IJEE - February - 2013 - Extension (Vol 01-No 01) Issue

February 2014 Volume 07 No 01 ISSN 0974-5904
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF EARTH SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING
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National Geotechnical Facility
DST, Dehradun, INDIA
Abdullah Saand
Quaid-e-Awam University of Eng.
Sc. & Tech., Sindh, PAKISTAN
Subhasish Das
IIT- Kharagpur, Kharagpur
West Bengal, INDIA
S Viswanathan
IIT- Bombay, Powai, Mumbai
Maharashtra, INDIA
Katta Venkataramana
NITK- Surathkal
Karnataka, INDIA
Ramana G V
IIT Delhi, Hauz Khas
New Delhi, INDIA
Usha Natesan
Centre for Water Resources
Anna University, Chennai, INDIA
K U Maheshwar Rao
IIT- Kharagpur, Kharagpur
West Bengal, INDIA
Kalachand Sain
National Geophysical Research Institute,
Hyderabad, INDIA
G S Dwarakish
NITK- Surathkal
Karnataka, INDIA
M K Nagaraj
NITK- Surathkal
Karnataka, INDIA
R Sundaravadivelu
IIT- Madras
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
S M Ramasamy
Gandhigram Rural University
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
M R Madhav
JNTU- Kukatpally, Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Chachadi A G
Goa University, Taleigao Plateau
Goa, INDIA
R Bhima Rao
IMMT, Bhubaneswar
Odissa, INDIA
Gholamreza Ghodrati Amiri
Iran University of Sci. & Tech.
Narmak, Tehran, IRAN
C Natarajan
NIT- Tiruchirapalli,
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
N Ganesan
NIT- Calicut, Kerala
Kerala, INDIA
Shamsher B. Singh
BITS- Pilani, Rajasthan
Rajasthan, INDIA
Pradeep Kumar R
IIIT- Gachibowli, Hyderabad
Vladimir e Vigdergauz
ICEMR RAS, Moscow
RUSSIA
D P Tripathy
National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, INDIA
E Saibaba Reddy
JNTU- Kukatpally, Hyderabad
Chowdhury Quamruzzaman
Dhaka University
Dhaka, BANGLADESH
Parekh Anant kumar B
Indian Institute of Tropical
Meteorology, Pune, INDIA
Datta Shivane
Central Ground Water Board
Hyderabad, INDIA
Gopal Krishan
National Institute of Hydrology
Roorkee, INDIA
Karra Ram Chandar
NITK- Surathkal
Karnataka, INDIA
Prasoon Kumar Singh
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad
Jharkhand, INDIA
A G S Reddy
Central Ground Water Board,
Pune, Maharashtra, INDIA
Rajendra Kumar Dubey
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad
Jharkhand, INDIA
Subhasis Sen
Retired Scientist
CSIR-Nagpur, INDIA
M V Ramanamurthy
Geological Survey of India
Bangalore, INDIA
A Nallapa Reddy
Chief Geologist (Retd.)
ONGC Ltd., INDIA
Bijay Singh
Ranchi University, Ranchi
Jharkhand, INDIA
B R Raghavan
Mangalore University, Mangalore
Karnataka, INDIA
C Sivapragasam
Kalasalingam University,
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Xiang Lian Zhou
ShangHai JiaoTong University
ShangHai, CHINA
K. Bheemalingeswara
Mekelle University
Mekelle, ETHIOPIA
Kripamoy Sarkar
Assam University
Silchar, INDIA
Anand V. Shivapur
SDM College of Engg. and Tech.
Karnataka, INDIA
S Suresh Babu
Adhiyamaan college of Engineering
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Nandipati Subba Rao
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
M Suresh Gandhi
University of Madras,
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Debadatta Swain
National Remote Sensing Centre
Hyderabad, INDIA
H K Sahoo
Utkal University, Bhubaneswar
Odissa, INDIA
R N Tiwari
Govt. P G Science College, Rewa
Madhya Pradesh, INDIA
B M Ravindra
Dept. of Mines & Geology, Govt. of
Karnataka, Mangalore, INDIA
M V Ramana
CSIR NIO
Goa, INDIA
N Rajeshwara Rao
University of Madras
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
R Baskaran
Tamil University, Thanjavur
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Salih Muhammad Awadh
College of Science
University of Baghdad, IRAQ
Sonali Pati
Eastern Academy of Science and
Technology, Bhubaneswar, INDIA
Nuh Bilgin
Istanbul Technical University
Maslak, ISTANBUL
Naveed Ahmad
University of Engg. & Technology,
Peshawar, PAKISTAN
Raj Reddy Kallu
University of Nevada
1665 N Virginia St, RENO
Manish Kumar
Tezpur University
Sonitpur, Assam, INDIA
Raju Sarkar
Delhi Technological University
Delhi, INDIA
Jaya Kumar Seelam
National Institute of Oceanography Dona
Paula, Goa, INDIA
Safdar Ali Shirazi
University of the Punjab,
Quaid-i-Azam Campus, PAKISTAN
C N V Satyanarayana Reddy
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam, INDIA
S M Hussain
University of Madras
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Glenn T Thong
Nagaland University
Meriema, Kohima, INDIA
T J Renuka Prasad
Bangalore University
Karnataka, INDIA
Deva Pratap
National Institute of Technology
Warangal, INDIA
Samir Kumar Bera
Birbal sahni institute of palaeobotany,
Lucknow, INDIA
Mohammed Sharif
Jamia University
New Delhi, INDIA
A M Vasumathi
K.L.N. College of Inf. Tech.
Pottapalayam, Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Vladimir Vigdergauz
ICEMR, Russian Academy of Sciences
Moscow, RUSSIA
C J Kumanan
Bharathidasan University
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
B R Manjunatha
Mangalore University
Karnataka, INDIA
Ranjith Pathegama Gamage
Monash University, Clayton
AUSTRALIA
Ch. S. N. Murthy
NITK- Surathkal
Karnataka, INDIA
K. Subramanian
Coimbatore Institute of Technology
Tamil Nadu, INDIA

INDEX

Volume 07 February 2014 No.01

EDITORIAL NOTE

River Linking - Indian Scenario
By P R REDDY and D VENKAT REDDY

RESEARCH PAPERS

Geochemical Investigations on Thermal and Cold Springs at Dumka District,
Jharkhand, India
By HEMANT K SINGH, D CHANDRASEKHARAM, TRUPTI G and B SINGH

190-194
Prediction of Daily Pan Evaporation Using Support Vector Machines
By LEELADHAR PAMMAR and PARESH CHANDRA DEKA

195-202
Fluoride Distribution in the Groundwater of Narsampet Area, Warangal District,
Andhra Pradesh, India
By V SUDARSHAN, S GEETA, A NARSIMHA, S SHANKAR and A RAVI KUMAR

203-212
Ore Microscopic Study of the Gold Mineralization within Chandil Formation, North
Singhbhum Mobile Belt, Eastern India
By KARUN KUMAR CHANDAN, VANDANA JHA, SUBRATA ROY, MOUSOMA
KHATUN, PRABODHA R. SAHOO and SAHENDRA SINGH

213-222
Applications of Expert Systems in Mining Industry: A Review
By K RAM CHANDAR and H AGARWAL

223-229
Interpretation of Depositional Environment of Miocene Sequence Using Electrofacies
Analysis in the Well Bakhrabad # 09, Bengal Basin
By ABU REZA MD. TOWFIQUL ISLAM, MD. AMINUL ISLAM, MD. EMDADUL HAQUE
and KHURSHIDA JAHAN

230-239
Structural Analyses of Lesser Himalayan Sequence and Strain Calculation of the
Shergaon Conglomerate of West Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh, India
By NANDITA MAZUMDAR, SANTANU BHATTACHARJEE, SANDIP NANDY and
K P SARMA

239-250
A Geo-Technical assessment of Slope stability condition at Lovedale Club slide,
Lovedale, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India
By E SARANATHAN, SUGANYA KANAGASABAI, M KANNAN and G K VENKATRAMAN

251-259
Land-Slide Hazards of October 2009 at Karwar, Karnataka: A Lesson for Planning
Developmental Activities in the Tropical Ghat Regions
By V S HEGDE, KRISHNAPRASAD P A, SHALINI R, DEEPMALA NILAMWAR,
TEJASWINI B, GIRISH K H and C S MALEWADI
260-268

Sedimentary Basin Screening Techniques using Remote Sensing Bathymetry Data and
ArcGIS for Eastern Continental Margin of India
By MRUTYUNJAYA PANIGRAHI and MADHUMITA DAS

269-274
Geospatial assessment of Coral and Mangrove Environs of the Andaman Islands
By MAHENDRA R S, MOHANTY P C, BISOYI H and SRINIVASA KUMAR
275-279

Integrating Fuzziness to Wildlife Relocation and Habitat Analysis in Rajasthan, India
By SUMAN SINHA

280-288
Benthic Foraminifera in a Sedimentary Core from Kollam Coastal Plain, South
Kerala, India
By R GAYATHRI, R NAGENDRA, A N REDDY, P SATHIYAMOORTHY and N SURESH

289-296
Solid Waste Transportation Cost Using Arm Roll in Malang City, Indonesia
By BURHAMTORO, ACHMAD WICAKSONO, M BISRI and SOEMARNO

297-304
Structural Health Monitoring Techniques in Civil Engineering: An Overview
By BHAVANA PATEL S S, KATTA VENKATARAMANA, K S BABU NARAYAN,
BHAGYASHRI PARLA and YUKINOBU KIMURA

305-312
Dynamic characteristics of a cable-stayed pedestrian and cyclists footbridge 120 m
long
By IZABELA J MURZYN

313-319
Experimental studies on the effects of corrosion on the flexural strength of RC beams
By POORNACHANDRA PANDIT, KATTA VENKATARAMANA, K S BABUNARAYAN,
BHAGYASHRI PARLA and YUKINOBU KIMURA

320-324
Modelling of the Cu and Fe transport in sand-bentonite and sand-fly ash mixtures
By SHANKARA, MAYA NAIK and P V SIVAPULLAIAH

325-330
Non Destructive Tests with Rebound Hammer and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Measurements on Geopolymer Concrete
By SHANKAR H SANN and R B KHADIRANAIKAR

331-335
Performance Studies on Cement Stabilized Gravel Soils Exposed to Acid Environment
By A C S V PRASAD and C N V SATYANARAYANA REDDY

336-340
Structural Characteristics of Laterite Blocks
By GANESHA MOGAVEERA and G SARANGAPANI

341-348
An Experimental Investigation on Some Strength Properties of Light Weight Blended
Aggregate Concrete
By V BHASKAR DESAI, A SATHYAM and K MALLIKARJUNAPPA

349-355
Estimation of Methane from Flooded Paddy fields in Andhra Pradesh
By ANUP MATTHEW, ATUL V RAO and VENKATA RAVIBABU MANDLA
356-362

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ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 06, No. 06

February 2014, Editorial Note

Editorial Note
P R REDDY
1
AND D VENKAT REDDY
2

1
CSIR National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad-500 007, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA

2
Dept of Civil Engg, NITK, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar-575025, Mangalore, D.K, Karnataka, INDIA
Email: parvatarreddy@gmail.com, dvr1952@gmail.com

Introduction

With uncontrolled increase of population, water related
problems are introducing number of hurdles for over all
development of our agriculture based economy. The per
capita availability of water (PCA) in India is only 2200
m3/year as against 17500 m
3
/year in Russia. As per
international standards, a country with less than 1700 cu
m of PCA is considered water-stressed, when the PCA
drops to 1000 m3, it is said to be water-scarce.
Demographic projections indicate that by the year 2050,
the countrys population would be stabilized at around
1640 million; at that time, the PCA would be
precariously placed at 1100 m
3
; but the situation, it is
feared, may escalate to a higher figure (MOWR 1999).
If the population increases further, which is likely, the
PCA would sink to less than 1000 m
3
. It does not
constitute even 10% of the corresponding value in the
developed countries. The current usage of 600 BCM of
water by the country has to be increased to 1200 BCM
by 2050 to keep abreast of the needs of the increasing
population. Many learned, some others with vested
interests and rest due to ignorance have come out with
various options to address these problems; including
river linking. River Linking comes under a project
linking two or more rivers by creating a network of
manually created canals, and providing needed water to
land areas that otherwise do not have river water access
and reducing the flow of water to sea using this means.
It is based on the assumptions that surplus water in
some rivers can be diverted to Deficit Rivers by creating
a network of canals to interconnect the rivers. It is
noticed that such a linking on paper looks very simple
and viable. But, in reality a systematic planning is
essential, taking in to consideration socio-economic
factors, area specific temporal and spatial variations and
environmental aspects. River Linking, in a mega scale,
is not practiced internationally due to various
limitations. However, some specific case studies
covering different parts of Europe, USA, Africa and
South East Asia indicate the limitations and advantages
of individual river/lake linkings as intra and inter
country projects.
In India more than40 years back Ganga-Cauvery link
was proposed to enable surplus water from Ganga to
augment supplies in the water scarce southern and
western parts of India. This project was also proposed to
control floods in the northern India. Even though this
project was never given due importance, due to various
bottlenecks, including problems due to significant
topographic variations, lack of needed data to overcome
segment wise changes in hydrological factors and
various river basins dynamics and environmental
setbacks. Since the last one decade many proposals
surfaced supporting river linking. Former Prime
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee is credited with giving
the interlinking programme a big push in October 2002,
though the idea can be traced back to the late 19th
century and Arthur Cotton, the Madras Presidency
engineer who first conceived the plan to improve inland
navigation in peninsular India. In 1973, then Union
minister for water resources K.L. Rao proposed the
Ganga-Cauvery (Kaveri) Link. The idea resurfaced,
bigger in scope, in the late 1970s as the Garland Canal,
proposed by engineering consultant Dinshaw Dastur.
The government made its first serious move in 1980,
when the ministry of water resources framed the
National Perspective Plan, which proposed inter-basin
transfers. In 1982, the National Water Development
Agency was set up to carry out pre-feasibility studies,
which formed the basis of an interlinking plan. In 1999,
a national commission was set up to review these study
reports. It was of the view that there was "no imperative
necessity for massive water transfers in the peninsular
component" and that the Himalayan component would
"require more detailed study. Interlinking got a boost
when then President APJ Abdul Kalam made a passing
reference to the need for finding a solution to
simultaneous floods and droughts in his address to the
nation on the eve of Independence Day in
2002.Recently, the justices of the Supreme Court
decided that interlinking was a good idea and forced the
government to get moving on the plan. Khagaria is one
of three districts-along with Samastipur and Begusarai
(Bihar state)-where India's first river-linking project will
take place. The hope is that the rivers will help drain
away the floodwaters and provide irrigation in the dry
P. R. REDDY AND D. VENKAT REDDY

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 01, February 2014, Editorial Note
season. The river-linking idea is one that's been
knocking around for a long time - only natural in a
country that can suffer from drought and flooding
simultaneously and repeatedly to such shattering effect.
But the many critics of the programme call it bad
science on a grand scale that will cause the irreversible
destruction of lives and property, while bringing about
environmental catastrophe. They say there is no
understanding or clarity about the likely impact of
interlinking on the air and water, biological diversity
and socio-economic fabric of the area. An
environmental protagonist, who works in the areas of
flood management and people's rights, describes the
interlinking of rivers as a "mad project". He argues that
the rivers in the region are already interlinked and
artificial intervention is going to give rise to other
problems as it runs counter to hydrological norms. "You
can't play with the environment and win. We have
already seen what building of barrages has done in
Uttarakhand," where deadly floods occurred in 2013.
"Do you think that a barrage can restrict a river in full
flow? Have they forgotten what happens on the Kosi,"
the worried expert says. The Kosi symbolises
engineering led solutions to flooding that don't take into
account the knowledge that farmers have gained from
centuries of working in the land. So, while agriculturists
welcome low-intensity flooding that regenerates the soil
with the silt that the water carries, engineers build
embankments, barrages and dams in a bid to halt the
water in its tracks. Nature has altered the Kosi's course
over the centuries, and the people who live there have
tried to adjust to this. But since the days of the British
Raj, engineers have sought to intervene in a bid to try
and make life more settled for them. Unfortunately, it
hasn't worked. It is pointed out that the 2008 flash flood
on the Kosi happened as no proper assessment of the
flood impact on the eastern and western canals, built
between 1954 and 1960, was made .When magnitude of
floods attain unprecedented proportions the manmade
dams and canals collapse like a pack of cards leading to
ctstrophe. Such devastation was also witnessed on the
Krishna river in 2009.The details given above scare
everyone including engineering experts. But, we need to
find apt solutions to such setbacks, if we want a radical
change in our water management, which alone can
ensure better utilisation of available water.

While we support any meaningful technological
intervention to address water management and water
related natural disasters we feel the national river
linking mega project needs a well-planned strategy from
planning stage till completion of the project, constantly
taking mid-course corrections to ensure quality control .
It is essential that small scale linking be taken up in
earnest to have firsthand knowledge of probable
setbacks due to linking mechanism. This is paramount
as the segmentation of the country in to smaller states
can pose river water distribution problems, leading to
some additional bottlenecks. As such, the Central
Government has to view at implementation of any river
linking as national asset and ensure co-operation
between various stake holders. In the next sub section
we cover some specifics. This editorial is not aimed at
detailed exposition of the river linking project. It is
basically aimed at in bringing in to light some specific
advantages and disadvantages due to river linking, so
that learned and young researchers can come out with
new strategies to make this important project viable and
useful.

Reasons and motivations

In India the rainfall over the country is primarily
orographic, associated with tropical depressions
originating in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
The summer monsoon accounts for more than 85 per
cent of the precipitation. The uncertainty of occurrence
of rainfall marked by prolonged dry spells and
fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious
problem for the country. Large parts of Haryana,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are not
only in deficit in rainfall but also subject to large
variations, resulting in frequent droughts and causing
immense hardship to the population and enormous loss
to the nation. The water availability even for drinking
purposes becomes critical, particularly in the summer
months as the rivers dry up and the ground water
recedes. Regional variations in the rainfall lead to
situations when some parts of the country do not have
enough water even for raising a single crop. On the
other hand excess rainfall occurring in some parts of the
country creates havoc due to floods.

Irrigation using river water and ground water has been
the prime factor for raising the food grain production in
our country from a mere 50 million tonnes in the 1950s
to more than 200 million tonnes at present, leading us to
attain self-sufficiency in food. Irrigated area has
increased from 22 million hectares to 95 million
hectares during this period. The population of India,
which is around 1050 million at present, is expected to
increase to 1500 to 1800 million in the year 2050 and
that would require about 450 million tonnes of food
grains. For meeting this requirement, it would be
necessary to increase irrigation potential to 160 million
hectares for all crops by 2050. India's maximum
irrigation potential that could be created through
conventional sources has been assessed to be about 140
million hectares. For attaining a potential of 160 million
hectares, other strategies shall have to be evolved.
Floods are a recurring feature, particularly in
Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers, in which almost 60 per
cent of the river flows of our country occur. Flood
damages, which were Rs. 52 crores in 1953, have gone
up to Rs. 5,846 crores in 1998 with annual average
being Rs. 1,343 crores affecting the States of Assam,
Bihar, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh along with untold
human sufferings. On the other hand, large areas in the
States of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu face recurring droughts. As
much as 85 percentage of drought prone area falls in
these States. One of the most effective ways to increase
the irrigation potential for increasing the food grain
production, mitigate floods and droughts and reduce
regional imbalance in the availability of water is the
Inter Basin Water Transfer (IBWT) from the surplus
rivers to deficit areas. Brahmaputra and Ganga
particularly their northern tributaries, Mahanadi,
Godavari and West Flowing Rivers originating from the
Western Ghats are found to be surplus in water
resources. If we can build storage reservoirs on these
rivers and connect them to other parts of the country,
regional imbalances could be reduced significantly and
lot of benefits by way of additional irrigation, domestic
and industrial water supply, hydropower generation,
navigational facilities etc. would accrue.

National River Linking Project in India

The National River Linking Project (NRLP) is designed
to ease water shortages in western and
southern India while mitigating the impacts of recurrent
floods in the eastern parts of the Ganga basin. The
NRLP, if and when implemented, will be one of the
biggest inter-basin water transfer projects in the world.
Some experts suggest transferring of water from high
precipitation western flank of Sahyadris through tunnels
to augment Godavari and Krishna rivers (This is not
included in NRLP). Cost of the project was estimated at
Rs. 5,60,000 crores.However,the true cost can be
known only when the detailed project reports of the 30
river link projects are drawn up. At Rs. 5,60,000 crore,
it's the mother of all projects. It will connect the rivers
in the north with those of the south through a network of
canals. Water from the Brahmaputra will flow into the
Ganga, which in turn will be connected to the Mahanadi
and Godavari. Godavari will be linked to Krishna, then
to Pennar and Cauvery. Similarly, Narmada will flow
into the Tapi and Yamuna into the Sabarmati. This
grand inter-basin transfer is slated to be completed by
2016. "It is a win-win situation for all - states with a
problem of floods and drought," promises Suresh
Prabhu, chairman of the task force for linking rivers.
Radha Singh, D-G, National Water Development
Agency says: "The 30 feasibility studies conducted so
far have indicated that the project is viable since the
canals will be based on gravity, and have storage
facilities."
Coping with annual floods and droughts, both occurring
at the same time indifferent parts, has been a major
concern for India over the years. These concerns are
more acute today as the growing population and the
resultant increase in water demand place a heavy burden
on the unevenly distributed water resources, and also
cause huge economic losses to the financially
vulnerable groups of the population. Additionally, there
is a huge demand to enhance and diversify food
production. Designed to address these issues, the
National River Linking Project proposes to transfer
water from the potentially water surplus Himalayan
rivers to the water-scarce river basins of western and
peninsular India. The NRLP will build 30 river links
and approximately 3000 storages to connect 37
Himalayan and peninsular rivers to form a gigantic
south Asian water grid. Environmentalists questioned
the ecological cost of large dams, while the NGOs and
civil society probed the social cost of people
displacement. However, much of the arguments for and
against the project have little analytical rigor. The
concept of linking of rivers or inter-basin transfer of
water is essentially based on the availability of surplus
of water in the donor river especially at the point of
diversion to the deficit river basin. The surplus or deficit
in a basin is determined on the basis of availability at
75% dependability, import, export, and existing and
future needs. A river basin is said to be reasonably in
surplus of water, if the surplus water is available after
meeting the irrigation needs of at least 60% of the
cultivable area in the basin. Only this water from such a
basin can be diverted to deficit basins. In the
recipient/deficit river basin, it is proposed that, at least,
30% of the cultivable area is covered under irrigation.
This is one of the most effective managements of
surface water resources, as according to protagonists, it
is an economically viable, technically feasible and
environmentally sound and viewed as the future main
stay for the sustainable development of any region
confronting water deficit. On this basis, The National
Water Development Authority (NWDA) after a
thorough study indicated that Himalayan rivers,
especially, Brahmaputra and Ganga have exceedingly
surplus quantum of water and hence, proposed transfer
of water from these surplus basins to deficit basins in
peninsular region.

There is an immense pressure to share river waters
among the countries, states and regions. The political
and social issues are very important as they may decide
the fate of this kind of projects of national importance.
A pragmatic expert opined in 2004 that the linking of
rivers is more problematic for socio-economic-cultural
relations of the society. However, we need to go ahead
with the project due to various compulsions. In South-
East Asia, the Himalayan river waters are of interest, as

the Himalayan region has some of the worlds most
underdeveloped/developing countries, Bangladesh,
Nepal, India, Bhutan, Pakistan, Tibet, and China.
Construction of dams across the Himalayan rivers
Brahmaputra and Ganga and their main tributaries in
India and Nepal and interlinking of their canal system
and transfer of surplus flows of the eastern tributaries of
the Ganga to the west in addition to linking of Ganga
and Brahmaputra constitute implementation aspects of
the main concept of inter-basin transfer of water
between the countries. While providing irrigation to
additional 22 million hectares, it generates pollution free
hydro-power and will provide flood control in the
Ganga- Brahmaputra basin. Thus, Ganga-Brahmaputra
basin, and Nepal and Bangladesh would have advantage
from the project.

Linking the restoration of rivers and riparian
zones/wetlands

Floodplains are heavily impacted by human intervention
and often disconnected from the main river channel.
Restoring lateral hydraulic connectivity between
wetlands, fringe habitats and riparian land with the
adjacent river channel is extremely important to
maintain natural functioning of floodplain wetlands.
However, there is no simple solution to restoring and
rehabilitating rivers and their floodplains, particularly in
terms of long-term sustainability. Floodplains are often
the most fertile and productive part of the landscape, in
terms of both agricultural production and natural
ecosystems. Restoration projects must be able to
balance conflicting needs and interests. Flood
management is one of the most powerful drivers of
developing strategies for floodplain restoration.
Appropriate restoration management of floodplains is
vital for the conservation of unique bio-diverse systems
and for sustainable agricultural productivity. By
developing strategies that better incorporate floodplain
restoration in the context of the basin scale, it will
become more feasible to develop the most effective
restoration actions for a specific river type and location.
Within this context we must not forget that successful
natural resource management is much more than
developing good science; it requires working with
landowners, meeting deadlines, securing funding,
supervising staff, and cooperating with politicians.
Furthermore, the benefits of floodplain restoration must
be equally demonstrated for multiple purposes including
a range of ecosystem services. In view of its importance
the NRLP should include, as an important component of
the project, floodplain restoration. As such, while going
into specifics of 30 Linkings the concerned should
explore the various interactions associated with
floodplain dynamics. We can learn from European
initiative, through case studies, in exploring the various
approaches that have been taken across Europe to
forward the restoration of the fragile and important
ecosystems in the context of current European
environmental policy and directives.

Proposed River Linking under NRLP

Major Bottleneck

Bangladesh has fears and is creating disinformation in
the world forum, that the mega projects, to be undertaken

in India for diversion of waters from Ganga, would cause
water scarcity in Bangladesh. But the flow data in Ganga
and the quantum of water to be diverted reveal that
Bangladesh has unnecessary fears. At least the transfer
of water from Ganga to peninsular component does not
affect the water status of Bangladesh. However, this has
become a bone of contention for river-sharing between
the countries. It is time we sit together and resolve the
issue, instead of allowing it to remain as an irritant.

Benefits

I rrigation

By linking of rivers vast amount of land areas which are
not used for agriculture can be converted into fertile.

Flood prevention
During heavy rainy seasons some areas can experience
heavy floods while other areas might be
experiencing drought like situations. With network of
rivers this problem can be greatly avoided by
channeling excess water to areas that are not
experiencing a flood or are dry. This works similar to
canal system in Netherlands to channel excess water
from sea.

Generation of electricity

With new canals built, feasibility of new DAMS to
generate hydroelectric power becomes a possibility. It
expects to add 34,000 MW of hydro power to the
national grid (clean energy).This in turn will create
employment and boost crop output and farm income.

Navigation
Newly created network of canals opens up new routes
and ways and routes of water navigation, which is
generally more efficient and cheaper compared to road
transport.

Issues and Concerns

Ecological issues
Major concern being the argument that rivers change
their course in 70100 years and once they are linked,
future change of course can create huge practical
problems for the project

Environment

Canals will pass through national parks and sanctuaries.
The ministry of environment has not given permission
even for carrying out initial surveys. R K Pachauri of
Tata Energy Research Institute says, "The government
needs to answer how many people will be displaced by
dams and canals? What about the flora and fauna? How
will the soil be affected?"

Excess water during monsoons

Sunita Narain of the Centre for Science and
Environment says, "Monsoons happen all over India at
the same time. When there's excess water in the
Brahmaputra, there'll be excess water in Ganga and
Mahanadi too. Interlinking can cause storages to
overflow and cause flooding.

Aqua life
A number of leading environmentalists are of the
opinion that the project could be an ecological disaster.
There would be a decrease in downstream flows
resulting in reduction of fresh water inflows into the
seas seriously jeopardizing aquatic life. Even though
arresting the river flow into sea to meet inland needs
could be excused ( if the environmental degradation is
avoided while designing and executing the storage and
distribution facilities), we need to keep in mind the
probable influence of such an exercise in the long run
on the coastal and ocean ecosystems.

Deforestation
Creation of canals would need large areas of land
resulting in large scale deforestation in certain areas.

Areas getting submerged

Possibility of new dams comes with the threat of large
habitable or reserved land getting submerged under
water.

Displacement of people
As large strips of land might have to be converted to
canals, a considerable population living in these areas
must need to be rehabilitated to new areas. Such
rehabilitation is fraught with many problems, especially
when tribal segments are involved. Any
misunderstanding or absence of a proper mechanism in
rebuilding new dwellings can lead to catastrophic
results, and could be used by extremists in destabilising
peace and tranquillity.

Global Resume

Even as India has been procrastinating, the rest of the
world has gone about inter-basin water transfer (IBT)
projects at a brisk pace during the past 50 years or so.
Global and local opposition now withstanding, China
has steadfastly stayed course on its own scheme of
transferring 48KM3 of water from Yangtze to the
Yellow River to improve water availability in dry plains
of North china. Elsewhere in the world many IBT
projects have faced a variety of problems and produced
some unwanted side effects; however, in overall terms,
most have turned out to be beneficial. Even a wary
global environmental review of IBTs - which advocates
using precautionary principle, concluded that: In many
parts of the world, water transfers have become the
lifeblood of developing and extant human settlements,

for which no alternative is currently perceived to be
available.

Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM)

"Integrated river basin management (IRBM) is the
process of coordinating conservation, management and
development of water, land and related resources across
sectors within a given river basin, in order to maximise
the economic and social benefits derived from water
resources in an equitable manner while preserving and,
where necessary, restoring freshwater
ecosystems." Since Indian River Linking Project, in its
present form, has some limitations it is advisable to take
up simultaneously IRBM of individual river basins and
then link with adjacent river basin to maximise benefits.
World over some significant studies have been taken up.
The outcome of these initiatives, even though literally
not projected as conventional River Linking Projects are
useful in strategic planning of sector or segment wise
small scale River Linking.

Before reviewing them, one should be aware that
although all have produced substantial outputs, none of
them presents a complete, functioning IRBM process
because few, if any, such cases yet exist.

A new discipline

IRBM is a very new discipline that requires time to plan
and begin implementing, let alone to reach the stage of
maturity when tangible, on-the-ground benefits are seen
at basin-wide level. Instead, each case study
demonstrates the use of one or more particular
approaches, tools or processes intended to promote and
catalyse wider IRBM schemes within the respective
basin.

Projects in different stages of development

Not all of the projects are at the same stage. Some, such
as the Danube and Everglades, reflect long-term
engagement of WWF and its partners over a decade or
more, and in these can be seen the promise of basin-wide
achievements. Others are working their way towards the
river basin scale, perhaps having started out as smaller
site-specific or issue-specific projects. WWF offers these
case studies as food for thought and as experiences from
which others may learn and benefit. The IRBM experts
do not claim to have all the answers, nor do they in any
way claim that this represents a definitive text on IRBM.
There is still much to be learned. They hope, however,
that this work will provide some guidance, stimulate
some ideas, and spur some action to make IRBM a
reality in more basins in more parts of the world.

Case study layout

Each of the case studies presented here from river basins
across the world follows a standard format, including:

Danube

The Danube basin, covering 817,000km - about one-
third of continental Europe outside Russia - is the most
international river basin in the world, extending over all
or part of the territories of 18 countries.

Europe's 2nd longest river, the Danube River itself
crosses ten countries and is Europe's second longest
river after the Volga, flowing over 2,857 km from
Germany's Black Forest to the Romanian and Ukrainian
Danube Delta on the shores of the Black Sea. The
Danube is also Europe's only major river that flows west
to east, from the current Member States of the European
Union through the former eastern bloc countries of
central and eastern Europe, many of which are now
prospective EU members. The European Commission
recognizes the Danube as the "single most important
non-oceanic body of water in Europe" and a "future
central axis for the European Union".

Socio-economic importance

The main economic uses of the Danube are:

domestic/drinking water supply
water supply for industry
water supply for agriculture
hydroelectric power generation
navigation
tourism and recreation
waste disposal (both solid and liquid wastes)
fisheries

In addition, the Danube's remaining floodplains provide
a range of economically important 'ecological services',
such as water quality regulation and flood control.

The Everglades- U.S.A.

It is a rain-fed, flooded grassland/wetland that once
extended from Lake Okeechobee in the north to Florida
Bay in the south. The slow-moving, shallow water
flowed as vast sheet through varied landscapes from
sawgrass marshes to mangrove estuaries, ending its
journey by mixing with the seawater of Florida Bay.
Today, half of the original Everglades have been
drained. Large quantities of fresh water have been
diverted to drain land for agriculture and to provide
flood control for coastal cities. Almost 2.5 billion cubic
metres (2 million acre-feet) of water are diverted from
the natural system annually, damaging the ecology of
the coastal estuaries. Polluted and nutrient-rich water
flowing into Florida Bay is adversely impacting marine
habitats including fragile coral reefs. Saltwater intrusion
has become a serious problem, making it necessary to
drill deeper freshwater wells inland away from coastal
urban areas. Ironically, this has led to water-use
restrictions in one of North Americas wettest regions.


The Everglades support major industries and provide
South Floridas drinking water, supporting the explosive
development of one of the fastest growing and
economically dynamic regions in the United States. Due
to massive diversions of fresh water, largely for flood
control in areas that were formerly wetlands, the
remarkable biological diversity and productivity of the
entire South Florida ecosystem is at risk. Yet this
diversity and productivity are at the very heart of the
regions vital multibillion-dollar tourism and fishing
industries. With South Floridas population projected to
double by 2050, a robust system of sustainable use is
required if the Everglades are to survive the growing
human pressure.

Great Barrier Reef Australia

Thirty-four sub-basins (or catchments) form the basin
of the Great Barrier Reef. These cover an area of
370,000km and extend from the tip of Cape York,
south to the Mary River near Hervey Bay. The largest of
the developed catchments is the Fitzroy, at just over
150,000km, while the Mossman River is the smallest at
just 490km. Eight catchments are in relatively pristine
condition, while the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority has set pollutant reduction targets for the
remaining 26.


Sugarcane is the major crop grown along the low lying
and ecologically sensitive areas adjacent to the Great
Barrier Reef. Grazing land, supporting an estimated 5
million cattle, occupies over 80 per cent of the reef's
catchment. Horticulture (the growing of bananas, other
tree crops such as mangos, and vegetable crops such as
tomatoes) is growing rapidly along the northern
coastline, and aquaculture is also a fast-developing
industry. There are currently 40 licensed aquaculture
operations adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park, including 25 marine prawn farms covering around
542ha.The Reef is also a tourism 'hotspot' such that
many people living in the coastal towns and cities rely
on the Reef for their daily income. However, large-scale
tourism also brings with it the impacts of coastal
development and associated problems of pollution and
sewage disposal.

Gwydir-Australia

The 200,000ha Gwydir wetlands are a terminal inland
delta of the Gwydir River. These ecologically important
wetlands lie in the heart of one of Australias largest
agricultural areas, and have been suffering for the past
20 years due to water extraction for irrigation, most
notably for cotton growing.The Gwydir River forms
part of the Murray- Darling Basin which drains
approximately one seventh of the landmass of Australia.
Central to this case study are the floodplain wetlands
located along 95km of the Gingham and Lower Gwydir
watercourses west of Moree in northern New South
Wales.


Following completion of Copeton Dam on the Gwydir
River in 1976, irrigation schemes grew rapidly to the
point where demand outstripped the capacity of the dam
by almost one-fifth. The upstream diversion of water for
irrigation had a significant effect on downstream
pastoralists, whose grazing productivity declined by up
to 73%.The drying-out of wetlands also saw a marked
increase in cereal cropping on these areas, resulting in
further wetland loss.

Kafue Flats-Zambia

Kafue Flats are the vast, open floodplain of the Kafue
River, covering some 6,500km within the wider basin
of the Zambezi River.


The area is important for fishing, cattle grazing,
sugarcane farming, and production of hydroelectric
power. Zambia's water and hydroelectric power
potential are of great importance to the national
economy and to the regional economy of southern
Africa. The Kafue Gorge hydroelectric power plant,
situated at the eastern end of the Kafue Flats, is the
country's largest power station, providing more than
50% of Zambia's electricity needs. A surplus of 431
MW is exported to neighbouring countries, such as
Zimbabwe and South Africa. To keep pace with
demand, the Kafue Gorge power plant has needed more
water than was available from the Kafue Gorge Dam.
Consequently, a second storage reservoir (the Itezhi-
tezhi Dam) was constructed at the western end of Kafue
Flats. This allows for the release of sufficient water to
maintain maximum power generation throughout the
year. On the south-eastern side of Kafue Flats, near the
town of Mazabuka, there are several sugarcane farms,
each of which cultivates huge areas of land. These farms
produce the majority of Zambia's sugar for local use and
export. Each farm relies heavily on water from the
Kafue River for irrigation, while nutrient-rich effluent is
discharged back into the river, contributing to the
proliferation of many aquatic plants, including the
problematic water hyacinth Eichornia crassipes.
Traditionally, the people of Kafue Flats have made a
living by fishing and grazing livestock. Until recently,
the area was sparsely populated but this is changing as
many people arrive in search of work, for example on
sugarcane estates. This has promoted illegal hunting and
overfishing. As a result, certain parts of the Flats are
suffering from increasing human pressure.

The Kinabatangan River-Malaysia

It is the largest and longest river in the Malaysian state
of Sabah. It has a main channel length of about 560 km,
a catchment area of about 16,800 km and covers almost
23% of the total land area of Sabah. Mean annual
rainfall in the catchment is between 2,500 mm and
3,000 mm. Flooding is common along the
Kinabatangan, with major flood events causing serious
damage to livelihoods and property in 1963, 1967, 1986
and 1996. The Kinabatangan floodplain is the largest
remaining forested floodplain in Sabah and the lower
stretches of the Kinabatangan River contain some of the
few surviving freshwater swamp rainforests and oxbow
lakes in South-East Asia. These evergreen swamp
rainforests are of global significance for biodiversity
conservation.


The river, used for transport, trade and communication,
has been the lifeblood of local people for centuries.
Forest products such as edible birds nests and bees'
wax, elephant ivory and hornbill casques were once
traded. Nowadays there are about 20 palm oil mills in
the Kinabatangan basin, which process the produce
from rapidly expanding oil palm plantations. The oil is
used in the production of margarine, soap, livestock
feed, lubricants, and many other industrial and
household products.

Large-scale commercial logging and small-scale
farming began along the Kinabatangan in the early
1950s. This provided the people of Sabah with income
and employment. Several forest reserves were created in
the 1970s, but these were quickly reallocated for
agricultural use. The lower Kinabatangan, with its
unique biodiversity, is also increasingly recognized as a
destination for ecotourism and local people are
becoming involved in this activity.

La Cocha- South America

La Cocha (which simply means 'lake') is a high Andean
lake located on the eastern slopes of the southern Andes
of Colombia, just north of the border with Ecuador. It
forms part of the upper watershed of the Guamus
River, an important tributary of the Putumayo and San
Miguel Rivers, themselves major tributaries of the
Amazon basin. The lake and the immediately
surrounding land lie between 2,700m and 2,800m above
sea level and cover a total area of approximately
39,000ha, comprising the largest wetland system in the
Colombian Andes. The water-body itself is some 13km
long and 6km wide. The basin includes wetlands, cloud
forest and 'paramo' (high montane grassland).

Small farms in the area produce milk, potatoes and other
vegetables. Charcoal production, generally undertaken
by the poorest farmers and those members of the
community without any land of their own, is an
important but unsustainable economic activity, resulting
in progressive degradation of forest cover and resources.

