Law
No
Monopole
B dA = 0
(c)
Bd
= 0 i + 00
(d)
Ed
dB
dt
dE
dt
Ampere's
Law
Faraday's
Law
(19)
The only other thing you need for the classical theory
of electromagnetism is the Lorentz force law and
Newtons second law to calculate the effect of electric
and magnetic fields on charged particles.
F = qE + qv B
Lorentz
Force
Law
(20)
We have just crossed what you might call a continental divide in our study of the theory of electricity
and magnetism. We spent the last ten chapters
building up to Maxwells equations. Now we descend into applications of the theory. We will focus
on applications and discussions that would not have
made sense until we had the complete set of equationsdiscussions on the symmetry of the equations
and applications like Maxwells theory of light.
32-9
SYMMETRY OF
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
Maxwells Equations (19 a, b, c, and d), display considerable symmetry, and a special lack of symmetry. But
the symmetry or lack of it is clouded by our choice of
the MKS units with its historical constants 0 and 0
that appear, somewhat randomly, either in the numerator or denominator at various places.
For this section, let us use a special set of units where
the constants 0 and 0 have the value 1
0 = 1 ; 0 = 1
in a special
set of units
(21)
closed
surface
E dA = Q in
B dA = 0
Bd = i +
Ed
dE
dt
dB
dt
B dA = Q B
(22b')
(22a)
(22b)
(22c)
(22d)
Exercise 3
Assume that the magnetic monopole has been discovered, and that we now have magnetic charge QB
and a current iB of magnetic charge. Correct Maxwells
Equations (22) and the Lorentz force law (20) to include
the magnetic monopole. For each new term you add to
these equations, provide a worked-out example of its
use.
In this exercise, use symmetry to guess what terms
should be added. If you want to go beyond what we are
asking for in this exercise, you can start with the formula
FB = QB B for the magnetic force on a magnetic charge,
and with the kind of thought experiments we used in the
chapter on magnetism, derive the formula for the electric force on a magnetic charge QB . You will also end
up with a derivation of the correction to Faradays law
caused by a current of magnetic charge. (This is more
of a project than an exercise.)
32-10
Maxwell's Equations
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
IN EMPTY SPACE
In the remainder of this chapter we will discuss the
behavior of electric and magnetic fields in empty space
where there are no charges or currents. A few chapters
ago, there would not have been much point in such a
discussion, for electric fields were produced by charges,
magnetic fields by currents, and without charges and
currents, we had no fields. But with Faradays law, we
see that a changing magnetic flux dB dt acts as the
source of a solenoidal electric field. And with the
correction to Amperes law, we see that a changing
electric flux is a source of solenoidal magnetic fields.
Even without charges and currents we have sources for
both electric and magnetic fields.
First note that if we have no electric charge (or magnetic monopoles), then we have no sources for either a
divergent electric or divergent magnetic field. In
empty space diverging fields do not play an important
role and we can focus our attention on the equations for
the solenoidal magnetic and solenoidal electric field,
namely Amperes and Faradays laws.
Setting i = 0 in Equation (19c), the Equations (19c) and
(19d) for the solenoidal fields in empty space become
Bd
= 00
Ed
dE
(23a)
dt
dB
(23b)
dt
1 dE
= 2
c dt
Ed
dB
dt
Maxwell's
equations
in empty
space
(24a)
(24b)
32-11
A Thought Experiment
Let us picture a very long, straight, copper wire with no
current in it. At time t = 0 we start an upward directed
current i everywhere in the wire as shown in Figure
(12). This is the tricky part of the experiment, having
the current i start everywhere at the same time. If we
closed a switch, the motion of charge would begin at the
switch and advance down the wire. To avoid this,
imagine that we have many observers with synchronized watches, and they all reach into the wire and start
the positive charge moving at t = 0. However you want
to picture it, just make sure that there is no current in the
wire before t = 0, and that we have a uniform current i
afterward.
