6

MEASUREMENTS IN ASSESSMENT
OF WEATHERING CONDITIONS
Seasonal and latitudinal variations, sun elevation, pollutant composition, cloudiness,
scattering by particles, etc. cause the composition of solar radiation reaching the Earth
surface to vary. This, inturn, shows the relevance of data collectedunder actual weather
conditions. Radiation intensity and dose in both natural and accelerated weathering
must be knownif the effect of eachtype of exposure is to be compared. Onthe other hand,
all radiation bands are not equal either in their energy or in their effect on materials
subjectedto weathering. Radiationinthe wavelengthrange of 300-320 nmis usually the
most destructive to the majority of materials studied, and thus it is important to know
the intensity of radiation in this range as well as in the entire UV range.
Meteorological services throughout the world are the institutions responsible for
the systematic collection and exchange of data on climate and weather. Studies are also
conducted locally by universities, industry, and various other institutes, but these stud-
ies involve only small geographic areas; they are not systematic, and in most cases they
are not readily accessible. This tells us that the information on most local conditions can
be obtained only from meteorological services of the individual countries. These data
contain at best:
Global solar radiation
Sky radiation
Reflected radiation
Net radiation
Daylight illumination
and they are available for only a limited number of locations in the world. Radiometers
used in these studies (discussed below) belong to the general group of pyranometers,
which collect the data of a broad spectrumof the suns energy, not specifically in the UV
Measurements in assessment of weathering conditions 121
region. Since these data are frequently the only available information on radiative en-
ergy at specific points of the globe, this method of measurement is discussed below.
Pyranometry is the older technology of indirect measurement of light which is
based onthe temperature difference betweena black and a white plate. The most impor-
tant part of a pyranometer is the thermopile made from chromel-constantan wire ar-
ranged either in a circular form or in a multijunction linear surface. The surface of the
thermopile is blackened with a specially designed durable lacquer which allows the de-
tector element (the thermopile) to absorb almost all of the radiation and approach ab-
sorption of a perfect black body. An active thermopile exposed to radiation attains an
equilibriumtemperature with reference to the thermojunction, resulting in the genera-
tion of an emf. The voltage response of the instrument is proportional to the solar radia-
tionflux density throughthe plane of the sensing element. The detector (thermopile) can
convert all wavelengths of radiative energy into an electric signal. Detectors are covered
by a filter or filters which are provided to eliminate the infrared part of the spectrum.
Usually, a pyranometer has a glass cover which is transparent to radiation between 285
and 3000 nm. These instruments have very good linearity (0.5%) and are not wave-
lengthspecific but they are sensitive to temperature. They have a broad range of designs
and manufacturers and are made to precise specifications which are usually set by the
particular country conducting studies.
Global Solar Radiation is the total incoming shortwave (usually <3000 nm) solar
radiation coming from the entire dome of the sky as received on a flat, horizon-
tally-mountedthermopile surface. Sky Radiationis that portionof the total incoming ra-
diation received on a flat, horizontally-mounted thermopile surface which is shielded
fromthe direct rays of the sun by a shade ring. Reflected Radiation is that portion of the
total radiation which has been reflected from the Earths surface and received on a flat,
horizontally-mounted, downward-facedthermopile surface. Net Radiationis the net dif-
ference betweenincoming and outgoing radiation. Daylight Illuminationis the total vis-
ible radiation measured in the range between 510 and 610 nm. Radiation data for
selected locations are given in the tables included in Chapter 4.
The above data, althoughimportant because of their availability, consist of only ap-
proximate information on weathering conditions. More precise information on the en-
ergy delivered in the UV range is needed. In order to obtain readings of UV energy, the
instrument must consist of three basic elements: the collector, the wavelength selector,
and the signal producing element. Mirrors or lenses are usually used to collect sunrays,
gratings or filters are used to select wavelengths, and photo-electron or photo-ionization
detectors are used to produce signals. The spectral response of a radiometer depends on
detector sensitivity and on filter transmittance. Depending on the type of filter used, ra-
diometers can be narrow band (these measure light of only a narrow spectral range or
ideally of a single wavelength) or wide band systems. The most frequently used detec-
tors are either silicon photodiodes or photomultipliers.