Lake Chad-Africa

As big as the Caspian Sea as recently as 8,500 years
ago, Lake Chad is now Africa's fourth largest lake, with
a maximum extent of 25,000km. One of three major
wetlands located within the Sudano-Sahelian zone (the
others being the Niger River Inner Delta in Mali, and
the Sudd Swamps in Sudan), Lake Chad is rather
shallow and has been particularly susceptible to the
increasing variability and irregularity of rainfall during
the last 40 years. It has fluctuated greatly during this
period, shrinking by up to 80% in 1985, but reaching
19,000km once more in 2001.The River Chari - along
with its tributary, the Logone - provides 90% of the
inflow to the lake, while the remaining 10% comes from
the Komadougou-Yobe River system. Three-quarters of
the water entering the lake north of N'djamena originate
from headwaters in the Central African Republic and, to
a lesser extent, Cameroon.


The Lake Chad basin supports more than 20 million
people. The local economy in the upper part of the
catchment is based on fishing, agriculture and
pastoralism. However, people living around the lake
lack access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation.
More than 150,000 fishermen live on the lake's shores
and its islands. The current estimate of annual fish
production from the lake is 60,000 to 70,000 tonnes.
However, as a result of environmental changes since the
1970s, including fluctuations in lake level, there have
been considerable changes in the fish fauna. These
include high mortality, the disappearance of some open-
water species, and the appearance of species adapted to
swamp conditions in areas where they were previously
unknown. The raising of cattle, sheep and camels - by
local as well as nomadic herders - is also economically
important, together with cultivation of some traditional
crops. The most common system is lake-bottom
cropping or receding moisture cultivation, which has
been a response to the contraction of Lake Chad.
Villagers have shifted from relying entirely on fishing,
to farming the emergent lake floor as flood water
recedes. A few large-scale irrigation schemes (polders)
developed on some parts of the lake shore have proven
totally unsuited to the hydrological, climatic and
cultural conditions in the Lake Chad region, and can be
considered as complete failures. Though still quite
marginal, the production of spiruline (blue algae) seems
to be gaining economic importance.

In addition to direct support for livelihoods, the lake
also plays an important socio-economic role in
regulating annual water supply, recharging
groundwater, and helping to control flooding.

The Loire-Europe

The Loire has frequently been characterized as "the last
wild river in western Europe" owing to the relative
absence of large dams and the consequent semi-natural
condition of the river, notably in its upper reaches. The
main channel is more than 1,000 km in length and the
total hydrographic network extend to more than 135,000
km. The basin covers a total area of 155,000 km or
22% of French territory.


The Loire basin has more than 11.5 million inhabitants
but is markedly rural in character, with more than one-
third of communities having fewer than 400 inhabitants.
The basin is extremely important for farming,
supporting two-thirds of livestock raising and half of all
cereal production in France. Some 350,000 ha of
farmland in the basin are irrigated. The Loire itself is
used for navigation, generation of hydro and nuclear
power from 38 dams and four power stations, and
recreation. The estuary and its shoreline are important
for fishing, shellfish farming and tourism, and there is a
major commercial port at Nantes, which has caused
severe damage to the Loire estuary's ecology.

The Prespa-Balkans

The Prespa basin, covering a total area of 2,519 km,
contains the lakes Mikri ('small') Prespa and Megali
('large') Prespa and is situated in the Balkans, straddling
the borders of Albania, Greece, and FYR of
Macedonia. The basin has no surface outflow, with
Mikri Prespa flowing into Megali Prespa, which in turn
flows into the Ohrid Lake basin via subterranean
channels and from there to the Adriatic Sea. The area is
famed for its natural beauty, high biodiversity, and
outstanding cultural values (e.g. Byzantine monuments,
traditional architecture, unique artisanal fishing
methods).Significant parts of the lakes and adjoining
wetlands in the territories of Greece and FYR of
Macedonia are designated as Ramsar Sites.


Around 5,000 people in the Albanian part of the basin
are engaged mainly in subsistence farming, the former
collective agricultural system having been abandoned
since the collapse of the totalitarian regime. Basic
infrastructure has deteriorated and communities are
under strong economic pressure to overexploit natural
resources. Rural depopulation and unemployment have
characterized the region, especially in Greece. However,
75% of the population (about 1,200 people in 13
villages) in the Greek sector continue to rely on
agriculture, especially mono-cultivation of beans, for
their livelihoods, though increasing tourism offers
alternative income generation.

The portion of the basin within the territory of FYR of
Macedonia is the most densely populated. Here, over
17,500 inhabitants live in some 40 settlements, though
strong rural-urban migration is resulting in an ageing
and declining population. Fruit growing is the major
activity, while the manufacturing sector employs about
3,000 people.

The So Joo River Brazil

The basin covers 2,190km of the northern part of Rio
de Janeiro State, Brazil. It is 120km long and flows
from mountains and hills to a broad coastal plain with
numerous ponds and lagoons, including the 220km
Lake Araruama, the largest coastal saline lagoon in
Brazil. The marine zone adjacent to the river mouth is
notable for resurgence of nutrient-rich marine water,
which supports a rich fish fauna and the southernmost
occurrence of coral in Brazil.


The basin contains eight municipalities and about
100,000 people live in the region.
The main economic activities are real estate, beach
tourism and fishing in the coastal strip, and agriculture
and tourism (ranch-style hotels) in the rural hinterland.
The extraction of salt from Lake Araruama, formerly an
activity of great importance, is nowadays in decline.
And during the 1970s, the government dammed the So
Joo River at Juturnaba Lake, which was enlarged from
8km to almost 40km, thereby creating a large
reservoir. This became the main source of water for
several cities, including some of Brazil's top beach
resorts. During the tourist season, the local population is
at least doubled.

In addition to the above the following two Projects have
yielded good results:

Colorado Big Thomson, USA diverts about
0.284km3/ annum of water from the upper reaches
of the western flowing Colorado river and sends
eastwards into the south Platte River Basin, which is
a part of the Mississippi-Missouri basin. Completed
in 1957.

Lesotho Highlands Water Project, South Africa.
Completed in 2004 diverts 750m3/ annum of water
from Lesotho to South Africa

The lessons learned from individual basins have been
aggregated and synthesised by the concerned to draw
general lessons that can be of value in most places,

under most circumstances. These lessons could be used
in articulating individual river linking projects under
NRLP.

Conclusions

It is evident from the available information, given above
down loading from Wikipedia , Indian National River
Linking Plan and other documents, that the river linking
project has some specific advantages and significant
problems. As such all the experts belonging to
irrigation, agriculture, environment, tribal welfare
depts., states and Central Govt administration wings, sit
together and select specific links that are viable and less
problematic, instead of stalling the project under one
pretext or the other. At the same time the committed
technical experts and administrators should come out
with area/ individual link specific details to address the
doubts expressed by environmental protagonists and
villagers whose lands would be submerged. Since global
warming related monsoon aberrations are going to be
more frequent, it is essential for one and all to develop
designs/ models that can overcome area specific
bottlenecks. The routinely implemented major irrigation
project norms are not sufficient to achieve success. It is
also essential to ensure strategic outlets to enable excess
water to go to the seas to ensure healthy coastal and
marine ecosystems.

Irrespective of various bottlenecks, we need to gear up
to meet water demand. It is clearly established that ever
increasing population growth will not allow water
scarcity problem to improve on its own. There are
several concerns raised against undertaking such a
mammoth project like land acquisition, daunting cost,
disturbance of natural river course, population
displacement and conflicts amongst Indian states and
neighbouring countries. So like any major project this
project comes with its cons but it is up to us to weigh
the pros and cons and take an informed decision. By
2025 India will be a water starved nation if adequate
steps are not taken. Alternative ideas like improving
water harvesting techniques, efficient irrigation and
proper waste management have been proposed but they
are all at a very low scale and none will make a
significant impact as per studies. Disregarding whether
India goes through with this project or not, change is
inevitable. With ever-growing pressure of global
warming and increasing human population, water
scarcity problem will not improve on its own and we
have to go for a radically innovative technological
intervention to circumvent this problem. The River
Linking, if implemented properly, will help us to a great
extent in meeting the water demand.

Grandiose projects have a way of coming unstuck in
this country. Let's hope this one proves the skeptics
wrong
Acknowledgements

We have structured major part of this editorial using
available information on internet. We have added some
linking sentences and comments to make the
presentation meaningful. As such, we are thankful to
various organisations and a large number of experts for
making available needed information.

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ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.190-194

#02070128 Copyright 2014 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Geochemical Investigations on Thermal and Cold Springs at Dumka
District, Jharkhand, India
HEMANT K. SINGH
1
, D. CHANDRASEKHARAM
1
, TRUPTI G
.1
AND B. SINGH
1, 2, 3

1
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai-400067, INDIA
2
IITB-Monash Research Academy, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai-400076, INDIA
3
Civil Engineering Department, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne-3800, AUSTRALIA
Email: hemantkrsingh25@gmail.com, dchandra@iitb.ac.in, trupti@iitb.ac.in, banambar.iitb@gmail.com

Abstract: There are various thermal and cold springs located in Dumka district of Jharkhand, India. These springs
are issuing through the Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex (CGC) and Rajmahal trap. Surface temperatures of the
thermal springs range between 42 to 70C and are near neutral to moderately alkaline(pH = 6.9 - 9.5) in nature.
Position of thermal water in Piper diagram suggests that the thermal springs are Na-Cl type and the chemistry of
thermal springs is compatible with the host rock of the area. Cold springs of the area are near neutral (pH = 7.4-7.5)
in nature and fall in Ca-HCO
3
field in Piper diagram, indicating that the circulation of the cold springs is through
sedimentary formation. Estimated reservoir temperature based on chemical geothermometers ranges between 92 to
138C; indicating that these thermal springs are suited for low enthalpy geothermal system.

Keywords: Dumka thermal springs, thermal water geochemistry, reservoir temperature.

1. Introduction:

Large number of thermal and cold springs is located in
Dumka district of Jharkhand, India, in a broad N-S belt
east of Dumka, in the Rajmahal Volcanic belt. These
springs lie in line with the well-known Bakreshwar
springs further south in the state of West Bengal, known
for the Helium emanations from them [1, 2]. Most of the
springs circulate through the Chotanagpur Gneissic
Complex (CGC), whereas some of them propagate
through the Rajmahal trap (Fig. 1). Thermal springs
show surface temperatures variation from 42 to 70C
while the cold springs of the area have surface
temperature between 24 to 27C close to the average
ambient temperature of 30C.

Fig1: Regional geological setting and location of the study area (modified after [3, 4, 5, 6, and 7])

191
HEMANT K. SINGH, D. CHANDRASEKHARAM, TRUPTI G AND B. SINGH
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 01, February, 2014, pp. 190-194
Present investigation is based on establishing the
geochemical evolution of Dumka district thermal
springs and estimation of the reservoir temperature.

2. Geology of the area:

The study area falls in the Chotanagpur Gneissic
Complex (CGC) of the eastern Indian Peninsular region
that, has been subjected to major tectonic activities at
different cycles of plate movements with intervening
periods of isostatic readjustment during Precambrian [4]
to Cenozoic time [8, 9, 10, 6]. Major tectonic features of
Jharkhand includes Gondwana faults that may have a
Precambrian ancestry, faulting related to the
distensional tectonics associated with Rajmahal
Volcanism and the back thrust from the Himalayan
collision zone [11]. The most striking structural feature
of the area is a NS trending weak sheared zone,
marked by repeated silicification and brecciation, that
can be traceable over 1.4 km from Gohaliara to
Tantipara and further north (Fig. 1). The granite gneiss
is tectonically deformed giving rise to anticlinal and
synclinal folds [1]. A large number of dolerite dykes
transect the granites trending parallel to the regional
fractures (Fig. 1). Considering the trends of silicified
zone, fold axis, joint planes and alignment of these
thermal springs, it may be assumed that the emergence
of hot water and gases is controlled by intersecting
fractures trending NS and NWSE, as well as NESW.

3. Methodology and results:

Representative water samples were collected from
Dumka area (Fig. 1). All the water samples were
collected in 2 sets. One set of water samples was
acidified with HNO
3
onsite and the other set was
stored at a lower temperature for future analysis [12,
13]. Water samples from the study area include
samples from thermal springs, bore wells, and cold
springs. The pH and temperature measurements
were determined in the field itself using ORION pH
meter. Water samples were analyzed for major
cations and anions concentration. Cations and silica
were analyzed using ICP-AES. Sulphate
concentration was measured with the aid of UV-
visible spectrophotometer, alkalinity by H
2
SO
4

titration and chloride using ion selective electrode
method (Table 1). These analyses were done as per
the standard procedures [14].

Table 1: Data of water samples collected from Dumka area, analysis for the major ions (concentrations in mg/L)

*Sr No. pH C Na K Ca Mg Cl HCO
3
SO
4
SiO
2

1 9.2 62 90.9 1.3 1.2 0.01 55.1 80.0 48.8 72.5
2 7.5 64 93.2 1.2 1.1 0.01 58.5 85.0 45.4 71.5
3 7.3 42 96.0 2.4 3.0 0.30 47.9 145.0 37.6 95.4
4 7.5 62 99.5 1.6 1.2 0.01 62.9 60.0 78.9 70.5
5 7.8 25 10.9 1.7 15.3 5.20 6.1 90.0 1.6 15.5
6 6.9 42 118.9 3.5 2.4 0.50 82.4 140.0 26.3 88.5
7 9.5 70 102.2 2.1 1.3 0.01 97.5 45.0 41.4 98.6
8 9.3 68 99.4 1.4 1.5 0.01 95.0 35.0 45.6 101.2
9 7.8 26 43.2 1.5 31.7 6.30 30.5 200.0 4.3 74.2
10 7.1 27 44.7 1.6 21.3 2.90 50.0 115.0 3.7 66.0
11 7.4 25 20.9 3.3 40.1 15.10 7.7 225.0 5.7 45.6
12 7.5 27 19.5 0.9 21.5 7.50 4.7 130.0 9.6 31.1

*1-4: Bara thermal spring; 5: Bara river water; 6: Lau-Lau-Dha or Shetpur thermal spring; 7-8: Tantaloi Thermal
spring; 9-10: Tantaloi groundwater; 11: Jhawar pani cold spring; 12: Taptapani cold spring

4. Discussions:

4.1. Hydrogeochemistry:
Analyzed water samples from the study area were
plotted in Pipers diagram (Fig. 2) to understand the
hydrogeochemistry of the waters. Groundwater and
surface water of Dumka area are near neutral to slightly
alkaline (pH=7.1-7.8 at 25) and SiO
2
content in
groundwater is 15 to 74 mg/L. The ground water is Na-
HCO
3
and Ca-HCO
3
type.

The thermal springs have wide range of surface
temperature from 42 to 70 C. Thermal waters of
Dumka area are near neutral to moderately alkaline
(pH= 6.9-9.5) in nature may be due to escape of CO
2

from the thermal water [2]. SiO
2
content in thermal
springs is relatively higher than the cold springs (72-101
mg/L). In the cations, Na is predominant (90-118 mg/L)
192
Jharkhand, India

while concentration of K and Ca is low (<4 mg/L).
Thermal water contains very less amount of Mg (0.01-
0.3 mg/L). Thermal springs of the study area are Na-Cl
type; granites have probably played an important role in
providing the chloride to granite hosted geothermal
system [15, 16, 17, 18]. As seen from the Piper diagram,
the chemistry of thermal springs is compatible with the
chemistry of the host rock through which they circulate.

Cold springs of the area have surface temperature
between 25 to 27C and are near neutral in the nature
(pH = 7.4-7.5). Cold springs fall in the Ca-HCO
3
field
which suggests that the circulation of the cold springs is
within the alluvium or sedimentary formations.

Fig2: Piper trilinear diagram (1944) showing the geochemical variation of different water type from Dumka area.

4.2. Anion variation:
Water samples from the Dumka area were plotted in Cl-
SO
4
-HCO
3
diagram [20], to select suitable samples for
estimation of reservoir temperature using cations
geothermometers. From Fig. 3 it is seen that the thermal
waters of Tantaloi area (sample # 7, 8) are falling in the
Cl field and the ratio of HCO
3
/Cl is less than unity.
Therefore, these thermal waters are believed to be fast
ascending with mild or no mixing with the near-surface
groundwater. Shifting of sample # 4 toward the SO
4

field suggests mixing of volcanic gases with the thermal
waters. Other thermal springs falling in the HCO
3
field
suggest that there is mixing of the near surface
groundwater.

Fig3: Cl-SO
4
-HCO
3
diagram showing the position of water samples from Dumka area, symbols are similar as Fig2.

193
HEMANT K. SINGH, D. CHANDRASEKHARAM, TRUPTI G AND B. SINGH
4.3. Geothermometry:
4.3.1. Silica geothermometry:
Fournier [21] suggested a geothermometer to estimate
reservoir temperature based on the silica concentration
in thermal springs. Equations to calculate the reservoir
temperature are as follows:
Silica geothermometers with no steam loss:

Silica geothermometers with maximum steam loss:

Where, S is the concentration of silica in thermal fluid.

4.3.2. Cation geothermometry:
There are several cation geothermometers available;
some of them are used for the estimation of reservoir
temperature (Table 2).

Using silica geothermometers the estimated reservoir
temperature shows range of 117 to 138C while cation
geothermometers suggests the reservoir temperature
range of 92 to 151 C.

Giggenbach [20] proposed Na-K-Mg ternary diagram
(Fig. 4) which indicates that most of the thermal water
samples fall in the partial equilibrium field, only
samples # 3 and 6 is trending towards the Mg corner i.e.
in the field of immature water zone, which could be due
to near surface groundwater mixing. With the help of
Fig. 4 estimated reservoir temperature ranges between
85 to 120C. These reservoir temperature ranges
conclude that Dumka thermal springs can be classified
as low enthalpy geothermal system.

Table2: Estimated reservoir temperature of Dumka
thermal springs, based on chemical geothermometers

S. No.
Silica Cation
No
steam loss
Maximum
steam loss
Na-K
[22]
Na-K
[23]
Na-K-Ca
[24]
1 120.0 118.1 92.6 113.5 104.5
2 119.3 117.5 87.6 108.7 101.4
3 134.6 130.5 121.3 141.5 121.1
4 118.6 116.9 98.3 119.1 110.1
6 130.5 127.1 130.6 150.5 132.6
7 136.4 132.1 111.5 132.0 120.1
8 137.9 133.3 92.2 113.2 104.0

Fig4: Na-K-Mg geothermometers ternary diagram of Giggenbach [20] showing the variation in Dumaka area
thermal springs.

5. Conclusions:

There are many thermal and cold springs located in the
Dumka district of Jharkhand, India. Surface temperature
of these thermal springs are in the range of 42 to 70 C
while the cold springs temperature ranges from 24 to
27 C. Thermal springs of the area are near neutral to
moderately alkaline in nature and are Na-Cl type as
observed from the Piper diagram. Position of the
thermal waters in Piper diagram also suggests that the
chemistry of the thermal water is compatible with the
host rock chemistry of the area. Cold springs of the area
are near neutral in nature and plot in the Ca-HCO
3
field,
which suggests the circulation of cold springs may be
through the alluvium or sedimentary formations. Anion
variation diagram suggests that only sample # 7 & 8 are
fast ascending thermal fluid which show no or mild
mixing of near surface groundwater, whereas other
thermal water falls in the HCO
3
field indicating near
surface groundwater mixing. Based on chemical
geothermometry, the average estimated reservoir
194
Jharkhand, India

temperature ranges between 92 to 138 C; which
suggests that Dumka geothermal field can be classified
as low enthalpy geothermal system.

6. Acknowledgements:

Authors are extremely thankful to Prof. N.J. Pawar and
Prof. Elango Lakshmanan for their valuable comments
and suggestions to improve the quality of the paper. We
thank Prof. D.V Reddy, Editor in Chief, IJEE for
encouraging publishing this paper in IJEE. We are also
very thankful to Department of Earth Science, IIT
Bombay for providing the facilities to carry out this
work.

7. Reference:

[1] Nagar, R.K., Vishwanathan, G., Sagar, S.,
Sankaranarayanan, A., Geological, geophysical and
geochemical investigations in Bakreswar-Tantloi
thermal field, Birbhum and Santhal Parganas
districts, West Bengal and Bihar, India. Proc. Sem.
on Geothermal Energy in India. In: Pitale, U.L.,
Padhi, R.N. Eds.., Geol. Surv. India-Spec. Pub. 45,
349360, 1996.
[2] Ghose, D., Chowdhury, D.P., Sinha, B., Large-
scale helium escape from earth surface around
Bakreswar-Tantloi geothermal area in Birbhum
district, West Bengal, and Dumka district,
Jharkhand, India. Current Science. 82 (8), 993-996,
2002.
[3] ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Commission),
Tectonic map of India. Oil and Natural Gas
Commission, Dehradun, India, scale 1:2000000,
1969.
[4] Sarkar, A.N., Precambrian tectonic evolution of
eastern India: a model of converging microplates.
Tectonophysics. 86, 363-397, 1982.
[5] GSI (Geological Survey of India), Geothermal
Atlas of India. Geological Survey of India Special
Publication: 19, 144, 1991.
[6] Shanker, R., Thermal and crustal structure of
SONATA. A zone of mid continental rifting in
Indian Shield. J. Geol. Soc. India 37, 211220,
1991.
[7] Majumdar, N., Mukherjee, A.L., Majumdar, R.K.,
Mixing hydrology and chemical equilibria in
Bakreswar geothermal area, Eastern India. Journal
of Volcanology and Geothermal Research.183,
201-212, 2009.
[8] Dunn, J.A., Post Mesozoic movements in the
northern part of the Peninsular India. Mem. Geol.
Surv. India 73, 137142, 1939.
[9] Ghosh, P.K., Mineral springs of India. Proceeding
35th International Science Congerace, Part 2, 221-
250, 1948.
[10] Desikachar, S.V., Himalayan orogeny and plate
tectonics-a geological interpretation. Misc. Publ.,
Geol. Surv. India. 34, 2939, Part 1, 1974.
[11] Mahadevan, T.M., Geology of Bihar & Jharkhand.
Geological Society of India Bangalore. 1-563,
2002.
[12] Arnorsson, S., Isotopic and chemical techniques in
geothermal exploration, development and use.
IAEA, 2000.
[13] Marini, L., Geochemical techniques for the
exploration and exploration of geothermal energy.
Universita degli Studi di Genova, Italia, 2010.
[14] APHA, Standard methods for examination of water
and waste water, American Public Health
Association, 1977.
[15] Savage, D., Mark, M., The origin of saline
groundwater in granitic rocks: Evidence from
hydrothermal experiments. Materials Research
Society Symposium Proceeding. 50, 1985.
[16] Savage, D., Mark, R.C., Antoni E. Milodowski, Ian
George, Hydrothermal alteration of granite by
meteoric fluid: an example for the Carnmen ellies
granite, United Kingdom. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol.
96: 391405, 1987.
[17] Chandrasekharam, D., Antu, M.C., Geochemistry
of tattapani thermal springs, Madhya Pradesh,
India-field and experimental investigations.
Geothermics. 24(4): 553559, 1995.
[18] Singh, H.K., and Chandrasekharam, D., Evaluation
of Tuwa geothermal system through water-rock
interaction experiment. Water-Rock Interaction-13,
Taylor and Francis Group, London. 181-183, 2010.
[19] Piper, M., A graphic procedure in the geochemical
interpretation of water-analyses. American
Geophysical Union 25, 914-923, 1944.
[20] Giggenbach, W.F., Geothermal solute equilibria.
Derivation of Na-K-Mg-Ca geoindicators.
Geochica et Cosmochimica Acta. 52, 2749-2765,
1988.
[21] Fournier, R.O., Silica in thermal waters: Laboratory
and field investigations. Proceedings International
Symposium on hydrogeochemistry and
biogeochemistry, Tokyo, 1, 122139, 1973.
[22] Fournier, R.O., A method of calculating quartz
solubilities in aqueous sodium chloride solution.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 47, 579-586,
1983.
[23] Giggenbach, W.F., Gonfiantini, R., Jangi, B.L.,
Truesdell, A.H., Isotopic and chemical composition
of Parbati Valley geothermal discharges, NW-
Himalaya, India. Geothermics. 12, 199-222, 1983.
[24] Fournier, R.O., Truesdell, A.H., An empirical Na-
K-Ca geothermometer for natural water.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 37, 1255-1275,
1973.

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Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.195-202

Prediction of Daily Pan Evaporation Using Support Vector
Machines
LEELADHAR PAMMAR
1
AND PARESH CHANDRA DEKA
2
1
N.M.A.M Institute of Technology, NITTE, Karnataka, INDIA
2
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, INDIA
Email: lohitnitks@gmail.com, pareshdeka@yahoo.com.

Abstract: Water scarcity globally has lead to severe problems in water management. Understanding the rate of
evaporation, from surface water resources is essential for precise management of the water balance. However,
evaporation is difficult to measure experimentally due to its nature. Preparing reliable forecasts of evaporation has
become an essential element towards efficient water management. The objective of this paper is to predict daily pan
evaporation using different kernel functions of Support Vector Machines (SVMs) based regression approach for the
meteorological data obtained for the region Lake Abaya which is located in the Great Rift Valley, southern part of
Ethiopia. The meteorological parameters considered for study includes daily details of mean-temperature (T), wind
speed (W), sunshine hours (Sh), relative humidity (Rh), rainfall (P). Among the kernel functions used for study, the
polynomial kernel function proved its credibility by showing improved performance in training and testing periods.
The evidence for performance of polynomial kernel function was seen in terms of correlation coefficient (CC)
obtained for training and testing is respectively 0.940, 0.956 which is acceptable.

Keywords: Evaporation, Support vector machine, Kernel functions.

1. Introduction:

Evaporation losses create biggest impact in water
management. Water managers should be aware in
advance to avoid crisis. In water scarce areas,
evaporation losses become prime factors of the water
budget for a lake or reservoir, and may affect
significantly in lowering of the water surface elevation
[1]. Water managers are finding new ways of reducing
in-efficiencies in water supply systems, including the
evaporative loss of water from reservoirs. Because of its
nature, evaporation from water surfaces is rarely
measured directly, except over relatively small spatial
and temporal scales [2]. The use of pans of water for
measuring evaporation routes back to the 18th century.
It is easy to understand their intuitive appeal as they
measure open water evaporation in a visible way. The
pan evaporation is widely used method of estimating
evaporation from lakes and reservoirs [12]. However,
despite numerous studies, it is very difficult to use data
from pans except in specific circumstances.

There are many methods available that estimate
evaporation from an open water body, also known as
lake evaporation. Methods include the water budget
method, energy budget method, eddy correlation
method, mass-transfer approach, the Penman method,
combination equation and the pan coefficient method
[3].Numerous researchers have attempted to estimate
the evaporation values from climatic variables, and most
of these methods require data that are not easily
available. The indirect methods, in increasing order of
complexity and data requirements, include temperature-
based formulas [13]; radiation-based approximations
[14]; humidity-based formulas [15]; combination
formulae, which include allowance for humidity and
wind speed [16]; or even more intensive evaluations of
an energy balance at the evaporation surface [17].
Studies made on data driven models reveals the need for
suitable approach to model and should have the ability
to take care of non-linear behaviour of the system [11].

Artificial neural network based modeling technique has
been used to study the influence of different
combinations of meteorological parameters on
evaporation from a reservoir. The comparison
demonstrated superior performance of artificial neural
network over linear regression approach. The findings
of the study also revealed the requirement of all input
parameters considered together, instead of individual
parameters taken one at a time as reported in earlier
studies, in predicting the evaporation. [4].

Estimation of evaporation carried with ANFIS
(Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System) approach
performed successfully in modeling the evaporation
process than fuzzy sets [5].

196

Previous works on data modeling suggests that ANN
and ANFIS techniques have good performances for the
test data set; Between ANN and ANFIS, ANFIS model
is slightly better albeit the difference is small. [10].

Recently, the SVM method has find applications in
various areas of hydrology: SVM was succefully
implemented for predicting floods [19]. Literature also
shows use of SVM method for identifying the structure
of a radial function in networks. One of the papers
includes the modeling between rainfall and river
discharges using the SVRBFN [20]. SVM also proposed
on prediction of daily runoff combining with Chaos
Theory [21].

The SVM algorithms have been widely used in various
modeling works including evaporation, the topic under
consideration of present work. The SVMs algorithm
provides good estimation of evaporation. The work
conducted on modeling evaporation using SVM
algorithm shows better performance in comparison to
Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) [27]. The findings of
the study conducted on estimating the pan evaporation
from reservoirs suggests the usefulness of support
vector machines algorithm technique [6]. SVMs
technique used for simulating evaporation, results
reveals better performance of SVM; the authors also
tried Gamma Test (GT) for the first time in modeling
one of the key hydrological components i.e evaporation
[26].

Support vector machines are classification or regression
methods, which have been derived from statistical
learning theory [7]. SVMs are good at producing
accurate and robust classification results on a sound
theoretical basis, even when input data are non-
monotone and non-linearly separable [7]. So they can
help to evaluate more relevant information in a
convenient way. The accuracy of results does not
depend on the quality of human expertise judgment for
the optimal choice of the linearization function of non-
linear input data, since they linearize data on an implicit
basis by means of kernel transformation [7]. SVMs
operate locally, so they are able to reflect in their score
the features of single companies, comparing their input
variables with the ones of companies in the training
sample showing similar constellations of financial
ratios. Although SVMs do not deliver a parametric
score function, its local linear approximation can offer
an important support for recognizing the mechanisms
linking different financial ratios with the final score of a
company [7]. For these reasons SVMs are regarded as a
useful tool for effectively complementing the
information gained from classical linear classification
techniques.

Recent literatures showed that SVMs provide a
promising alternative to conventional artificial neural
networks for statistical downscaling [7]. SVM method
was also applied for a one-day prediction of rainfall and
runoff. The data input of the model was acquired by
singular spectrum analysis and included a large entrance
space [22]. SVM is also utilized for the classification of
remote sensing data, which was later used for modeling
between rainfall and runoff and comparing the method
with artificial neural networks, SVM achieved good
results for prediction. [23]. Some authors also examined
the capabilities of SVM to devise optimum monitoring
networks for groundwater and concluded that SVM can
be used as an optimum method for selecting the optimal
stability network [24]. In one of the paper on SVM, it is
also seen authors categorized the span of river flow into
three parts and used the SVM method to predict the
daily flow in these three regions. [25].

The SVM tools have wide range of kernel functions
with various parameters, which helps users to generate
appropriate classification or regression. Three well
known kernels were employed to study the
performance.

with the complexity parameter (C) = 1, exponent (E) =
1, epsilon parameter - The epsilon parameter of the
epsilon insensitive loss function = 0.001 and normalized
data filter.

with the complexity parameter (C) = 1, exponent (E) =
1, epsilon parameter - The epsilon parameter of the
epsilon insensitive loss function = 0.001 and normalized
data filter.

with the complexity parameter (C) = 1, gamma value =
0.01, epsilon parameter = 0.001 and normalized data
filter.

Literature on parameter optimization suggests that with
proposed choice of E, the value of complexity
parameter C has only negligible effect on the
generalization performance. If C is too large, then the
classication accuracy rate is very high in the training
stage, but very low in the testing stage. If C is too small,
then the classication accuracy rate is unsatisfactory,
making the model useless. Parameter C has negligible
influence on classication outcomes, because its value
inuences the partitioning outcome in the feature space.
An optimal choice of the loss function i.e. epsilon
parameter (E) should match a particular type of noise
density [28].

For this study, polynomial kernel a value of C =1.0
showed better results.

197
LEELADHAR PAMMAR AND PARESH CHANDRA DEKA

In this paper it is attempted to compare the performance
of SVMs among its three well known kernel functions
in predicting evaporation and compared results to
validate the models.

2. Support vector machines basics:

Support vector regression (SVR) is used to describe
regression with SVMs in the open literature. In
regression estimation with SVR, attempt is made to
estimate a functional dependency
( ) f x
between a set
of sampled points
{ }
1 2
, ,.......,
l
X x x x =
taken from
n
R and
target values
{ }
1 2
, ,........,
l
Y y y y =
with
i
y R e
(Herein,
the input and target vectors ( ' x s

and ' y s ) refer to the
pan evaporation, predicted evaporation). Let us assume
that these samples have been generated independently
from an unknown probability distribution function
and a class of functions: [7].

( ) ( )
{ }
, : ,
n n
F f f x w x B w R R R = = + e

(1)

Where w

and B are coefficients that have to be
estimated from the input data. Herein, the fundamental
problem is to find a function
( ) f x F e
that minimizes a
risk functional:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , R f x l y f x x dP x y ( =
}
(2)

Where l is a loss function used to measure the
deviation between the target, y, and estimate,
( ) f x

values. As the probability distribution function
( ) , P x y

is unknown one cannot minimize
( ) R f x (

directly but
only compute the empirical risk function as:

( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
n
emp i i
i
R f x l y f x
N
=
( =

(3)

This traditional empirical risk minimization is not
advisable without any means of structural control or
regularization. Therefore a regularized risk function
with the smallest steepness among the functions that
minimize the empirical risk function could be used as:

( ) ( )
2
reg emp
R f x R f x w ( ( = +

(4)

Where is a constant (
0 >
). This additional term
reduces the model space and thereby controls the
complexity of the solution. For this reason, the
following form of this expression can be considered [8];
[10]:

( ) ( )
2 1
(
2
i
reg C i i
x X
R f x C l y f x w c
e
( = +

(5)

Where C
c
is a positive constant (i.e. additional capacity
control parameter) that has to be chosen beforehand.
The constant C
c
that influences a trade-off between an
approximation error and the regression (weight) vector
w is a design parameter. The loss function in this
expression, which is called -insensitive loss function,
has the advantage that ther is no need of all the input
data for describing the regression vector w and can be
written as:

( )
( )
i i
l y f x
c
= (6)

This function behaves as a biased estimator when
combined with a regularization term
( )
2
w
. The loss
is equal to 0 if the difference between the
predicted
( )
i
f x
and the measured value
i
y is less than
. The choice of value is easier than the choice of Cc
and it is often given as desired percentage of the output
values
i
y Hence, nonlinear regression function n is
given by function that minimizes Eq. (5) subject to Eq.
(6) as in the following expression [8];[11];[10]:

( ) ( ) ( )
1
,
N
i i i
i
f x x x B o o
-
=
= K +

(7)

Where , 0
i i
o o
-
> is the Lagrange multipliers, B is a
bias term, and
( ) ,
i
x x K is the Kernel function which is
based upon Reproducing Kernel Hilbert Spaces. The
data are often assumed to have zero mean (this can be
achieved by pre-processing), so the bias term is
dropped. The kernel function is to enable operations to
be performed in the input space rather than the
potentially high dimensional feature space. Hence an
inner product in the feature space has an equivalent
kernel in input space. In general, the Kernel functions
treated by the SVR are the functions with the
polynomial, RBF, Gaussian Radial Basis, Exponential
Radial Basis etc.

2.1. Study area:
Lake Abaya is located in the Great Rift Valley in the
southern part of Ethiopia. The map showing the study
area is displayed in figure 1. Lake Abaya is
approximately 60 km long and 20 km wide with a
surface area of 1162 sq.km with an average depth of
7.1m, located around latitude and longitude 626N &
3753E respectively with maximum depth 13.1 m and
is at an elevation of 1285 m from mean sea level.

198

There are number of small islands in the lake with water
volume is about 8.2 cubic km. The geology of the lake
is of 50% volcanic origin with equally sedimentary and
crystalline strata. The quality of the lake is alkaline-
saline with dominant ions being bicarbonate, sodium
and chloride. It may be due to longer residence time,
low freshwater inputs with high evaporation rate. The
lake is red due to high load of suspended sediment.
Mean monthly evaporation is around 150 mm. [29].

Fig1: The Abaya lake Rift Valley drainage region

Lake Abaya does not always have an outflow, but in
some years it overflows into Lake Chamo which is few
km away to the south. The existing irrigation area
covered by the lake is not too much significant. The
mean annual rainfall is around 1000 mm with
temperature changes from 24 c to 30 c throughout the
year as no significant wind speed variation.

2.2. Modeling evaporation with SVM:
Model selection and parameters selection decides the
performance of SVM models. However in general there
is no guidance for kernel function selection. It depends
upon the data input pattern. The parameters comprising
the data set include pan evaporation (E) as the output
attribute and five input attributes representing mean
temperature (T), wind speed (W), sunshine hours (Sh)
and relative humidity (Rh), rainfall (P) . Table 1
displays the statistical analysis of attributes considered
for the study.

For model building and validation a total of 300 data
points were used in the present study. Figure 2 shows
the variation of above listed attributes with respect to
time (meteorological parameters considered for 300
days in the year 2005) [29]. The influences of the
parameters on the class attribute i.e pan evaporation
decide the accuracy of prediction and discussion with
results is made in subsequent section of results and
discussion of this paper.

Table1: Statistical analysis of the weather data taken for 300 days (Year 2005).

S.
No.
Attribute X
max
. X
min.

Standard deviation
S
d
.
Coefficient of variation
C
v.

1 Mean temperature (c) 28.60 14.10 1.84 0.07
2 Wind speed (m/s) 15.99 0.39 2.22 0.32
3 Sunshine hours (Nos) 11.4 0.0 2.81 0.36
4 Relative humidity (%) 99 23 13.06 0.23
5 Rainfall (mm) 102.4 0.0 2.91 9.69
6 Pan evaporation (mm) 8.0 4.0 1.27 0.19

(a) (b)
199


(b) (d)

(e) (f)
Fig2: (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) showing variation of attributes pan evaporation (E), temperature (T), wind speed (W),
sunshine hours (Sh) and relative humidity (Rh), and rainfall (P) with respect to time.

The Support Vector Machines is used to calculate
correlation coefficient and root mean square error
(RMSE) on training and testing models. The data set
was categorized as training and testing data with ratio of
70% training and 30% testing. Trained performance was
be re-evaluated upon test models. SMO-Reg i.e the
support vector machine for regression classifier
employed to generate the model on input data set in
predicting the pan evaporation. To reach at a suitable
choice of these parameters, the correlation coefficients
and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) were compared
and the parameter combination providing smallest value
of RMSE and higher value of correlation coefficient
was selected for final results.

Root Mean Square Error: RMSE is a frequently used
measure of the differences between predicted and
observed values. The root mean square error is specially
suited to iterative algorithms and is a better measure for
high values. It offers a general picture of the errors
involved in prediction. The measures involving the
error-square terms are also sensitive to extreme values
[18].

Coefficient of correlation: It represents the linear
dependence between the two variables under
consideration. It is a popular global error statistic for
measuring the goodness of fit of the models and tends to
give higher weight for the large difference attributable
to the square of the difference between observed and
predicted inflows. It quantifies the efficiency of a model
in capturing the complex, dynamic and nonlinear nature
of the physical process being modeled. C.C equals to 1
indicates a perfect fit.

Training and Testing models: Out of 300 data points
210 were selected for training purposes and remaining
reserved for testing models with above mentioned
parameters.

The SVM kernel functions employed produces different
classification or regression of data, which in turn help
users to analyze and interpret the most influential
parameters relating to class attribute i.e evaporation.

2.3. Results and discussion:
Among the five meteorological variables considered, it
is possible that some may influence lot on the output
200

parameter than others. However it is observed fact in the
nature that the climatic or meteorological factors in
general act in concert. Therefore, it is relevant to take
into account the combined influence of all the
meteorological parameters on evaporation. In this study
a combination of temperature, wind speed, sunshine
hour, relative humidity, and rainfall tried which
provides a maximum value of correlation coefficient
with minimum values of root mean square error in
comparison to other inputs combinations.