In our previous discussions, we saw that a current i in
a straight wire produced a circular magnetic field of
magnitude B = 0i/2r everywhere outside the
wire. This cannot be the solution we need because it
implies that as soon as the current is turned on, we have
a magnetic field throughout all of space. The existence
of the magnetic field carries the information that we
have turned on the current. Thus the instantaneous
spread of the field throughout space carries this information faster than the speed of light and violates the
principle of causality. As we saw in Chapter 1, we
could get answers to questions that have not yet been
asked.
Using our knowledge of special relativity as a guide,
we suspect that the solution B = 0i/2r everywhere in space, instantaneously, is not a good guess. A
more reasonable guess is that the magnetic field grows
at some speed v out from the wire. Inside the growing
front, the field may be somewhat like its final form
B = 0i/2r , but outside we will assume B = 0.
dE
(25)
=0
dt
= -
i
0
(25a)
path (a)
v
v
B
B=0
i
i up at t = 0
Figure 12
A current i is started
all along the wire at
time t = 0.
v
v
Figure 13
32-12
Maxwell's Equations
dE
Path 1 of
Figure 15
dt
i
0
(26)
i up, increasing
B
Figure 15
Figure 14
As a second guess,
we will assume
that there is a
downward directed
electric field
associated with the
expanding
magnetic field.
Again, Path (1) is
out where the
fields have not yet
arrived.
path (1)
32-13
Figure 16
Electromagnetic
pulse produced
by turning the
current on and
then quickly off.
We will see that
this structure
agrees with
Maxwell's
equations.
v
v
v
v
32-14
Maxwell's Equations
Ed
dE
(23a)
dt
dB
(23b)
dt
(27)
v
path 1
path (2)
v
v
v
v
B into paper
v
Figure 17a
Figure 17b
32-15
B(down)
a)
path 1
v
at time t
b)
additional area = hx
path 1
at time t+t
Figure 18
dB
dt
Eh = ( Bvh) = +Bhv
from
Faraday's law
(30)
32-16
Maxwell's Equations
Analysis of Path 2
(31)
= Bh
= 00
d E
dt
dE
gives
dt
Bh = 0 0
d E
(32)
dt
= Eh
x
t
= Eh
dx
= Ehv
dt
(33)
(34)
From
Ampere's law
path (1)
v
path (2)
v
v
path 2
v
v
E into
paper
v
Figure 17c
32-17
1
00
v =
1
00
speed of
light!!!
Exercise 4
Construct paths like (1) and (2) of Figure (17), but which
include the back side, rather than the front side, of the
electromagnetic pulse. Repeat the kind of steps used
to derive Equation (35) to show that the back of the pulse
also travels outward at a speed v = 1/ 00 . As a
result the pulse maintains its thickness as it expands out
through space.
Exercise 5
(35)
(36)
Figure 20a
E(down)
a)
Path 1
path 2
at time t
v
x
b)
Figure 19
additional area = hx
path 2
at time t+t
Figure 20b
32-18
Maxwell's Equations
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The single electromagnetic pulse shown in Figure (17)
is an example of an electromagnetic wave. We usually
think of a wave as some kind of oscillating sinusoidal
thing, but as we saw in our discussion of waves on a
Slinky in Chapter 1, the simplest form of a wave is a
single pulse like that shown in Figure (21). The basic
feature of the Slinky wave pulse was that it maintained
its shape while it moved down the Slinky at the wave
speed v . Now we see that the electromagnetic pulse
maintains its structure of E and B fields while it moves
at a speed v = c through space.
We made a more or less sinusoidal wave on the
Slinky by shaking one end up and down to produce
a series of alternate up and down pulses that traveled
together down the Slinky. Similarly, if we use an
alternating current in the wire of Figure (17), we will
get a series of electromagnetic pulses that travel out
from the wire. This series of pulses will more
closely resemble what we usually think of as an
electromagnetic wave.
