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15.7.
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Fig. 15.14
Any error in the outside diameter of the gear must be allowed for when measuring tooth thickness.
In the case of helical gears, the above expressions have to be modified to take into account the change in curvature
along the pitch line. The virtual number of teeth Nv for helical gear = Mcos3 a (a = helix angle)
These formulae apply when backlash is ignored. On mating gears having equal tooth thickness and without addendum
modifications, the circular tooth thickness equals half the circular pitch minus half the backlash.
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Fig. 15.16
This is the property utilised in the constant chord method of the gear measurement.
The measurement of tooth thickness at constant chord simplified the problem for all number of teeth. If an involute tooth
is considered symmetrically in close mesh with a basic rack form, then it will be observed that regardless of the number
of teeth for a given size of tooth (same module), the contact always occurs at two fixed point A and B. AB is known as
constant chord. The constant chord is defined as the chord joining those points, on opposite faces of the tooth, which
make contact with the mating teeth when the centre line of the tooth lies on the line of the gear centres. The value of AB
and its depth from the tip, where it occurs can be calculated mathematically and then verified by an instrument. The
advantage of the constant chord method is that for all number of teeth (of same module) value of constant chord is
same. In other words, the value of constant chord is constant for all gears of a meshing system. Secondly it readily lends
itself to a form of comparator which is more sensitive than the gear tooth vernier.
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Fig. 15.17
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pitch of the gear with the help of slip gauges. The properly set-up instrument is applied to the gear so that all the three
tips contact the tooth profile. The reading on dial indicator is the error in the base pitch.
Fig. 15.18
It may be noted that when backlash allowance is specified normal to the tooth flanks, this must be simply subtracted
from this derived value.
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Tables are also available which directly give this value for the given values of S, N and m.
This distance is first calculated and then set in the David Brown tangent comparator (Fig. 15.21) with the help of slip
gauges. The instrument essentially consists of a fixed anvil and a movable anvil. There is a micrometer on the moving
anvil side and this has a very limited movement on either side of the setting. The distance is adjusted by setting the fixed
anvil at desired place with the help of looking ring and setting tubes.
Fig. 15.20
passes between the two tips along the vertical axis of symmetry of the instrument. The measuring tips are spread apart
or brought together simultaneously and symmetrically in reference to the central axis by a screw which has a right-hand
and a left-hand thread. The contact faces of the measuring tips are flat and arranged at angles of
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Fig. 15.22
Fig. 15.23
In Fig. 15.23 a rack tooth is shown symmetrically in mesh with a gear tooth space, the curved sides of the gear tooth
touching the straight rack sides at A and B on the line of action. Let us assume that the centre of the roller lies on the
pitch point O. Now, if the rack tooth be considered as an empty space bounded by its outline, a circle with centre O
and radius OB would fit and touch the rack space at A and B since OA and OB are perpendicular to the sides of the
rack tooth. Thus the circle would touch the gear teeth at A and B.
In A OBD, OB is the radius of roller
OD = Circular pitch/2 = (7t/4)m
OBD =90, BdD = <|> = pressure angle, .. OB = OD cos <j> = (re/4) m cos <(>
Dia. of roller = 2 x OB = 2 x (ron/4) cos <|) = (rc/4) m cos <|>.
This is the diameter of a roller which will rest in tooth space and lie with its centre on the pitch circle. This value is
constant for all gears of same pitch and pressure angle.
For gears with even number of teeth, a direct measurement by placing two rollers in exactly opposite tooth spaces is
possible. In this case, the gauging diameter over the rollers
If the gear has an old number of teeth, a radial measurement with the gear between centres can be carried out, using a
comparator with the gear. The accuracy of the spacing over any number of teeth may be checked by finding the angles
subtended at the centre and comparing this with that obtained from a chordal check of the plugs.
As already indicated, precision gears and other gears are generally checked for tooth thickness by dimension over pins,
as the dimensions over pins reading is mathematically related to the tooth thickness. This also verifies the correctness of
profile and other elements of gear. Under this method two pins of equal diameter are placed in two opposite tooth
spaces
for gears having odd number of teeth.
where M = Required size over the wires, m = Module, (j) = Pressure angle, d = Diameter of wire = 1.728 x m, m =
Pressure angle at centre of pin and is given by the relation
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Using the above equations, the size AT over wires can be calculated. In case of helical gears the formulae used are as
below :
The helical gears with odd number of teeth should not be measured with two wires, because in this case the correction
factor cos (90/iV) is not valid and can result in serious errors. In such cases the gear can be mounted on an arbour and
a radial measurement made from the top of the wire to the axis of gear.