In order to exhibit a fair comparison of the SVMs
approach well known kernel functions were tested in
terms of the correlation coefficient and root mean
square errors. The results obtained were better as well as
comparable to cross validation.

The cross-validation is a method of estimating the
accuracy of a classification or regression model in
which the input data set is divided into several parts (a
number defined by the user), with each part in turn used
to test a model fitted to the remaining parts. Usually 10-
fold cross validation is followed.

In total three SVM kernel functions were selected to
demonstrate their performance in predicting reliable and
accurate results. Results are displayed in table 2.

Table2: Results of models

Sl.
No.
Kernel or function employed
Training Testing
CC RMSE CC RMSE
1 Polynomial 0.940 0.449 0.956 0.374
2 Normalised Polynomial 0.953 0.395 0.952 0.768
3 Radial basis function 0.863 0.764 0.834 1.156

As mentioned earlier kernel functions provides different
regression methods. The adopted regression must avoid
errors of over-fitting and under-fitting. From the above
listed results, it is clear that the few kernel functions
performs better in training period but fails to produce
better or similar results in testing. It is also seen few
maintains the rate of prediction near constant in both
training and testing periods. However it is pertinent to
arrive at better solution. Among the listed kernel
functions, it is clear that polynomial kernel function
perform well with the combination of inputs formed
both in training and testing periods than remaining. It is
also seen that among the SVM kernel functions
employed polynomial and normalized polynomial
functions performing nearly in the same way, but the
latter fails to maintain consistency.

As per result polynomial kernel showed better
performance than other two kernel functions. Since the
results are more or less similar between polynomial and
normalized polynomial, for interpretation purpose two
kernels; one with constant performance and another
with lowest performance selected. Following figures
highlights the performance of polynomial kernel in
comparison to Radial basis function. Further
conclusions can be made on the plots.

Fig3: Prediction values of pan evaporation for training
and testing models with the polynomial kernel.

Fig4: Prediction values of pan evaporation with the
radial basis function.

201

Out of the six meteorological variables considered, it is
clear that some would play very prominent role in
deciding the prediction accuracy. However it is equally
important to consider them as a unit to analyze their
combined effect. Figure 3 and figure 4 distinguishes the
performance of kernel accuracy in predicting pan
evaporation.

Figure 5 highlights the correlation among prediction and
actual pan evaporation values tested with polynomial
kernel.

Fig5: Scatter plot between actual and predicted values
with polynomial kernel function.

Figure 6 indicates performance indexes comparison of
results with two different kernels both training and
testing periods.

Fig6: Comparison of kernel performance functions
using statistical parameters.

2.4. Conclusions:

The various meteorological parameters influences on
the classifying attribute (i.e evaporation) in their own
way. However it is the combined effect which decides
rate of evaporation. SVM kernel functions, produces
different regression of data. Those results can be
suitably interpreted and used to arrive at reliable and
accurate solutions. Comparison of CC and RMSE
suggests an improved and constant performance of
polynomial kernel of SVM both in training and testing
periods. The factors for such performance may be
attributed to several user defined parameters
implemented in SVM. The SVM tools offers less
computational time in displaying results. The results
encourages SVMs based modeling technique in
accurate estimation of the evaporation as well as help to
overcome drawbacks faced in approaches as proposed
in previous studies. There is a wide scope for further
kernel functions to explore in forecasting large time
series data.


The authors are grateful to Dr. Mekonen Ayana, dean,
school of post graduate studies, Arbaminch University,
Ethiopia for his valuable support and access to data for
the research work.

The author wishes to thank reviewers for their
constructive comments to improve the article and editor
in chief for continuous communication and support.

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www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.203-212

Fluoride Distribution in the Groundwater of Narsampet Area,
Warangal District, Andhra Pradesh, India
V. SUDARSHAN
1
, S. GEETA
2
, A. NARSIMHA
1
, S. SHANKAR
1
AND A. RAVI KUMAR
1

1
Department of Applied Geochemistry, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007,
India
2
Department of Chemistry, MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad 501 510, India
Email: drvsudarshan@yahoo.com, geeta_megha@yahoo.com, adimallanarsimha@gmail.com,
shankargeo1987@gmail.com, alwalaravi@gmail.com

Abstract: In order to assess the Fluoride contamination in the groundwater of Narsampet area of Warangal district
of Andhra Pradesh, the study was conducted in the months of January 2012, November 2012 and July 2013. The
Fluoride concentration along with EC, pH in groundwater samples was determined in various villages of Narsampet
area. It is observed that the pH of groundwater in all the three seasons was well within limits and groundwater was
alkaline in nature. Electrical conductivity of the groundwater at 25
o
C varies from 92.3 to 5220 S/cm (average 2118
S/cm) during Jan 2012 post monsoon, 515 to 5974 S/cm (average 1851 S/cm) in the Nov 2012 post monsoon
and 392 to 9072 S/cm (average 2129 S/ cm) during July 2013 pre-monsoon season and Fluoride concentration
in the groundwater varies from 0.2 to 8 mg/L in January 2012, 0.3 mg/L to 8.0 mg/L in November 2012 post
monsoon and 0.47 mg/L to 5.1 mg/L in July 2013 pre monsoon seasons. While 35.1% of groundwater shows excess
fluoride prescribed for drinking purpose in January 2012 post monsoon, 46.8% of the groundwater contains excess
fluoride in the November 2012 post monsoon and 37.5% of the ground water contains excess fluoride in July 2013
pre monsoon seasons.

Keywords: Fluoride, fluoride contamination, Warangal district, Andhra Pradesh, India.

1. Introduction:

Fluoride is one of the very few chemicals that cause
significant influences on human health through drinking
water [1]. The optimal concentration of fluoride in
drinking water varies according to climatic conditions;
the range of 0.5-1.5 mg/L is generally recommended by
WHO [2]. Fluoride contributes to dental health and to
the maintenance of appropriate bone density. Fluorine is
the lightest halogen and also the most electronegative
element, which indicates its strong tendency to acquire a
negative charge and form F ions in solution [3]. Due to
its high reactivity Fluorine is found as fluoride in the
environment, which together represent about 0.060.09
% of the earths crust. Fluoride occurs naturally in rock,
soil, water, plants, and animals [4] [5]. Groundwater
gets contaminated due to various geogenic and
anthropogenic activities. Fluoride (F
-
) concentration is
an important aspect of hydro geochemistry, because of
its impact on human health.

The problem of high concentration of fluoride in
groundwater resources has become one of the most
important toxicological and geo-environmental issues in
India. In most of the fluorosis endemic areas, the
average summer temperature is above 27.5
o
C and
average drinking water consumption is more than 4
liters per day [6]. In India, about 62 million people,
including 6 million children, suffer from fluorosis due
to the high content of F
-
in water [7]. Most parts of
Andhra Pradesh in India have highly endemic fluorosis
zones [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15]. The first case of
endemic fluorosis in India was reported as long ago as
1937 in Podili, Darsi and Kanigiri taluks of Prakasam
district, Andhra Pradesh [16 and 17]. The fluoride is
beneficial to certain extent when present in the
concentration of 0.8 to 1.0 mg/L for classification of
dental enamel especially for children below 8 years
[18], whereas causes dental fluorosis if present in excess
of 1.5 mg/L and skeletal fluorosis beyond 3.0 mg/L if
such water is consumed for 6 months to several years
[19].

Most F
-
accumulation in the human body occurs through
F
-
contaminated drinking water, substantial amounts of
F
-
can also be ingested through crops and vegetables
irrigated with F
-
contaminated water [20]. In the present
paper, occurrence of fluoride in parts of Narsampet area,
Warangal district is highlighted.

1.1 Study area:
204
The present study area is located in the central east part
of Warangal district of Andhra Pradesh and forms a part
of the Survey of India toposheet 56 O/13 (Figure 1).
The area geographically lies between longitude 79 32"
79 54" East and latitude 17 33" 17 55" North.
The study area goes through a hot climate during
summer (April-May) with a temperature range 30-46C
and in winter 12-29C. The average annual rainfall is
1114 mm occurring during monsoon (June-September).
The area is located at a distance of 176 km from
Hyderabad. The area is occupied by the Granitic rocks
of Archaean age.

Fig1: Location of the Study Area

2. Materials and Methods:

The sampling locations were fixed by Global positioning
system (GPS). Groundwater samples were collected
from regularly used bore wells, hand pumps and open
wells location map of the groundwater samples is
presented in Figure 2. Fifty seven, forty seven and fifty
six samples are collected during post monsoon (January
2012) and (November 2012), pre-monsoon season (July
2013) in Narsampet and Chennaraopet areas of
Warangal district. The samples were collected in clean
two liter polythene bottles and analyzed for pH,
electrical conductivity (Ec) and fluoride (F-) as per
standard methods [21]. The pH and conductivity were
measured with pH meter and (Systronic) conductivity
meter (CM-180). Fluoride concentrations were
measured with Orion ion analyzer. The analytical
results are presented in the Tables 1, 1a, 2, 2a and 3,
3a.

3. Results and discussion:

3.1. pH:
The pH of the groundwater is varying between 7.33-
8.55 and 7.45 - 8.62 for post and 7.36 - 8.51 for pre-
monsoon seasons respectively. Groundwater in both the
seasons is alkaline (pH more than 7) in nature. There is
no general trend in the pH distribution (Figure. 3a, 4b
and 5a). pH value in all the three seasons remained
constant. pH is well within permissible limit (6.5 to
8.5).

3.2. Ec:
Electrical conductivity of the groundwater varies from
92.3 to 5220 S/cm at 25oC (average 2118 S/cm) in
the post monsoon, (January 2012) (Figure 3b) and 515 to
5974 S/cm (average 1851 S/cm) during post monsoon
season, (November 2012) (Figure 4a). In pre-monsoon
(July 2013) (Figure 5b) the range of EC is 392 S/cm to
9072 S/cm (average 2129 S/cm). The acceptable
limit of Ec in drinking water is less than 1500 S/cm
[21]. 61.4% and 48.9% of samples in post monsoon and
60.71% of samples in pre monsoon show values
higher than the prescribed limit. The higher values of
electrical conductance are indicative of high ionic
concentrations in the groundwater.

3.3. Fluoride (F-):
Fluoride concentration in the groundwater varies from
0.2 mg/L to 8.0 mg/L and 0.3 mg/L to 8.0 mg/L in the
post monsoon seasons (January 2012 and November
2012) (Figure 3c and 4c) and 0.47 to 5.1 mg/L in pre-
monsoon season, July 2013 (Figure 5c). while 35.1 and
46.8% of groundwater shows excess fluoride prescribed
for drinking purpose in post monsoon (Jan 2012 and
Nov 2013) 37.5% of the groundwater contains excess
fluoride in the pre monsoon (July 2013)). Highest
permissible limit is 1.5 mg/L [21]. The maximum
concentration of fluoride is found to be 8.0 mg/L in
January 2012 and November 2012. (Mukdumpuram,
North West and Ayyappa swami temple, North central
part of the study area) (Figure 3c and 4c)

205
V. SUDARSHAN, S. GEETA, A. NARSIMHA, S. SHANKAR AND A. RAVI KUMAR

Fig2: Location of the groundwater samples collected in the study area in January 2012.

In January 2012 eight samples (Ayyappa swami temple,
Narsampet, Sarvapuram, Khanapur, Mukhudhumpuram,
Gurjala 1, Gurjala 2, and Marrinarasaiahpally) were
having concentration 3 mg/L or more whereas in
November and July the number is five (Ayyappaswami
Temple, Narsampet Sarvapuram1, Sarvapura 2,
Dwarakapet) and four (Ayyappaswami Temple,
Dwarakapet, Marrinarasaiahpally) respectively. In post
monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons fluoride
concentration was maximum in Ayappa swami temple,
Narsampet 8 and 5 mg/L. 4 to14% of the water samples
during three seasons were below the prescribed
concentration of 0.6 mg/L.

206

Fig3a: Shaded contour map of pH for Jan 2012

Fig3b: Shaded contour map of Ec for Jan 2012

Fig3c: Shaded contour map of F for Jan 2012
207

Fig4a: Shaded contour map of Ec for Nov 2012

Fig4b: Shaded contour map of pH for Nov 2012

Fig4c: .Shaded contour map of F for Nov 2012

208

Fig5a: Shaded contour map of pH for July 2013

Fig5b: Shaded contour map of Ec for July 2013

Fig5c: Shaded contour map of F for July 2013

209
Table1a: statistical parameters for January 2012

Parameter Min Max Mean
Acceptable
limit
% of samples
exceeding limit
pH 7.33 8.55 7.88 7.0-8.5 1.75
Ec 92.3 5220 2118 1500 61.4
F 0.2 8 1.6 1.0-1.5 35.1

Table1: Results of the Chemical Analysis of Groundwater samples collected from Narsampet and Chennaraopet
Areas, Warangal District (January, 2012).

S. No pH
EC F
-

S. No pH
EC F
-

S/cm mg/L S/cm mg/L
1 7.7 1400 2 29 8.37 1010 0.7
2 7.61 2380 2 30 8.39 2820 8
3 8.42 92.3 0.2 31 7.86 3290 1
4 7.85 1190 1 32 7.85 3480 1
5 7.99 1970 0.5 33 7.71 3550 0.3
6 7.88 1360 0.4 34 8.02 1830 2
7 7.88 1830 1 35 7.99 1920 1
8 8.38 1180 6 36 7.86 1490 0.3
9 7.93 1220 3 37 7.33 3840 0.7
10 8.07 67 5 0.7 38 7.6 1950 1
11 8.14 328 0.6 39 8.17 1320 2
12 7.62 2440 1 40 7.84 1720 1
13 7.58 4490 2 41 7.99 1750 2
14 7.95 1060 0.8 42 7.92 3280 2
15 7.45 865 1 43 7.97 1640 0.9
16 7.68 1140 1 44 7.56 1980 2
17 7.75 2970 3 45 7.91 2690 2
18 8.19 810 2 46 7.89 2540 5
19 8.19 453 0.7 47 8.55 1220 7
20 7.79 2110 4 48 7.36 2670 1
21 8.26 1200 0.9 49 7.36 5220 0.2
22 7.95 1590 1 50 7.61 3330 0.9
23 7.55 3290 0.9 51 7.95 1470 0.8
24 7.95 1240 2 52 8.39 1580 3
25 7.75 1710 0.8 53 7.67 4820 1
26 7.35 4940 0.4 54 8.32 1340 2
27 7.7 1690 0.4 55 7.68 4300 1
28 7.98 639 1 56 7.7 3390 1

Areas, Warangal District (November, 2012).

S. No pH
EC F
S. No pH
EC F
S/cm mg/L S/cm mg/L
210
1 8.14 1369.9 1 24 8.04 1236 1
2 7.84 1751 0.5 25 8.09 2163 0.3
3 7.96 988.8 0.9 26 8.04 2781 0.9
4 7.9 1884.9 0.7 27 7.77 5974 1
5 7.95 1143.3 0.8 28 8.09 1236 2
6 8.02 957.9 0.9 29 8.23 618 2
7 7.47 3193 0.8 30 8.05 3502 2
8 7.76 1957 1 31 7.99 2987 0.8
9 7.82 1864.3 1 32 8.1 2060 2
10 8.62 1071.2 8 33 8.03 2163 1
11 8.27 1060.9 3 34 8.11 1442 0.4
12 8.36 535.6 1 35 8.28 515 0.7
13 7.92 1122.7 2 36 7.84 1545 0.8
14 7.9 1194.8 2 37 7.81 2060 2
15 7.85 1318.4 1 38 8.09 1339 2
16 7.83 4635 3 39 7.88 3193 2
17 7.76 3399 2 40 8 1957 2
18 7.84 4223 3 41 8 1648 1
19 8.1 1751 4 42 8.08 1339 0.6
20 8.32 927 2 43 7.79 2266 2
21 8.24 824 2 44 7.45 1112.4 0.7
22 8.3 515 1 45 7.89 2369 2
23 8.02 1339 1

Table2a: statistical parameters for November 2012

Parameter Min Max Mean Acceptable limit
% of samples
exceeding limit
pH 7.45 8.62 8.0 7.0-8.5 2.12
Ec 515 5974 1851 1500 48.9
F 0.3 8 1.65 1-1.5 46.8

Areas, Warangal District (July, 2013).

S. No pH
EC F
S. No pH
EC F
S/cm mg/L S/cm mg/L
1 7.9 1512 2.5 29 8.1 1232 2
2 7.88 1904 0.83 30 7.63 3920 0.83
3 8.2 1400 1.4 31 8.09 672 1.4
4 8.19 1232 1.2 32 8.04 896 0.47
5 8.23 2520 2 33 8.17 784 1.4
6 7.84 2464 1.3 34 7.91 2072 0.47
7 8.1 1624 1.7 35 7.85 2128 1.4
8 8.05 1624 1.3 36 7.66 3864 1.7
211
9 8.22 1232 5.1 37 7.99 840 1.9
10 8.18 1288 2.7 38 8.28 1624 1.9
11 8.19 840 0.85 39 7.93 1792 0.79
12 8.25 672 0.76 40 8.13 2744 1.9
13 8.14 1008 0.86 41 8.15 1848 1.1
14 7.76 2296 1.5 42 8.16 952 0.49
15 8.2 1792 2 43 7.67 1400 0.91
16 8.35 672 1.78 44 7.93 2464 1.3
17 8.1 1568 1.9 45 7.81 3024 1.5
18 7.6 3976 2 46 7.95 1960 0.99
19 7.79 6328 2.5 47 8.04 2016 1.6
20 7.81 9072 3.2 48 8.22 2520 2
21 7.88 2296 4.6 49 7.7 3752 0.49
22 8.1 672 1.9 50 7.48 4200 1.2
23 8.22 560 1 51 7.53 3920 0.55
24 8.2 1064 1.2 52 7.6 3696 0.95
25 8.11 1344 0.52 53 7.77 2800 1.4
26 8.51 392 0.58 54 7.86 1792 0.65
27 7.36 2698 0.53 55 7.87 3080 2.1
28 8.09 1456 1.9 56 8.1 1456 3.2

Table3a: statistical parameters for July 2013

parameter min max mean Acceptable limit
% of samples
exceeding limit
pH 7.36 8.51 7.98 7.0-8.5 1.78
Ec 392 9072 2124.17 1500 60.71
F 0.47 5.1 1.53 1-1.5 37.5

4. Conclusions:

Geochemical investigations carried out in the
Narsampet area of Warangal district indicated that.
35.1%, 46.8% and 37.5% of the groundwater samples in
post and pre monsoon seasons exhibit excess fluoride
than prescribed by WHO. Gurjala village and Ayyappa
temple, Maheshwaram recorded unusually high fluoride
concentration i.e 7-8 mg/L. Groundwater in all the three
seasons was neutral to alkaline in nature. High fluoride
groundwater is mainly associated with water which
usually has high pH. Nearly 50% of groundwater of
the study area shows conductivity values higher than
the prescribed limit of 1500 S/cm for drinking
purpose. In Dwarkapet east central part (1792" N
7990") during premonsoon electrical conductivity was
extremely high i.e. 9072 S/cm, which is an indication
of high concentration of dissolved solids


Authors thank the DST-PURSE program for
providing financial assistance in the form of
research project and Head, Department of Applied
Geochemistry, Osmania University, Hyderabad for
providing laboratory facilities.

6. Reference:

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[3] Helm, J. D., The study and interpretation of the
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[4] Ozsvath, D. L., Fluoride and environmental
health: a review. Reviews in Environmental
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[5] Walna, B., Kurzyca, I., & Siepak, J., Variations in
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[6] Deshkar, S.M., Deshmukh, A.N. and Vali, S.A.
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Symposium on Fluorosis. Indian Academic
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[9] Sudarshan, V and Rajeswara Reddy, B., Pollution
of Fluoride in Groundwater and it's impact on
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people-A case study in Sivannagudem area of
Andhra Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of
Environmental Protection, Vol.11, No.3, pp.185-
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[10] Govardhan Das. S.V and Sudarshan, V., Major ion
geochemistry of fluoride rich groundwater,
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[11] Sunitha, V, Sudarshan, V. and Rajeswara Reddy, B.
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area, Adilabad District, Andhra Pradesh, India."
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2013.
[15] Narsimha, A., Sudarshan, V., Srinivasulu, P.,
Vishnu, B., Kumar, M. R., & Kumar, S. N..
Groundwater Quality and its Suitability for
Drinking and Agricultural Purpose Around Chityal
Area, Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India.
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Presidency. Indian J Med Res 25:553561, 1937.
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Chaturvedi, S.K., Fluoride content in drinking
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[19] Nawlakhe, W. G., & Bulusu, K. R., Water
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www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.213-222

Ore Microscopic Study of the Gold Mineralization within Chandil
Formation, North Singhbhum Mobile Belt, Eastern India
KARUN KUMAR CHANDAN, VANDANA JHA, SUBRATA ROY, MOUSOMA KHATUN, PRABODHA R.
SAHOO AND SAHENDRA SINGH
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, 826004, Jharkhand, India
Email: sahendrasingh02@gmail.com

Abstract: The Palaeo- to Meso-Proterozoic North Singhbhum Mobile Belt (NSMB) refers to the assembly of
multiphase folded, low to medium grade meta-sedimentary and meta-igneous rocks of Proterozoic age (1.02.4 Ga),
lying between the Archean Singhbhum Craton in the south, and the Meso/Neo-Proterozoic (0.91.7 Ga)
Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex (CGC) in the north. Gold occurrences of moderate concentration have been reported
from different parts of NSMB within the volcano-sedimentary and meta-sedimentary rocks like quartzite, schist,
phyllites etc. The auriferous mineralization is associated with sheared rocks that are traversed by veins of quartz and
quartz-calcite. Gold occurs mainly in association with sulfides like pyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, etc. Arsenopyrite and pyrite are closely linked with gold occurrences in the area. The gold seems to occur
as occluded grains within quartzite and is quite pronounced when arsenopyrite is of finer in size. The mineralization
is structurally controlled and is associated with latter stages of deformation.

Keywords: NSMB; Gold mineralization, Singhbhum Craton, Archean, Proterozoic, Chandil Formation.

1. Introduction:

The Singhbhum crustal province extends from south
eastern part of Jharkhand to north of Orissa and exposes
a vast tract of Precambrian rocks occupying an area of
approximately 40,000 km
2
[1]. North Singhbhum
Mobile Belt (NSMB) [2], also referred to as the North
Singhbhum Fold Belt (NSFB), is situated south of the
Chotanagpur granite gneiss (CGC) [3-5]. NSMB
consists of comparatively younger, Singhbhum Group
of rocks [6]. The southern part consists of older Iron
Ore Group (IOG) rocks [6] and is also known as
Archean granite-greenstone terrain or Singhbhum
Granite Craton [3, 7, and 8].

Radiometric data from rocks of this crustal province
indicate an age ranging from 3500 Ma to 1400 Ma [2, 7,
9]. Earlier workers have identified three distinct petro-
tectonic zones within the Singhbhum crustal province
[10, 11]. From south to north, these are: (1) the southern
Archean granite greenstone terrain [8, 7, 12], widely
referred to as the Singhbhum Granite Craton; (2) the
almost 200 km long North Singhbhum Fold Belt
(NSFB) comprising the Dhanjori, Chaibasa, Dhalbhum,
Dalma and Chandil Formations [4, 13-15], and (3) the
extensive granite-gneiss and migmatite terrain in the
north, known as the Chotanagpur Gneissic complex
(CGC). A zone of sheared and deformed rocks (the
Singhbhum Shear Zone, SSZ); [16-20] was developed
close to the contact of the oldest Proterozoic
supracrustal (Dhanjori) belt with the Archean nucleus.
Small linear granitic bodies are present along the SSZ
[19]. The RbSr whole rock age of about 1600 Ma
obtained from these granites has been inferred to reflect
the age of metamorphism of the sediments due to
thrusting along the SSZ [20-22]. An account of gold
mineralization in the Chandil Formation of NSMB,
particularly of ore microscopic study, is presented in
this paper.

2. Generalized Stratigraphy of the Singhbhum
Craton:

Three principal components that make up the Archean
nucleus of Singhbhum are the Older Metamorphic
Group (OMG), massifs of Singhbhum Granite and
younger supracrustal rocks. Generalized chrono-
stratigraphic succession according to their ages and
position is given in Table1. Older metamorphic Group
(OMG) rocks are the oldest rocks that occur south of
Singhbhum Shear zone [23]. The rocks consist
predominantly of amphibolitic facies, politic schists,
quartz-magnetite-cummingtonite schists, quartzite,
banded calc-gneiss and para- and ortho-amphibolites.

2.1. Structure of Singhbhum-Orissa Craton:
The rocks of Singhbhum fold belt show three phases of
deformations, as evident by the linear and planar
structural features [24]. The first generation of planar
structures is the metamorphic imprint formed by F
1

214

folding within the recrystallized rocks of the Singhbhum
Group. In Chaibasa Formation of the Singhbhum
Group, the F
1
folds are few and small, and are
characterized by reclined geometry, found at places as
rootless hinges with mineral lineation (L
1
) due to
intersection of S
0
/S
1
. The second phase of folding (F
2
) is
generally coaxial with F
1
(Figures 3a, b) and gave rise to
E-W regional folds with a strong axial plane foliation
(S
2
) that is recognized as regional foliation in the
terrain. Secondary foliation is developed at low angle to
the bedding, defining the blunt hinged synformal
closures and puckered nature of the S
0
. The large scale
folds in the bedding schistosity are considered the
outcome of F
2
in the Galudih near Ghatsila [24]. The F
2

fold in the northern belt is asymmetric and indicates that
rocks in the north have moved upwards relative to the
rocks of the south. In the southern part, the F
2
fold is
upright in nature with regional foliation maintaining a
vertical attitude.

Fig1: Geological map of Jharkhand [25]

Table1: General Stratigraphy of Singhbhum Craton [26]

Age
(Ga)
Singhbhum Nucleus
Singhbhum - Dhalbhum
Mobile Belt
Chotanagpur Belts
0.9-1.6 Newer dolerite
Syn-to-late- and post-tectonic,
granites/gneisses
1.5 Kolhan Group
1.6
Mayurbhanj Granite;
Gabbro/anorthosite
Chakradharpur Granite;
gabbro/anorthosite
Gabbro/anorthosite
Ultramafic intrusion
----------------------------------------------Unconformity-------------------------------------------------
Dhanjori Group Dalma lavas
----------------------------------------------Unconformity-------------------------------------------------
Singhbhum Group Singhbhum Group
215
KARUN KUMAR CHANDAN, VANDANA JHA, SUBRATA ROY, MOUSOMA KHATUN,
PRABODHA R. SAHOO AND SAHENDRA SINGH

(Chaibasa formation)
----------------------------------------------Unconformity-------------------------------------------------
2.9
Singhbhum Granite;
Iron Ore Group
Orthogneisses
----------------------------------------------Unconformity-------------------------------------------------
3.8
Older Metamorphic
Group Gneisses

Older Metamorphic
Group supracrustal rocks

Basement? Basement? Basement?

Fig2: Location Map [27]

2.1.1. Gold Mineralization in North Singhbhum
Mobile Belt:
The North Singhbhum Mobile Belt (NSMB) is a 200
km long E-W trending linear fold belt, sandwiched
between the SGC in the south and CGC in the north.
The major rock types of this area are chloritic schists of
basic volcanic and heterogenous assemblage, indistinct
soda-granite/ feldspathic schists, Arkasani granite-
granophyre, quartzite, tourmalinite, conglomerates,
sericitic and biotitic schists and mylonites. Structural
evidences from the area show signs of shearing, as
evident by deformation pattern, more than one phases of
folding, mylonitization and rotation of linear fabric and
stretching along the direction of movement. Several sets
of folds are developed in this area [28]. Despite all the
above mentioned litho-structural criteria, the bulk of
NSMB lithology is made up of the derivatives of basic
volcano-clastic and exhalative material during the
waning stage of the volcanism along cratonic margin.

The area consists of economic deposits of copper,
uranium, phosphate, silver, gold and tellurium. The gold
particles appear to be of higher fineness. An average of
500-600 kg per annum of gold is also being recovered
as a byproduct from the copper mineralisation from this
belt. Gold is also found in intimate association with
pyrite, as invisible gold in the meta-sediments of the
region [29].

216

2.1.2. Structural control on gold mineralization in the
area:
Au mineralization is structurally controlled and occurs
within the tuffaceous quartzose phyllite with
intercalated quartzite [30]. This lithounit is
characterized by strong foliation (S
1
) and stretching
lineation. Stretching of quartz grains led to the
formation of quartz ribbons. In quartzose part, very fine
polygonal quarts grains are present and quartz ribbons
are recrystallised.

Petrographic studies show fine- to medium-sized
aggregate of arsenopyrite grains that occur along the
schistosity. The arsenopyrite bands follow the quartz
veins and fill the fractures of the schistose rock. At
places, arsenopyrite occurs along with pyrite and both
have experienced late fracturing together with the
introduction of quartz-carbonate veins that contain
native gold. Gold is occurring as free phase, mainly in
association with arsenopyrite. Quartz - carbonate veins
occur along shear planes in chlorite-quartz schist.

2.1.3. Petrographic Characteristics of Host rocks:
Detailed petrographic studies of the rock types were
carried out for samples collected mostly from surface
exposures along the nala (small stream) sections and
also from the core samples. Thin and polished sections
were studied to identify the mineral assemblage and also
to understand the control on gold mineralization.
Approximately 100 representative samples were
collected from the area. Representative thin sections
have been studied in detail to see the textural and
mineralogical variations along with the effects of
alteration, including hydrothermal alterations.

Fig3: Field photograph showing a) & b) hook shaped fold in cherty phyllite, c) Presence of three sets of foliation in
phyllite in Sindauri area, d) Two sets of foliation in Sindauri area, e) Two sets of perpendicular joint set in phyllite
in Sindauri area and f) Formation of quartz boudins in ferruginous quartzite, exposed along the shear zone in
Parasi area.

2.1.4. Ore Mineralogy and Textural Features:
In the study area, the sulfide and oxide ore minerals are
concentrated within the quartz veins that are traversing
through the host rocks, i.e., quartz-magnetite-biotite-
sericite schist and amphibolites. Around 15 thin and
polished sections were studied for the detailed ore
microscopic observations.

The principal ore minerals and their associated gangue
minerals are as follows:

Native Metal: Gold.

Sulfides: Pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite,.

Oxides: Magnetite, ilmenite
Gangue Minerals: Quartz, biotite, sericite, tremolite,
actinolite, hornblende and epidote.

Details of different types of ore minerals found in the
area are presented below.

Gold: Gold mineralization is structurally controlled by
phyllite tuff with intercalated quartzite. The auriferous
mineralization is mostly found in sulfide minerals
217

(Figure 5). Arsenopyrite, pyrite and rarely pyrrhotite are
in the descending order of abundance.

Gold mineralization within the area has been observed
preferably in association with sulfide mineralization,
i.e., pyrite and arsenopyrite. The auriferous
mineralization is in the form of disseminated specks,
stringers, fracture-fillings, streaks and veinlets. Effect of
shearing is well evident by the presence of stretched
mineral grains and the presence of mylonite and
ultramylonite. Morphologically, the size of native gold
is variable and ranges from microns or as inclusions
within sulfides to large visible form, called as nuggets.

Pyrite: Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide phase with a
size variation from 0.01 mm to 5 mm and occurs mostly
as euhedral to subhedral cubes and pyritohedrons of
different generations. Pyrite is stable over a wide range
of sulphur activity and because of its high thermal
stability (742
0
C at low pressure), it is stable up to the
highest grades of metamorphism. Pyrite grains within
the quartz veins are highly fractured and sheared.
Within the chlorite schist and carbon phyllite, grains are
perfectly euhedral and are not affected by any
deformation. In some sections, typical euhedral and
cubic grains of pyrite is also observed, which are
possibly of later generation (Figure 4). Pyrite has also
been found to occur within the quartz veinlets of
metabasics. Micro-scale fracturing in pyrite and
arsenopyrite suggests the effect of deformation. The
gold-bearing pyrite grains are pervasively fractured and
are of having irregular grain boundaries. Gold
inclusions of 2m to 50m size are seen within the
fractures of pyrite grains.

Pyrrhotite: Pyrrhotite is associated with arsenopyrite,
pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and also with galena. In
order of abundance, pyrrhotite is lesser than pyrite and
arsenopyrite. It occurs generally as irregular,
allotriomorphic deformed grains associated with
chalcopyrite (Figures 4, 6, 7). They occur in quartz
veins and also in the altered wall rock zones, either in
the form of individual grains or inclusions within the
arsenopyrite, pyrite and chalcopyrite. In mineralized
quartz veins, pyrrhotite is associated with sulfides like
arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite,
whereas in magnetite-quartz-biotite-sericite schist and
carbonaceous phyllite, they have been observed in
association with pyrrhotite. Pyrrhotite, occurring within
the quartz veins, is altered to pyrite at the peripheral
zones. These pyrites are texturally different from the
first generation pyrite and lack the typical euhedral
shape (Figure 5). It also shows replacement texture
along with galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite (Figure 4, 6, 7).

Arsenopyrite: This is used as a pathfinder mineral for
gold exploration in the study area. It often contains
inclusions of chalcopyrite, sphalerite and pyrrhotite.
Three different generations of arsenopyrite have been
observed. They occur as idiomorphic crystals with
characteristic rhombohedra shape and, at places, show
sign of mylonitic deformation. This arsenopyrite
exhibits deformational fabric and cataclastic texture
along the shear fracture within the shear zone.
Arsenopyrite grains are also fractured and are replaced
by fractured pyrite.

Chalcopyrite: Chalcopyrite is present in lesser amount,
as compared to other sulfides like pyrite, pyrrhotite and
arsenopyrite. It occurs as disseminations, stringers and
along fracture-filled thin veinlets, in association with
pyrrhotite, pyrite and sphalerite.

Galena: Galena is present in comparatively very lesser
amount and occurs in association with pyrrhotite, pyrite,
chalcopyrite and sphalerite. These grains commonly
occur in irregular and anhedral to subhedral form, and
are medium grained, with their size being of ~ 0.6 mm
(Figure 4).
Magnetite: Magnetite occurs in association with pyrite
and pyrrhotite. Its grains are commonly idiobalstic to
subidioblastic (Figure 4c).
I lmenite: Ilmenite occurs in association with pyrite and
chalcopyrite. Its grains are generally lath-shaped and
fibrous, and occur as disseminations.

2.1.5. Wall Rock Alteration:
Wall rock alteration is a common feature, associated
with hydrothermal gold deposits present around the
world [31]. Rocks of Chandil formation show
characteristic mineralogical changes in proximity with
the mineralized zone. Petrographic studies revealed that
four major types of alterations have occurred in the area,
viz., sulfidization, chloritization, sericitization and
carbonatization, along with silicification and
biotitization.

Sulfidization:
The common sulfide minerals observed in the area are
pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite and
sphalerite. Some of the pyrite and arsenopyrite grains
are shattered and crushed, suggesting deformation of
rocks due to shearing activity. Such zones have
undergone strong chemical and mineralogical changes
due to mobility of a number of mobile cations like Fe,
Mg, Ca, and Na. Intense alteration to sulfide is due to
the addition of sulfur +water in the system with low
CO
2
. Ferromagnesian silicates get enriched with sulfur
and have resulted in the deposition of sulfides.

218


Fig4: Photomicrographs of thin and polished sections (under XPL) of rocks sample showing a) pyrite, chalcopyrite
and ilmenite grains, and replacement texture between chalcopyrite and pyrite in schistose quartzite; b) pyrite,
chalcopyrite and galena grains, and replacement texture among them in schistose quartzite; c) pyrite, chalcopyrite
and magnetite grains, and replacement texture among chalcopyrite, pyrite and magnetite in schistose quartzite; d)
galena and pyrrhotite grains, and replacement texture between galena and pyrrhotite in schistose quartzite; e)
replacement texture between chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite; f) 2
nd
generation pyrrhotite mineralization along the fault
plane in quartzite.

Fig5: Photomicrographs of thin polished sections (under XPL) of rocks sample showing a) occurrence of pyrrhotite
along the limbs of quartz vein in schistose quartzite; b) occurrence of chalcopyrite along a fold in schistose
quartzite; c) micro faulting in quartz vein in schistose quartzite; d) & e) ductile deformation in quartz vein in
schistose quartzite; f) micro-faulting in quartz vein.
219


Fig6: Photomicrographs of thin polished sections (under XPL) of rocks sample showing a) & b) occurrence of
pyrrhotite along a quartz vein in schistose quartzite; c) & d) En echelon texture in pyrrhotite in schistose quartzite;
e) pyrrhotite showing twining, separating coarse grained quartz from fine grained quartz; and f) alignment of
pyrrhotite grains along F
2
plane.

Fig7: Photomicrographs of thin polished sections (under XPL) of core sample showing a) deformed pyrrhotite in
schistose quartzite; b) disseminated pyrrhotite in schistose quartzite; c) en echelon texture in pyrrhotite in schistose
quartzite; d) replacement texture between chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite in schistose quartzite; e) occurrence of
pyrrhotite along with pyrite and little amount of chalcopyrite; and f) pyrrhotite, replaced by chalcopyrite.

220


Fig8: Gold grains along the grain boundaries of quartz (observed under XPL)

Chloritization:
This is a prevalent alteration process, observed in
almost all the types of gold deposits and is characterized
by the dominance of chlorite. Chloritization is the most
common type of alteration in the area. In field, greenish
appearance makes it readily distinguishable from other
alteration zones. Mineral assemblage in this zone
contains

Chlorite + hornblende + actinolite + calcite + sericite
+ quartz

Chlorite is a secondary mineral formed by hydrothermal
alteration of hornblende and actinolite of the host rock.
The common reaction is expressed as: (Fe, Mg) silicate
+ H
2
0 + CO
2
+ K Chlorite + Calcite + Quartz +
Sericite.

Sericitization:
This is a common alteration process in epigenetic gold
deposits and named after the prevalent white mica, i.e.,
sericite. The general mineral assemblage in this zone is
sericite + muscovite + quartz + chlorite + calcite +
albite. Sericite may have been formed due to hydration
of feldspars or by alteration of other silicates (i.e.,
rearrangement of K, Al and SiO
2
). This process involves
the introduction of K and H
2
O into the rocks and
removal of mobile cations like Fe, Ca and Mg. The
appearance of white mica can be as per the following
reactions:

Mg-chlorite + Ankerite/Cal + CO
2
+ K Ankerite/
Cal + Sericite; Qtz + H
2
O/Chloite + K Sericite +
Quartz + H
2
O

Carbonatization:
This process is marked by the formation of secondary
carbonates in the host rock. The secondary carbonates
incorporate calcite, ankerite and dolomite. Calcite and
dolomite have been detected away from the quartz
veins, while ankerite is found closer to the quartz veins.
Proportion of quartz and muscovite is higher compared
to the zone of chloritization. The interaction between
fluid and mafic rocks has resulted in the formation of
quartz-carbonate association, which can be expressed as
a general equation: (Fe, Mg,) silicate + CO
2
Calcite /
ankerite + Quartz + H
2
O. It is apparent from the
reaction, that the fluid is relatively carbonaceous during
the growth of the zone. Carbonatization is of rare
occurrence in the area.