Figure (22a) is a graph of a rather jerky alternating
current where we turn on an upward directed current of
magnitude i 0, then shut off the current for a while, then
turn on a downward directed current i 0, etc. This series
of current pulse produces the series of electromagnetic
pulses shown in Figure (22b). Far out from the wire
where we can neglect the curvature of the magnetic
field, we see a series of pulses shown in the close-up
view, Figure (23a). This series of flat or non-curved
pulses is called a plane wave of electromagnetic radiation.
a) Graph of current
pulses in wire
i
i 0 up
i 0 down
B
Figure 21
32-19
radians
radians
cycles
= 2
f
sec ond
cycle
second
= 2f
(39)
radians
second
E
B
c
Electric
field
Magnetic
field
c
b) Electric and magnetic fields produced
by smoothly switching the antenna current.
Figure 23
32-20
Maxwell's Equations
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
meters =
cycle
We have seen by direct calculation that the electromagnetic pulse of Figure (17), and the series of pulses in
Figure (22) are a solution of Maxwells equations. It is
not much of an extension of our work to show that the
sinusoidal wave structure of Figure (23b) is also a
solution. The fact that all of these structures move at a
speed c = 1/ 00 = 3 10 8 m/s is what suggested
to Maxwell that these electromagnetic waves were
light, that he had discovered the theory of light.
= 297 meters
But there is nothing in Maxwells equations that restricts our sinusoidal solution in Figure (23b) to certain
values or ranges of frequency or wavelength. One
hundred years before Maxwell it was known from
interference experiments (which we will discuss in the
next chapter) that light had a wave nature and that the
wavelengths of light ranged from about 6 10 5 cm in
the red part of the spectrum down to 4 10 5 cm in the
blue part. With the discovery of Maxwells theory of
light, it became clear that there must be a complete
spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, from very long
down to very short wavelengths, and that visible light
was just a tiny piece of this spectrum.
106 m to .05 mm
500 m to 190 m
60 m to 15 m
10 m to 1 m
1 m to 10 cm
10 cm to .05 mm
.05 mm to 6 10 5 cm
6 10 5 to 4 10 5cm
4 10 5 cm to 10 6cm
10 6 cm to 10 9 cm
10 9 cm and shorter
Radio Waves
AM Band
Short Wave
TV VHF Band
TV UHF Band
Microwaves
Infrared Light
Visible Light
Ultraviolet Light
X Rays
Rays
c meters
second = 3 10 8m/s
cycles
103 10 6c/s
f
sec ond
ultraviolet
rays
gamma rays
wavelength, cm
106
10
1 10 -1
-2
-3
-4
infrared rays
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
X-rays
Figure 24
The electromagnetic spectrum extends from long wavelength radio waves down to short wavelength
X rays and gamma rays. The visible part of the spectrum is indicated by the small box.
-11
-12
32-21
Figure 25
The worlds largest radio station at Cutler, Maine. This structure, with 75 miles of antenna wire and 26 towers
over 1000 ft high, generates long wavelength low frequency, radio waves for communications with submarines.
32-22
Maxwell's Equations
0E2
2
B2
20
(37)
32-23
POLARIZATION
One of the immediate tests of our picture of a light or
radio wave, shown in Figure (23), is the phenomena of
polarization. We mentioned that the reason that you
had to adjust the angle of the wires on a rabbit ears
antenna was that the electric field of the television
signal had to have a significant component parallel to
the wires in order to push the electrons up and down the
wire. Or, in the terminology of the last few chapters, we
needed the parallel component of E so that the voltage
V = E dl would be large enough to be detected by
the television circuitry. (In this case, the line integral
E dl is along the antenna wire.) Polarization is a
phenomena that results from the fact that the electric
field E in an electromagnetic wave can have various
orientations as the wave moves through space.
Although we have derived the structure of an electromagnetic wave for the specific case of a wave produced
by an alternating current in a long, straight wire, some
of the general features of electromagnetic waves are
clearly present in our solution. The general features
that are present in all electromagnetic waves are:
1) All electromagnetic waves are a structure consisting of an electric field E and a magnetic field B .
2) E and B are at right angles to each other as
shown in Figure (23).
Magnetic
field
c
a) Vertically polarized electromagnetic wave.