Size over wires/balls for helical gears
Table
Accuracy Class or Grade of Gear Profile Tolerance in Microns
1
2.0 + 0.06 x *
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
2.5 + 0.10 xk
3.0 + 0.16 x A;
4.0 + 0.25 x h
5.0 + 0.40 x k
6.3 + 0.63 x k
8.0 + 1.0 x k
10 + 1.6 x k
16 + 2.5 x k
25 + 4.0 x k
40 + 6.3 x k
63 + 10xA
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6
ez-10
7
e,-20
CO
10
When involute profile is rotated on dividing head by small roll angles, then the consecutive profile points A fall on to the
vertical tangent line. It is possible to compute suitable roll angles for any diameter Dz from the corresponding pressure
angle by equations : DJDb = sec <j>z, ez = (180/rc) x tan
Initially for any known diameter; say pitch diameter, the value of ez and so AB is found. The highest gauge is set to zero
at this height above the gear centre by means of slip gauges, then the corresponding position of gear profile is obtained
by rotating the gear tooth towards indicating stylus until zero is obtained. Number of angles is increased or decreased in
steps of 10 or half degree as is convenient and for these values of ez the values of AB are calculated, and the height
gauge is set to this height by means of slips and then the dial reading over the tooth is compared. The deviation of dial
reading gives the error of profile at these points.
This is a very time consuming method but best suited for calibration of master involute. It is therefore useful only for very
precision components and involute master cams.
(b) Gear involute measuring machine. This machine is designed for checking the involute profiles of the spur and
other gears. The machine is suitable for inspection of gear having module from 1 to 10 mm having maximum outside
diameter upto 300 mm. The machine is provided with a measuring stylus. The kinematic design of the machine is such
that when job is rotated the measuring stylus which is initially set at base circle radius of the gear by means of slip gauge,
is also slided along the involute curve. The deviation of the tooth profile from the correct involute is indicated by a dial
indicator of accuracy 0.001 mm connected by lever mechanism with the stylus. A master involute template is also
provided with the machine for setting and calibration of the machine.
(c) Checking of involute shape of gear. As the involute curve is traced by the end A of a straight edge which rolls
without slipping on a base circle diameter cylinder, any point C on the curve will correspond to the position CE of the
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straight edge, which, therefore, always remains tangential to the base circle. Conversely if the base circle cylinder were
to roll on a fixed straight edge, any fixed point e.g., C would move in an involute path, such as CA, as the cylinder rolls
along the straight edge CE.
A straight edge rolled on the edge of a disc will be seen to be the equivalent of this arrangement, and provides the
principle on which the involute tester operates. The gear to be tested is held on the mandrel m, which carries a ground
disc d having exactly the same diameter as the base circle of the gear under test (Fig. 15.25). A straight edge e is
mounted on a slide on the body of the instrument and in contact with base circle disc, so that as the straight edge moves
along the slide, the base circle disc and gear are rotated without slip. A point on straight edge thus describes the true
involute corresponding to the base circle, and if the top of an indicator of some kind is
mounted exactly in the plane of the edge of the straight edge and in contact with the tooth flank it will register by its
movements any departure of the tooth profile from the theoretical involute resulting either from errors or from deliberate
modification of the profile. The indicator can also be replaced by the sensing element of a recorder so that permanent
records of the gear teeth profiles can be made.
15.7.9. Measurement of Gear Pitch. Gear pitch can be measured in the following
ways :
(i) Cumulative circular pitch error over a span of teeth.
(ii) Adjacent pitch error or pitch variation. (iii) Base pitch variation.
Here L = Knm2, where If is the sector of pitches over which pitch error is to be checked.
The pitch error of gear can be easily determined by comparing the span length over a specified number of teeth i.e., the
cumulative error on a sector of predetermined pitches is measured.
The pitch variation is the difference between the longest and shortest circular pitch in the whole gear.