Mineral Stage-I Stage-II Stage-III
Quartz
Sericite
Ilmenite
Magnetite
Carbonate
Pyrrhotite
Pyrite
Arsenopyrite
Sphalerite
Chalcopyrite
Galena
Gold

Fig9: Paragenetic sequence of gold and associated sulfide & oxide ore minerals, and gangue minerals, established
based on their textural relationships in the study rocks.
221


2.1.6. Paragenesis:
Stage I: The earliest minerals to be formed are quartz,
sericite, ilemenite and pyrrhotite. The sulfides,
occurring in disseminated form during this stage, are
arsenopyrite I, pyrite I, pyrrhotite I, chalcopyrite I
within the mafic rocks surrounding the auriferous quartz
veins. Pyrite I and arsenopyrite I are generally
idiomorphic. Although gold grains are not observed at
this stage during the microscopic studies, possibly the
invisible gold content within the primary sulfides got
entrapped, which was later released due to
remobilization. The primary sulfides carrying the
invisible gold are arsenopyrite, pyrite and chalcopyrite.

Stage II: This stage is characterized by the sulfide
mineral phases, especially arsenopyrite II, which is
associated with sphalerite along with pyrite II and
pyrrhotite II, mainly restricted to shear planes.
Magnetite also occurs in this stage. The arsenopyrite II
is associated with sphalerite along with pyrite II and
pyrrhotite II to a lesser extent. Small gold inclusions
within the sulfide phases and the silicate phases,
detected during the microscopic studies, were formed
during this stage.

Stage III: Post-depositional redistribution of the gold
within the lattice structure of arsenopyrite, pyrite,
galena and sphalerite resulted in the deposition of native
gold. Native gold is present in the fractures and along
the grain boundaries of the sulfides, indicating late
phase of gold deposition. Arsenopyrite III, pyrrhotite III
and Chalcopyrite III have also been observed. In this
stage, medium concentration of gold has been observed.
This may be due to the late remobilization leading to the
formation of rich ore shoots.

3. Conclusions:

The Palaeo- to Meso-proterozoic Chandil formation
constitutes the northern part of North Singhbhum
Mobile Belt between Dalma volcano-sedimentary belt
in the south and Chhotanagpur granite gneiss at its
north. The major rock types observed in the area include
magnetite-biotite-quartz-sericite schist, ferruginous
quartzite, phyllite with intercalated schistose quartzite,
carbon phyllite with intercalated grey (carbon) quartzite,
acid-tuff, ultramafic (tremolite-actinolite bearing)/
metabasic intrusives, vein quartz and quartz-calcite
veins. General trend of the most dominant foliation
varies from NE-SW to WNW-ESE, having steep dips
on either side. S
2
schistosity is the most pervasive
foliation in the area. Micro- and meso-folds have a low
westerly plunge. The tuffaceous phyllite (mylonitized)
represents a ductile shear zone. Petromineragraphic
studies indicate that fine to medium size aggregate of
arsenopyrite grains occur along the schistosity. The gold
mineralization in the area is found to be associated with
this shear zone, especially in the quartzite part.

4. Acknowledgments:

The authors are very much thankful to the Director
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad for his permission to
publish this paper. Thanks are also to all the reviewers
for their excellent suggestions and effort, which
immensely improved the quality of our manuscript.

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www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.223-229

K. RAM CHANDAR AND H. AGARWAL
Department of Mining Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar-575025,
Mangalore, D.K, INDIA
Email: krc_karra@yahoo.com

Abstract: An Expert System is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert.
Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning about knowledge, like an expert, and not by
following the procedure of a developer as is the case in conventional programming. The first expert systems were
created in the 1970s and then proliferated in the 1980s. In this paper, an effort has been made to sum up some of the
useful expert systems and their working principles for effective use in mining operations.

Keywords: expert system, optimization, logic blocks.

1. Introduction:

In present days, in a mine, many of the processes
include the involvement of more sophisticated machines
along with the skilled labour need to tackle the
problems which arise during mining operations.
Sometimes, it becomes necessary to use artificial
intelligence and expert systems due to the time available
for a particular action during mining operation or due to
generation of new mining problems. In order to make
mining activity more reliable and highly mechanized
along with the application of expert systems, research
should be focused on in applying intelligent expert and
support systems in different activities related to mining.

In the last two decades, a boon has been observed in
different sectors of every industry like time
management, cost management, productivity sector,
etc., In order to meet these requirements, the investment
was done on reliable machinery. These demands these
intelligent expert system as well as support systems
which uses artificial intelligence (AI) to carry out a
logical solution for a common as well as new and
complicated problems faced by mining and other
industries.

In mining industry, several problems like estimation of
ore reserves in complex geometrical conditions,
optimum mine planning, suitable selection of
equipment, slope stability, ground control, blast design,
man power distribution, budget planning, mineral
processing etc., to be carried out effectively to suit the
given geo-mining conditions, maintenance of
equipments and many more complex problems are there
which require implementation of AI based systems or
expert systems. Ram Chandar et al. (2001) has
developed an expert program to predict rock
fragmentation. Ram Chandar (2002) has developed a
program for computer aided hydraulic stowing system.
Ram Chandar & Singh (2002) developed a program for
design of support system in underground coal mines.
Sastry & Ram Chandar (2008) has done simulation
studies in assessing the role of initiation system and
pattern on blast performance. Sastry & Ram Chnadar
(2010) and Trivedi, et al (2012) have used numerical
modelling in design and stability analysis of slopes.
Vishal et al. (2011) and Sarkar, et al. (2012) have used
various statistical tools in estimating the rock properties.
A typical basic expert system is shown in Figure. 1.

Fig1: Typical expert system structure (C. Kirmanli and
S.G. Ercelebi, 2009)
2. Basic principles of expert systems:

The basic principles on which expert systems mainly
depend are:
1. Lifetime distribution models.
2. Markov model.
3. Fault tree analysis.
224

Though all these principles give a good estimation and
prediction of desired data but when it comes to accurate
results, one has to consider new methods and
technology.

Systems accuracy and reliability generally try to change
with time. Thus one can say that these changes are time
series process. Predicting the variability of reliability
with time is a too difficult task. The main difficulty
arises when one has to assume failure distributions and
due to lack of appropriate technology to forecast these
assumptions, it becomes more difficult. The auto-
regressive moving average (ARMA) model has been
one of the most popular approaches in time series
prediction (Box and Jenkins, 1976).

Recently, Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have
received growing attention in time series forecasting
(Chatterjee and Bandopadhyay, 2012). The Support
Vector Regression (SVR), is a widely used and
preferred data-driven technique for time series
forecasting.

Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a top down, deductive
failure analysis in which an undesired state of a system
is analysed using Boolean logic to combine a series of
lower-level events. This analysis method is mainly used
in the field of safety engineering and reliability
engineering to determine the probability of a safety
aspect or a particular system level (functional) failure.

In mining industry, FTA and FTA based expert systems
can be used in:
1. Understanding logic of an operation which leads
to undesired state/condition during the use of
machine.
2. Increasing system safety by monitoring and
controlling system processes in an efficient way.
3. Minimizing and optimizing resources.
4. Creating the Critical Equipment/Parts/Events lists
for different important measures.

Some of the expert systems developed for mining
applications are described below.

3. Development of expert systems of mine
ventilation systems:

There is no need of complex expert shell in designing
expert systems (ES) for mine ventilation. During ES
development it is necessary to take account the
behaviour of main system of safety which is ensuring
main ventilation system. Expert systems and programs
should be designed in such a way that it can calculate
and distribute the required amount of air in mine
workings during normal as well as abnormal conditions
(example -fire in underground mine).

At the time of creating ES on safety for mining one has
to consider certain properties of the required
information, and should mention the application area of
that ES. The data which is used as an input for ES
should include information about mine workings that
include the following fields: number in order, initial and
end nodes, its cross section, marks of height of its start
and finish, aerodynamic resistance, initial and final
temperature on mine workings and so on.

It may happen that at the time of entering the data by
mistake wrong data get feds into the ES, so in order to
decrease mistakes and for getting most reliable results
one can use ICXINFOR and WENTCHAR (Koketayev,
2003). These programs can also be used for verification
of reliability of initial data programs.

When a person has to deal with the program which
calculates and determines the amount of air to be
distributed in mine ventilation system, WENTCHAR
use is preferred, for using this program it is necessary to
give characteristics of fans.

In order to automatically carry out the calculation of
branches and nodes of ventilation system and testing
presence of missed branches ICXINFOR program is
used. Input file of this program includes number of a
branch, initial node, and end node.

Expert systems should be designed in a way that any
enquiry can be made at any point during the working
operation.

According to Koketayevs (2003), an expert system for
mine ventilation should contain the following programs:
1. Programs like ICXINFOR and WENTCHAR.
2. Program to test correct input of initial data.
3. Program for calculating the coefficient of fan
curves.
4. Programs for view of calculated data.

3.1. ES-VENT: an online expert system:
The ES-VENT (Expert System for Ventilation) is a
knowledge based system which has been developed for
on-line diagnosing of ventilation problems using the
expert system development tool, IITMRULE. The
IITMRULE was developed at Indian Institute of
Technology, Madras, India. The ES-VENT system is
made up of three modules (Bandyopadhyay and Sinha,
2002), namely On-line Data, Diagnostics and
Knowledge Base System (KBS).

Each module is a collection of several programs; the
overall structure of the system has been shown in
figure.2.

225

Fig2: Structure of ES-VENT system (L.K.
Bandyopadhyay and S.K. Sinha, 2002)
3.2. The mine ventilation manager (MVM):
Mine ventilation manager (MVM) is a type of expert
system which solves a lot of ventilation problems like it
detects drop in airflow and makes suggestions in
response, it can check for device failures and methane
build-up. In addition, MVM also detects and provides
consultations about potential or actual fire emergencies.
MVM is a sort of multifunctional expert ventilation
system as it tries to integrate certain domains of mine
ventilation expertise into one system and simultaneously
a user is provided with a consultation on any problem or
combination of problems that arise in a mine (fig. 3).

Important features of MVM (Altman, Hughes, and
Wala, 1988) are:
1. It has the ability to determine optimal flow
distribution (with respect to the amount of energy
required to satisfy environmental constraints).
2. It provides a means to verify a mine model, either
proposed or assumed, for application of normal
ventilation strategies.
3. It determines the settings for the regulators to
accommodate a new airflow distribution.
4. It includes software to perform critical-path
airflow calculations, from which the required
regulator settings can be computed.

Fig3: General structure of MVM (Altman, Hughes and
Wala, 1988)
4. Development of expert system on 3D stope
stability assessment:

This is another example of expert system in mining,
Stopes are the openings made in the process of
extracting ore, and these are also called rooms. Two
steps are involved in stoping.
1. Development-It includes preparing the ore blocks
for mining.
2. Production-It includes stoping.

A new expert system (ES) called stope stability
assessment program (SSAP) has been developed with
the help of Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy
Technology (CANMET) by Vongpaisal, et, al., (2011)
for underground blast hole mining operations with
delayed backfill, at depth from 0.5 km to 2km below the
ground surface.

This program mimics the rational processes of rock
mechanics experts to provide recommendations to mine
operators which enables them to make decisions on
strategic mine planning and feasibility studies. Due to
this, planning and decision-making can be done in a
quick and efficient manner to minimize the risk of
ground failure and can optimize mining costs also. It
helps in managing the risk involved with high
productivity.

The geo-mechanics/ rock mass classification system, or
rock mass rating (RMR) in both the hanging wall and
foot wall is assumed to be 60 for the development of
this expert system, This assumption represents general
ground conditions of hard rock mining in Canada. Rock
mass properties and pre-mining stress regimes have to
be assigned.
226

4.1. Creation of logic blocks for development of SSAP:
For the simplification of maintenance and to easily
modify softwares a set of rules (IF/THEN rule) have
been formulated in different logic blocks by this system
developers. Each logic block consists of specific aspects
of the decision-making rules and tasks. These include:
1. Start-logic block
2. Rock strength logic block
3. Rock bolt logic block
4. Get damage zone block
5. Get grid nodes logic block
6. Show chart logic block

Start-logic block It contains rules for making
decisions on rock mass classifications.
Rock strength logic block It determines whether
the stope is located in a good hard ground condition
according to assumed values of RMR. Heuristic rules
have been set for the allowable maximum limit of the
potential extent of the damage zone ().
Get damage zone block In this module,
interpolation equations were applied from Get Grid
Nodes Logic Block. It determines damage zones
values.
Get grid nodes logic block It assigns node values
of H/W, L/W and DZ of particular stope widths at
particular depths. The data is input into knowledge
bases, using the XML format in order to improve the
efficiency of determining DZ at particular stope
dimensions.
Show chart logic block It displays potential extents
of damage zone surfaces and associated dilutions in
3D spaces, if requested by user.
Rock bolt logic block It contains rules on ground
support requirements

4.2. Creation of command blocks for development of
SSAP:
The command blocks are those important parts of expert
system which instruct the expert system on how to
proceed. In this module, command blocks tell the
system to determine DZ (damage zones) at any
particular point from database grid nodes blocks, derive
confidence variables and display results.

5. Expert system CMEOC:

Coal mining expert and optimization consultation
system (CMEOC) (Hong Zhang, Guanghui Zhao, 1999)
developed a coal mining engineering expert system with
optimization techniques to reach the goal of optimal
decision making.

5.1. Architecture of CMEOC expert system:
It is mainly designed for coal mining. It is used to
determine underground mining methods, open-pit
mining and transportation systems, etc. In this according
to Zhang and Zhao, (1999), first of all an expert system
is used then optimization techniques such as multi
objective (MO) programming, fuzzy sets (FS), integer
programming (IP), etc. are used to generate the final
recommendation (fig. 4).

The system consists of three components (Hong Zhang
and Guanghui Zhao, 1999): -
1. An expert system.
2. Optimization techniques.
3. A design and drawing (DD) system.

Fig4: Structure of CMEOC (Hong Zhang, Guanghui
Zhao, 1999)
Expert system:

The expert system consists of a knowledge base (KB),
an inference system (IS), and a control system (CS).

Knowledge base:

The knowledge base consists of three components.
The static database is used mainly to store the
data of the current intermediate information
acquired in the inferencing process.
The rule base represents the expert knowledge.
Theoretical knowledge of special fields such as
mining engineering.
There are three kinds of representation of knowledge in
the system.
1. Representation of facts: Predicate calculus is
one of the methods used to represent knowledge.
2. Representation of reasoning knowledge: In the
system production rules are used to represent
reasoning knowledge (Zhang, 1988). It generally
uses IF and THEN commands.
227
3. Representation of fuzzy knowledge: Experts
knowledge can be ambiguous and imprecise.
Expert knowledge can be assigned a reliability
factor b (0 < b <1). There are three ways to
determine the value of b. They are: mathematical
method, expert judgment method and similarity
comparison method.

The IS and CS consist of a set of programs which
controls and coordinates the whole system (Wu, 1991).
IS acts as the key of the expert system. It solves the
problem according to certain inference and control
strategies using the knowledge base. They work like
this: the user provides inputs and the related facts are
stored in the knowledge base through CS and IS. Based
on the initial inference results, the relevant optimization
technique module is invoked through IS, and then the
final optimal recommendation is made.

Optimization techniques:

One can get a set of initial solutions such as Ai (i= 1,
2, 3, , n) on using expert systems like CMEOC. But
the user only wants an optimum solution, so it is
necessary to find an optimal solution on the basis of
initial solutions. IS uses the solutions obtained from the
inference process as the intermediate solution and
passes that to the intermediate scheme database M1,
M2, , Mn. Then IS invokes the relevant optimization
techniques to make the final recommendation.

6. An expert for hydraulic excavator and truck
selection in surface mining:

This system was developed by Kirmanli and Ercelebi, in
2009. The main purpose of this expert system is to
choose the most appropriate configuration of hydraulic
excavator and truck so that unit production cost is
minimized and technical constraints such as geological,
geotechnical and mining constraints are satisfied. This
ES consist of four modules (fig. 5) (Kirmanli and
Ercelebi, 2009):
1. User interface.
2. Rules database.
3. Methods database.
4. Output module.

This type of ES is developed within Kappa PC shell. It
also supports object-orientated technology for the MS
Windows environment (C. Kirmanli and S.G. Ercelebi,
2009).

It acts as a very useful tool to practitioners by saving
time and cost. This type of expert system overcomes the
difficulties of selecting the proper equipment for surface
mining operations, which is very important, and results
in tremendous savings. First of all, equipment databases
are made for hydraulic excavators and trucks with
different capacities and then these databases are used to
select proper configuration.

Fig5: Hydraulic excavatortruck selection expert
system structure (Kirmanli and Ercelebi, 2009)
In this system IF and THEN format have been used
to construct Production Rules, and a new rule can be
added whenever it is needed.
Methods which are formed with more than one rule are
widely used in expert systems to reduce complexity and
working time.
This type of expert system has two main databases
(Kirmanli and Ercelebi, 2009):
1. The hydraulic excavator database.
2. Truck database.

With the aid of the output module, the results are
displayed on the screen and can either be printed or
saved in a file.

6.1. Equipment selection criteria:
This criteria is important for the selection of hydraulic
excavators and trucks. It is divided in to six classes:
1. Diggability.
2. Production criteria
3. Mine parameters
4. Geological and geotechnical factors
5. Equipment criteria
6. Unit production cost.

Diggability: The main parameters of the dig-ability
classification system are:
1. Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS).
2. Seismic velocity.
3. Degree of weathering.
4. The characteristics of joint sets.
5. Thickness of formation.

228
Examples of certain diggability classification systems
which have been developed by several researchers are:
1. Franklin (..) developed a classification system
based on a graphical method, by using rock
strength, discontinuity spacing and point load
strength. A graph is divided into four areas and
the areas are defined as digging, ripping, blasting
for loosening and blasting for breaking.
2. Atkinson (..) developed another classification
system, which depends only on seismic velocity.
It categorizes equipment according to their
digging performance.

6.2. Excavator-truck expert system architecture:
In this expert system the very first step is to find out
about the dig-ability. In order to determine this one need
to enter values of UCS, degree of weathering,, seismic
velocity, average discontinuity spacing and bedding
thickness. These values are entered in this system with
the help of Diggability assessment input screen.
Material and coal density data are also given in this
screen. A flow chart of this expert system is given in
fig. 6.

Diggability criteria are determined according to
information supplied by the user. The user is asked for
the elasticity modulus and Poissons ratio if seismic
velocity is unknown and then it calculates the seismic
velocity by using these values and compressive strength.
Production and mine parameter information is given to
the expert system on the mining section screen. For
excavator and truck selection calculations and to run
related production rules sometimes it becomes
mandatory to input information related to mine
parameters, such as annual production, bench height,
etc.

The expert system determines the mine life after
production information is supplied, to it and it also
calculates annual required waste production by using
the stripping ratio. The next step is to give geotechnical
criteria to the expert system from the material section
screen. In this section, blasting conditions for the waste
and mineral and average size distribution of blasted
material are also supplied by the user. The elasticity
modulus and Poissons ratio values, which are assigned
to some default values, are not used when the seismic
velocity is given at the beginning of interrogation.

Fig6: Architecture of excavator-truck ES (Kirmanli and
Ercelebi, 2009)

7. Conclusions:

This paper summarises some of the expert systems
developed by various researchers for different
applications for mining industry. Such expert systems
are very useful in managing the mining activities more
effectively. Some of these systems can be modified to
suit the need requirements. To meet the ever increasing
demand for natural resources, such expert systems to be
deployed to achieve the required targets and to improve
the productivity by maintaining higher standards of
safety.

8. Reference:

[1] A.I. Koketayev, Using of Expert Systems in
Ventilation Systems Controlling, l" International
Mining Congress and Exhibition of Turkey-IMCET
2003, pp.263-264.
[2] C. Kirmanli and S.G. Ercelebi, An expert system
for hydraulic excavator and truck selection in
surface mining, The Journal of The Southern
229
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Volume 109,pp. 727-737
[3] Hong Zhang and Guanghui Zhao, CMEOCAn
expert system in the coal mining industry, Journal
of China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou 221008, Peoples Republic of China vol.
16, pp. 73-77
[4] Huang Xin, An integrated decision support system
for Backfill design, Thesis, 1994.
[5] K. Sarkar, V. Vishal and T N Singh, 2012, an
empericla correlation of index geomechanical
properties with the compressional wave velocity,
Geotc. Geol. Engg., 469-479.
[6] S. Vongpaisal, G. Li, R. Pakalnis & T. Brady, New
development of expert system module for a
decision-making on mine stope stability in
underground blastholemining operations,
International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and
Environment,pp.41-51
[7] R. Trivedi, V. Vishal, S. P. Pradhan, T. N. Singh, J.
C. Jhanwar, 2012, Slope stability analysis in
limestone mines, International Journal of Earth
Sciences and Engineering, 5(4): 759-766.
[8] V. Vishal, S. P. Pradhan and T N Singh, 2010,
Instability Assessment of Mine slope- A finite
element approach, International Journal of Earth
Sciences & Enggineering, 3:11-23.
[9] V. R. Sastry and K. Ram Chandar, 2008.
Assessment of blast performance based on energy
distribution: Proc. 42
nd
American Rock Mechanics
Association Conference, San Francisco, USA, 29
th

June-02
nd
July- 2008.
[10] V. R. Sastry, V. R and K. Ram Chandar, 2010.
Stability analysis of highwall- case study of an
opencast coal mining project. Mining Engineers
Journal, Vol-12, No.4, Nov-2010, 18-24.
[11] K. Ram Chandar, T.N Singh and P. Ravi Kiran, P.,
2001. A computational approach for prediction of
rock fragmentation, Mining Engineers Journal,
July-2001, 16-25.
[12] K. Ram Chandar, K. 2002. Computer aided design
of hydraulic stowing. Coal Mining Technology &
Management, March-2002, 1-8.
[13] K. Ram Chandar and T. N Singh, 2002. Computer
aided roof load estimation for bord & pillar
workings, Mineral Industry: Issues on Economics,
Environment and Technology-2002, 65-74.
[14] Zhang Y. 1988. An expert system for strip mining
under the buildings, Journal of China University of
Mining and Technology, vol.4, pp. 4450.

www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.230-238

Interpretation of Depositional Environment of Miocene Sequence
Using Electrofacies Analysis in the Well Bakhrabad # 09, Bengal
Basin
ABU REZA MD. TOWFIQUL ISLAM
1
, MD. AMINUL ISLAM
2
, MD. EMDADUL HAQUE
1
AND
KHURSHIDA JAHAN
3

1
Department of Disaster Management, Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur-5400, Bangladesh
2
Department of Petroleum Geoscience, University Brunie Darussalam, Gadong BE-1410, Brunie
3
Department of Chemistry, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342, Bangladesh
Email: gm_towfique_06@yahoo.cm.

Abstract: Wireline log and limited core samples data were integrated to used in order to reconstruct paleo
environment of deposition of Miocene sequence in the well Bakhrabad-09, Marichakandi structure, Bengal Basin.
The main aim of this study was to interpret the depositional environment of the Miocene sedimentary sequence
using electrofacies analysis. Miocene sequence was subdivided into two sequences that consist of 7 first-order
cycles and 33 second-order cycles in the study area. The identified electrofacies were bell, funnel and egg/bow,
linear and cylindrical shaped etc. in nature. The environment of the Upper Bhuban sequence-2 (UBS-2) inferred to
be deposited (2955 to 2280 m) under lower deltaic plain to marginal marine setting while the Boka Bil sequence-1
(BBS-1) presumed to be deposited (2280 to 799 m) under fluvio-deltaic setting to shallow marine environment. The
study revealed that both deltaic progressive and retrogressive phases occurred more frequently during the deposition
of both sequences (UBS2-BBS1) but whole nature of eletrofacies shows coarsening upward deltaic progradation.
Keywords: Miocene sequence, Depositional environment, Electrofacies analysis and Deltaic progradation.

1. Introduction:

The term electrofacies was first introduced by Serra
and Abbott [1] that assigned to one or more lithofacies
as wireline log responses are interpreted in the
subsurface sedimentary environment. Detailed seismic,
geological and geophysical studies were established in
the Morichakandi structure for discovering Meghna gas
field of Bangladesh [2]. Various studies were carried
out for interpretation of depositional environment of
sedimentary sequence of Bengal Basin [3-11]. The
Bengal Basin has received special attention by earlier
workers largely due to its commercial feasibility for
hydrocarbon prospects. So far, there are no detailed
studies done for the well Bakhrabad-09 in the Bengal
Basin by integrating electrofacies with core sample.

In this regard, the research work an attempt has been
made by well log data and limited core to interpret the
depositional environment of the Miocene sequence in
the well Bakhrabad-09. The outcome of the study is to
analyses the electrofacies of wireline log motif and core
sample in order to identify in detail electofacies,
sequences, cycles and associations for interpretation of
depositional environment of the well Bakhrabad-09.
Electrofacies can provide information on the lithology
and sequences of the rock as well as depositional history
[8]. Electrofacies analysis shows the well log
characteristics such as base line, log shapes or motif,
abrupt changes etc. GR or SP log base line is constant
either maximum or minimum values both lithologic and
stratigraphic importance [13]. Log shape with thickness
are correlated to sedimentary facies cycles, sequences,
associations indicates the basin fill history of large and
small events. GR log shaped could be interpreted as
grain size trend [8]. The study area is situated in the
district of Brahmanbaria which is bounded in the
northeast by Sylhet Trough and in the southeast by
Chitagong-Tripura Folded Belt and in the west by Hinge
zone and open to the south and southeast to the main
part of Bengal Basin (Figure 1).

231
ABU REZA MD. TOWFIQUL ISLAM, MD. AMINUL ISLAM, MD. EMDADUL HAQUE AND
KHURSHIDA JAHAN

Fig1: Location map showing the study well Bakhrabad-09 in the Marichakandi structure.

2. Geology of the structure:

The Bengal Basin of Bangladesh is a remnant ocean
basin in the world [8]. The Greater Bakhrabad structure
lies on the southern fringes of Bengal Basin. Greater
Bakhrabad structure is an elongated close anticline and
is about 67 km long and 6 km wide [2]. Morichakandi
Structure is a sub-structure of the greater Bakhrabad,
which lies on the north western part of the Bakhrabad. It
is located in the crestal region of Bakhrabad anticline
complex. The structure is the larger than that of other
Bakhrabad and Belabo structures forming the greater
Bakhrabad anticlinal complex. Geologically,
Morichakandi Structure is situated in the western most
part of the Chittagong-Tripura folded belt which lies on
the north western part of the Bakhrabad. Titas Structure
is present in the north and Kamta Structure lies in the
west. Morichakandi Structure is a symmetrical anticline
with SE-NNE [12]. The structure perhaps started
intensifying during Early Miocene and its apex
development took place probably Late Miocene
sedimentation and finished in Pliocene time. The sub-
surface stratigraphy of the study area was established on
the basis of drilling data, log data, seismic data and also
correlation with neighboring established well [12].
Stratigraphy of the structure is presented in the table 1.

Table1: Stratigraphic succession of the study area (After BOGMC, [12])

Age Group Formation/Sequence (m) Lithological description/Characteristics
Recent Alluvium (61 m)
Dominantly loose sand, fine to medium grained sand and
clay

Pliocene
Dupi
Tila
Dupi Tila (110 m) Mainly sandstone with interrelation of shale

Miocene
Tipam Tipam Sandstone (628 m)
Mostly grey quartz sand, medium to fine-grained with some
sticky clay and intermediate of silt.
Surma
Boka Bil sequence-1 (1481
m)
Mainly dark grey thick clay and interbedded with sandstone
and alternate sand and silt. Medium to fine-grained, sub-
angular and calcareous cementing material show cross
bedding structure of sandstone.
Upper Bhuban sequence-2
(675 m)
Predominantly light grey sandstone, medium to very fine-
grained, sub-angular to rounded, calcareous cement,
interbedded with shale with siltstone, slightly calcareous
and argillaceous cementing material.

232

3. Materials and Method:

The different wireline log data especially GR and SP
has been collected from the Data Centre, Petrobangla.
The limited core sample was also collected from
Bangladesh Petroleum Exploration & Production
Company Limited (BAPEX). The methodology for log
interpretation in this study is adopted after Rider [13]
and Serra [14]. GR and SP logs have been presented in
a composite mode after sensitivity matching to generate
visual facies or log motif treated as electrofacies. The
focus of the present study has been given on the Gamma
Ray (GR) log to analyze the electrofacies, cycles,
sequences and association for interpretation of
depositional environment of the Miocene sequence.
Hard copy of different logs has been transferred
manually to digital format maintaining the limit of
optimum resolution. Later on, the digital data has been
regenerated as an analog curve of different logs using
MS-Excel software. The digitization and regeneration of
GR log motifs have been done in a optimum scale at the
study well Bakhrabad-09 to determine the lithological
variation and major change in lithology which give the
clue of depositional history. Limited core sample has
been used to interpret depositional environment (Figure
2).

Fig2: Methodology adopted for the electrofacies analysis of the study

4. Results and Discussions:

Electrofacies is an individual set of log responses that
are characteristics for a particular lithology usually
necessary to calibrate logging data with core
information from key intervals [15]. Various authors
made valuable contribution in the field of sedimentary
geology of sub-surface sedimentary sequences by the
exploratory study of wireline log responses [16-26]. GR
log shapes or motifs can provide clue to the different
sub-environments of deposition of the sequences. First-
order cycles (para-sequence-sets) are composed of bed
sets i.e. facies associations and second-order cycles
(para-sequences) are composed of lamina set beds i.e.
facies/electrofacies within the sequences [27]. The
coarsening upward sequence is progradational and
fining upward sequence is retrogradational sequence
with rare occurrence of aggradational sequence [28].

4.1. I nterpretation of electrofacies and depositional
environments:
Electrofacies has been subdivided into five types which
identified in the study on the basis of GR and SP log
motifs or shapes described briefly as follows:

4.1.1 Bell shaped electrofacies: Bell shaped
electrofacies indicate a fining upward sequence where
GR log value and shale content increase upward and
sand content decrease upward. The hydrodynamic
condition decrease upward at the time of deposition
which represents retrograding distributary channel
floodplain, interdistributary channel, mud fiat and
fluvial channel floodplain sub-environment. The typical
bell and serrated bell shapes of the log motifs in the
study well are observed at various depth intervals in
both sequences (Figure 3a and 3b).

4.1.2 Egg/Bow Shaped electrofacies: Egg shaped
electrofacies show both coarsening and fining upward
or vice versa sequences with equal sand/shale ratio
suggests aggradational environment in channel-
floodplain, sub-tidal flat, mud flat and prograding-
retrograding of mud rich fan system. The egg/bow
shape is observed at various depths in the study well
(Figure 3c).

4.1.3 Cylindrical shaped electrofacies: Cylindrical
shaped electrofacies indicate a thick homogeneous
sediment constrained by channel-fill deposit with sand
233
KHURSHIDA JAHAN
dominating sequence where GR log value suggested
that more or less uniform sequence and the depositional
environment such as aggrading fluvial channel and
distributary channel and tidal sand flat. The cylindrical
shaped and serrated cylindrical shaped are shown at
various depths (Figure 3d).

4.1.4 Linear shaped electrofacies: Linear shaped
electrofacies are generally steady shape and shale
dominating sequence suggests uniform depositional
sequence either of coarse grained or fine grained related
to deposition of inter-distributary bay to shallow marine
condition. The linear shaped is identified at the depth
range of 799-934 m in the study well (Figure 3e).

4.1.5 Funnel shaped electrofacies: Funnel shaped
eletrofacies reflect a coarsening upward sequence where
GR log value and shale content decrease upward and
sand content increase at upper part. The hydrodynamic
condition increases upward at the time of deposition as
in the case of prograding delta, alluvial fan and
regressive shallow marine bar environment. The funnel
shape and serrated funnel shaped are identified in the
Miocene sequence at different depths in the study area
(Figure 3f).

Fig3: Typical Gamma Ray (GR) log shapes of the Miocene sequence in the well Bakhrabad-09.

In depth interval from 2955 to 799 m, a detailed study
from the well base to upper part is done on the basis of
Gamma Roy (GR) log shapes or motifs and trends.
Miocene sedimentary sequence is characterized by first-
order and second-order cycles based electrofacies
analysis and core sample consisting of two sequences
(BBS 1 and UBS 2) are described below:

4.2. I nterpretation of the Upper Bhuban Sequence-2
(UBS-2):
The Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS-2) of Miocene
sequence is present in the depth interval from 2955 to
2280 m. This sequence is divided into 2 first-order
cycles and 12 second-order cycles which were identified
based on the relationship of GR log shapes, grain sizes
and change in log motifs.

4.2.1 First-order Cycle-1 (BHC-1): First order cycle is
identified within the depth range of 2955-2665 m
having a thickness of 290 m, shows fining upward (Fu)
sequences with few fluctuations and decrease in the
grain size towards top of the sequences (Figure 4). Silty
sandstone lithofacies and shaley lithofacies having
relative proportion of 35% and 65% respectively. Shale
dominating electrofacies increases upward of the cycle
indicating decrease of hydrodynamic condition. The
first-order cycle-1 consists of 2 coarsening upward (Cu)
sequences at bottom part, 4 Fu sequences at top most
part and 1 homogeneous sequence at middle part of the
cycle have been identified in this sequence. Serrated
bell, linear and serrated funnel shaped electrofacies
suggests different sub-environments i.e retrograding
distributary channel, shallow marine, interdistributary
234

bay and prograding channel sub-environments of
deposition.

4.2.2 First-order Cycle-2 (BHC-2): This cycle is
present within the depth ranges of 2665-2280 m having
thickness of 385 m shows coarsening upward sequence
with minor fluctuations and increase in grain size
upward (Figure 4). Silty shaly lithofacies constitutes
about 62%, whereas sandstone facies remain at the
lower part of the cycle. 3 second-order Fu sequences at
the top upper part of the cycle and 4 Cu sequences
present at the bottom part of the cycle. Serrated
cylindrical, serrated funnel and bell shaped electrofacies
represent different sub-environments i.e. aggrading
distributary channel, prograding channel, retrograding
channel and tidal mudflat sub-environments. Overall the
first-order cycle-2, indicates prevalence of deltaic
progradation with marine regression conditions.

The core of the lower part of the sequence consists of
thin lenticular bedded shaly facies with sandstone
showing very fine to medium grained and cross
stratified indicating deltaic retrogressive phase of
depositional environment (Figure 5a). The core of upper
part of this sequence consists of ripple cross-laminated
wavy bedded sandstone facies; thin stratified shale
indicates deltaic progradation with marine regressive
phase of depositional environment (Figure 5b). The
Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS-2) consists of 3
phases of prograding channel and 2 phase of
retrograding distributary channel and 2 phases of
aggrading distributary channel and tidal channel, sub-
tidal mudflat, tidal sand flat and inter-distributaries
representing bay to shallow marine condition (Figure 4).

Fig4: Gamma Ray (GR) log responses, first-order cycles, log shapes and possible environments of deposition of the
Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 in the well Bakhrabad-09.
235
KHURSHIDA JAHAN

Fig5: Core sample photograph show lithofacies of the study area: a) flaser bedded facies; b) wavy bedded facies; c)
lenticular bedded facies. Sand shows dark grey color and shale shows light grey color (After BAPEX, [2]).

4.3. I nterpretation of the Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-
1):
The Boka Bil Sequence-1 is the uppermost part in the
depth range of 2280 to 799 m. This sequence comprises
5 first-order cycles/para-sequence sets and 21 second-
order cycles/para-sequences were identified as follows:

4.3.1 First-order Cycle-1 (BBC-1): This cycle is
identified within the depth ranges of 2280-1975 m
having thickness of 305 m, shows fining upward
sequences with few fluctuations towards the bottom part
(Figure 6). Sandstone and silty shaly facies cover about
40% and 60% respectively. Lower to middle part of the
cycle (2286-2099 m) indicates relatively higher
hydrodynamic condition which gradually decreases
towards the upper part. 2 Cu upward sequences
identified at the lower and middle part and 3 Fu upward
sequences at the top part. Serrated funnel, serrated bell,
asymmetric cylindrical and linear shaped electrofacies
suggests prograding delta, retrograding distributary
channel and inter-distributary bay etc. The overall
deposition occurred under deltaic distributary channel
and inter-distributary bay conditions.

4.3.2 First-order Cycle-2 (BBC-2): This cycle is
present within the depth range of 1995-1689 m (306 m)
and shows almost fining upward sequences (Figure 6).
This set covers sandstone, silty shale and shale facies at
about 50%, 30% and 20% respectively. Cylindrical,
serrated funnel, and bell shaped electrofacies indicates
retrograding distributary channel during the deposition
of this cycle.

4.3.3 First-order Cycle-3 (BBC-3): The cycle covers
the depth range of 1689-1304 m (385 m), shows
decreasing GR value representing coarsening upward
sequences which indicate increase in grain size towards
top (Figure 6). Sandstone, silty shale and shale facies
constitute about 45%, 20% and 35% respectively.
Identified linear, funnel and serrated bell shaped
electrofacies suggests tidal floodplain complex,
prograding channel, tidal channel and inter-distributary
bay sub-environments. This cycle represents at least
three phases of progradation, three phases of
retrograding distributary channel and one phase of inter-
fluvial deposit. The overall deposition occurred under
marine regression conditions.

4.3.4 First-order Cycle-4 (BBC-4): This First-order
cycle present within the depth range of 1304-934 m
(470 m), shows coarsening upward sequences (Figure
6). Sandstone and shale facies constitute about 60%
about 40% respectively. Sandstone facies indicating
coarsening upward sequence suggests higher energy
condition whereas shaley facies suggests gradual
decrease of the hydrodynamic condition. This cycle
contains 3 Cu sequences and linear, bell and serrated
funnel shaped electorfacies represents inter-distributary
bay, retrograding channel and prograding channel
floodplain complex. Lower part of the cycle indicates
retrograding deltaic phase but upper part of the cycle
indicates prograding deltaic phase of deposition.

4.3.5 First-order Cycle-5 (BBC-5): The cycle is
identified within the depth range of 934-799 m (135 m),
shows decreasing GR value indicating fining upward
sequences towards top (Figure 6). Shale facies
constitutes about 100% indicating calm and quite
energy condition. Linear shaped electrofacies represents
shallow marine conditions, regarded as "Upper Marine
Shale" is interpreted as the last phase of marine
transgression [29].

The core in the lower part of the sequence-1 (BBS-1)
consists of light to dark grey sandstone with thick
stratified shale and characterized by flaser bedding.
Middle part of the sequence is wevy bedded, consists of
ripple cross-laminated sandstone, very fine to fine
grained, calcareous with coal fragments and sparse
236

bioturbation (Figure 5a and 5b). Upper part of the
sequence is lenticular bedded, consists of dark grey thin
laminated shale with silty sandstone (Figure 5c). Core
sample study suggests that two marine regressions and
two transgressions of deposition occurred repeatedly
within this sequence. The Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-1)
contains 3 phases of retrograding distributary channel, 2
phases of aggrading channel and 2 phases of prograding
channel with tidal channel, tidalflat, inter-distributary
bay to shallow marine regime have been identified in in
this sequence(Figure 6).

Fig6: Gamma Ray (GR) log responses, first-order cycles, log shapes and possible environments of deposition of the
Boka Bil Sequence-1 in the well Bakhrabad-09.