Magnetic
field
Electric
field
c
b) Horizontally polarized electromagnetic wave.
Figure 26
a) Vertical Polarization
Figure 27
E
b) Horizontal Polarization
Ey
c) Mixture
Ex
32-24
Maxwell's Equations
Polarizers
A polarizer is a device that lets only one of the two
possible polarizations of an electromagnetic wave pass
through. If we are working with microwaves whose
wavelength is of the order of a few centimeters, a frame
strung with parallel copper wires, as seen in Figure
(28), makes an excellent polarizer. If a vertically
polarized wave strikes this vertical array of wires, the
electric field E in the wave will be parallel to the wires.
This parallel E field will cause electrons to move up
and down in the wires, taking energy out of the incident
wave. As a result the vertically polarized wave cannot
get through. (One can observe that the wave is actually
reflected by the parallel wires.)
If you then rotate the wires 90, so that the E field in the
wave is perpendicular to the wires, the electric field can
no longer move electrons along the wires and the wires
have no effect. The wave passes through without
attenuation.
If you do not happen to know the direction of polarization of the microwave, put the polarizer in the
beam and rotate it. For one orientation the microwave
beam will be completely blocked. Rotate the polarizer
by 90 and you will get a maximum transmission.
Figure 28
32-25
Light Polarizers
Figure 29
32-26
Maxwell's Equations
loop antenna
vertical antenna
Figure 30a
Figure 30b
Figure 31
detector loop
on car
32-27
Ed =
d B
dt
= 0
Magnetic
field
Electric
field
E
metal loop
c
E d meter
B
E
voltmeter
Figure 33
c
Figure 32
32-28
Maxwell's Equations
32-29
+
+
+
+
+
t<0 +
+
+
+
+
a) Electric field of a
stationary, positively
charged rod.
E+
ct
+
v ++
+
+
+
t>0 +
+
+
+
t > t1
b) At time t = 0, we
start moving the entire
rod upward at a speed
v. The ends of the field
lines must stay
attached to the charges
in the rod.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
E
E+
Enet
E+
E
c(tt1)
c
Enet
g) Thus a short
upward directed
current pulse
produces a downward
directed electric field
that travels outward
from the wire at a
speed c.
ct
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
d) We have added in
the electric field of a
line of stationary
negative charges. As a
result, the net charge
on the rod is zero and
we have only a current
pulse that lasted from
t = 0 to t = t1 .
c
Enet
Figure 34
Using the fact that electric field lines cannot break in empty space (Gauss' Law), and the idea that kinks
in the field lines travel at the speed of light, we can guess the structure of an electromagnetic pulse.
32-30
Maxwell's Equations
Figure 35a
Figure 35b
Figure 35c
32-31
Figure 36
32-32
Maxwell's Equations
Exercise 6
Assume that we have a supply of ping pong balls and
cardboard tubes shown in Figures (37). By looking at
the fields outside these objects decide what could be
inside producing the fields. Explicitly do the following
for each case.