The measurement of cumulative error over a span of teeth and also the pitch variations can be conveniently measured
using a dividing head and height gauge fitted with dial indicator. The basic method of measurement involves indexing the
gear through single or multiple tooth angles and determining flank position circumferentially by means of a precision
indicator mounted on a radially disposed slide. By means of the dividing head, rotation to the gear is given by the
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amount of theoretical angular pitch, the variation in the position of tooth is measured by the dial indicator. For larger
gears, the angular accuracy of the dividing table must be higher in order that pitch error is determined accurately.
Though dividing tables with 10 seconds of arc resolution are common, dividing tables are available which can be read
to the nearest second of arc. Of course, these have to be calibrated using precision polygon and photo-electric
autocollimator. The indicator unit should be capable of measuring reliably upto 0.001 mm over a range of0.025 mm.
For gears having larger cumulative pitch errors, indicators of lower sensitivity have to be used.
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Fig. 15.26
ment is used lor checking the circular pitch ol gear tooth. The two measuring contact tips are applied on the same sides
of adjacent teeth of the gear. The left-hand tip is first set up to the required module by means of some suitable
arrangement. The right hand tip is a two armed lever whose one contacts the gear tooth and the other one actuates the
contact point of the dial indicator. Two guide points are also provided for the stability of the instrument.
The pitch variations can also be measured by the instrument shown in Fig. 15.27. It employs a fixed finger and stop for
consistent positioning on successive pairs of teeth, and a movable finger whose movement can be sensed by a dial
indicator.
It may be noted that readings obtained by above instrument will be affected by profile variations and runout of the gear.
In the case of helical gears, measurements may be made in the normal plane of the conjugate rack and divided by the
cosine of helix angle for comparison with standard tolerances.
It may be mentioned that the above method of measuring pitch error can be applied to medium sized gears measuring
from a few cms upto about a metre diameter. Small gears as used in watches and clock are inspected by optical proj
ection in which the enlarged images of some of the teeth are compared
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15.7.10. Runout. Runout means the eccentricity in the reference or pitch circle.
Gears that are eccentric tend to have a vibration per revolution. A badly eccentric tooth may cause an abrupt gear
failure. The runout in the gears is measured by employing gear eccentricity testers. The gear is held on a mandrel in the
centres and the dial indicator of the tester possesses the special tip depending upon the module of gear being checked.
The tip is inserted in between the tooth spaces. The gear is rotated tooth by tooth. The maximum variation is noted from
the dial indicator reading and it gives the runout of the gear. The runout is twice the eccentricity. The adjoining table
indicates the permissible runouts.
Class or Grade Permissible Runout
in Microns
1
0.224 F + 3.0
2
0.335 F + 4.5
3
0.560 F +7.0
4
0.900 F + 11
5
1AF+ 18
6
2.24 F + 28
7
3.15^+40
8
4.0 F + 50
9
5.CF+63
10
6.3 F + 80
11
8.0 + 100
12
10.0 F+ 125
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15.7.11. Lead.
It is the axial advance of the helix or the worm thread per turn. The control of thread lead is necessary to ensure
adequate contact across the face width. The relationship to the helix angle has already been explained earlier.
The instrument which checks the lead consists of a probe being advanced along a tooth surface, parallel to the axis. The
probe is a suitable dial indicator tip fixed in a suitable device.
When the gear is rotated, the displacement of the probe in one complete revolution of gear is found which is the lead.
In the case of worm thread, the axial pitch of the thread is first measured which multiplied by the number of threads in
the worm gives the lead.
15.7.12. Backlash.
Backlash in the gears is the play between the mating tooth surfaces. For the purposes of measurement and calculations,
backlash is defined as the amount by which a tooth space exceeds the thickness on an engaging tooth. Backlash in the
gear teeth results on account of errors in profile, pitch thickness of teeth etc. It is measured by mounting the gears in
specified position. Backlash should be measured at the tightest point of the mesh. The pinion is held solidly against
rotation and a rigidly mounted dial indicator is placed against the tooth at the extreme heel perpendicular to the surface.
The backlash is determined by moving the gear back and forth. The backlash variation is measured by locating the
points of maximum and minimum backlash in the pair and obtaining the difference. For precision gears the variation
should not exceed 0.02 to 0.03 mm.
Gear Calculation
Gear Measurement
Test and Measurement
Measurement Thickness
Angle Measurement
Measurement & Metrology
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