4.4. I nterpretation of depositional environment:
On the basis of core study and electrofacies, 7 first-
order cycles and 33 second-order cycles were identified
in the study area. All the sequences are either Fu or Cu
sequences with cylindrical, bell, funnel, linear and
egg/bow shaped etc. in nature. 2 first-order cycles and
12 second-order cycles were identified in the Upper
Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS-2). The sequence with depth
range of 2265-2955 m consists of 3 Fu upward and 2 Cu
upward sequences with funnel, serrated bell, cylindrical
and serrated linear shaped electrofacies suggests a phase
of marine transgression and then slightly deltaic
progradation during the deposition of the cycle. The
depth range of 2280-2665 m consist of 4 Cu upward
sequences at the bottom part and middle part and 3 Fu
upward sequences at the top part of the cycle suggests a
phase of deltaic progradation and then retrogressive
237
KHURSHIDA JAHAN
deltaic phase during the deposition of the cycle.
Serrated funnel shaped electrofacies represents siltstone
to sandstone facies indicating prograding deltaic
environment but bell shaped electrofacies shows silty
shale to shaley facies suggests retrograding deltaic
environment. So, the Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS-
2) assumed to be deposited in lower deltaic setting to
marginal marine condition during basin subsidence,
high rate of sediment supply and autocyclic migration of
different sub-environments of deposition.

5 first-order cycles and 21 second-order cycles were
identified in the Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-1). The
depth interval of 1975-2280 m show Fu sequence with
serrated bell, funnel, and cylindrical shaped eletrofacies
suggests retrograding channel and tidal channel,
prograding-aggrading channel sub-environments of
deposition. The depth ranges of 1689-1975 m show Fu
sequence with serrated funnel shaped electrofacies and
wavy bedded facies indicate tidal sand flat and also bell
shaped electrofacies and flaser bedded facies show
retrograding distributary channel. The sequence with
depth ranges of 1304-1689 m consist of Cu upward with
funnel, bell and serrated linear shaped electrofacies
suggests prograding, retrograding and inter-tidal
mudflat sub-environments. The Cu upward sequence
represents by linear, bell, and funnel shaped
electrofacies indicating interfluvial, retrograding
channel and prograding channel sub-environments from
depth interval of 934-1304 m. Finally, the depth ranges
from 799-934 m was Upper Marine Shale shows
linear shaped electrofacies with thick shaley facies
suggests shallow marine conditions. Also made similar
observation made by Mondol et el. [8] in Shahbazapur
structure of Bengal Basin. The Boka Bil sequence-1
(BBS-1) supposed to be deposited under fluvio-deltaic
setting to shallow marine conditions in response to a
marine transgression and regression phase during the
deposition of the sequences. It was interpreted that some
cyclic phases of marine transgression with regression
were occurred during the deposition of the Miocene
sequence in the study. BAPEX [2] also confirmed
similar result by seismic interpretation of the
Marichakandi structure in the well Bakhrabad-09.

5. Conclusions:

The well Bakhrabad-09 drilled in Marichakandi
structure contains well developed sedimentary
sequences from the Miocene to recent age. The Upper
Bhuban Sequence-2 (UBS-2) identified 2 first-order
cycles with sandstone lithofacies, and bell, funnel and
egg/bow shaped electrofacies indicate marine regression
with deltaic progradation phase. The top most part of
the Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-1) identified 5 first-
order cycles with linear shaped electrofacies and shale
lithofacies suggests marine transgression. The
Marichakandi structure of Miocene sequence might
have been deposited under lower deltaic plain to
marginal-marine and fluvio-deltaic setting in response
to marine regression and transgression, basin subsidence
and increase of sedimentation of different sub-
environments. Overall nature of the log trend shown
that lower delta plain was deposited at base and deltaic
progradation with marine regressive phase occurred at
upper part of the Upper Bhuban Sequence-2 (BHS-2).
The general nature of the log shape indicated that
deltaic retrogressive phase was deposited at the lower
part and then deltaic progradation phase deposited at
middle part and finally marine transgression phase
occurred at top part of the Boka Bil Sequence-1 (BBS-
1). It reveals that deltaic prograding sequences are
sandstone dominating reservoir rock whereas deltaic
retrograding sequences are shale dominating rock within
both sequences. The study suggests that multiple
episodes of marine transgression and regression regime
occurred during deposition of the Miocene sequence.


The authors sincerely thank the reviewers especially Dr.
AN Reddy Chief Geologist (Retd), Oil and Natural Gas
Corporation, Channei, India for his critically reviewing
this manuscript and suggestions to improve the quality
of the paper. We wish to thanks Prof. D. Venkat Reddy
Editor in Chief of International Journal of Earth Science
& Engineering for his valuable comments to revise this
paper. We would like to grateful to the Chairman of
Bangladesh Oil, Gas and Mineral Corporation
(Petrobangla) and the Managing Director, BAPEX for
their kind permission to access data for well log and lab
support & facilities for core sample analysis. Also
thanks are due to Prof. Sultan-ul-Islam; University of
Rajshahi made valuable comments and suggestion while
conducting this research work.

7. Reference:

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the Neogene Surma Group succession in the sub-
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[12] BOGMC, Well Completion Report, Bakhrabad # 9
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Dhaka, 1990.
[13] M. Rider, Geological Interpretation of Well Logs:
Whittles Publishing Services, 1999.
[14] O. Serra, Fundamentals of Well-Log Interpretation
(Vol. 2): The Interpretation of Logging Data. Dev.
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[15] H. G. Reading, Sedimentary Environments and
Facies, Blackwell Scientific Pub. Oxford, 1978.
[16] W. E. Galloway, Depositional Systems of the
Lower Wilcox Group, North Central Gulf Coast
Basin, Gulf Coast Association Geol. Soc. Trans.
v.18, p. 275-289, 1968.
[17] W. C. Krueger, Depositional environments of
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measurements: an introduction, Gulf Coast Assoc.
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basin delta systems, with some Holocene
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Trans, 1969.
[19] G. D. Klien, A sedimentary model of determining
paleotidal range Bull., Geol. Soc. Am., v. 82, p.
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compaction from well logs, in George, V.
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sedimentology, Elsevier, New York, 18 A, p. 349-
402, 1975.
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wireline logs, 2nd ed., Schlumberger, Dallas,
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stratigraphy and correlation of the Surma Basin
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www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.239-250

Structural Analyses of Lesser Himalayan Sequence and Strain
Calculation of the Shergaon Conglomerate of West Kameng District
of Arunachal Pradesh, India
NANDITA MAZUMDAR
1
, SANTANU BHATTACHARJEE
2
, SANDIP NANDY
3
AND K.P.SARMA
1

1
Department of Geological Sciences, Gauhati University, Guwahati-781014, Assam, India
2
Geological Survey of India, Petrology Division, Hyderabad,

500 068, Andhra Pradesh, India

3
Geological Survey of India, CPL, Kolkata-700 016, India
Email: id07@in.com, raju_gsi@rediffmail.com, nandysandip@rediffmail.com, kpsarma1@rediffmail.com.

Abstract: The youngest, geodynamically restless, loftiest and most spectacular active mountain belt of continent
continent collisional tectonics of planet Earth is the Himalaya which creates a structural archive to explore
geological history since Precambrian to Recent. Of the three notable sectors of Himalaya, the western and central
sectors are best studied by scientific communities while eastern sector is still in infancy and needs proper attention,
care, caution and consideration. In the present communication Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS) along
Bhalukpong Tawang Zimithang geotransect of western Arunachal Himalaya is dealt with from structural
approaches. Two notable conglomerates are mapped around Nagmandir and Shergaon areas of West Kameng
district of Arunachal Pradesh and strain history is worked out. The former separates Bomdila gneiss from Tenga
Formation while the latter separates Dirang Formation from Tenga Formation. The present study is related to
Shergaon conglomerate and the data sets generated from pebbles of conglomerate are populated with mean k =
0.2696 indicating flattening field under simple shear mechanism. Four phases of deformation (D
1
to D
4
) is
established in LHS and their interferences are discussed. Top to the S to SW and rarely SE sense of tectonic
transport is suggested which coincides with the regional kinematics of the stack of thrusted sheets of Arunachal
Himalaya.

Key words: Leseer Himalaya, Shergaon conglomerate, Strain analysis, Western Arunachal Himalaya.

1. Introduction:

Himalaya is an active mountain belt and considered as
storehouse of structural archive or museum of Earth
history. The youngest, loftiest and arguably most
spectacular of all continent-continent collisional belt on
Earth, is the Himalayan Tibetan orogen occurring in the
east-west direction and created by Indo Asian
collision over the past 70 to 50 Ma
[1]
(Yin and Harrison,
2000). About 2500 km long Himalayan mountain belt
(Nagadhiraj of Kalidasa) is one of the classic examples
of most dynamically active and seismically sensitive
orogenic belt of the world forming a curvilinear
disposition of arcuate nature
[2]
(Sarma et al., 2011).
Thus, the Great Himalayan orogenic belt creates an icon
of characteristic thrust bound duplex / multiplex
morphology and a stack of important north dipping
tectonic slices bounded by MFT, MBT, MCT, STDC
from south to north and many other locally designated
subsidiary thrusts.

The Lesser Himalayan Sequence of the Bhalukpong
Tawang geotransect geographically belongs to West
Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh and
included in Survey of India degree sheet no. 83A. East
West trending International boundary between China
and India marks the northern boundary of the Tawang
district while the N-S trending International boundary
between Bhutan and India marks the western border
zone. Interstate boundary between Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh sets at the foothills near Bhalukpong
(27
0
01N:92
0
38E).

The Lesser Himalayan Sequence is placed between two
notable thrust systems- Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)
at the lower structural level and Main Central Thrust
(MCT) at a higher structural level from south to north
respectively. The entire Lesser Himalayan Sequence
can be categorically classified into Lesser Himalayan
Sedimentary Sequences (LHSS) and Lesser Himalayan
Crystalline (LHC). The LHSS consists of Tenga
Formation, Dedza / Chillipam Formation, Dirang
Formation and Lumla Formation while the LHC is
represented by Bomdila Gneiss. Quartzite, phyllite,
quartz sericite schist, quartz-chlorite-sericite schist,
talcose schists with thin bands of amphibolite, para
gneisses and schists, actinolite-hornblende schist, dark
240

grey carbonaceous shale, bands of marble/dolomites are
the main lithoassembleges of the LHSS. A distinct
polymictic conglomerate zone comprising deformed
pebbles of quartzite, phyllite, quartz sericite schist and
quartz clasts of Tenga / Dedza Formation is observed in
the Rupa Shergaon section which marks an
unconformity with the underlying Tenga Formation and
overlain by Dirang Formation. A similar conglomeratic
zone is also traced near Nagmandir between Tenga
Formation and Bomdila gneiss and it may probably be
the continuation of the Shergaon conglomerate. The
absence of any gneissic pebbles in the conglomerate
indicates that the overlying Bomdila gneiss is younger
than the LHSS. Higher Himalayan sequence (HHS) is
the northernmost exposed part of the Indian plate and is
separated from LHS by MCT. LHS is characterized by
greenschist to lower to middle amphibolite facies
metamorphism while HHS portrays metamorphic
signature upto amphibolite facies. LHS is separated
from sub Himalayan Siwalik molasses type sediments
by MBT. Thus MFT, MBT, MCT constitute imbricate
thrust system on the southern part of the Himalayan
orogen under contractional tectonism whereas STDS
(not observed in the present area) registered extensional
tectonic mechanism to the north.

Thus, all the tectonic slices are considered to be the
counterpart of the north facing Himalayan passive
continental margin commonly named as Tethyan
Himalaya which develop from Middle Proterozoic to
Cretaceous time
[3,4]
(Colchen et al., 1982; Brookfield,
1993).

Structural analysis of the crystalline rock between
Dirang and Tawang sector (HHS) have been worked out
by
[5]
Srivastava et al., (2011). Similarly
[6,7,8]
Goswami
et al. (2009), Saha (2013), Bhattacharjee and Nandy
(2008) also have discussed the structural history of the
rocks of West Kameng and Tawang districts, but LHS is
least understood and therefore, an attempt is made in
this communication to discuss the deformational history
of the Lesser Himalayan Sequences (LHS) along with
the strain history of the Shergaon conglomerates.

2. Regional Geology:

The Bhalukpong Tawang Zimithang sector of
Western Arunachal Himalaya witnessed different
lithocomponents from Proterozoic to Pleistocene period
and a series of tectonic contacts and thrusts from south
to north i.e. from lower to higher structural levels are
delineated. Pleistocene/ alluvium zone represents
southern end of the lithounits thrusted over by Siwalik,
Gondwana, Lesser Himalaya and finally Higher
Himalayan belt marks the northern end of the
geotransect. Most of the lithounits are highly deformed,
intensively sheared and metamorphosed and registered
the imprints of deformational phases and associated
metamorphic signatures.

An anticlinal fold structure of isoclinal geometry is
observed near Bhalukpong at the lower structural level
which marks the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) separating
Siwalik from alluvium
[9]
(Yin et al., 2006). The footwall
side of the conventional MBT (traceable at 27
0
0520N:
92
0
3518E) is occupied by Eocene marine and volcanic
strata bound sequences
[10]
(Kumar, 1997). The MBT
constitutes a zone, forming lower and upper MBT
1
and
MBT
2
respectively and the latter separates Permian
sequences from overlying Proterozoic Bomdila Group
comprises of Dedza Formation, Tenga Formation and
Dirang Formation and they are intruded by large scale
Bomdila granite gneiss. Carbonaceous phyllite, phyllite
and dolomitic limestone are the main components of the
Dedza Formation; Tenga Formation is constituted by
quartzite, mafic meta volcanics and phyllites. The
Dirang Formation consists of garnet-kyanite-staurolite
bearing metapelite, quartzite, phyllite, metavolcanics
including amphibolites, quartz actinolite schist and
they form footwall of the MCT zone. Low grade
metamorphism of the basal Lesser Himalayan Sequence
is structurally overlain by megacrystic granitic gneiss
(Bomdila gneiss) and an undoubted tectonic contact is
noted by earlier researchers. It has a linkage with
Cenozoic thrusting upliftment mechanism and
represents a tectonic counterpart of Palaeo to
Mesoproterozoic basement rocks of Indian
subcontinent.

The Dirang Formation is structurally overlain by garnet-
kyanite-sillimanite bearing metapelitic rocks,
leucogranite, garnetiferous amphibolite, calc-silicate
rocks, sillimanite bearing quartzofeldspathic gneiss and
migmatites together forming SeLa Group on the
hanging wall side of the MCT zone. Around 4 km from
Dirang on way to Tawang, the MCT is observed
(27
0
2242N: 92
0
1354E). Presence of hot spring along
the interface between SeLa Group and Dirang
Formation is another signature indicating the presence
of a thrust namely MCT (= Dirang Thrust).
[8,6]

Bhattacharjee & Nandy (2008), Goswami et al. (2009)
have the opinion that the MCT marks as a 5-7 km
ductile zone rather than a single line similar to that of
MCT zone of Bhagirathi valley
[11]
(Metcalfe, 1993).
Beyond Tawang towards Zimithang, a huge close
outcrop named as Lumla Formation is observed and has
been referred to as tectonic window
[12,9,8]
(Tripathy et
al., 1979; Yin et al., 2006; Bhattacharjee & Nandy,
2008) and equated with the rocks of Dirang Formation.
The southern tectonic contact of Lumla Formation with
SeLa Group is marked at 27
0
3314N: 91
0
4529E
while the northern contact with Zimithang granite is
marked at 27
0
3748N: 91
0
4316E, 35.5 km from
Lumla towards Zimithang. Zimithang granite is a huge
241
NANDITA MAZUMDAR, SANTANU BHATTACHARJEE, SANDIP NANDY AND K.P.SARMA
batholithic body of deformed to partly undeformed
coarse grained leucocratic to mesocratic granite,
International boundary between India and Tibet is
passing through this granite massif at a few kilometers
north of Zimithang and hence tracing of its northern
limit is beyond our scope. Formation of Shonga-tser
Lake (popularly known as Madhuri lake) at
27
0
4340N: 91
0
4942E is an imprint of
Neoproterozoic activity near International Boundary
between India and Tibat. Its contact with the Sela Group
is traceable towards east and SE of Zimithang Tak
Tsang Gompa road. The Zimithang granite is thrusted
over the Lumla Formation and this thrust is considered
as upper limit of the Lumla Thrust or may be referred to
as Zimithang Thurst (ZT)
[2]
(Sarma et al., 2011)
equivalent to Kaktang thrust of Bhutan
[13]
(Gansser,
1983).

A lithotectonic map is presented in figure 1.

Fig1: Geological map of the study area
3. Structural History Of Lesser Himalayan
Sequence:

It is generally accepted that the Himalayan orogenic belt
displays characteristic thrust duplex morphology and
accommodate a number of south vergent thrusts. The
involvement of basement rocks of the Indian plate in the
Himalayan orogen display a great role in the structural
evolution and tectonic framework of the orogen by
moving vertically up because of buoyancy and pushed
southward over the younger rock sequences
[14]

(Bhattacharya, 2008). The Himalayan metamorphic belt
(HMB) along Bhalukpong- Tawang- Zimithang
geotransect bears the identities of deformational fabrics
belonging to Pre-Himalayan, Syn-Himalayan and Post-
Himalayan episodes from Proterozoic to lower
Pleistocene periods. HMB has undergone at least four
phases of deformation D
1
to D
4
[15]
(Jain et al., 2002)
and they argued that Himalayan granitoids (1800-2000
Ma) contains relict Palaeoproterozoic structures.

The study area is a part of the thrust bound geounits i.e.
the different tectonostratigraphic zones are separated by
a number of major thrusts namely MFT, MBT and MCT
in addition to a few minor thrusts. South Tibetan
Detachment System (STDS) separates the Tethyan
sedimentary zone of the south Tibet from Higher
Himalyan Sequence (HHS) (not observed in Indian
subcontinent) and the latter is thrust over Lesser
Himalyan Sequence (LHS) by a zone of high ductile
shear strain, traditionally designated as MCT. Thrust
morphology in the hanging wall side of MCT registered
top to the south tectonic transport under N-S tectonic
regime. LHS is thrusted over Siwalik sequences with a
242

top-to-south vergence geometry and acts as the
hinterland of the foreland Siwalik sedimentation.

Deformational history of the Lesser Himalayan
Sequences of West Kameng and Tawang districts of
Western Arunachal Pradesh has been discussed by a
number of authors
[16,10,9,8,6,5,17,7]
(Bhusan et al., 1991;
Kumar, 1997; Yin et al., 2006; Bhattacharjee and
Nandy, 2008; Goswami et al., 2009; Srivastava et al.,
2011; Sarma et al., in press; Saha, 2013).
[8]
Bhattacherjee and Nandy (2008) have suggested two
phases of deformation in the Lesser Himalayan
Sedimentary sequences and one phase of deformation in
Lesser Himalayan Crystalline (Bomdila gneiss).
[6]
Goswami et al. (2009) also have suggested three
phases of deformation (D
1
to D
3
) and two groups of
planar structures (S
1
and S
2
).
[5]
Srivastava et al. (2011)
have delineated four phases of folding F
1
, F
2
, F
3
, and F
4

where F
1
and F
2
are coaxial.

The present study deals with the structural analyses on
mesoscopic scale of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence of
western Arunachal Himalaya and strain analysis of
Shergaon conglomerate. The lithounits of western
Arunachal Himalaya exhibit structural trend parallel to
the general trend of the major thrusts (i.e. NE-SW) with
a steep to moderate dip towards NW. Both brittle and
ductile deformational effects are seen in these lithounits.

The LHSS (consisting of Dirang and Lumla
Formations) composed of phyllites, carb-phyllites,
metapelites, quartz-mica schist, micaceous quartzite,
quartzite, limestone, phyllonite and mylonites with
metavolcanics like actinolite-chlorite schist and
amphibolites. Generalised strike and trend of the Dirang
metasedimentaries are NE-SW with an average dip 40
0
-
60
0
towards NW. The LHSS display structural identities
of four different phases of deformation resulting planar,
linear and fold fabrics and typical interference patterns
are imprinted on them. On the regional scale, pervasive
planar fabric is designated as CS
2
shear foliation, a
planar fabric developed during Himalayan orogeny (=
S
2
of
[6]
Goswami et al., 2009). Pre Himalayan
signatures are still preserved in metasedimentaries and
they act as relict F
1
fold associated with axial planar
foliation S
1
(Fig. 2a)
.
S
1
strikes NE SW showing
generalized NW dip and moderate angle. F
1
is close,
appressed, isoclinals type and the contemporaneous
foliation transects S
0
at high angle at the hinge zone of
F
1
(Figs. 2a, 2b). Such fabrics are readjusted and
restructured during Himalayan orogeny resulting
pervasive shear foliation irrespective of lithounits and
further affected by successive deformational phases and
their interferences (Figs. 2c, 2e). In amphibolite, rarely
S
1
is observed in the hinge zone of minor F
2
folds and
intersect CS
2
at high angle. Crenulations and folds on
minor scale are observed with a generalised axial
orientation NW-SE (Fig. 2d). F
2
and F
1
folds maintain
coaxiality in some cases. F
2
plunges 40
0
to 60
0
towards
W or SW. Southeastern limb of F
2
is mostly short and
steep while northwestern limb is gentle and long.
Overturning character of F
2
is marked in many places
showing top to S or SE vergence (Fig. 2e). The
superposition of third phase deformation is documented
by metasedimentaries and metavolcanics of LHSS (Fig.
2f). The generalised axial orientation of F
3
fold is NW-
SE showing plunge towards NW at moderate 45
0

angle (Fig. 2f). The behaviour of F
3
is moderately
closed, open to warp type and the fold pattern and
geometry indicates with top-to-SW vergence as against
the S SE vergence of F
2
. Stretching lineation is
correlatable to D
3
deformation indicating NW to NNW
slip direction. Mild curvature of the axial orientation of
F
3
trending roughly N S, minor kink fold in
incompetent rock units, small scale faults and fractures
observed in multiple folds are classified as F
4
(Fig. 2d).

Fig2a: Tight appressed F
1
fold in Dirang Formation of
LHSS with thickened hinge and relatively thin limbs
plunging NE, axial plane is near horizontal, location:
south of Dirang.

Fig2b: Tight isoclinal fold marked by quartzite layer
from Dirang Formation near contact zone between
Bomdila gneiss and Dirang Formation. The axial plane
is near vertical and axis is near horizontal.

243

Fig2c: Alternate layers of quartzite and metapelite of
Dirang Formation showing interference between F
1
and
F
2
asymmetric folds, plunging towards NE. photograph
facing NE.

Fig2d: Highly deformed phyllite of LHSS, south of
Nagmandir area showing kinking (F
3
) with near
horizontal axial plane trending N-S. Minor crenulations
show low angle plunge due NW.

Fig2e: Hook shaped interference pattern between F
1
and
F
2
associated with CS
2
in Dirang Formation. Location:
contact zone of Bomdila gneiss and Dirang Formation.

Fig2f: Open, upright F
3
fold in Lumla Formation with
dextral motion. Location: near Lumla.

Fig2g: Nagmandir conglomerate separating LHSS from
LHC.

Fig2h: Shergaon conglomerate with highly stretched
pebbles parallel to subparallel to CS
2
(E-W direction)

244


Fig2i: Crenulated Bomdila gneiss showing subsidiary
top left bottom right shearing (S
3
) transecting CS
2
.

Fig2j: Close to tight F
2
is marked by quartzite and thin
metapelite. CS
2
is axial planar

Fig2k: Alternate M and Q domain in metapelite, folded
by F
3
of open upright type.

Fig2l: Syn D
2
garnet with sygmoidal S
i
fabric of dextral
sense.

Bomdila Gneiss (BG) referred to as orthogneiss is
tectonically emplaced over Bomdila Group. The LHC of
the western Arunachal Himalaya encloses a number of
felsic and mafic enclaves registering the testimony of
earliest planar fabric (S
0
=S
1
) and relict intrafolial,
rootless folds of first phase of deformation. Such folds
are probably a remnant of Indian continental crust
survived during the process of intensive shearing and
restructuring of syn-Himalayan orogeny. The syn-
Himalayan orogeny was so intense that most of the
earlier fabrics of Proterozoic basement rocks of the
Indian plate were destroyed, transposed, restructured
and developed most pervasive ductile shear foliation
(CS
2
), stretching lineation (L
2
), reclined fold (F
2
) and
sheeth folds (F
2
). Therefore, CS
2
foliation acts like tape
recorder where subsequent fabrics of D
3
and D
4
under
continued compressional regime were recorded.
Mylonitic foliation is marked by preferred orientation of
elongate or elliptical phenocrysts of feldspar, quartz and
rarely garnet (Figs. 2j, 2k). They also define stretching
lineation and direction varies from NW to NNE.
Variation from augen gneiss to ultramylonite through
mylonitic gneiss is observed along the outer western
marginal zone of the Bomdila gneiss and they show
high degree of dip due west (Fig. 2i, 2j).
[9]
Yin et al.
(2006) have suggested that the mylonitic foliation in
Bomdila gneiss is a fabric developed during Indo
Asian collision and not an inherited pre Cenozoic
structure. CS
2
fabric is folded by open, asymmetric to
overturned folds (F
3
) showing moderate to high angle
plunge (40
0
-70
0
) towards NW to W in the western
boundary of BG, in the northern boundary moderate
plunge (~ 45
0
) due N to NE and in the southern
boundary reversal of plunge either S or SE are also
observed. Such reversibility, either may be due to the
effect of later deformation (D
4
) or may be the imprints
on earlier thrusting configuration. Stretching and
245
mineral lineation (L
2
) plunges at low to moderate angle
due NE and /or SW.

Discrete subsidiary shear bands of non-pervasive nature
which wraps round augens of varied dimension marks
the registration of D
3
deformation in BG (Fig. 2k). The
orientation of the slip planes of fragmented augens with
dextral motion, minor faulting in the matrix and also in
the mafic enclaves follow the structural weak locals of
D
3
deformational episodes (Fig. 2l). Interference
between F
2
and F
3
marks the interference pattern 1
(dome and basin structure) in associated LHSS but they
are infrequently traceable in Bomdila gneiss rather
interference patterns- 2 and 3 - are seen where intensity
of strain is maximum and the pervasive shear bands
mark the flowage of disharmonic nature.

Emplacement of the vein rocks along N-S orientation
probably follows the structural locales of D
4
phase.
Kink band, minor faulting, N-S trending quartz,
tourmaline, feldspar veins and brittle fractures are seen.
Emplacement of dolerite and basaltic dykes is although
hardly correlatable with a definite deformational phase
but can be categorically placed under post Himalayan
orogenic cycle, free from metamorphism and follow D
2
,
D
3
and D
4
structural locals in the NE-SW, NW-SE and
N-S directions. The latter two directions truncate
regional orientation of the different lithocomponents of
the Himalayan Metamorphic Belt in the context of
subducted Indian plate configuration.

3.1. Microscopic Structures:
The rocks of the LHSS have undergone repeated
deformation cum metamorphic transformation during
Himalayan orogeny. Intensive structural readjustments
during Himalayan orogenic movement have either
erased away most of the Pre Himalayan Indian plate
related microscopic /mesoscopic structural evidences
except some small scale isoclinal to tight

appressed folds and rarely preserved planar fabrics in
the hinge zone of F
2
folds of coaxial nature with F
1

where dominant shear foliation (CS
2
) maintain cross cut
relationship. Such fabrics are rarely preserved in the
mafic enclaves within Bomdila gneiss. Synhimalayan
ductile phase results CS
2
all throughout the rock units
(LHSS and LHC) and is axial planar to F
2
showing
structural trend roughly NE-SW with moderate plunge
either NE or SW direction (Fig. 2j). In metapelite both
M and Q-domains are observed and they folded by F
3
and wrap round garnet porphyroblast showing both
and type of rotation. Garnet bears the identities of
straight trails of inclusion, sygmoidal rotation and also
intertectonic stage bearing S
e
fabric as S
i
within garnet
(Fig. 2l). In garnetiferous phyllite of Dirang / Lumla
Formation continuous cleavage (CS
2
) is marked by
flattened quartz, parallel alignment of biotite and
muscovite and sometimes elongate skeletal garnet or
garnet aggregates (Fig. 2k). Three generations of micas
(M
1
to M
3
are identified: (a) small flakes occurring as
inclusion in garnet or feldspar porphyroblasts (M
1
), (b)
as big flakes of mus
2
and biot
2
defining pervasive
foliation (CS
2
) which often wrap round different
porphyroblast or sometimes truncates (M
2
). They define
folding of later generation (F
3
and F
4
) and (c) as broad
and short flakes superposed on CS
2
at different angle
mostly along strain zones of F
3
and F
4
folding (M
3
).
Thus M
1
is interpreted as D
1
, M
2
as Syn D
2
and M
3
as
syn to post D
3
stages of folding.

Fig2m: CS
2
is folded by F
3
fold; S
3
is axial planar to F
3
.

Fig2n: Interference of F
2
and F
3
in alternate metapelite
and quartzite

Actinolite hornblende also marks similar behaviour. In
LHC, the protolithic feldspar phenocrysts suffer tectonic
attenuation and form augen defining CS
2
with mostly
right lateral sense of rotation. Such asymmetric
vergence marked by rotational movement of the strain
markers and associated folding is a clear indicative of
non coaxial deformation under simple shear
movement picture. CS
2
is highly crenulated showing
extension crenulation cleavage, zonal crenulation
cleavage and fracture planes (without growth of new
246

minerals) (Figs. 2m,n). Interference of F
2
and F
3
is well
defined in metapelites of the Dirang and Lumla
Formation of LHSS. Intragranular kinking and
microfaulting of extensional habit in feldspar augens are
also seen. Shearing and grain granulation leads to
anastomosing foliation and mortar texture. Metapelites
and metabasites from foreland part of the MCT zone
show high degree of shearing and intensive quartz
veining from both Dirang and Lumla areas. Similar
observations are also observed along the Lumal
Bhutan road.

4. Strain Analysis:

Strain in rocks can be calculated with the help of strain
markers such as ooids, spherulites, radiolarian shells,
foraminifera, pebbles of conglomerates, brecciated
mass, augens, ribbon quartz, amygdoles etc. In this
communication, deformed pebbles of conglomerate
observable at mesoscopic scale were considered as
strain marker to quantify finite strain (Fig. 2h). It is
difficult to ascertain whether initially the pebbles of
conglomerate were spherical or elliptical but the present
disposition of pebbles act as kinematic indicators. For
comperative study and correlation purpose, strained
quartz from associated rock components are also
considered side by side. They exhibit significant
stretching and rotation when they undergo deformation.
The conglomerates near Shergaon (hereafter will be
referred to as Shergaon conglomerate) are highly
deformed, stretched, fragmented, rarely faulted and
rotated as against the Nagmandir conglomerate which is
less deformed (Figs. 2g, 2h).

The generalized strike of the conglomeratic horizon is
NE-SW and the long axes of the pebbles are generally
parallel to the SC foliation cum interfaces of the
underlying lithosetting (Fig. 2h). In the field, pebbles
are measured on the XZ plane as well as YZ plane and
their long and short axes are calculated. The average
size varies from 0.77 12 cm in length (X) and 0.36 4
cm in breadth (Z). In one road section, YZ section of the
conglomerate horizon is exposed wherefrom
photographs and a few measurements are taken.
[18]

Ramsay (1967) described Rf/ technique for measuring
strain from any deformed strain markers and
subsequently it was modified by
[19]
Dunnet (1969) and
[20]
Lisle (1977). It is not possible to ascertain the
original size of the strain markers before deformation
even if the shape parameter is known. Hence, some
sorts of assumptions are made to proceed for their
calculations. Similar is the case of initial orientation of
such markers. As manual calculations with some
amount of assumptions is relatively time consuming,
therefore, computer based software are used in the
present presentation. Initially, it was thought of that the
strain estimation could be made by Fry method from
isotropic anti clustered distributions of strain markers
that was deformed homogeneously
[21,22]
(Fry, 1979;
Hanna and Fry 1979). But often it is observed that the
strain markers are affected by heterogeneous
deformation and the original pre deformational centres
of the markers are difficult to define. Therefore,
calculated centroids will underestimate finite strain in
Fry plots and as such more is the heterogeneity more is
the error. Out of different methods available for strain
analysis, only four methods are adopted for the present
study namely (1) Flinn plots
[23]
(Flinn 1962), (2)
Ramsay and Wood plot
[18,24]
(Ramsay 1967; Ramsay
and Wood 1973), (3) R
f
/ plots
[18,19,25]
(Ramsay 1967;
Dunnet 1969; Dunnet and Siddan 1971), (4) Fry method
[26,22]
(Fry 1978, 1979; Hanna and Fry 1979). These
plots are prepared using the software Sixstrain
developed by
[27]
P.P.Roday (2003).

Section wise pebbles are drawn on transparent overlays
and field photographs were taken in the field. The
conglomerate is so friable that it is hardly possible to cut
the sample in required orientation. Even it was not
possible to collect oriented samples with respect to
lithological layering or dominant CS
2
foliation of Syn
Himalayan deformation. However, photomicrographs
are made use of in preparing strain diagrams. The
lengths of the long (X), intermediate (Y) and short (Z)
axes of the deformed pebbles are measured with the
help of transparent overlays and enlarged photographs
with scale. Axial ratios (R
f
) of XZ and YZ sections and
orientation of major axes with respect to the reference
line () is also calculated. Recently, excel supported
spread sheet based approach to Rf/ strain analysis was
formulated by
[28]
Chew (2003) which is more easier
method in calculating symmetry of Rf/ plot and initial
orientation of the strain markers.

247

Fig3a: Flinn plot

Fig3b: Ramsay and Wood plot

Fig3c: Rf/ plot of XZ section

Fig3d: Rf/ plot of YZ section

248


Fig3e: Fry plot of Shergaon conglomerate

Flinn diagram prepared from Shergaon conglomerate
reveal that has all the plots lie in the flattening field
(oblate type) with characteristic mean value k = 0.2696,
which is less than 1 indicating simple shear mechanism
(Fig. 3a).
[24]
Ramsay and Wood (1973) plot also
indicate the flattening field (k = 0.3684) (Fig. 3b). From
graphical plots of R
f
vs. finite strain (R
s
) values were
determined by visual best fit into the standard curves of
[19]
Dunnet (1969). The plots of the data in Rf / plots
indicate that the angle is relatively less in XZ section
than that of YZ section. The population of Rf values is
not highly scattered but they have a rather narrow
values (Figs. 3c, 3d). It is seen than the vector mean of
the pebble long axes on the YZ section is not parallel to
the CS
2
plane. Fry plots are prepared from photographs
as per standard methods show an elliptical vacant area
of no concentration around the central part. The average
ratio of long and short axes is 2.47 (Fig. 3e).

In the outcrop scale strain appears to be homogeneous
but on the regional scale, heterogeneity prevails on the
entire Lesser Himalayan Sedimentary Sequence.

5. Discussion:

Western Arunachal Himalayan Block (WAHB) bears a
true Himalayan signature which is a lateral strain
extension from western Himalayan through Nepal,
Sikkim and Bhutan Himalaya upto Bame fault, whereas
Mishmi Himalaya is a separate geounit tectonically
thrusted from Mogok Belt of Burma
[29]
(Nandy, 2001),
juxtaposed like a tectonic roof over two pillars like
WAHB and Indo Myanmar Mobile Belt (IMMB)
[2]

(Sarma et al., 2011).

The two major components of LHS are LHSS and LHC;
the latter is tectonically emplaced over less or
unmetamorphosed rocks of LHSS. The LHC in
Bhalukpong Tawang sector is represented by
Palaeoproterozoic Bomdila gneiss. Whole rock Rb-Sr
isochron ages of Bomdila gneiss is marked out as 1914
23 Ma
[30]
(Dikshitala et al., 1995); 1676 122 Ma
[31]

(Bhalla and Bishui, 1989); 1743 4 Ma from zircon
study by
[32]
Yin et al. (2010) and they all are related to
Meso to Palaeoproterozoic age.

[5]
Srivastava et al. (2011) have suggested that the Indian
plate is moving northward and collided with Eurasian
plate pushing backward all the rock masses southward
in the form of tectonic slices either as imbricate thrust,
schuppen zone, duplexes or multiplex. Their early,
middle and late phases of deformations are correlatable
with Pre Himalayan, Syn Himalayan and Post
Himalayan phases of
[15]
Jain et al. (2002). On the other
hand, inferred SeLa and Tawang thrusts as suggested by
[5]
Srivastava et al. (2011) are correlatable with MCT
1
,
MCT
2
and MCT
3
of
[33]
Valdiya (1980) from Western
Himalaya.

[32]
Yin et al. (2010) have mapped the Bhalukpong
Zimithang geotransect on regional scale and shown a
good number of sections including large scale SeLa
synclinorium in the Higher Himalayan sequence. The
large scale shear sense top to the SE to S or SW worked
out both from minor and major structures are suggested
to be due to superposition of Precambrian and Tertiary
Deformations.

The present study is confined only to Lesser Himalayan
sequence unravelling the presence of conglomerates
near Dedza and named as Nagmandir conglomerate
separating LHC (Bomdila gneiss) from Rupa Group (=
Tenga Formation = Dedza Formation which is
equivalent to Bauxa Formation) showing numerous
pebbles of limestone, phyllite, quartzite and quartz.
Similarly, another conglomerate is traceable at 5 km
ahead of Shergaon and named as Shergaon
conglomerate with significant stretched pebbles,
cobbles, quartz sericite schist, limestone and quartz
pebbles. Occurrences of these two conglomerates
indicate that Tenga Formation is older than Dirang
Formation as well as Bomdila gneiss.

6. Conclusions:

The present study is a synchronization of some of the
early workers observations. The following observations
are suggested. Microstructural identities indicate that
intensive mylonitic fabric of syn Himalayan orogeny
were deformed by crystal plastic and strain softening
mechanism under low to moderate pressure
temperature conditions within lower to middle part of
the amphibolites facies. Computed strain related
249
datasets are populated in the flattening field hints
moderate to high shear strain.

Based on vergence pattern of small scale folds of
different generations and scales, the sense of asymmetry
is worked out and it is observed that Pre Himalayan and
Syn Himalyan structural fabrics are showing top to the
SE to SW through S sense of shear. On the regional
scale, slip vector may be considered as top to the south
sense of tectonic transport. This kinematic direction
coincides with the regional kinematic directions of
MFT, MBT and MCT
[32]
(Yin et al., 2010).

Thus, it is concluded that the rocks of the western
Arunachal Himalaya in the Bhalukpong Tawang
sector which represents part of the Indian continental
crust display compressional - collisional tectonism
between Indian and Eurasian plates in a near horizontal
tectonic setup followed by stack of intensive thrusting
where rotational axes coincides with the x-direction of
maximum extension.


The authors are thankful to the Department of Science
and Technology (DST), Government of India for
providing financial assistance in the form of the project
(ESS/16/242/2005/Kameng(06)). The authors would
also like to acknowledge the Department of Geological
Sciences, Gauhati University, Guwahati and Geological
Survey of India for providing facility to carry out the
work.