Ball
Figure 37a
Tube
(end view)
Figure 37b
Ball
Figure 37c
32-33
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
x
x
(end view)
Tube
x x
x x
x x
x x
Tube
x x
x x
(end view)
x x
x x
x x
x x
Figure 37d
x
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
Figure 37f
Tube
(end view)
Tube
(end view)
Figure 37e
Figure 37g
32-34
Maxwell's Equations
Index
A
Ampere's law
Maxwells correction to 32- 4
Analysis
Of path 1 for electromagnetic pulse 32- 14
Of path 2 for electromagnetic pulse 32- 16
B
Blackbody radiation
Electromagnetic spectrum 32- 22
C
Capacitor
Magnetic field in 32- 6
Colors
Blackbody radiation 32- 22
Electromagnetic Spectrum 32- 20
D
Detector for radiated magnetic field 32- 26
E
Electric field
And light 32- 20
In electromagnetic waves 32- 18
Radiation by line charge 32- 28
Radiation by point charge 32- 30
Electromagnetic radiation
Pulse 32- 10
Analysis of path 1 32- 14
Analysis of path 2 32- 16
Calculation of speed 32- 14
Electromagnetic spectrum 32- 20
Electromagnetic waves 32- 18
F
Field
Electric
Radiation by line charge 32- 28
Radiation by point charge 32- 30
Electromagnetic field 32- 18
Magnetic field
Between capacitor plates 32- 6
Detector, radio waves 32- 26
Gauss's law for (magnetic monopole) 32- 2
Surface integral 32- 2
Thought experiment on radiated field 32- 11
Flux, magnetic
Magnetic field detector 32- 26
Maxwell's equations 32- 8
Force
G
Gamma rays 32- 20, 32- 22
Wavelength of 32- 20
Gauss' law
For magnetic fields 32- 2
I
Infrared light
Wavelength of 32- 20
Integral, line
In Maxwell's equations 32- 8
Integral, surface
For magnetic fields 32- 2
In Maxwell's equations 32- 8
L
Light
Electromagnetic spectrum 32- 20
Electromagnetic waves 32- 18
Polarization of light 32- 23
Polarizers 32- 25
Radiated electric fields 32- 28
Speed of light
Electromagnetic pulse 32- 14
Structure of electromagnetic wave 32- 19
Lorentz force law
And Maxwell's equations 32- 8
M
Magnetic field
Between capacitor plates 32- 6
Detector 32- 26
Gauss' law for 32- 2
In electromagnetic waves 32- 18
Radiated, a thought experiment 32- 11
Surface integral of 32- 2
Magnetic flux
Magnetic field detector 32- 26
Maxwell's equations 32- 8
Maxwells correction to Amperes law 32- 4
Maxwell's equations 32- 8
Chapter on 32- 1
In empty space 32- 10
Symmetry of 32- 9
Maxwells theory of light 32- 2
Maxwell's wave equation 32- 18
Microwaves
Electromagnetic spectrum 32- 20
Microwave polarizer 32- 24
P
Polarization of light waves 32- 23
Polarizer
Light 32- 25
Microwave 32- 24
32-35
Polaroid, light polarizer 32- 25
Pulse
Of electromagnetic radiation 32- 10
R
Radar waves
Wavelength of 32- 20
Radiated electromagnetic pulse 32- 10
Radiated magnetic field thought experiment 32- 11
Radiation
Blackbody 32- 22
Electromagnetic field
Analysis of path 1 32- 14
Analysis of path 2 32- 16
Calculation of speed 32- 14
Spectrum of 32- 20
Radiated electric fields 32- 28
Radiated field of point charge 32- 30
UV, X Rays, and Gamma Rays 32- 22
Radio waves
In the electromagnetic spectrum 32- 20
Wavelength of 32- 20
Relativistic physics
Electromagnetic radiation, structure of 32- 19
Maxwells equations 32- 8
Radiated electric fields 32- 28
Speed of light wave 32- 17
Thought experiment on expanding magnetic
field 32- 11
S
Spectrum
Electromagnetic
Wavelengths of 32- 20
Speed of an electromagnetic pulse 32- 14
Speed of light
Calculation of speed of light
Analysis of path 1 32- 14
Analysis of path 2 32- 16
Using Maxwell's Equations 32- 14
Surface integral
For magnetic fields 32- 3
In Maxwell's equations 32- 8
Symmetry of Maxwells equations 32- 9
T
Television waves
Wavelength of 32- 20
U
Ultraviolet light
Electromagnetic spectrum 32- 20, 32- 22
Wavelength of 32- 20
V
Visible light 32- 20
Wavelength of 32- 20
W
Wave
Electromagnetic waves 32- 18
Light waves
Polarization of 32- 23
X
X-Ch32
Exercise 1 32- 7
Exercise 2 32- 8
Exercise 3 32- 9
Exercise 4 32- 17
Exercise 5 32- 17
Exercise 6 32- 32
X-rays
Electromagnetic spectrum 32- 20, 32- 22
Wavelength of 32- 20