122 G. Wypych
Spectrographs or spectroradiometers are the most sophisticated and thus the most
expensive measuring devices. They demand constant attention during use and are not
designed for continuous use. They differ from other radiometers in that they can scan a
broad range of radiation wavelengths and thus can provide precise information on radi-
ation composition. But, because of their cost and the difficulty in using them, these in-
struments are seldom used. They differ from radiometers in that they use a
monochromator instead of a filter. Light, before reaching the monochromator, is depo-
larized and integrated. Monochromators use either ruled or holographic gratings. More
sophisticated instruments have double grating to eliminate noise. Rotation of gratings
allows one to scan the entire spectrum and determine its composition precisely. Detec-
tors may be either Si photodiodes or photomultipliers. Photodiodes have lower respon-
siveness to UV radiation (which is their drawback). Photomultipliers have a very wide
range but are very sensitive to temperature variations and to variations in the supplied
high voltage.
Only a few UV radiometers are available and some of these are discussed in more
detail below. The Ultraviolet Radiometer producedby Eppley Laboratory, Inc. has a spe-
cially designed disc receiver of opaque quartz which reduces the radiant flux to an ac-
ceptable level and permits close adherence to the Lambert cosine law. An encapsulated,
narrow band, pass (interference) filter limits incoming radiation to the 295-385 nm
range. Incoming radiation is measured by a hermetically-sealed seleniumbarrier-layer
photoelectric cell protectedby a quartz window. This instrument has the following speci-
fication:
Sensitivity: 150 V per W/m
2
Temperature dependence: 0.1%/deg C in the range of -40 to 40
o
C
Linearity: 2% (0-70 W/m
2
)
Response time: milliseconds
Cosine response: 2.5% from normalization at 0-70
o
Zenith angle
Orientation: no effect on instrument performance
These limitations exist:
Spectral sensitivity of the seleniumbarrier-layer photocell to UV is lower than its peak sensi-
tivity to visible light, meaning that it might be more sensitive to variations in the visible range
than to variations in the UV range.
It is not thermoregulated, which may cause a shift in peak response to longer wavelengths as
temperature increases.
The Radialux UV-measuring device is a radiometer produced by Heraeus, who also
produces weathering equipment. The advantage of this instrument lies in the fact that
the radiation dose is measured in both natural and accelerated conditions using the
same instrument. Because Radialux has two sensors, a UV sensor for the 300-400 nm
range and a global sensor for 300-800 nmrange, it can be used with all of the weathering
Measurements in assessment of weathering conditions 123
equipment manufactured by Heraeus. Incoming radiation enters the instrument
through a Teflon diffusion disc which gives true cosine sensing, then passes through a
variable filter which permits wavelength selection. The signal is measured by a Si
photodiode with the largest available dynamic range of radiation measurement which
extends through 10 orders of electric current magnitude. The control panel display
shows: irradiance (W/m
2
), radiation dosage (Wh/m
2
), last reading, and battery capacity.
The instrument has the following specification:
Sensitivity: 0.65 nA to 3.25 mA
Temperature drift: 2.5%/10 deg C
Cosine response: 2% (0-60
o
Zenith angle)
The instrument has these limitations:
Silicon photodiodes have their sensitivity peak in the near IR, which limits their operation at
temperatures below 40
o
C.
The sensitivity of the Si photodiode depends on wavelength therefore the result depends on
the spectral distribution of the measured beam
It is not thermoregulated.
The Atlas Model LM3A offers an advantage to Weather-O-Meter users in that the
same measuring device is used for both outdoor and for indoor energy dose monitoring.
The principle of design differs from the other two instruments. Atlas chose a narrow
band filter design. The instrument consists of two elements: a detector (placed on the
sample rack) andanelectronic processor (usually locatedinside the laboratory facilities)
connected by cable. The detector contains an UV-transmitting, cosine diffuser, nar-
row-band, interference filter (usually 340 nm, but 420 and 580 nmfilters are available).
Light energy is converted to an electric signal by a thermomechanically cooled
photodiode. The display of the electronic processor shows: spectral irradiance, spectral
irradiation, and total operating time. The instruments performance can be restricted
when narrow-band sensors are used for control, especially when there is a significant
spectral shift.
From the above discussion, we can see that this area of radiation measurement
technology is still in the development stage and requires further efforts and studies.
124 G. Wypych