8. Reference:

[1] Yin, A. and Harrison, T.M. (2000). Geologic
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[3] Colchen, M., Bassoullet, J.P., Mascle, G.l., (1982).
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[4] Brookfield, M.E. (1993). The HimalayanPassive
margin from Precambrian to Cretaceous.
Sedimentary Geology 84 1 35.
[5] Srivastava, H.B., Srivastava, V., Srivastava, R.K.
and Singh, C.K. (2011). Structural analyses of the
crystalline rocks between Dirang and Tawang,
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(2009). Petrology of a non-classical Barrovian
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[7] Saha, D. (2013). Lesser Himalayan sequences in
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[9] Yin, A., Dubey, C.S., Kelty, T.K., Gehrels, G.E.,
Chow, C.Y., Grove, M. and Lovera, O. (2006).
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Journal of Geological Society of India 217.
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Geological Society of London Special Publication
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(2002). Himalayan collision Tectonics. Gondawna
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(1991). Preliminary investigation for base metal
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[17] Sarma, K.P., Bhattacherjee, S., Nandy, S., Konwar,
P. and Mazumdar, Nandita (2012). Structure,
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Bomdila Gneiss, Western Arunachal Himalaya,
India. Journal of Geological Society Of India
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[20] Lisle, R.J. (1977). Estimation of the tectonic strain
ratio from the mean Shape of deformed elliptical
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Dyfed (Penbrokeshire) and adjacent area
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dimensional progressive deformation. Quarterly
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random sedimentary fabrics and their modification
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D progressive deformation. Journal of Geological
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[28] Chew, D. (2003). An Excel spreadsheet for finite
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Dhana, R. (1995). Rb Sr systematic of granitoids
in the Central Gneissic Complex, Arunachal
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Himalaya. Records Geological Survey of India 122
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Harrison, T.M., Chou, C.Y. and Clrier, Julien
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www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.251-259

A Geo-Technical assessment of Slope stability condition at Lovedale
Club slide, Lovedale, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India
E. SARANATHAN, SUGANYA KANAGASABAI, M. KANNAN AND G. K. VENKATRAMAN
School of Civil Engineering, SASTRA University, Thanjavur, INDIA
Email: esaranathan@yahoo.co.in

Abstract: Natural disaster like landslides mostly seen in a fragile mountain hill slopes like Himalayas in North
India, Western ghats in Kerala and Karnataka, The Nilgiris, Annamalai hills, Megamalai in Tamil Nadu, etc.
Anthropogenic activities like improper planning, networking, deforestation and agricultural activities are one of the
important factors in hilly regions and aggravated the slope instability. Normally, wherever, slides are occurs the
slope is converted to gentle slope and it is stable in condition. In this condition, due to external factors like rainfall,
manmade activities are further stressed and causing recurrence of slope instability in an already slide slopes. In this
regard, to assess the stability condition of slide area, which seen in recent past near human settlement are taken to
detailed study.

The present study area, in Lovedale, The Nilgiris one of the connecting roads from NH 67 to Lovedale village have
been obtained considering stress condition due to heavy urban developments (mainly resorts) in this ghat section.
In Ooty municipality, 25 slides are occurred in 2009 rainfall, out of 25 slides five slides are present in this ghat
section and one of the slide points near Lovedale Club was selected in detailed study. Due to this slide, the club
building is damaged and middle slope NMR railway was also blocked by debris. The field investigation noticed that
3 tensional cracks present in the upper slope near club building. It is clearly documented through photographs. The
slope was divided into three zones as upper, middle and lower slope and slope stability analysis was carried out. To
fulfilling the study, nine surface soil samples and three core samples were collected in upper, middle and lower
slopes and found out c and values using Direct Shear Test. The factor of safety was calculated by using Limit
Equilibrium method. As per the analysis, factor of safety was calculated in three static conditions as dry, partial
saturated and complete saturated condition. The results indicated that upper slopes FOS is 0.98, 0.84, 0.70 as dry,
partial and complete saturated conditions, middle slope is 1.37, 1.09, 0.80 and lower slopes is 1.32, 1.05, 0.77 for
same conditions respectively. The results are verified with CFC method. The slide area is very critical in condition
whenever heavy precipitation is present and the slope may be failed. The results are informed to local administrative
agencies and recommended to prevent the slope using any one of the slope production measures.

1. Introduction:

Landslides in India are common phenomena in any hilly
regions. However, in other hill stations and in some
plateau regions, it appears now and then. Landslides
cause extensive damages to roads, bridges, human
dwellings, agricultural lands, forest, etc., resulting in
loss of property as well as human life. It frequently
occurs in hilly regions like Himalayas, Western and
Eastern Ghats. In Tamil Nadu, often landsides are seen
in Ootacamund, Kodaikanal, Yercaud and occasionally,
in the other areas (Anon 2006, 2007 and 2009). The
Ootacamund is located at the confluence of the Eastern
and Western Ghats. The Ooty town is present in
intermountain valley of Nilgiris. The town is located at
2240m elevation above MSL. It is also called Queen of
hill stations. After independence, the Urban have been
witnessing faster growth, due to a number of
developmental activities proposed by the Government.
The growth of settlement has been remarkable in the hill
stations without any plan. This result in environmental
degradation, mainly land use changes in the hilly areas
induced landslides. Landslides are trembling in the
whole Nilgiris Mountain.

The Ooty town covers an area of about 30 sq. km. It
may be noted that the built-up land constituting about
60% of the total area and remaining area coming under
agricultural practices. Ootacamund fascinates a vast
number of people during the summer months. During
this period, the town attracts about two lakh person per
day. In off-season, an average tourist flow is of about
15,000 to 20,000 persons per day. The foreign tourists
account to a total of about 30 to 40 thousand persons in
a year. Many reasons for overseas tourists preferring
Udhagamandalam are attributed to this.

252
The socio-political climate in Kashmir and other places
is not conducive for a peaceful holidaying.
Most of the hill stations in Himalayan ranges have
witnessed substantial degradation of environment.
The climate conditions of other hill stations vary to a
great extent and extreme climate and snowfall witnessed
frequently in Himalayan hill station.

The Nilgiris hill is facing two major problems Natural
and Anthropogenic activities. Urbanization is due to
mainly construction of Resorts, Tourist flux and
intensive agricultural activities. These are all
anthropogenic activities induced soil erosions and slope
instability. The natural forces mainly rain fall
sublimated to above said problems.

Mr. D. Ram Raj from DNA agency in Chennai has
published news on November 11
th
2009(Anon, 2009).
He quoted that heavy rain triggered a series of
landslides in Ooty, Conoor, and Kothagiri regions of the
Niligiris. Most of the people were killed after the
landslides slammed to their houses. After 1978, this is
the biggest rain-related disaster in the district. It rained
continuously since November 8, resulting in huge
damage to life and property. Ms. Shika recorded;
landslips and heavy rain claimed more than 29 more
lives in the hill strict, taking the total to 43 in last two
days. Landslides claimed the lives of nine people in
Ooty town, two persons died in the present study area
and it is recorded 170mm rain in 24 hours.

In Ooty municipality, 2009 rain fall about 25 locations
as landslides were occurred in different scales. The
present study has taken in Lovedale village to NH 67
road. It is shown in Figure 1. Out of 25 landslides, 5
slides are occurred in this ghat section. The middle slide
has adjacent to the Lovedale club and taken for detailed
study.

2. Study Area:

The ghat section is connecting NH 67 - Lovedale
village. It is starting 76
o
4307 E to 11
o
23 22 N in
NH junction and 76
o
42 22 E to 11
o
22 59 N in
Lovedale village. The GPS co-ordinates of these five
slides are furnished in Table 1. The middle slide is
chosen for detailed study and it is about 750m from the
NH junction. The slope present in the ghat section is
slopping in SE direction slope. The total length of the
slope is about 984m and elevation difference from top
to bottom of the slope is about 360m. The middle slope
Nilgiris Mountain Railways, Mettupalaiyam to Ooty
railway track is present and lower most end one more
road ghat section is present after that the slope is end
with a stream. Geologically the whole area is covered
by charnockitic rock. These rocks are exposed in upper
most/top of the hill and some out crops also seen in the
hill slopes. The predominant soil present in this slope is
reddish brown soil. It is extended up to 4 to 5 m, which
porous in nature. As per the land use/land cover
categories, the upper most slope is barren rocky and
resorts, club and settlements are located and then
followed by tea plantation and agricultural land.

3. Methods used:

For this study, two methods are chose for calculating
stability of the slope as limit equilibrium method under
static condition to calculate factor of safety given by
Coates (1970) and Circular Failure Chart (CFC method)
method proposed by Hoke and Bray (1981). In the case
of homogeneous soil, the shape of the critical failure
surface is assumed to be circular or that of a logarithmic
spiral; the Limiting equilibrium method is widely used
in design of excavation and road cutting in ghat
sections. The accuracy of an equilibrium analysis of
slope stability depends on the accuracy with which the
strength properties and geometric condition of the soil
(Duncan and Wright, 1980). There have been many
studies carried out on slope stability analysis, using
limit equilibrium, Bishop (1955), Jambu (1957),
Fredlund (1984), for geotechnical study, to calculate
factor of safety has also been applied to slope staility
analysis by Hoke and Bray (1981). As a new approach
to using slope stability analysis, software has been
applied and find out the factor of safety by Singh and
Monjezi (2002), and Pourkhosravani and Kalantari
(2011), Pan,et al.,(2012), Pietruszczak and Haghighat,
(2013).

4. Slope stability assessment of Lovedale Club slide
area:

Lovedale NH 67 ghat section is about 2,194m length.
The Lovedale club is present almost middle of the ghat
section. The slope is dividing into three zones for the
convinent study. Above this Lovedale-NH road is upper
slope, ghat section to NMR railway track is middle and
below the track is a lower slope. The slope is facing to
Achchinakal village; the average slope is 45
o
with slope
direction towards SE. The stability analysis of this
failed slope is carried out under dry, partial and fully
saturated condition in limit equilibrium method and five
different conditions in CFC method.

A systematic study is carried out and assesses the
stability condition of failed slope and general slope.
Ground investigation was carried out and general profile
of this slope was done (Figure 2) using DGPS from
ridge to bottom of the slope. Wherever the very steep
slope is present, it is consists of loose overburden
having shallow thickness; it is create talus failure and
most potential for existing slope. A geotechnical study,
nine surface samples and three core cutter samples for
each slope were collected; two surface and one core
sample were collected in the slide body at different
253
E SARANATHAN, SUGANYA KANAGASABAI, M KANNAN AND
G K VENKATRAMAN
heights. The co-ordinate of surface sample locations is
shown in Table 2.

The soil properties like unit weight, moisture content
and porosity was calculated to three core cutter samples
and furnished in Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5
respectively. Direct Shear Test was carried out in
geotechnical laboratory to calculate their shear strength
parameters for all samples. Normally five different
normal loads to get their corresponding shear strength
values obtained in each nine samples. The values of
normal Stress ( ) and shear stress () were plotted in
graph sheet X and Y axis and possible combinations
derived from best fit lines of shear test results. The
angle made by the straight line with the horizontal is
(friction angle) and the intercept which the straight line
makes with the vertical axis is the extent of cohesion (c)
calculated. The normal load, shear strength value and
corresponding c and values are shown in Table 6. The
stability condition of the given slope is estimated by
calculating FOS following limit equilibrium method
under static condition (Coates, 1970) for dry, partial
(50%), and complete saturation (100%) condition and
Circular Failure Chart method, FOS is calculated for
dry, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% saturation condition.

4.1. Limit Equilibrium Method:
The talus slide stability was calculated by Coates (1970)
and the equation of FOS is given below: and Figure 3
shows schematic condition under which the below
equation is established.

F = c.sec
2
f
/ .Z + tan [1-(1-Z
w
/ Z).
w
/] / tan
f
-(1)

Where,
c = cohesion, = friction angle, = unit weight of slope
forming material,
w
=

unit weight of water, f =
average slope gradient, Z = average depth of overburden
and Z
w
= average depth of phereatic surface from slope
face. Z
w
= Z (for dry condition), = 0.5 Z (for partial
saturation condition) and = 0 (for complete saturated
condition).

Lovedale club slope stability carried out using equation
(1). The input data used in this analysis given Table 7.
Resulting of stability analysis using eq. 1 under dry,
partial, and complete saturation in natural slope and
average slope and FOS was calculated Table 8 shows
furnished FOS for three zones.

Fig3: Schematic condition of a Talus Failure indicating
the stresses acting on debris mass. Note: Slope surface
and Slope angle are considered parallel in the analysis
(Anbagalan et al. 2007)

4.2. Circular Failure Chart Method:
The Circular Failure Chart was produce by means of a
Hewlett-Packard 9100B calculator with graph plotting
facilities. This software was programmed to seek out the
most critical combination of failure surface on tension
cracks for each of a range of slope geometrics and
groundwater conditions provision was made for the
tension crack to be located either in upper slope or of
face of the concerned slopes. The CFC method was
proposed by Hoek and Bray in 1981. This is a rapid
method for stability analysis and even beginners may
find it easy to adopt. The main assumptions of the CFC
methods are:

Slope is to be homogeneous.
The shear strength of the materials is characterized by a
c and .

The failure surface to be circular.
A vertical tension crack may be present in upper slope
or face of the cut slope.
A range of groundwater conditions are considered for
the study ie. Dry to fully saturated condition.

In order to account for pore water pressure in subsoil
and forces due to water present in tension cracks, a
serious of groundwater flow pattern are assumed (Hoek
and Bray, 1981). For serious of possible field conditions
have been chosen, which have been indicated in a
combined form as shown in Figure 4. For the safety
purpose condition five groundwater conditions taken for
this study.

The outline of the curve (Figure 5) and steps taken to
find out FOS is given below.
Step 1 Decide upon the groundwater condition.
Step 2 Calculate the dimensionless ration c / H.
Tan. Find this value on outer circular scale of the chart.
254
Step 3 Follow the radial line from the value found step
2 to its inter section with the curve which
corresponding to the slope angle.
Step 4 Find corresponding value of Tan/F or c/HF.
Step 5 Calculate the factor of safety.

The present study area, two tension cracks are noticed
near the Lovedale Club building and another one just 50
to 100m away from the previous crack (Plate I). The
upper slope was fully satisfied the CFC condition. The
parameter has taken for this analysis is given in Table 9.
According to the ground condition, the FOS is
calculated for five different groundwater conditions and
the results are tabulated (Table 10).

5. Results and Discussion:

The Ooty town is situated in intermountain valley of
Nilgiris mountain. The soil thickness is marginally high
in this area. Wherever road sections are present, it is
long distance linear structure. It is constructed fast and
in progress of construction inadequately incorporates
geological and geo-technical parameters. Normally in
this slope sections medium to large scale slips are occur
very close to human settlement. In this study clearly
show a present status of Lovedale slide area. The slope
was failed in November 2009 heavy precipitation. The
whole slope including the failed slope has been taken up
for detailed slope stability analysis. The analysis has
been carried out in liquid equilibrium method static
condition and Circular Failure Chart method in different
saturated conditions. Table 8 and Table 10 clearly seen
that Factor of safety value decrease with increase
saturation conditions. The Figure 6a, b, and c show that
FOS vs condition respectively. The results show that in
dry condition, the slope is critically stable while
increasing the saturated condition it becomes unstable.
The both methods results clearly indicated that the
upper slope more unstable than the middle and lower
slope. The results are given in Table 8.

6. Conclusion:

In Lovedale Club slide area, geo-technical study results
indicated that moisture content of the soil is higher
(0.07) than middle (0.05) and lower slope (0.06), it is
clearly indicate the soil ready to prone to slide. In
porosity values is less (0.29) than middle (0.35) and
lower (0.38) area, it is shows that in monsoon season
upper slope got easily saturated compare to middle and
lower zones. The Unit weight is higher (17.71) than
middle (16.02) and lower slopes (15.40), it is seen that
whenever the upper slope got saturated and unit weight
is high, it is very easily prone to slip. The Factor of
safety was calculated by using limit equilibrium and
CFC methods. As per the slope stability analysis by
Circular failure chart method, the slide zone is critically
stable in dry condition. The Factor of safety is just one
(1.10). It is continuously decrease with increase the
water saturation condition. In fully saturated condition,
the Factor of safety was less than one (0.925). The limit
equilibrium method analysis indicated that the Factor of
safety was 0.70, 0.61 and 0.52 in dry, partial and
completely saturated condition respectively in average
slope. In natural slope condition, the Factor of safety
was 0.73, 0.59 and 0.45 for dry, partial and saturated
condition respectively. Under such condition, the toe of
the slides slope should be suitably prevented by
retaining wall or gabion wall.

7. Reference:

[1] Amin Pourkhosravani and Behzad Kalantari,
2011, a Review of Current Methods for Slope
Stability Evaluation, EJGE, Vol.16, pp 1245
1254.
[2] Anon 2006, 26
th
November 2006, Thinakaran
paper, Tiruchy edition.
[3] Anon 2009, 16
th
October 2009, The Hindu paper,
Tiruchy edition.
[4] Anon 2007, 25
th
October 2007, The Hindu paper,
Tiruchy edition.
[5] Anon, 2009, www.dnaindia.com.
[6] Bishop, A. W., 1955. The use of the slip circle in
the stability analysis of slopes, Geotechnique, v.5,
pp.7-17.
[7] Chakraborty, D, Anbalagan, R and Kohli, A, 2008,
An engineering geological appraisal of slope
stability condition at D.S.B. College site on
Ayarpata hills in Nainital, Uttarakhand, Landslide
Management Present Scenario & Future
Directions, CBRI, Roorkee, Proceeding of CBRI
Diamond Jubilee Conference, Feb 10 12, pp 157
166.
[8] Coates, D.F., 1970. Rock Mechanical Principle.
Department of Energy, Mines and Resources,
Monograph 874, Canada, Chapter 6.
[9] Duncan, J.M., and Wright, S.G., 1980. The
accuracy of Equillibrium method of slope stability
analysis, Engineering Geology, 16, 5-17.
[10] Fredlund, D.G, 1984, Analytical Methods for Slope
Stability Analysis, Proceeding of the Fourth
International Symposium on Landslide, State-of-
the-Art, Sep. 16 21, Toronto, Canada, pp 229
250.
[11] Hoek, E and Bray, J.W. 1981, Rock Slope
Engineering (Revised Third Edition), E & FN
SPON Publishers.
[12] Janbu, N, 1957, Earth pressures and bearing
capacity calculations by generalized procedure of
slices, Proceeding in International conference of
soil Mech. Foundation Engg. 4
th
London, 2: 207
212.
[13] Pietruszczak, s and Haghighat, E, 2013,
Assessment of slope stability in cohesive soil due to
255
G K VENKATRAMAN
rainfall International journal of numerical and
analytical model in Geomatics, vol 37, No.18, pp
3278-3292.
[14] Pan,x, Yang, L, ZLang, S, Wei ,P and Sun, M,
2012, Three dimensional slope stability methods
based on GIS technology, Vol 594-597, pp 2356-
2360.
[15] Singh, T. N., and Monjezi, M, 2002, Slope
Instabvility in jointed Rock mass A Numerical
Approac, Mining Engineering Journal, Vol.1 (10),
pp 12 13.

Fig1: Location map

Fig2: Slope Profile in Lovedale Club

256

Fig4: CFC groundwater flow condition (Hock and Brey, 1981)

Fig5: Calculation of Factor of Safety from Circular Failure Chart

Fig6a:

Fig6b:
257
G K VENKATRAMAN

Fig6c:
Table1: GPS location of slide points
Sl. No. Longitude Latitude
1. 76
o
42 56 E 11
o
23 10 N
2. 76
o
44 04 E 11
o
23 39 N
3. 76
o
43 02 E 11
o
23 58 N
4. 76
o
42 59 E 11
o
23 59 N
5. 76
o
42 58 E 11
o
24 03 N
Table2: Surface soil samples GPS Co-ordinates
Sl.No. Sample location Northing Easting Elevation in m
1. Upper S1 11
o
23 11 N 76
o
43 00 E 2272.6
2. Upper S2 11
o
23 12 N 76
o
42 59 E 2271.1
3. Middle S1 11
o
23 11 N 76
o
42 59 E 2261.46
4. Middle S2 11
o
23 11 N 76
o
42 58 E 2258.71
5. Middle S3 11
o
23 09 N 76
o
42 59 E 2232.2
6. Lower S1 11
o
23 06 N 76
o
43 59 E 2175.7
7. Lower S2 11
o
23 06 N 76
o
43 00 E 2170.87
8. Lower S3 11
o
23 05 N 76
o
43 00 E 2167.43
9. Lower S4 11
o
22 59 N 76
o
43 04 E 2090.34

Table3: Unit Weight of core samples

Upper Middle Lower Average
Mass of the core cutter W
1
(g) 920 950 1022 964
Mass of the core cutter + soil
W
2
(g)
2780 2644 2654 2693
Unit weight (kN/M^
3
) = (W
2
-
W
1/
V
18.60 17.14 16.32 17.35
Dry unit weight (kN/M^
3
) D
= /1 + W)
17.71 16.02 15.40 16.38

Table4: Moisture content in core samples

Upper Middle Lower Average
Weight of can. W
1
(g) 920 950 1022 964
Weight of Can. + wed soil W
2
(g) 2780 2644 2654 2693
Weight of Can. + wed soil W
3
(g) 2692 2552 2560 2601
Water/Moisture content
W (%) = [(W
2
- W
3
)/( W
3
W
1
)] x 100
0.07 0.05 0.06 0.06

Table5: Detailed Geotechnical results of core samples
Upper Middle Lower
Specific gravity G 2.67 2.69 2.67
Unit weight (kg/m3) 18.6 17.14 16.32
Void ratio e 0.41 0.54 0.60
Porosity n 0.29 0.35 0.38

Table6: Direct Shear Test results
258

Location
Normal load
in kg/cm
2

Normal stress in
KN/m
2

Shear load in
Kn
Shear load
in KN/m
2

Cohesion of soil
in KN/m
2

Angle of internal
friction in degree
Upper S1
0.5 49.05 0.09 25
20 31
1.0 98.1 0.1584 44
1.5 147.15 0.396 110
2.0 196.2 0.5148 143
2.5 245.25 0.612 170
Upper S2
0.5 49.05 0.1728 48
50 30
1.0 98.1 0.378 105
1.5 147.15 0.468 130
2.0 196.2 0.5868 163
2.5 245.25 0.7668 213
Middle S1
0.5 49.05 0.2232 62
20 38.5
1.0 98.1 0.2592 72
1.5 147.15 0.4932 137
2.0 196.2 0.6696 186
2.5 245.25 0.7488 208
Middle S2
0.5 49.05 0.1944 54
20 39.5
1.0 98.1 0.3672 102
1.5 147.15 0.4536 126
2.0 196.2 0.6192 172
2.5 245.25 0.828 230
Middle S3
0.5 49.05 0.252 70
35 36.19
1.0 98.1 0.4032 112
1.5 147.15 0.5328 148
2.0 196.2 0.6696 186
2.5 245.25 0.972 270
Lower S1
0.5 49.05 0.288 80
40 34.98
1.0 98.1 0.4032 112
1.5 147.15 0.504 140
2.0 196.2 0.6408 178
2.5 245.25 0.792 220
Lower S2
0.5 49.05 0.216 60
30 37.3
1.0 98.1 0.3528 98
1.5 147.15 0.5328 148
2.0 196.2 0.6408 178
2.5 245.25 0.828 230
Lower S3
0.5 49.05 0.1512 42
10 38.37
1.0 98.1 0.3744 104
1.5 147.15 0.4752 132
2.0 196.2 0.5616 156
2.5 245.25 0.7344 204
Lower S4
0.5 49.05 0.2664 74
12 48
1.0 98.1 0.4032 112
1.5 147.15 0.648 180
2.0 196.2 0.7848 218
2.5 245.25 0.9468 263

Table7: Soil input parameter for Liquid Equilibrium analysis
259
G K VENKATRAMAN

Parameter
Upper Middle Lower
Dry 50% 100% Dry 50% 100% Dry 50% 100%
Soil thickness
(D)
6 6 6 8 8 8 7 7 7
Surface
inclination (f)
48 48 48 38 38 38 42 42 42
Unit Weight of
soil ()
18.6 18.6 18.6 17.14 17.14 17.14 16.32 16.32 16.32
Friction angle
()
30
o
30 30
o
30 30
o
30 38
o
336 38
o
336 38
o
336 39
o
3936 39
o
3936 39
o
3936
Cohesion (c) 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 23.0 23.0 23.0
Unit weight of
water (
w
)
9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81
phereatic
surface from
slope face (Z
w
)
6 3 0 8 4 0 7 3.5 0

Table8: FOS for soil sections in different groundwater condition Liquid Equilibrium Method

Soil section
Factor of Safety
Average slope
Factor of Safety
Natural slope
Dry Partial Complete Dry Partial Complete
Upper 0.70 0.61 052 0.73 0.59 0.45
Middle 0.77 0.57 0.37 0.95 0.66 0.38
Lower 0.81 0.61 0.41 0.96 0.68 0.40

Table9: Soil input parameters for CFC analysis

Soil property Upper
Slope angle 48
o

Height of slope 10
Density of soil 18.6
cohesion 25.0
Internal friction angle 30
o
30
Dimensionless ratio 0.23

Table10: F value of the slope for different groundwater flow condition

FOS (F) as per the X
and Y intercept of the
chart
Groundwater flow condition
Chart 1
Dry
Chart 2
25%
Chart 3
50%
Chart 4
75%
Chart 5
saturated
Upper Slope
X Intercept (F
1
) 1.09 1.075 1.018 1.00 0.92
Y Intercept (F
2
) 1.11 1.11 1.09 1.016 0.93
FOS
avg
= (F
1
+F
2
)/2 1.10 1.09 1.05 1.00 0.925

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ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.260-268

Land-Slide Hazards of October 2009 at Karwar, Karnataka: A
Lesson for Planning Developmental Activities in the Tropical Ghat
Regions
V S HEGDE
1
, KRISHNAPRASAD P A
2
, SHALINI R
3
, DEEPMALA NILAMWAR
1
, TEJASWINI B
1
,
GIRISH K H
4
AND C S MALEWADI
1

1
SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad 580002, INDIA
2
SDM Institute of Technology, Ujire D.K. 574240, INDIA
3
Global Academy of Technology, Rajarajeshwari Nagar, Bangalore 5800098, INDIA
4
Government Engineering College, Haveri, INDIA
Email: vshegde2001@yahoo.com, krish_geo@rediffmail.com

Abstract: Landslides of October 2009 at Karwar caused the death of 19 people, destroyed 5 houses completely and
damaged several other houses, national highway and the Karwar port. These are considered the most severe ones
among recent landslides. Around the same time in 21 locations, landslides occurred. A study of geomorphologic,
geologic, hydrographic, and land use/ land cover pattern of 1500 sq Km around Karwar area based on the satellite
data to understand the causes of the landslides was conducted. Temporal and spatial distribution of the landslides
suggest the role of active tectonics that have been triggered by human interference such as deforestation, fragile
slopes modification, blocked natural drainage, unscientific quarrying, and land use practices due to many project-
related activities such as Sea Bird at Karwar, Kadra dam project, Kaiga Nuclear power projects, Konkan railway
etc. The study indicates that in the areas of tectonically active and environmentally fragile mountain regions like the
Western Ghat, before planning any project, knowledge of the hydro-geomorphologic, geophysical,
geoenvironmental and tectonic history of the region is critical.

Keywords: Landslides, Western Ghat, Tropical region, Active Tectonics, Anthropogenic activity.

1. Introduction:

Land Slides are common hazards in mountainous
regions especially of high rainfall areas of tropical
regions where weathering is deep (Sajinkumar et al.,
2011) like in the Western Ghats. Direct relation between
effect of weathering and slope failure resulting in land
slide at the foot of the scarp are well known (Pasto and
Silvano, 1998, Gupte et al., 2013). Although, slope
failures are not uncommon in hilly regions in tropical
countries, the severity of the landslides that occurred in
October, 2009 at Karwar, Karnataka, are considered the
worst in recent times. These landslides caused the death
of 19 people, destroyed 5 houses completely, damaged
several others and caused huge loss of property to the
National High way, Karwar fishery port etc. Many
project-related activities like deforestation, blockage of
natural drainages due to the activities of Sea Bird
project, quarrying, Kadra dam project, Kaiga Nuclear
power projects, Konkan railway etc are believed to have
triggered the slide, and aroused much interest among the
scientists and public. In this paper an attempt has been
made to understand the causes for the slide based on
field observation and satellite data interpretation.

Conventional approach of land slide study involves
investigations of geotechnical properties of the soil such
as internal friction, cohesion, thickness of the soil cover
etc. When large areas with diverse types of slides and
material are involved as in the case of Karwar,
geotechnical approach becomes impracticable (Sambhu
et al., 1997). In large areas causative factors vary, so
geological and geomorphological approach are more
useful (Sambhu et al., 1997; Pitchai Muthu and
Muralidharan, 2005). Therefore, in this paper an attempt
has been made to understand the causes for the slide
based on multiple approaches like geomorphological
and geological studies, followed by field observation
and geotechnical approach. All the field and satellite
derived data have been processed in Geographical
Information System (GIS) platform, and causes for the
landslide have been inferred.

1.1. Study Area:
The study area is located in the tropical belt at the foot
of the Western Ghat at Karwar (Latitude 14
0
4214N to
14
0
5446N and Longitude 74
0
0514E to 74
0
2057E).

261
V S HEGDE, KRISHNAPRASAD P A, SHALINI R, DEEPMALA NILAMWAR,
TEJASWINI B, GIRISH K H AND C S MALEWADI

Fig1: Location map of the study area shown in Satellite image of Karwar area. Also note major lineaments in the
area, stream ponding and obtuse bend at Bargadde near Karwar.

The study area covers about 1500 sq Km around
Karwar, which is a hilly coastal tract. It receives annual
rainfall of ~300 cm of which 85 % falls between June
and September.

Karwar is a small town, but with many Industrial
activities like Kadra hydroelectric power project (35
Km. from Karwar), Kaiga nuclear power Project (43
Km. from Karwar), Sea Bird project at Karwar and
Karwar Port etc. The Konkan railway line crosses
Karwar through a tunnel (Fig.1). A large number of
quarries are being operated around Karwar especially
close to the Highway between Karwar and Ankola.

1.1.1. TheDisaster:

Landslide calamity at Karwar took place on 2
nd

October 2009 between 4 and 4.20 pm in 21 locations.
Two slides near Kadwad, one near Karwar town, one
at Karwar fishery port and 17 along the national
highway between Karwar and Belekeri (Fig.1) (Table
1). The slides at Karwar port and Kadwad were soil
slides; near Karwar town it was rock fall and along
the Highway a mix of soil, weathered debris and
boulders. At Kadwad as people reported, hill slide
occurred suddenly from 268 m above msl, to 15 m,
and it moved laterally ~150m in just 3 to 4 minutes
(Fig.2). The people reported that, there was not even
time for them to come out of their houses; five houses
along with many coconut trees were completely
destroyed and buried under the thick soil cover of the
slide materials. One house moved laterally ~100m
from its original place and collapsed. It is estimated
that at Kadwad, from an Overburden area of
~190mX100mX50m soil was dislodged causing death
of 19 people apart from huge loss of property. Along
the highway, slide consisting of boulders, debris, rock
fragments and weathered materials that fanned out to
a wider area at the location were observed (Fig.3).
Before the tragedy occurred, it had rained for 3
consecutive days cumulating in heavy precipitation of
43.3cm. Historical records of landslides and multidate
images suggest that landslides have occurred
repeatedly in some locations which are in proximity
to the major lineaments in the area (Fig.4).

2. Regional Geology and Geomorphology:

Geologically, the coastal belt near Karwar and the
Western Ghats are dominated by Archaean granites,
laterised variably. This area underwent deep chemical
weathering resulting in thick mantle of lateritic soil
cover which is a common feature in tropical countries.
Tertiary and modern sands are found along the narrow
262
coastal strips. A number of lineaments have been
detected in the satellite images based on various image
processing techniques followed by geomorphic features
(Fig.1).

Fig2: a) Photograph of the Kadawad site after land
slide. b) Schematic sketch of landslide at Kadwad,
Karwar.

Drainage is dendritic and drainage density is high, but
higher order streams are structurally controlled. Plot of
drainage order number verses number of drainages in
each order indicate first order streams are more in
length than the normal (Fig.5). Lower order streams are
the youngest component of the drainage network and
their preferred orientations are related to recent active
tectonic phase (Centamore et al., 1996). Development of
more number of first order streams imply that the region
is being in active tectonic region and upliftment.

Raised old beaches at several locations along with wave
cut platforms are observed in this area which provides
evidences for higher palaeo sea-levels while islands,
cliffed shorelines without beaches and drowned river
mouths indicate shoreline submergence. The Western
Ghat forms a wall like scarp on the east and a narrow
coastal plain on the west. A cross profile from west to
east shows a sudden rise especially near Karwar (Fig.
6). This wall-like rise and origin of the Western Ghat
has been explained by many geologists as due to
faulting (Subramanya, 1998). Apart from these, the
headlands jutting into the sea with faulted scarp-like
formation on one side perpendicular to the coast (see for
ex Fig.7, near Honnavar,~85km south of Karwar, not
shown in the map) are indicative of tectonically
controlled geomorphic features. A Tributary of the
River Kali has anomalies in its flow path from NW to
SE, initially flowing against the main direction of flow
and joins the Kali with a sand deposit near Bargadde at
the confluence point (Fig.1a). It developed a
meandering path despite its gradient in that stretch.
Also, palaeo river features can be seen in the satellite
images. In the mouth of the Kali and the Gangavali
(Fig.8a and b) deposition of the sand resulting in a
bar/spit formation is observed which indicates
aggradations process. There are many Island-like
features in the estuary which corroborate the process of
aggradations. The river shows abrupt turning in the
direction of the fault in a tributary of the Kali near
Karwar, along with upstream pounding and downstream
incision with respect to the lineament (Fig.1). River
bending, formation of islands and swampy condition in
swift flow region of the Western Ghat to coastal belt are
believed to be the manifestation of the active tectonics
(Marple and Talwani, 1993). Near Belikeri, pebble beds
and terraces are observed. These geomorphic features
suggest uplift of the downstream block. Development of
these geomorphic features in Quaternary sedimentary
environment (spits, island within estuary entrenching
and pebble beds in the coastal belt) can be cited as the
evidence of neotectonism (c.f.Holbrook and Schumm,
1999), which imply that the area is seismically active.

Fig3: Photograph showing Landslide along the
Highway, near Karwar consisting of rock boulders,
weathered rocks and soil etc.
263

Fig4: Landsat-ETM image of the Karwar area showing lineaments, and locations of recent landslides; Google earth
images showing location of landslides. Arrow indicates direction of movement of earth material. Note that earth
material moved away from the landslides.

Fig5: Plot of drainage order v/s number of drainages
in each order of the study area

2.1. Seismicity:

Earlier workers (Raval, 1995) reported negative gravity
anomaly of the order of 70 and 120 Mg. in general for
the region across the Western Dharwar craton that
covers the Western Ghats of Karnataka. Low level of
strain accumulation (10< neon strain/year) has been
reported for the whole of South India (Paul el al., 1995).
This implies that there is relaxation of accumulated
strain. The principle stress analysis of stress values of
N. 40W (Gowd et al., 1996) by Valdiya (2001)
indicated strike slip movement between 12-16 in
Dharwar craton and North Westerly compression.
Therefore it is probable that these fault systems have
facilitated the stress relaxation. Distribution of historical
seismic data is suggesting that this region lies in the
high seismic intensity area (Fig.9). Therefore, some of
the faults could be seismogenic and tectonically active.
264

Fig6: Topographic profiles of land forms Across Karwar and Belekeri region (see Figure. 1 for the transect
details). Note that cross-profiles cross lineaments and along the slope landslide has occurred.

Fig7: Coast perpendicular fault with faulted scarp-like
on southern side at Kasarkod, Honnavar.

2.2. Climate, Rain fall and soil type:

Climate and rain fall are the main determining factors of
both weathering and landslide (Buma, and Dehn, 1998).
The studied area being situated in tropical climate and
high temperature, chemical weathering is deep. The area
is bordered by Western Ghats on the east which rises
like a wall and act as an effective barrier for rain
bearing clouds arriving from the West and causing high
orographic rain fall in the area ranging from 300 to
400cm.

Table1: Locations of some important landslides at Karwar and soil mass dislodged

Sl. No. Name of the location No. of slides Mass dislodged in m
3
Type of material
1 Kadwad (Zariwad) 1 9,50,000 Soil
2. Kadwad 1 4,00,000 Soil
3 Karwar port 5 90,000 Soil
4 Near Karwar town 1 Not estimated Rock fall
5 High way 3 ~35,000
Mix of soil and
boulder
265

Table2: Selected physical properties of the soil from slide area, Kadwad, Karwar

Samples
Density
KN/m
3

Specific
Gravity
Cohesion
(Kg/cm
3
)
Friction
Safe Bearing Capacity
(KN/m
3
)
Highway 14.45 2.31 0.300 11
0
180
Karwar port 13.73 2.26 0.510 13
0
143
Kadwad 16.87 2.35 0.413 10.7
0
160

Fig8: Spit across the Gangavali river near Ankola (a) (The river is 24 km south of Karwar, not shown in the map)
and submerged bar in front of the Kali river mouth (b) indicating the aggradation processes.

Percolation of the water increases the pore pressure, and
removes soluble constituents from the soil (Jenny,
1980). It reduces the cohesive forces which are
triggering factors of landslides.

2.3. Anthropogenic activities:
Many studies have demonstrated that anthropogenic
activities, in particular deforestation leads to drastic
increase in probability of landslides (c.f. Derose et al.,
2006). Due to deforestation, soil cohesion decreases,
which results in higher rate of mass movement and
sediment delivery leading to slope failure in hilly areas.
In the study area due to many projects, large scale
change in land-use /land cover pattern have been
observed. Extensive quarrying, the Konkan railway
tunnels, Sea Bird Projects, Dam construction and
Reservoir formation and the resulting urbanization are
all believed to contribute to the land use pattern
changes. Superimposition of the Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index map of 1990 and 2000 generated
based on Land sat TM and ETM+ suggest significant
forest cover loss during the above period (Fig.10). Few
of the landslides have occurred in this deforested area.
Comparison of the drainage as seen in the Toposheet
(surveyed during 1976 and 1979) and the present, shows
that natural drainages have been modified (Fig.11)
Construction for railway track at Kadwad, near Karwar
has blocked the natural drainage, and along the National
High-way between Binaga and Karwar, a barrier wall-
constructions to prevent water entry into the project area
have modified the normal route of the drainage in the
area. All this human interference may have played a role
in triggering the natural forces. Especially, vibration
caused due to movement of train (Fig. 1) and blasting
for quarry work may have aggravated the sliding. Water
percolating along the fracture/shear/fault zones which
lubricates the sliding contacts may have facilitated the
landslides.

Geotechnical properties such as cohesive force, bulk
density and shear parameters provide information on the
soil characteristics and hence slide prone areas
(Anbazhagan et al., 2010). The materials involved in the
slide, especially at Kadwad and Karwar port are mostly
soils that have very low bulk density, cohesion and
shear values (Table 2) signifying dominance of clay
fraction. Low density implies high porosity while, on
percolation, water acting as lubricating effect reduces
the frictional forces further down, favoring sliding. Here
the nature of the slide initially from top, and later
horizontal movement and displacement of the collapsed
house suggest complex sliding mechanism. Both at
Kadwad and Karwar port, ground is flat immediately
after the slop. Movement of overburden material
towards valley/dip side is determined by the geometry
of the floor, and this may prove to be one of the
266
important contributors to instability (Kasmer et al.,
2006). As the material in the zone vicinity of toe is
subjected to high level of stresses, reduction of material
shear strength in the zone takes place. This
consequently forms a weak zone of crushed material
which is a favorable situation for planar failure (Gupte
et al., 2013). On the other hand, from the top, circular
failure may initiate. The toe undergoes translational
movement parallel to the base of the dump floor. This
results in complex failure consisting of a circular sliding
surface passing through the dump material at the upper
part of the dump and a planar surface along the interface
between overburden material and dump floor (Gupte et
al., 2013). Thus, two different modes of failure have
taken place resulting in compound failure.

Fig9: Seismic zonation map of the study area prepared based on the historical data for the region (Valdiya 2001).

Due to thick weathered soil, thick forest, water
resources (both rain fall and drainages) and
mountainous topography, tropical Ghat regions are
environmentally fragile. To harness water resources and
related project in the mountainous topography compels
many infrastructure developmental activities along the
coast and foot of the mountains in tropical belt. As these
mountains are tectonically active apart from
environmentally fragile, the area is vulnerable to natural
catastrophy like Earth-quakes and landslides. The
integration of the geophysical data and
geomorphological features along with the spatial
association of the present and past landslides suggest
that they are tectonically controlled. Occurrence of
landslides along the steep slopes that has suffered
deforestation; high rain fall and soil mass involved
indicate that landslides are triggered by anthropogenic
activity.

Fig10: Normalized Difference vegetation Index (NDVI) map prepared from Thematic Mapper image of 1990 (a)
and Enhanced Thematic Mapper image 2000(b) of Landsat series, showing change in vegetation pattern and areas
of deforestation around Karwar area
267

Fig11: comparison of Toposheet of 1976 and Google earth Image of 2009,

Therefore while planning for any project, the
geomorphologic, geophysical and geoenvironmental
investigations and tectonic history of the region is
critical in relation to the scale and nature of the project.


The present work is carried out through the facility
generated under the ISROs special assistance grant
scheme (No. B. 19014/5/2009-II), Authors are sincerely
thankful to the ISRO for the grants. Authors thank the
authorities of the SDMCET, Dharwad for the
encouragement to carry out the present work. Authors
thank sincerely the reviewers of the paper whose
suggestions and comments helped a lot to improve the
quality of the paper.

4. Reference:

[1] S. Anbazhagan, S.K. Sajinkumar, and T.N. Singh
(2011), Remote sensing and geotechnical studies
for slope failure assessment in part of Ernakulam
and Idukki District, Kerala, India. In: T.N. Singh
and Y.C. Sharma (Eds.), Slope stability (Natural
and Man Made Slope), Vayu Education of India,
New Delhi, pp.255-281.
[2] J. Buma, and M. Dehn, (1998), a method for
predicting the impact of climate change on slope
stability, Environ. Geol., 35, pp. 190-193.
[3] E. Centamore, S. Sciacca, M. Montedel, P. Frdi,
and P.E. Lupia, (1996), Morphological and
morphometric approach to the study of the
structural arrangements of northeastern Abruzo
(Central Italy), Geomorph. 16, pp.127-137.
[4] R.C. Derose, N.A. Trustrum, and P.M. Blaschke,
(2006), Post deforestation soil loss from steepland
hillslopes in Taranaki, New Zealand. Earth Surface
Process and Landforms, 11, no. 2, pp.131-144.
[5] T. N Gowd., S.V. Srirama Rao, and K.K. Chary,
(1996), Stress field and seismicity in the Indian
Shield: Effects of the collision between India and
Eurasia, Pure and appl. Geophy, 146, pp.503-531.
[6] S. S. Gupte, Rajesh, Singh, V. Vishal and T. N.
Singh (2013) Detail investigation of stability of in
pit dump slope and its capacity optimization. Int.
Jour. Ear. Sci. and Engg., v. 06, (02) pp. 146-159.
[7] J. Holbrook, and S.A. Schumm, (1999),
Geomorphic and sedimentary response of rivers to
tectonic deformation: A brief review and critique of
tool for recognizing subtle epeirogenic deformation
in modern and ancient setting, Tectonophy, 305,
pp.287-306.
[8] H. Jenny, (1980), Factors in soil formation.
McGraw Hill, New York, 271p.
[9] O. Kasmer, R. Ulsay, C. Gokceoglu, (2006) Spoil
pile instabilities with reference to a strip coal mine
in Turkey: mechanisms & assessment of
deformations Environ. Geol., 49, pp. 570-585.
[10] R.T. Marple, and P. Talwani, (1993), Evidence of
possible tectonic upwarping along the southern
Carolina coastal planes from an examination of
river morphology and elevation data, Geol., 21,
pp.651-654.
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[11] A. Pasto, and S. Silvano, (1998), Rainfall as a
trigger of shallow mass movements. A case study in
the dolomites, Italy. Environ. Geol., 35, pp.184-
189.
[12] J. Paul, F. Blume, S. Jade, V. Kumar, P. S. Swathi,
M.B., Ananda and V.K. Gaur, Ronald Burgmann,
Roger Bilham, Namboodri, B. and Dave Mencin
(1995) Microstrain stability of Peninsular India,
1964-1994, Proc. of the Indian Academy of
Science,( Ear. Planet. Sci.), 104, pp.131-146.
[13] R. Pitchai Muthu and C. Muralidharan, (2005)
Causes and Mechanism of Amboori Landslide of
9th November, 2001, Thiruvananthapuram District,
Kerala, Jour. Geol. Soc. India, 66(2), pp.203-208.
[14] U. Raval (1995), on certain large-scale gravity field
patterns over the Indian subcontinent, Proc. Sem.
Space Application in Ear. Syst. Sci., Indian
Geophy. Uni. Hyderabad, pp.153-168.
[15] K. S. Sajinkumar, S. Anbazhagan, A. P. Pradeep
Kumar, A.P. and Rani, V.R. (2011), Weathering
and landslide occurrences in parts of Western
Ghats, Kerala, Jour. Geol. Soc. India, 78, no.3,
pp.249-257.
[16] V. Sambhu, Panikkar and V. Subramanyan, (1997)
Landslide hazard analysis of the area around
Dehradun and Mussoorie, Uttar Pradesh, Current
Science, v.73, no.12, pp.1117-1123.
[17] K. R. Subramanya, (1998) Tectono-magmatic
evolution of the west coast of India, Gond. Res.,
v.1, pp.319327.
[18] K. S. Valdiya, (2001) River response to continuing
movements and the scarp development in central
Sahyadri and adjoining coastal belt, Jour. Geol.
Soc. India, v.57 pp.13-30.

www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.269-274

Sedimentary Basin Screening Techniques using Remote Sensing
Bathymetry Data and ArcGIS for Eastern Continental Margin of
India
MRUTYUNJAYA PANIGRAHI
1
AND MADHUMITA DAS
2

1
E&P, RIL, Ghansoli, Navi Mumbai, Pin-400710
2
Department of Geology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswara, Orissa, Pin-751 004
Email: mnjay2020@gmail.com, madhumitadas_geo@rediffmail.com

Abstract: Remote Sensing bathymetry which scans the sea floor reflects dominant geomorphological features.
Understanding depositional processes in a deep water environment can be viewed as an important tool for any
exploration. Eastern continental margin of India represents a pericratonic passive margin characterized by various
en-echelon faults running parallel to coast line. This study aims to classify the eastern offshore of India into various
types based on basin configuration. Major geomorphic attributes like slope, azimuth, and flow accumulations are
used to provide the preliminary highlights of quantitative analytical techniques using ArcGIS software with 3D and
spatial analyst tool. Using the GEBCO global bathymetry data, the qualitative classification is adopted along eastern
offshore India margin based on their morphology. Quantifying dimension and spatial variability on regional scale
shall throw light in understanding the basin geology & tectonic process.

Keywords: GIS Geographic Information System, GEBCO - General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans.

Introduction:

Remote Sensing bathymetry scans the sea floor for
dominant geomorphological features. The deep water
basin configuration is very important in influencing
deep water sedimentation (Stiffens et al., 2003).
Understanding depositional processes in a deep water
environment is of utmost importance in any exploration.
Eastern continental margin of India represents a
pericratonic passive margin characterized by various en-
echelon faults running parallel to coast line. Deposition
in deep water basins are controlled by many factors like
basin tectonics, sediment supply and relative sea level
changes (Mutti & Normark 1991). This study aims to
classify the eastern offshore of India into various types
based on basin configuration. With the help of GIS
technology as a spatial tool to interpret and analyze
various morphometric parameters from available
present day GEBCO bathymetry image, which is
described in this study. Various geometrical attributes
like dip, slope, azimuth, flow direction, stream orders
and slope profiling are calculated using Arc GIS spatial
tool and are being used for demonstration of shelf,
slope, toe of slope, basinal part and mini basins.

A number of trend surface analyses have been done for
identifying various zones of accommodations e.g.
ponded, healed slope and slope accommodation. This
quantitative analysis is focused on understanding
depositional pattern in the deep water slope system.
This describes the fill and spill deposits proposed by
Satterfield & Henrens (1990). Fill & spill describes the
process of intraslope basins filling from updip to
downdip. One important aspect of understanding fill &
spill process is the concept of accommodation. Using
the GEBCO global bathymetry data, a screening and
classification process is adopted along eastern offshore
India margin based on their morphology. Quantifying
dimension and spatial variability on regional scale shall
throw light in understanding the basin geology &
tectonic process.

Data Description:

Present day available GEBCO data for eastern
continental margin are used for the study. Global
bathymetry gridded datasets for the worlds oceans
provided by General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans
(GEBCO) in 30 arc sec and 1 min grids are freely
available .The datasets for this study area (Fig.-2) is
downloaded from the web link (http://www.bodc.ac.uk).
This moderate resolution of data is suitable for regional
studies. GIS provide faster data processing tools for
visual depiction and analyses of various topographic
derivatives using its inbuilt algorithm. A simple data
processing approach was adopted to convert GEBCO
grid using bathymetry viewer to GIS ASCII format,
which was further organized in ArcGIS environment.

Methodology:

270
The bathymetry data has been processed using GIS
system in built algorithm and using hydrology spatial
tool various attribute maps have been extracted. The
study was performed in two stages using ArcGIS
software.
Stage-I : Preliminary stage of the study included
preparation of bathymetry maps as well as various
attribute maps like dip, slope, azimuth, flow direction,
stream orders. Few of these maps are described in this
paper.
Stage II: The second stage includes trend surface
analysis for further classification.

Regional Geology:

The eastern continental margin of India (ECMI)
represents a passive margin set up. A number of
sedimentary basins on onshore as well as offshore are
being described by various authors. These sedimentary
basins are characterized by different tectonic setup as
well as sediment depocenters. Recent discoveries of
giant gas fields in the Krishan- Godavari deepwater off
Indias east coast have put the country on the worlds
deepwater map. Exploration has focused on adjacent
deepwater basins in Bengal-Mahanadi in the north,
Cauvery in the south, and the Andaman backarc basins
(Bastia, 2006).

Basin Screening Parameters:

The important geomorphic parameters considered here
in this study are:
Graded Slopes: In general, graded slopes are gentler
with almost no varying topography while above grade
slopes are characterized by presence of step like features
or irregular topographic lows. Generally these slopes are
divided based on the types of accommodation available
on them.

Ponded accommodation: This accommodation occurs
within three dimensionally closed topographic lows
(Prather, 2000). These are the characteristics of salt
dominated basins. Even in the shale withdrawal basins
these are available. So these types of accommodation
results in deposition in a confined basin.

Healed slope accommodation: This occurs in the space
above the stepped equilibrium profile. These deposits
actually wedge out towards the basinal part. Steffens et
al (2003), defined healed slope accommodation in 3D as
the space between top of ponded accommodation and
below a 3D convex hull fit to the rugose seafloor
topography. The same principle is being used in this
study.

Slope accommodation: This is the space between the
highest stable graded-slope angle and the top of healed
slope accommodation. In case of the graded slope, no
ponded accommodation occurs hence there is more
predominance of the healed slope or slope
accommodation. This results in more bypass of
sediments on the upper part and more deposition
towards the basinal side. (Prather 2003).A schematic
diagram showing the various types of accommodation is
presented in Fig-1.

Total space available for deposition is measured by
fitting a 3D convex hull from the shelf slope break to
the toe of the slope. Ponded accommodation is
interpreted where there are three way closing lows.
Healed slope accommodation is the difference between
the total slope and the ponded slope accommodation.
The ponded fill represents sheets and channel levee
deposits (Prather 1998).Once the mini basin is filled,
sediment spills downslope to the lower mini basin.
Above the ponded deposits the downslope basins ate
characterized by muddy flows or pelagic deposits
whereas the up slope basin may contain channels
(Prather 1998).

Analysis & Interpretation:

The regional bathymetry map prepared for the whole of
east coast of India (Fig-2) shows a well-developed
present day shelf and slope system and a vast deep
water area. Shelf in the east coast of India is narrower
with respect to the shelf on western continental margin
of India. A number of present day deep water
channels/canyons can be interpreted from the fig. 2.
These are related to the prominent river systems active
in the east coast of India.

Slope attribute calculated on the data set is presented in
Fig-3. This clearly shows the shelf and slope definitions.
This map can be used to predict the deep water
deposition as well as the bypass zone. Another attribute
map flow accumulation is given in fig. 3. This
represents the stream pattern active in the deep water
based on the available data set. It can be seen that the
almost all the streams are west flowing and well
corroborates with the present day river systems. In some
areas few converging streams were found, which refers
to the presence of topographic lows and the diverging
patterns to the topographic highs. This map describes
the overall mass transport from the shelf to the basin
floor.

Ponded accommodation in the east coast of India was
identified by isolating the three way enclosing lows.
Fig-4 depicts the isolated three dimensional topographic
lows identified. As seen from the fig. the northern part
of the area is having sparse ponded accommodation
zones. This area envelopes part of Bengal and Mahanadi
basin and is having huge sediment thickness provided
by the mighty Ganges, Brahmaputra and Mahanadi
rivers. A profile through the area shows presence of a
number of present day cuts. Investigation of the map
271
MRUTYUNJAYA PANIGRAHI AND MADHUMITA DAS
suggests these to be the active canyons. These can act as
conduit for the sediment transport to the deeper water.

The basins characteristic feature is its enechelon horst
and graben system which is filled with a thick pile of
sediments of Permian-to-Recent age (Gupta, S.K,
2006).A number of profiles across the east coast of
India are presented in Fig-5 to demonstrate the different
basin configuration interpreted from bathymetry data.
Integrating all the above attributes and studies a
summary map showing the probable depositional zones
off eastern offshore of India is shown in Fig- 6.

Conclusion:

This study explores the potential of screening the deep
water basins into different categories based on basin
configuration using remote sensing data & GIS
technology. The approach facilitates the use of freely
available bathymetry data which are not of very high
resolution. A more detailed study of the high resolution
bathymetry data with seismic signatures will help in a
better understanding of the depositional pattern &
tectonics of this basin. This basin screening
methodology can be used for any basin in the globe.

1. Reference:

[1] Mutti, E., & Normark, W. R. (1991). An integrated
approach to the study of turbidite systems. In P.
Weimer, & M. I. Link (Eds.), Seismic facies and
sedimentary processes of submarine fans and
turbidite systems (p.75106). New York: Springer.
[2] Prather, B. E. (2003). Controls on reservoir
distribution, architecture and stratigraphic trapping
in slope settings. Marine and Petroleum Geology,
20(68), 527543.
[3] Bastia R. (2006.a). An overview of Indian
Sedimentary Basins with Special Focus on
Emerging East Coast Deep Water Frontiers. The
Leading Edge, July 2006,p 818-829.
[4] Bastia R. (2006.b). Geologic settings and petroleum
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[6] Gupta S.K. (2006). Basin architecture and
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[8] L. De Santis, A. Caburlotto, D. Accettella, A. Cova,
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(eds.) Geographical Information Systems:
Principles and Applications, 1991.P.269-297,
Longman, London.

Figures:

Fig1: A schematic diagram showing the various types of accommodations used in the study along a dip profile.
272

Fig2: Topographic map showing present day bathymetry off the eastern offshore of India. Prominent petroliferous
basins are marked on the map. Lines marked represent the location of various profiles presented in the paper.

Fig3: Slope attribute and flow accumulation calculated on present day bathymetry data. The slope map can be used
in defining shelf, slope and basin part. Red color presents higher rate of change of slope while grey shows lowest
rate of change of slope .Flow accumulation shows the shallow as well as deep water channels forms responsible for
present day sediment dispersal pattern.

273
MRUTYUNJAYA PANIGRAHI AND MADHUMITA DAS

Fig4: Three dimensionally enclosed topographic lows are plotted on a bathymetry map of India. These represent the
area of ponded accommodation.

Fig5: Various profiles across east coast of India showing different accommodation zones identified. Sediment
deposition varies from one mini basin to another. Abbreviations used: P-Ponded accommodation, HS-healed-slope
accommodation, A-total accommodation. Positions of these profiles are presented in figure2.Vertical and horizontal
scales are in meters. Vertical scale is for elevation and horizontal scale shows distance.

274

Fig6: Various type of probable slope deposits are marked on the east coast of India based on studies of the different
attributes and the trend surface analysis made on them.

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Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.275-279

Geospatial assessment of Coral and Mangrove Environs of the
Andaman Islands
MAHENDRA R S
1
, MOHANTY P C
1
, BISOYI H
2
AND SRINIVASA KUMAR T
1

1
Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad 500 055
2
Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical & Engineering Training, Vishakhapatnam- 530001
Email: mahendra@incois.gov.in

Abstract: An archipelago island system of Andaman is consisting of several hundreds of islands. The coastal
environs of these islands are rich in bio-diversity. Most of the islands rimed with fringing corals and healthy
mangroves observed near the creeks/streams in the coastal zones. The Sumatra Earthquake occurred on December
26, 2004 recorded a 9.3 Mw not only generated devastating tsunami, but also created lot of tectonic disturbances in
the Andaman region. As result of this, northwestern parts of the land got uplifted above a meter from the earlier
position. This resulted in the lot of spatial disturbances in the coastal environment. The shallow depth corals were
exposed and degraded permanently. Moreover, the mangroves in the up streams were also degraded. A case study
from the Interview Island in the northern Andaman was selected to assess the changes. The study was carried out
using the Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Linear Imaging Self
Scanning Sensor (LISS)-III data were used to infer the spatial changes in the coral and mangrove environments. The
assessment was carried out using the Remote Sensing and GIS techniques. The results of the study reveal that the
total coral reef area of 17. 82 km
2
degraded. The mangrove also showed the same tendency of degradation of total
4.48 km
2
area. The techniques and the data were used in the study were given useful insight. The results help in
understanding the spatial extent and the distribution of the damage caused due to this natural calamity on the coral
and mangrove environment.

Key words: Coastal Zone, Remote Sensing, GIS, earthquake, fringing reef, mortality.

1. Introduction:

Coastal resources are crucial factor to support life of
coastal community. It is very essential that the
sustainable use of coastal resources to meet the present
and future needs. The important coastal natural
resources which are very much useful are Mangroves,
Coral Reefs, useful Seaweeds, Wetlands, Minerals,
Hydrocarbon and other organisms (Walters et al. 1998;
Jin et al. 2002). The majority of human population
(more than 60%) lives along the coastal zones and most
of communities and industries are depending on local
resources for their livelihood. Mangrove and coral
ecosystems are extremely important coastal resources.
They are coastal ecosystems providing shelter for
diverse habitats from different species and serves as a
source of food, medicines, and forestry products. In
addition to these mangrove and coral ecosystem, they
also indirectly support to economic activity through
nutrient recycling, water purification, and flood control.
Coral Reefs and mangroves buffer along the specific
coastlines act as a natural barrier for coast to protect
from storm surges, Tsunamis, cyclones, floods, sea level
rise, wave action and coastal erosion.

The mangrove and coral reef are the important natural
resources need the immense attention towards the
sustainable conservation. The remote sensing is one
such powerful tool to map these resources in order to
assess the spatio-temporal changes. Besides, the
Geographic Information System (GIS) facilitates to
extract the vital information out of the spatial datasets.
There are several such works were carried out on
mangroves (Srinivasa Kumar et al. 2011; Blasco et al.
1998; Giri et al. 2007; Kathireshan and Rajendran 2005;
Danielsen 2005) and coral reefs (Bahuguna et al. 2008;
Mahendra et al. 2008; Mahendra et al. 2010; Rajendran
et al. 2008) monitoring using the geospatial techniques.
However, the work on the exact quantification in terms
of space and time was not brought out in this area.
Hence present study aims at the demonstrating the
technology to decipher the spatio-temporal changes in
the coral and mangrove cover due to 2004 Sumatra
earthquake and tsunami in the Interview Island
Andaman. This study has brought out the accurate
changes those caused in the island due to 2004 tectonic
disturbances with the aid of the satellite data from
Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) and Indian
276
Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) P6 Linear Imaging Self-
scanning Sensor (LISS) III.

2. Study Area:

The Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands are an
example of archipelagoes system which covers about
350 islands (Bahuguna et al. 2008). Interview Island lies
in the northwestern part of Andaman Islands (Figure 1)
in the Bay of Bengal. The geographical constraints of
the Interview Island are 12.76 N to 13.00N latitudes and
92.64 E to 92.73 E longitudes. The island covers a total
geographic area of about 88 km
2
. The habitation in the
island is nil except government and security officials.
Andaman falls under tropical climatic condition
experiencing a temperature within the range of 23C to
31C. There are no severe climate conditions in the
region except for tropical storms and rains in late
summers and monsoons.

Fig1: Map showing the study area

3. Data Used:

The present study was carried out based on the available
remote sensing data given in the Table 1with the aid of
the in-situ observations. The Landsat ETM data
acquired on February 07, 2000 used as the pre-tsunami
and IRS-P6 LISS-III data acquired on the February 06,
2006 was used as the post-tsunami information. The
Landsat ETM data acquired on April 10, 2010 to assess
the recent changes in the mangrove cover.
Table1: Satellite data used for the study

Satellite Sensor
Date
Acquisition
Spatial
Resolution
IRS-P6
(Post
Tsunami)
LISS-
III
Feb 06, 2006 23.5 m
Landsat
(Recent)
ETM Apr 10, 2010 30 m
Landsat
(Pre
Tsunami)
ETM Feb 07, 2000 30 m

4. Methodology:

The spatiotemporal assessment of mangrove and coral
reefs involves three main steps viz: pre-processing;
processing and post processing. The pre-processing
consists of the geo-correction, area selection, radiance
conversion and re-sampling. The Landsat ETM Ortho-
rectified data acquired in 2000 and 2010 are
downloaded from www.landsat.org website.
Resourcesat-1 (IRS P6) LISS-III data of 2006 was
obtained from the NRSC. IRS P6 LISS-III digital data
of July 22, 2006 was geo-referenced for polynomial
order 2 using Landsat ETM data as the reference. A
subset of a mangrove and coral reef area were extracted
from all the images in order to minimize the
classification inaccuracies. The appropriate band
selection (Selvam et al. 2003; Brian and Timothy, 1996;
Green et al. 1998; Chauhan and Dwivedi, 2007;
Srinivasa Kumar et al. 2011) and the radiance
conversion techniques (Lunetta, 1999; Chauhan and
Dwivedi, 2007; Singh, 1989)

were applied on the
images before the classification. Then the LISS-III data
of spatial resolution 23.5 m has been resample to 30 m
in order to be spatially comparable with ETM. The
above two steps are making the multi-temporal and
multi-resolution satellite data comparable spectrally and
spatially respectively.

The processing of remote sensing consists of
classification and finalization of the classes using
contextual editing. Iterative Self Organizing Data
Analysis Technique (ISODATA) clustering was
performed on individual images to segment them into
possible classes each depending upon the spectral
signatures in green, red and infra-red bands. Using
contextual editing the mangrove cover pertaining to the
periods 2000, 2006 and 2010 were separated from other
classes.

Similarly another step performed in order to classify
eco-morphological classes of coral reefs during 2000
and 2006. The final classes of the coral eco-morphology
were obtained by contextual editing with the aid of the
ground truth information.

277
MAHENDRA R S, MOHANTY P C, BISOYI H AND SRINIVASA KUMAR T
In order to carryout post-processing using GIS analysis
composites of the mangrove and coral eco-morphology
composites were converted to Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI) shape files by raster to vector
conversion techniques. These shape files were analyzed
using GIS package ESRI Arc Map to assess the
spatiotemporal changes in the coral and mangrove
environs.


The current study focused on the assessment of the
spatiotemporal changes in the coral reef and mangrove
of interview Island before and after 2004 Sumatra
earthquake. This earthquake has caused lot of tectonic
disturbances in the region resulted in the land up lift
(Toiba et al. 2006 and Rajendran et al. 2008) up to a
meter and half. The earthquake caused devastating
tsunami taking the life of several people and resources,
which has not left its impact on even mangrove and
corals. This impact is catastrophic on the corals and
whereas not that catastrophic when compared to coral.
However, mangroves were recorded the spatial decline
on relatively gradual time scale (Figure 2A). The
mangrove change study was continued till 2010 to get
clear scenario. The results of the spatiotemporal changes
in the mangrove reveal net spatial decline of mangrove
cover was 4.48km
2
in the Interview Island (Figure 3A).
The rate of decrease in the mangrove cover was
0.3km
2
/y during 2000 to 2006. But, it was decreased by
0.67km
2
/y during 2006 to 2010 in a span of 4 years.

Fig2: The plate showing the spatio-temporal changes in
the mangrove cover (A) and coral eco-morphology (B)

The catastrophic impact on the shallow corals resulted
in the mass coral mortality due to the land uplift resulted
in the shallow corals to expose above water
permanently. The change in coral eco-morphology
(Figure 2B) was carried out using pre-earthquake (data
acquired on 2000) and post-earthquake (data acquired
on 2006). The results (Figure 3B) reveal that total 17
km
2
area of corals were degraded and recorded as
exposed coral reefs in 2006. It was the part of the
healthy coral environment earlier (2000).

Fig3: The bar diagrams showing spatial changes in
mangroves during 2000-2010 (A), changes in the coral
eco-morphology classes during 2000-2006 (B)

The tectonic induced uplift in the parts of the Interview
Island caused the degradation of the coral reefs in the
area. Further corals in the area were further subjected to
the bleaching during summer months of 2010 by the
elevated temperatures (Krishnan et al. 2011; and
INCOIS, 2011) indicating the threat imposed on the
coral environs in the area. The whole Andaman
experienced the uplift in the northwestern parts and
subsidence in the southeastern parts. The coasts
experienced up-lift resulted in the degradation of
mangroves in the up-stream area at the distal ends
(landward side) of the coast due to reduction of the
saline influence. The tendency of the mangrove
community might move towards the proximal end
(seaward side) with young/new mangroves. Conversely,
278
mangroves degraded at the proximal end in the land
subsided coasts due to the increase in the saline
condition might result in growth of young/new
mangroves at distal end.

6. Conclusions:

The present study aims at demonstrating the geospatial
techniques such as remote sensing and GIS to quantify
the impacts of natural disasters on the spatiotemporal
changes in the coral and mangrove environs. The data
and techniques used in the study are able to quantify
spatial changes at enhanced accuracy. Such studies are
useful in understanding the damage caused on the
important eco-systems. Further the study gives input to
the eco-system modeling to understand diversity index
and the implications on production in the coastal marine
environment.

7. Aknowledgements:

The authors would like to thank Dr. Shailesh Nayak,
Secretary, MoES for encouragement. Authors are
thankful to Director, INCOIS for facility and support.
Thanks to CARI Andaman for support during in-situ
campaign. Thanks to Global Observatory for Ecosystem
Services (GOES), Michigan State University for the
Landsat data. This is INCOIS contribution number.

8. Reference:

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of the tsunami and earthquake of 26th December
2004 on the vital coastal ecosystems of the
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Geoinformation, Vol. 10, pp. 229-237.
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A.J. and Ellis, A.C. (1998) Remote sensing
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WWW.http://www.incois.gov.in/Incois/coralwarnin
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Srivastava RC, Anand A, Murugesan S,
Kaliyamoorthy M, Vikas N, Soundararajan R
(2011) Elevated sea surface temperature during
May 2010 induces mass bleaching of corals in the
Andaman. Current Science, 100 (1): 111-117.
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Detection; Environmental Monitoring Methods and
Applications. In: R.S. Lunetta and C.D. Elvidge
(Eds), Taylor & Francis, London, pp 318.
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Velloth, S., Sinivasa Kumar T., Bahuguna, A. and
Nayak, S., 2008. Spatio-temporal Variations in the
Coral Environs of North Reef Island, Andaman: A
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Velloth, S., Sinivasa Kumar T. and Nayak, S.
(2010) Applications of the Multi-spectral Satellite
data from IRS-P6 LISS-III and IRS-P4 OCM to
Decipher Submerged Coral Beds around Andaman
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Engineering, 3(5), 626-631.
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Prasad, A., Dutta, G.V.K., Ray, D. K. and Anu, R.
(2008). Age estimates of coastal terraces in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and their tectonic
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L. and Navamuniyammal-Taramani, M. (2003)
Assessment of community-based restoration of
Pichavaram mangrove wetland using remote
sensing data. Current Science, Vol.85, No.6,
pp.795-797.
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MAHENDRA R S, MOHANTY P C, BISOYI H AND SRINIVASA KUMAR T
[18] Srinivasa Kumar, T., Mahendra, R.S., Nayak, S.,
Radhakrishnan, K.R. and Sahu, K.C. (2012)
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Resourcesat 1 LISS IV: An example of coastal
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534.
[19] Tobita, M., Suito, H., Imakiire, T., Kato, M.,
Fujiwara, S. and Murakami, M. (2006) Outline of
vertical displacement of the 2004 and 2005 Sumatra
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(1998) Participatory Coastal Resource Assessment:
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Philippines.

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Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.280-288

Integrating Fuzziness to Wildlife Relocation and Habitat Analysis in
Rajasthan, India
SUMAN SINHA
Department of Remote Sensing, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, INDIA
Email: sumanrumpa.sinha@gmail.com

Abstract: This study highlights the impact of adding uncertainty or fuzziness when selecting the most suitable sites
for tiger relocation in the Sariska Wildlife Reserve using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) within multi-criteria
based Geographic Information System (GIS). Fuzzy AHP that incorporates a Wide Trapezoidal level of uncertainty
is found to generate more variability in map outputs compared to lesser levels of uncertainty. The relative difference
between crisp (CAHP) and fuzzy (FAHP) AHP averages 2.7%, although with certain types of uncertainty it can
reach up to 5%. ANOVA also shows better results for increased levels of uncertainty compared to lesser ones. The
method adopted in the study can effectively handle the uncertainty issue, and it can act as a useful tool for wildlife
habitat evaluation and management.

Keywords: Tiger habitat, GIS, AHP, uncertainty, multi-criteria.

1. Introduction:

The wisdom of using a multi-criteria approach that is
integrated with a Geographic Information System (GIS)
in order to make important geographical value
judgements is indicated by its extremely diverse range
of real-world applications - environmental planning,
ecology management, urban planning, hydrology,
forestry, transportation, agriculture, natural hazard
management, health care resource allocation, etc.
(Vahidnia et al., 2008).

Frequently incorporated into such approach is the
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), as originally
developed by Thomas Saaty (1980; 1988). This is one
of the most popular tools for estimating criterion
weights and overall scores (Taylor, 2004; Vaidya and
Kumar, 2006) and despite being often condemned for its
inability to accommodate the uncertainty and ambiguity
that surrounds practical decision taking (Deng, 1999),
not to mention its other limitations (Yang and Chen,
2004), it has been used extensively (Banai-Kashani,
1989; Eastman et al., 1992, 1993; Xiang and Whitley,
1994) and for spatial problems (Anselin et al., 1989;
Kangas, 1992; Correa-Berger, 2007; Sharma et al.,
2012a).

Nevertheless, humans lack an ability to make
quantitative predictions, although they are relatively
efficient at qualitative assessments which, in complex
situations, are usually symbolized by vague linguistic
terms. Hence practical decision makers generally make
uncertain estimations rather than specify precise values.
This is why fuzzy set theory evaluation methods have
been developed in order to refine linguistic
representations into quantitative data (Leung and Chao,
2000; Kulak and Kahraman, 2005; zdaolu and
zdaolu, 2007).

The result is that within to the complexity and
uncertainty of real world decision problems, fuzzy
judgments can potentially generate better and more
practical decisions than can crisp, but spuriously
accurate judgments based on traditional AHP can.
Accordingly, Mikhailov and Tsvetinov (2004) suggest a
fuzzy form of AHP (FAHP) which, in theory, will better
tolerate vagueness or ambiguity. Moreover, Vahidnia et
al., (2008) elucidated the use of FAHP in GIS and
multiple criteria decision making in spatial planning -
problems such as site selection involving the evaluation
of a set of alternatives on the basis of conflicting and
incommensurate criteria (Malczewski, 1999). Put
differently, because decision makers usually feel more
confident when giving interval judgments rather than
single numeric values, conventional AHP is unable to
reflect the human thinking style completely. By
contrast, FAHP can capture human perception of
ambiguity in complex, multi-attribute decision making
problems (Erensal et al., 2006).

Fuzzy numbers, introduced by Zadeh (1965; 1973)
allow membership functions to operate over the range of
real numbers [0, 1], and the primary feature of fuzziness
is the assembling of individuals into classes where
sharply defined boundaries are absent (Hansen, 2005).
Hence, fuzzy numbers can represent and define
uncertain judgments, whereas AHP does not take in
281
SUMAN SINHA
consideration the uncertainty associated with the
judgements of the decision makers (Yang and Chen,
2004).

It is hardly surprising, therefore, how Saatys AHP
process has been modified and fuzzified to formulate
and control uncertainty and ambiguities. Specifically,
researchers such as Buckley (1985) devised an
innovative approach of the trapezoidal membership
function in AHP, and Chang (1996) formulated a
modified case of a triangular membership function
which makes it easier for decision makers to understand
the final importance, and the underlying uncertainty of
parameters with defined uncertainty in the form of fuzzy
numbers from which weights can be determined. Saaty
and Tran (2007) have countered all this by pointing out
that uncertainty already persists in AHP and this ensures
that the ratios in the method are not absolute or crisp
numbers but are, in fact, fuzzy numbers, and so
fuzzifying AHP does not ensure better results. In fact, it
could even make the analysis worse. Unfortunately,
however, most comparisons between Crisp AHP
(CAHP) and Fuzzy AHP (FAHP) have been mostly
done in this sort of theoretical way, with very limited
practical applications of the methods to a genuine, GIS-
based decision making problem.

Hence the goal of this paper is to practically evaluate
the differences between CAHP and FAHP methods by
applying them to one particular real-world problem that
is plagued by uncertainty within its parameters - tiger
relocation and habitat suitability in the Sariska Wildlife
Reserve (SWR), Rajasthan, India. Here uncertainty is
due to the dynamism of landscapes resulting from
changes in nature, human activities and socioeconomic
conditions (Sharma et al., 2012b).

2. Methodology:

2.1. Theory background:
AHP uses a Pairwise Comparison Method (PCM) to
obtain weights for the evaluation criteria (Boroushaki
and Malczewski, 2008), and this paper considers two
different approaches to it - the Lambda Max (max)
technique (Saaty, 1980) and the geometric mean method
(Buckley, 1985). Every comparison matrix has a set of
eigenvalues and for every eigenvalue there is a
corresponding eigenvector, and in Saatys lambda max
technique, a vector of weights is defined as the
normalized eigenvector corresponding to the largest
eigenvalue, max. The latter is then used for calculating
the consistency ratio (C.R.) and Consistency Index
(C.I.). If C.R. < 0.10 or C.R. 0.10 a reasonable level
of consistency in the pairwise comparisons is indicated
(Han and Tsay, 1998; Malczewski, 1999).

A fuzzy set comprises of four parameters of the fuzzy
number , , and where 0<. That is, a
range of values is assigned instead of a single numeric
value because the decision-maker feels insecure if they
fix a definite value to a particular factor. Fuzzification
of AHP by the geometric mean method is accepted and
applied easily (Buckley, 1985; Sinha et al., 2011a), and
it uses a triangular membership function,
ij
=
ij
. To
increase the level of uncertainty, the distribution of the
fuzzy number is extended at
ij

ij
.

Hence, the difference between CAHP and different
uncertainty levels of FAHP can be analyzed, and here,
ij
ij
with a value of 1 and 2 generated FAHP narrow
and wide trapezoidal ratios respectively. The resulting
fuzzy number (w
i
) has to be defuzzified in order to
obtain a singular crisp value (Sinha et al., 2011a), here
we have used a simple centroid method that uses the
centre of gravity concept (Opricovic and Tzeng, 2003;
Chang and Wang, 2009) to do so.

Finally, there is an urgent need for improved
conservation strategies to preserve endangered wild
tigers - given that they are globally declining and being
eradicated. In fact, during 2005 the Sariska Wildlife
Reserve (SWR) in India was devoid of tigers due to
extensive poaching (Wildlife Institute of India Report,
2008; Project Tiger Report, 2009). So this study aims at
a geospatial solution using comparative analysis
between CAHP and FAHP when they are applied to
GIS-MCDA methods for finding the most suitable sites
for tiger habitat and future relocation.

2.2. Study area and dataset:
SWR is located among the Aravalli hill ranges in the
Alwar district of Rajasthan, India and it covers an area
of nearly 1183 km
2
, which is taken as the study area. It
extends from 2713' to 2731'N latitude and from 7615'
to 76 33 E longitudes (Figure 1). IRS P-6 LISS III
satellite data for 2006, which have a spatial resolution of
23.5 m, were used for the study, along with other
ancillary and secondary data including the Survey of
India toposheets. The reason for choosing this particular
area is that tigers were completely exterminated there
during 2004-2005 despite the locality being highly
suitable for their habitats. A few tigers have been
relocated since, and identification of the suitable areas
for the tigers is the main challenge.

282

Fig1: Location of study area. SWR is located in the state of Rajasthan (yellow), India.

2.3. Evaluating criteria in integrated GI S-MCDA:
The impact of human intrusion upon habitat
suitability is substantial for all faunal species in
general and for the tigers of Sariska in particular
(Sinha et al., 2011b; 2012). Accordingly, map
overlay techniques incorporating rules and criteria
were used for habitat evaluation in the Chilla
Sanctuary of Rajaji Wildlife Reserve, India
(Kushwaha et al., 2000). In order to reflect habitat
suitability given the preferences of the species under
consideration, appropriate weights were assigned to
factors, and for tigers such factors were generated
from an extensive literature survey, reconnaissance
information, expert knowledge and field
investigations.

The most significant habitat-selection parameters
used in this study were:
1. land use / land cover (forest type and density,
waterbodies, settlements, road),
2. terrain slope and
3. anthropogenic activities.

Each parameter was represented as a thematic layer
in GIS, from which an output map was derived to
show five suitability categories (priority classes)
- highly suitable (class 5),
- very suitable (class 4),
- moderately suitable (class 3),
- poorly suitable (class 2) and
- least suitable or unsuitable (class 1).

Fig2: Methodology for deriving tiger habitat-suitability maps, using GIS-MCDA and AHP.
SWR
INDIA
Rajasthan
283
SUMAN SINHA

The studys methodology is shown in Figure 2. It
took various input parameters determined from both
remote sensing and ancillary data before
amalgamating them with information from field
surveys. The field surveys were carried out to gather
information related to tiger habitat use, forest type and
vegetation density. The satellite image was initially
classified using the supervised classification technique
within the Maximum Likelihood operation found in the
ERDAS Imagine (version 9.1) software. Also, the
thematic maps showing forest type, forest density,
roads, settlements, water bodies and slopes were
generated in the ArcGIS (version 9.3) software while
taking into account both visual and digital (spectral
indices) interpretations.

Note that prey availability was not regarded as a
significant factor (Sinha et al., 2011a) because in
Sariska, prey is available in plenty - as revealed by high
levels of prey density. Moreover, the area is large and
rich enough to support other predators without much
struggle and competition. Note also that every criterion
represented as a map in the GIS database can be
combined with MCDA (Malczewski, 1999; Baban and
Wan-Yusof, 2003). Knowledge-based AHP was used as
the primary method for assigning appropriate weights to
the parameters, and the result was the matrix shown in
Table 1. Comparison values were based on personal
experience, expert advice and an understanding of the
decision making problem. The multi-criteria approach
was then integrated with different uncertainty levels of
AHP (Triangular, Narrow Trapezoidal and Wide
Trapezoidal).

Table1:Pair-wise comparison matrix for parameters selected.

PARAMETERS Vegn. type Vegn. density Settlement Water hole Drainage Road Slope
Vegn. type 1 3 3 3 3 5 7
Vegn. density 1/3 1 1/3 1/3 1/3 3 5
Settlement 1/3 3 1 1/3 1/3 3 5
Water hole 1/3 3 3 1 1 3 7
Drainage 1/3 3 3 1 1 3 7
Road 1/5 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1 3
Slope 1/7 1/5 1/5 1/7 1/7 1/3 1

2.4. Fuzziness:
The following equations were used for fuzzifying
AHP and calculating weights (Buckley, 1985; Sinha
et al., 2011a):

[
[
[
[
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
n
1
/ 1
n
1 j
n
1
/ 1
n
1 j
n
1
/ 1
n
1 j
n
1
/ 1
n
1 j
, ] ij [
, ] ij [
, ] ij [
, ] ij [ i
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i i
i i
i i
i
o o o o

| | | |
o o o o

w
i
=[(
o
i
/
o
), (
|
i
/
), (
i
/
|
), (
o
I
/
o
)]... (Eq.1)

Pairwise comparison matrices with different degrees
of uncertainty, as obtained from the CAHP and the
three FAHP methods, were considered. Chi-Square
was then used to statistically check the effect of
fuzzification on the resulting maps in terms of the
degree of uncertainty. Weights for each factor were
calculated by the AHP Lambda max (max) method
and then normalized and defuzzified using the
FAHP Triangular, FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal and
FAHP Wide Trapezoidal methods respectively, as
documented in Table 2.

3. Results:

3.1. Comparison of uncertainty levels:
A weighted overlay model in GIS-MCDA was used to
produce a suitability map for tiger habitat with different
uncertainty levels. The model considered both the
weights and relative importance factors, as required in
index modeling, in order to calculate the pixel number
for each suitability or priority class, as shown in Table
3, and these were then subjected to a Chi-Square test. In
Chi-Square testing we used the null hypothesis (H
0
) that
the level of uncertainty does not affect the difference
between the fuzzified map and the non-fuzzified map,
and the standard formula was used (Dowdy et al., 2004).

2
=
( )
(
i
i i
i
E
E - O
2
.. (Eq.2)

Where, O and E are the observed and expected number
of pixels respectively.
284

Table2: Weights assigned to factors by the knowledge-based and different AHP methods.

Parameters
Knowledge-
based
AHP
max
AHP
Geometric
Mean
FAHP
Triangular
FAHP Narrow
Trapezoidal
FAHP Wide
Trapezoidal
Vegn. type 0.25 0.331555 0.334036 0.32725 0.32798 0.31507
Vegn. density 0.10 0.09202 0.084322 0.08696 0.08682 0.09076
Settlement 0.15 0.121896 0.115415 0.11763 0.11755 0.12052
Waterholes 0.15 0.18736 0.193919 0.20067 0.20414 0.20159
Drainage 0.10 0.18736 0.193919 0.18733 0.18343 0.18947
Road 0.15 0.054118 0.05324 0.05513 0.05502 0.05789
Slope 0.10 0.02569 0.025149 0.02501 0.02504 0.02468

Note that the suitability map from AHP showed no
pixels in class 1, so it was omitted from the chi-square
test because the value 0 should be kept out of the
analysis. Table 4 provides the results from the Chi-
square analysis of different uncertainty levels of the
fuzzy AHP and the CAHP Lambda max method. It
indicates that two of the calculated values are smaller
than the critical value of 7.815 at = 0.05 and DF = 3
used in the study - fuzzy AHP triangular and fuzzy AHP
narrow trapezoidal. In these cases, the observed and
expected values are similar and hence, the Null
Hypothesis is accepted. By contrast, the value is
exceedingly higher than the critical value in fuzzy AHP
Wide Trapezoidal, implying the rejection of the Null
Hypothesis, simultaneously accepting the Alternative
Hypothesis. This shows a prominent relationship of the
degree of uncertainty with the difference in the maps of
spatial extent of every priority classes.

Table3: Number of pixels in each suitability class as derived from map outputs

Method No. of pixels in each suitability class
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Total
CAHP max 0 12457 31758 24783 1974 70972
FAHP Triangular 0 12326 32018 24622 2006 70972
FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal 0 12537 31943 24580 1912 70972
FAHP Wide Trapezoidal 0 11065 33244 24847 1816 70972

Such results show that the methods applied have
significant impacts upon the outputs. The analysis
shows greater extent of similarity between CAHP and
FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal method. On the other hand,
the FAHP Triangular method is more similar to FAHP
Narrow Trapezoidal method than compared to FAHP
Wide Trapezoidal method. This reveals possible
differences in the resulting maps arising due to the
difference in the uncertainty levels in AHP methods.

3.2. Differences in fuzzy uncertainty:

Differences between the weights obtained from each of
the fuzzified and non-fuzzy methods were calculated in
percentage terms using Eq. 3

Difference =
( ) | |
100
wi
wi'-wi
.. (Eq.3)

Where w
i
' and w
i
are respectively the defuzzified weight
number i calculated through fuzzy AHP and the weight
number i calculated using the non-fuzzy AHP max
method. Results show slightly more than 5% deviation
in the uncertainty levels.

Table4: Results of Chi-Square test

Method
FAHP
Triangular
FAHP
Narrow
Trapezoidal
FAHP
Wide
Trapezoidal
2
value
5.070879 5.201557 237.8918

Table 5 shows the relative differences in the weights
assigned by all the methods expressed in percentages
and it reveals a marked difference among the different
fuzzy methods. Any increase in the levels of uncertainty
gives rise to greater difference in the map outputs and
the differences are prominent. These results were further
confirmed using ANOVA which generated significance
of 0.118 at the significance level of 0.05, for the FAHP
Wide Trapezoidal method in comparison to the
remaining methods adopted in the study. By contrast,
CAHP, FAHP Triangular and FAHP Narrow
Trapezoidal methods resulted in the values of 0.164,
285
SUMAN SINHA
0.139 and 0.136 respectively. The analysis also showed
the relative differences among the different uncertainty
levels. Hence the statistical differences among the
uncertainty levels, in the context of spatial dimensions
(pixel numbers in map outputs) are proved from the
above methods.

Table5: Relative difference (percent) among different AHP methods from map outputs

FAHP Triangular FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal
FAHP Wide
Trapezoidal
CAHP 1.4% 1.3% 2.7%
FAHP Triangular 1.4% 2.3%
FAHP Narrow Trapezoidal 2.6%

Fig3: Tiger habitat suitability maps derived from fuzzy AHP Wide Trapezoidal (left), crisp AHP (middle) and
knowledge-based estimates (right) methods with differences in the output encircled.

3.3. Habitat evaluation:

The weights obtained from AHP methods were used to
model the tiger habitat suitability via weighted sum
cartographic index modeling. The habitat model (HM)
for tigers is shown in Eq. 4.

286
=
=
n
i
HM
1
fi) x (wi
.. (Eq.4)

where, f is the factor considered in the habitat suitability
model, w is the respective weight assigned to each
factor through AHP methods as mentioned in Table 2,
and n is the number of factors considered - i = 1, 2 n.
Figure 3 shows the output map that represents the best
probable result, as obtained from FAHP Wide
Trapezoidal method in MCDA for site suitability of
tiger habitats. The figure also highlights the differences
in area obtained as a result of the fuzzy and non-fuzzy
methods, thereby showing the effect of fuzzification in
GIS-based real world conditions.

Extensive ground truth in conjunction with expert
opinion was undertaken for the authentication of these
results. The map shows highly suitable areas marked in
red, very suitable in light blue and moderately suitable
in dark blue.

4. Discussion and conclusions:

Our study provides an insight of the effectivness of
spatial fuzzy modeling for habitat suitability to restore a
highly endangered population in the locality through
geospatial MCDA techniques. We have shown that
geospatial data integrated with expert knowledge and
implemented within a criteria-based GIS approach can
be used for site suitability studies for wildlife habitat
evaluation and conservation with regard to the
environmental conditions suitable for a species. The
importance of the factors accounting for the analysis can
be determined by the weights generated through AHP
integrated with GIS and overlay analysis.

We concluded that Sariska is an appropriate habitat for
tigers and hence a suitable place for their relocation.
For tiger habitat suitability in this case, and other real-
world situations as well, the weights assigned by
increased uncertainty, in terms of fuzzy AHP methods,
are found to be extremely effective wherever a number
of variables are considered together. The resultant
outputs in the form of maps showed the effects of
uncertainty levels in AHP. A prominent correlation
exists between the degree of uncertainty and spatial
difference between the maps in GIS, as also revealed by
Chi-square test. From the above, a rule of thumb can be
suggested - the greater the uncertainty level the greater
is the difference. In other words, deviation is more
prominent for the FAHP that uses the Wide Trapezoidal
method. With an increase in the difference between
ij

and
ij
, the overall fuzziness increases.

Our study reveals marked variation both between the
CAHP and FAHP methods in general, and between the
different uncertainty levels in FAHP. When weights are
quantified via AHP methods, a deviation of slightly
more than 5% is noticed over the uncertainty levels. The
deviation of somewhat more than 5% is observed over
the entire uncertainty levels using the AHP methods
adopted in the study. Also, there appear to be relative
differences between CAHP and FAHP method which is
documented to approximately 2.7%.

In summary, variations in uncertainty levels result in
different outputs that are visible in the spatial
dimension. The efficacy of the methods will vary
depending on the nature and extent of the targeted,
spatial, real-world decision making problem; otherwise
this might end up giving incorrect and unjustified
results. Decision makers prefer greater degrees of
uncertainty in real world applications, and we have
shown that the results vary depending upon the degree
of uncertainty level used. As already mentioned that
AHP has inherent fuzziness and so it is also observed in
Table 2 that the weights obtained from different crisp
AHP methods (max and Geometric Mean) are different
revealing differences between the methods. However,
FAHP has greater utility in handling complex multi-
attribute decision making problems as interval
judgments are preferable to single numeric values in
real-world scenarios.

In complex situations, many decisions are made in an
environment where decision making process is
uncertain or indecisive and so fuzzy numbers should be
used in those cases for evaluation. That is, in spite of its
complex calculations, fuzzy AHP should be used in
such conditions. Fuzzy logic can tackle the uncertainty
and imprecision involved in expert knowledge
effectively. In our opinion, therefore, it would be safer
and more realistic if a range of values were assigned by
FAHP for a particular factor in real-world
circumstances. We cannot be very confident when
assigning a definite numeric value for any factor as they
might be influenced by a number of other variables.
Our study also supports the wisdom of applying greater
fuzziness or uncertainty in factual realistic situations, as
confirmed by the ANOVA used in our study.

As for the problem considered, tigers are regarded as an
endangered umbrella species. Exceptional care has to be
taken for their conservation as they are now confined to
selected scattered dispersed pockets of Asia, mainly in
India. Although global warming is a severe menace to
biodiversity, the MCDA crisp and fuzzy AHP methods
implemented in this study are cause for optimism
regarding their suitable site selection and relocation,
thus encouraging their conservation and proper
management. Integrating this study with several related
studies like biomass (Sharma et al., 2013; Kumar et al.,
2013) and forest fires (Sharma et. al 2012a; Kanga et
al., 2011) can add robustness in the analysis.

287
SUMAN SINHA
As for all real-world scenarios, our study also involves
parameters that are uncertain to some extent. Hence,
the authors suggest the fuzzification of classical AHP
for assigning weights in order to tackle the problem of
vagueness. The study of suitable habitat site selection
for tiger relocation shows satisfactorily acceptable
results using AHP, with inherent fuzziness, when
compared to the knowledge-based approach. Therefore,
it would be sensible for all real-world, multivariate
complex problems to be addressed with fuzzy concept
techniques.

Our study would be of significant use for management
and policy making strategies, such as forest
management, land use planning and sustainable
management of natural resources. It can help the
decision makers to decide upon the target problems as
well as an appropriate method to solve it. If the problem
does not deal with factors that are not uncertain and
vague and numerical judgments can be made, then crisp
AHP can be applied; otherwise, it is advisable to take
fuzzy interval judgments, with expert decision makers
then determining the perfect fuzzy range for the
assigned problem. Habitat protection is essential for
wildlife conservation, yet, a successful tiger recovery
and reintroduction program is also crucial along with
protecting numbers. This is extremely vital for
conserving the last traces of endangered tiger
populations as well as all supporting species and
ecosystem functions.


The author expresses sincere gratitude to the
Department of Science and Technology (DST),
Government of India for providing funds under DST-
INSPIRE Program (AORC scheme). The author is
thankful to Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, India
where the work was done. Officials of Project Tiger,
Sariska and Sariska Forest Division (Rajasthan, India)
are acknowledged for their support.

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www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.289-296

Benthic Foraminifera in a Sedimentary Core from Kollam Coastal
Plain, South Kerala, India
R GAYATHRI
1
, R NAGENDRA
1
, A N REDDY
2
, P SATHIYAMOORTHY
1
AND N SURESH
1

1
Department of Geology, Anna University, Chennai 600 0025, India
2
201, Majestic shore, 208, Choolaimedu High Road, Chennai-600094, India
Email: geonag@gmail.com.

Abstract: A sediment core of 38m length collected from the Kollam coastal plain was analyzed for benthic
foraminifera to understand paaleo environmental evolution. Sedimentological analysis of the core recognized a
sharp break in lithology at 13m depth which marked rapid upward decrease in foraminifera abundance and diversity.
Total foraminifera abundance and species diversity, however, show a linear positive relationship with increased clay
content and differing trend with increased sand content. The core analysis further revealed gradual upward transition
in faunal composition and frequency variation of the most dominant taxa A.beccarii and N.scaphum suggests
gradual environmental transition from estuarine complex to coastal plain complex in upcore direction.

Keywords: Kollam coastal plain, Benthic foraminifera, Kerala coast.

1. Introduction:

Kollam, South West part of Kerala (8
52'48.76"N:
7636'00.14"E), has a coastline length of 41 km (Fig.I).
It has geographical area of 2491 sq km. (Mini Chandran,
1998). Thickest Quaternary sediment. Sequence is
exposed in the South Kerala Sedimentary basin which
extends from Kollam to Kodungallur in a form of
curvilinear area with a maximum width of approx. 25
km and a thickness of approx. 80 m. (Nair and Padmalal
2004). The basin is divided into central depression
flanked by Southern Block and Northern Block. The
first marine transgression took place around 42, 000
years before present (42KyBP). The Holocene marine
transgression was experienced by about 7kyBp. This
was followed by a regression which left the present
landscape of lagoons, wetlands and the ridge-runnel
topography. Limaye et a1 (2009) studied Late
Quaternary sediments from the boreholes of PanavalIy
and Ayiramthengu of Kollam district and reported the
occurrence of cynobacteria. The present study focuses
on sedimentological and foraminifera analysis to
understand the environmental evolution through the
deposition of sediment core.

2. Methodology:

A land rig commonly used for ground water exploration
was employed to drill a sediment core of a length of
38m and recovered 100%. The lithological study of
sediment core reveals that it composed of 3m sand, 32
m lateritic clay. 13m sand with lateritic soil (0-13m),
10m clayey silt (13-23m) and 15m silty clay (23-38m).

About 10 gm dry sediment sample soaked in water for a
while and washed over a 63m sieve with distilled
water and dried in an oven at 60C. Then foraminifera
were picked using a stereomicroscope (NOVEX AR
200M) and mounted on faunal slides and total faunal
tests were counted. Subsequently the temporal
distribution, absolute and relative abundances of benthic
foraminifera is summarized in Table 2. Q-mode cluster
analysis was carried out on the relative abundance of 29
foraminifera. The foraminifera were taxonomically
identified by referring to Loeblich and Tappan (1988),
Murray (1971), Boltovskoy et al. (1980) and World
modern foraminifers database.

3. Results:

3.1 Sediments:
The table I clearly indicates a sharp change in lithology
at 13m depth, wherein sand/silt/clay ratios exhibit a
turnaround in its percentage occurrence. The core can be
divided into 3 litho units based on ratios of sand, silt and
clay. The lower litho unit (L-1) between 38-23m
contains predominance of clay (63.1-72%). The silt and
sand represents 27.1-32.8% and 0.24-0.8% respectively.
The litho unit 2 between 23m and 13m consists of clay
(55.3-64.3%), silt (25.1-32.9) and sand (2.97-12.65%).
This litho unit is transitional between L-1 and L-3,
wherein increasing trend of % silt and sand is observed.
The upper litho unit (L-3) shows predominance of sand
(lateritic) (63.9-99.99%), silt (0-20.5%) and clay (0-
18.9%).

3.2Foraminifera:
290
Benthic Foraminifera in a Sedimentary Core from Kollam Coastal Plain,
South Kerala, India
The table II shows the vertical distribution of 30 benthic
foraminifera species recorded from the sediment core at
Kollam coastal plain. It is evident from the data that
Ammonia beccarii (36.5-82.5%) is the most dominant
almost at all the study depths followed by Nonion
scaphum (7.4-54.2%). The remaining 28 species occur
sporadically. Elphidium crispum contains 11% of total
relative abundance at 3m depth, while Bolivina
spathulata contains 25% and N.boueanum 27% relative
abundance at 35m and 7m depths respectively. A.
beccarii and N. scaphum occur throughout the core
while other species show erratic presence and sparse
abundance. The figure II illustrates the hierarchical
dendrogram which explains biotopes recognized using
Q-mode cluster analysis. The single linkage distance
method recognized 8 biotopes at Eucledean distance of
52. The biotope-1 which covers the core depth mainly
between 16m and 23m, shows very close similarity in
faunal composition at a linkage distance of 10. This
interval falls in litho unit 2 (L-2) and consists of mainly
clayey silt lithology with minor sand content (2.97-
12.65%). The increased relative abundance of
N.scaphum (31.24%) and reduced abundance of
A.beccarii (56.1%) with respect to bottom L-1 unit
characterizes this biotope. Biotopes 2,5,7 and 8
envelops the upper part of the core (14-0 m depth).
However these biotopes grouped separately because of
the contribution by other taxa in addition to two
dominant taxa A.beccarii and N.scaphum. Biotope-2 has
a linkage distance of 30 and characterized by Elphidium
crispum (11%), Fursenkoina texturata (5.2%), Lobatula
lobatula (3.4%) and Nonion boueanum (2.7%). Biotope-
5 is distinct by the presence of E. crispum (1.4%), F.
texturata (1.1%) and E. hispidulum (0.4%), whereas
Biotope-7 is distinguished by N.boueanum (25%) and
Biotope-8 is diagnostic by the presence of E.crispum
(5.7%), Bolivina spathulata (4.5%), F.texturata (1.1%)
and Rectobolivina ?virgula (0.7%). Well preserved
foraminifera specis are demonstrated in Plate I.

4. Discussion:

The table I & figure III shows the vertical distribution of
total foraminifer abundance (TNF) and species diversity
(S). It is observed that a gradual increase of total
abundance and diversity in litho unit 1 from 38m to
23m,where clay (63.1-72%) is the dominant lithology
while sand represents <1%. Total faunal abundance and
diversity show a gradual increase in upcore in this litho
unit. The litho unit 2 wherein presence of silt varies
from 25.1-32.9% supports minimum abundance and
diversity of total foraminifera. The lithounit 3 contains
predominantly sand (lateritic). Faunal abundance and
diversity show a decreasing upward trend in this unit.
The turnaround in litho content, TNF and S is clearly
evident at 13m core depth, where total abundance trends
rapidly decrease upwards. A.beccarii is the most tolerant
species and occurs predominantly in all the coastal
water bodies either in polluted or natural environments
revealing its high tolerance and adaptability to changing
environmental variables. Ammonia beccarii is
ubiquitous and dominant in all the coastal water bodies
like lagoons and estuaries along the TamilNadu and
Kerala coasts (Ramnathan, 1970; Reddy and Reddy,
1982; Jayaraju and Reddy, 1996; Kumar et al. 1996;
Gandhi et al. 2002; Nagendra et al.2011). This taxa
reported to occur abundantly in lower estuarine zone of
Ashtamudi estuary of southern Kerala coast (Nagendra
et al.2011), which is in close proximity to the Kollam
coastal plain. The water depth in the lower estuary of
Ashtamudi is about 4m and the predominant lithology
represented by sand. N.scaphum was associated with
A.beccarii in the middle estuarine zone (central and
western kayals) of Ashtamudi estuary where water
depth ranges from 2-4m and lithology mainly
represented by clay and silt. In the central and western
kayals of Ashtamudi abundance of A.beccarii and
N.scaphum account to about 60% and 25-30%
respectively.

The relative abundance of dominant taxa A.beccarii and
N.scaphum show opposite trends in upcore direction.
Ammonia beccarii shows gradual reduction in
abundance from 59.85% in lower litho unit 1, 56.1% in
litho unit 2 to 45.47% in upper litho unit 3, while N.
scaphum varies from 20% in litho unit1, 31.24% in litho
unit 2 and 0.67% in litho unit 3. The abundance ratios of
these two dominant taxa indicate that litho units 1&2
where lithology mainly silt and clay were deposited in
estuarine complex and further evolving into near shore
conditions in the upper litho unit3 and finally into
coastal plain from 3m to the top of the core. The sharp
break in lithology at 13m and predominance of sand
(lateritic) in litho unit 3 suggests high proportion of
riverine input.

5. Conclusions:

Based on litho content, the sediment core is divided
into 3 units namely silty clay, clayey silt and sand
(lateritic) in stratigraphic order. The base of the
litho unit 3 marks a sharp break in litho content.
Thirty benthic foraminifer species belonging to 20
genera are identified. Q mode cluster analysis of 30
taxa recognized 8 biotopes which cluster at a
linkage distance 50.
A.beccarii and N.scaphum are abundant but exhibits
reverse trends in their abundance in upcore. Their
abundance ratios suggest gradual evolution of
environment from estuarine complex (litho units
1&2) to near shore (litho unit 3) and finally into
coastal plain.

6. Reference:

291
R GAYATHRI, R NAGENDRA, A N REDDY, P SATHIYAMOORTHY AND N SURESH
[1] Boltovskoy, Esteban, Giussani, Graciela,
Watanabe, Silvia and Wright, Ramil. 1980. An atlas
of Benthic Shelf Foraminifera of the Southwest
Atlantic Book, London, p147.
[2] Gandhi, S Rajamanickam, G.V.M. and Nigam, R.
2002 Taxonomy and distribution of benthic
foraminifera from the sediments off Palk Strait,
Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India. Journal of the
Palaeontological Society of India 47, 47-64.
[3] Gaudette, H., W. Flight, L. Toner & D. Folders.
1974 An inexpensive titration method for the
determination of organic carbon in recent
sediments. J. Sediment. Res., 44, 1, 249-253.
[4] Jayaraju, N. Reddy, K.R. 1996 Impact of pollution
on coastal zone monitoring with benthic
foraminifera of Tuticorin, southeast coast of India.
Indian Jour. Mar. Sci. 25:76-378
[5] Kumar. V., Manivannan,V. and Ragothaman, V.
1996 Spatial and temporal variations in
foraminiferal abundance and their relation to
substrate characteristics in the Palk Bay, off
Rameshwaram, TamilNadu. Proc. XV Indian Coll.
Micropal. Strati. pp. 393-402.
[6] Loeblich, A.R Jr Tappan, H. 1988 Foraminiferal
genera and their classification: New York, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, 970 pp.
[7] Mini Chandran.1988 Ecobiology of Sasthamkotta,
M.Sc. Dissertation, University of Kerala.
[8] Murray, J.W. 1971 an Atlas of British Recent
Foraminiferids. Heinemann Educational Books,
London.
[9] Nagendra, R., Prakash, T. N., Jayamurugan, K., R,
Gayathri, R and Reddy, A. N. 2011 A Preliminary
Reports on Benthic Foraminiferal Assemblage in
the Ashtamudi Estuary, Kerala. Journal of the
Palaeontological Society of India. V. 56 no. 2, pp.
137-142.
[10] Nair, K.M and Padmalal, D. 2004 Quaternary
geology and geomorphology of southern Kerala
sedimentary basin, West coast of India. In G.R.
Ravindra kumar and N.Subhash (Eds) Earth
System Sciences and natural resource management
pp.69-92
[11] Reddy, A. N. and Reddy, K.R. 1982 Recent
benthonic foraminifera from the Araniar River
Estuary, TamilNadu. Indian Journal of Marine
Sciences, v.11, pp.249-250.
[12] Ramanathan, R.M.1970 Quantitative differences in
the living benthonic foraminifera of Vellar estuary,
Tamil Nadu: Journal of Geological Society of India,
v.11 (2), pp.127-141.

Fig I : Location map of sediment core (BH-8) at Kollam, Kerala
292
South Kerala, India

Fig I I : Vertical distribution of foraminifera taxa and dendrogram showing biotopes

293

Fig I I I : Vertical distribution of total foraminifera abundance, species diversity and lithological content in core
(BH-8) at Kollam area

Explanation of Plate I :
1. Bolivina nitida, Brady, 1884
2. Brizalina subaenariensis (Cushman, 1922)
3. Fursenkoina texturata (Brady 1884)
4. Rectobolivina? virgule (Brady)
5. Cancris oblongus, (Williamson, 1858)
6. Elphidium macellum (Fichtel & Moll, 1798)
7. Elphidium crispum (Linnaeus, 1758)
8. Ammonia beccarii (Linnaeus, 1758)
9. Operculina ammonoide, Sidebottom, 1918
10. Nonion scaphum (Fichtel & Moll)
11. Quinqloculina sp.
12. Ammonia dentata (Parker and Jones, 1865)
13. Nonion boueanum (dOrbigny, 1846)
14. Elphidium hispidulum, Cushman, 1936

294
South Kerala, India

PLATEI :

295
TableI : Vertical distribution of lithological variants, foraminifera biotopes and species diversity in Core
sedimentary section, Kollam area

Depth
(m)
Lithology Sand% Silt% Clay% Biotopes TNF
Species
Diversity
0-3 Clayeysand 89.11 3.9 6.98 Ammonia beccarii 20 3
3 Clayeysand 70.09 11 18.91 Ammonia beccarii 107 7
4 Clayeysand 76.56 9.67 13.74 Ammonia beccarii 84 3
5 Sand 99.99 0 0 Ammonia beccarii 105 4
7 Sand 99.99 0 0 Ammonia beccarii 91 4
8 Siltysand 77.81 19.75 2.43 Nonion scaphum 58 7
9 Siltysand 78.9 15.55 5.46 Ammonia beccarii 183 8
12 Clayeysand 76.52 5.9 17.58 Ammonia beccarii 176 9
13 Clayeysand 75.01 7.82 17 Ammonia beccarii 284 13
14 Siltyclay 0.6 15.34 84.06 Ammonia beccarii 223 10
38 Siltyclay 0.76 29.53 69.41 Nonion scaphum 96 6
TFN= Total Number of Foraminifera

Total 2769

296
South Kerala, India
TableI I : Spatio-temporal distribution of benthic foraminifera of Kollam coastal sediment

www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.297-304

Solid Waste Transportation Cost Using Arm Roll in Malang City,
Indonesia
BURHAMTORO
1,2
, ACHMAD WICAKSONO
3
, M BISRI
4
AND SOEMARNO
5

1
Deparment of Environment and Development Studies, Graduate School, University of Brawijaya,
Malang, East Java, INDONESIA
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic of Malang, INDONESIA
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculity of Engineering, University of Brawijaya, INDONESIA
4
Departmen of Water Resources Engineering, Faculity of Engineering, University of Brawijaya, INDONESIA
5
Laboratory of Remote Sensing, Faculity of Agriculture, University of Brawijaya, INDONESIA
Email:

goes_bur@yahoo.com, wicaksono1968@yahoo.com, mohammadbisri@yahoo.com, smno@ub.ac.id

Abstract. In the processes of wastes management, wastes transportation process requires 70-80% of the total cost of
wastes management, so that the cost savings can be done at the cost of freight. This study aims to create the
modeling of freight costs and the cost of transporting waste in Malang city with the Arm Roll system. The primary
data consisting of transporting distance, travelling time and volume of transported wastes, are obtained by a primary
survey on the vehicle movement of the Arm Roll. Secondary data consisting of transportation cost and vehicles
charateristics obtained from the Sanitation Department of Malang city and stakeholders. Estimation of the waste
transportation cost by the wastes freight cost equation obtained from the relationship between vehicle operating cost
(VOC) and vehicle speeds. Equation of the wastes transporting cost with the Arm Roll system is Y = 171,329.33x
-
0.50
. (Y is a transportation cost (IDR/m
3
) and X is a vehicle speed (km/h)). Wastes transport use the Arm Roll at the
speed of 21,759 km/h requires a fee of IDR 36,698.92 /m
3
.

Keywords: Wastes, Arm Roll, speed of vehicles, Transport Cost.

1. Introduction:

Wastes management processes are divided into three
stages: wastes collection, wastes transportation and
wastes processing. Among these three stages, transport
costs reach about 70-80% of the total cost of wastes
management (Utami, 2008). The saving of wastes
management cost can be made on the cost of
transportation.

Processes of waste transport are conducted by the
wastes transporting vehicles or waste transportation
fleets serving at the temporary waste disposal stations
(TPS) to the final landfill site (TPA) (SNI T-13-1990-
F). The transporting wastes vehicles are grouped into
two types; namely the stationery container system (SCS
or Dump Truck) and the hauled containers systems
(HCS or Arm Roll) (Silvia, 2010). Each type of vehicles
has the required transporting cost (Levinson, 2005). The
waste transporting cost can be estimated using
calculation of vehicle operating costs (VOC) in the Arm
Roll system (Burhamtoro, 2013).

The Arm Roll waste transportation system serves waste
transport by leaving the truck tub at the TPS, Arm Roll
transporting garbage bins which have been fully filled,
without having to wait for wastes charging as well as
the Dump Truck (Hartanto, 2006). Malang city has 16
units of Arm Roll scattered on the five sub districts.
Arm Roll system deployment locations tend to have a
slight amount of wastes. Advantages of the Arm Roll
system is in a single day transporting waste can serve
more than one temporary disposal station (TPS).
Differences resulted in this transport systems should be
considered in calculating cost of waste transportation.

The vehicle operating costs (VOC) are costs that occur
in the economical operation of a vehicle under normal
conditions for a specific purpose (Hamidi, 2013). In
Indonesia there are two ways commonly used in the
calculation of vehicle operating cost (VOC), that are
PCI (Pacific Consultant International) and LAPI-ITB
(Institute for Research and Industry Affiliations
Institute Technologi of Bandung). In the calculation of
vehicle operating cost (VOC) , one of its determining
factor is the speed of vehicle (Lavinson, 2005). Thus, in
calculating cost of waste transport should considering
the speed of waste vehicles.

Based on the above descriptions, it is known that the
Arm Roll waste transport system is different from the
Dump Truck Haulage system, so that the calculation of
the transporting costs is also different. This research
298
simulated the cost of transporting wastes by The
ArmRoll in Malang city.

The Hauled Container System (HCS) is the waste
collection system, where the waste containers are
transported to the final landfill, it is emptied and then
returned to its original location or to the next locations
of wastes collection (SNI T-13-1990-F).

Fig1: Waste Transportation System HCS (Hauled
Container System)

The standard operating procedures of the HCS are:
a. The empty waste containers were taken from the
garage to the Polling station-1 (TPS-1).
b. The waste container has been fully filled from TPS-
1 is brought to the landfill to be emptied.
c. The Container that has been emptied is taken to
replace the container in the polling station-2 (TPS-
2).
d. The wastes containers which have been fully filled
from TPS-2 are brought to the Landfill to be
emptied, so onward.
e. The wastes truck back to the garage.

Basically, the cost of transportation is the amount of
money that must be paid by the transportation provider
to perform transport services for both fixed costs
(infrastructure) and variable costs (operational costs).
These costs depend on a variety of conditions associated
with geographic, infrastructure, administrative
boundaries, energy, and how they were brought (Sofyan
et al., 2009).

Various methods can be used to estimate the
relationship between output and costs, one of the
methods that have been used in the transportation
studies is the statistical method (Waters, 1997). The
waste transport cost method with the statistical approach
using the multiple regression model. Multiple regression
analysis shows how costs may change if one of the
factors is changed.

Variables used in the calculation of transport costs
include fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs are
costs that can not be changed. Fixed costs include
vehicle taxes, accident insurance, and a physical test of
vehicles accounted in a single year (Burhamtoro, 2012);
the variable costs consist of five components, i.e. cost of
tires, fuels, maintenance costs, labor costs and total
variable costs (Mark Berwick and Moh. Farooq, 2003).
Variable costs are affected by the speed of the vehicle
during transport. Velocity used is the speed of travel
(Journey Speed), obtained from the mileage travelled
divided by the time of service during the process of
transporting wastes (Burhamtoro, 2012)

The vehicle operating cost (VOC) is sum of the cost of
fuels, engine lubricants, tire, maintenance, depreciation,
interest rates, insurance, driver wages and overhead,
these are influenced by the speed of vehicles which is
the variable cost per 1,000 km (Yanagiya, 1990);
whereas according to Lavinson (2005) and Sugiyanto
(2011), calculation of variable costs should be carried
out per km.

The Vehicle Operating Cost calculations in this study
used the PCI method. This is the empirical model
developed since 1979 in the Jakarta Intra Urban
Feasibility Study, which is still used by the Jasa Marga
co. ltd. (Hamidi, 2013).

2. Research Method:

The research was carried out on the entire fleet of
trashes hauler Arm Roll that serves the Malang city. It
was conducted between September to December 2012.
The necessary data includes the travelled distance,
transporting time, volume of wastes which are
transported, and costs of other needs (tires, oil, spare
parts, vehicle services, etc.).

The data collection method used is primary data and
secondary data. Primary data is the data obtained by
field surveys. While secondary data was gathered from
the Sanitation Department in Malang and stakeholders.
Primary data includes vehicle motion patterns survey
conducted on board or follow the vehicle transport
process Arm Roll in the process of transporting waste
from Pool-TPS-TPA and back to the pool, to get the
data distance, time and the volume of waste. Secondary
data includes vehicle data, the price of tires, parts prices,
service vehicles, driver costs, etc. Speed data obtained
from the division between distance and time. Equation
of modeling the cost of transporting waste based on data
speed and the cost required.

The waste transport cost modeling is based on the
calculation of the operating costs of the Arm Roll
vehicles, vehicle operating costs are calculated by the
method of PCI that involve fixed costs and variable
costs. Variable costs are affected by the length of the
journey, while fixed costs are not influenced by the
length of the trip. The formulation of variable cost can
be seen in Table 1. The fixed cost is calculated based on
the value of the vehicle taxes, mandatory contributions,
299
BURHAMTORO, ACHMAD WICAKSONO, M BISRI AND SOEMARNO
and feasibility test of the vehicle divided by the number
of working days.

The result of the calculation is the transportation cost of
arm roll per day and per m
3
, not per trip because the trip
of each vehicle and each day is different. So that
transportation cost are general.

Fig2: Location of the temporary disposal station (TPS) in Malang city, East Java Indonesia

Table1: Variable Cost Calculation in Vehicle Operation Cost (VOC)

No. Parameter Cost Equations Informations
1 Fuel Cost (0,06427V
2
- 7,0613V + 318,3326) x Fuel cost
Fuel Cost
(liter/1000km)
2 Oil cost (0,00048V
2
- 0,05608V + 3,07383) x Oil Cost
Oil Cost
(liter/1000km)
3 Tire cost (0,0011553V - 0,0059333) x Tire cost x n Tire
Tire Cost
(1 Tire/1000km)
4 Spare part cost (0,0000191V + 0,00154) x Vehicle price
Spare part cost
(Spare part/1000km)
5 Service cost (0,01511V + 1,212) x Mechanic wages per hour
Service Cost
(Mechanic/1000km)
6 Depreciation (1/(6,129V + 245)) x Vehicle price
Depreciation cost
(Depreciation/1000km)
7 Interest rate ((0,12 x 1000)/(1750V)) x Vehicle price
Interest rate
(interest rate/1000km)
8 Insurance ((0,06x1000x0,5)/(1750V)) x Vehicle price
Insurance
(Insurance/1000km)
9 Drive wages (1000/V) x Driver wages
Driver Wages
(Wage/1000km)
10 Overhead Total Cost x 10%

Information: V = Speed (km/hour), Source: Yanagiya, 1990

3. Results And Discussion:

3.1. Model of Transpotation Cost with Arm Roll:
Malang city uses two types of Arm Roll vehicles, ie
Arm Roll New Toyota Dyna WU 342 R TKMQ AD 3
four pieces and 11 pieces Arm Roll Toyota Dyna Rino
BY 43. VOC calculations for the two types of Arm roll
method approach Yanagiya (1990). Limited to the speed
of velocity variations are allowed in the city is up to 50
km / h (Peraturan Menteri Perhubungan No. 14, 2006).
300

The costs are calculated in the calculation of vehicle
operating cost (VOC) covers the cost of fuel, oil, tires,
parts, service, depreciation, interest rates, insurance, and
driver wages. The charges are obtained based on survey
to the market prices.

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the
transportation costs and vehicle speed for each type of
Arm Roll vehicle.
Table2: Speed and waste volume data
No. Vehicle Type
Speed -carry
away (km/h)
Speed -empty
(km/h)
Waste
Volume (m3)
1 2 3 4 5
1 TOYOTA NEW DYNA WU 342 R TKMQ AD 3 21.23 19.94 8.68
5 TOYOTA DYNA RINO BY 43 21.09 22.70 8.97

Toyota New Dyna WU 342R
y = 1.410.684,24x
-0,50
R = 0,97
Toyota New Dyna Ryno
y = 1.642.837,23x
-0,50
R = 0,97
-
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
900,000
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
C
o
s
t
(
I
D
R
/
d
a
y
)
Speed
(Km/hour)
TOYOTA NEW DYNA WU 342 R TKMQ AD 3
TOYOTA NEW DYNA RYNO BY 43

Fig3: The relationship between the transportation cost and the vehicle speed for each type of Arm roll

Graph in Figure 3 describes the function of the
corresponding equation which is the type of power. The
equation of the function of each type of vehicles;
Toyota New Dyna WU 342R has equation Y =
1,410,684.24x
-0,50
with value R square 0.97. Toyota
New Dyna Rino equation Y = 1,642,837.23x
-0,50
with R
square 0.97. Where that equation Y is vehicle
operational cost and X is speed.

Based on these equations, it can be seen that the faster
the vehicle, the smaller the costs charged. When using
speed in the city is 27 km / h then the cost to Toyota
Dyna WU 342R is IDR 271,486.31, while the Toyota
301
Dyna New Ryno is IDR 316,164.17. Toyota Dyna WU
342R costs less IDR 44,677.86 or 14.13% of Toyota
Dyna Ryno

Relationship with the vehicle speed and transportation
costs Arm Roll type as in Figure 4.

y = 1,522,341.81x
-0.50
R = 0.91
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
900000
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
C
o
s
t
(
I
D
R
/
d
a
y
)
Speed
(Km/hour)
ARM ROLL

Fig4: The relationship between the transportation cost and the ArmRoll speed

The regression model is Y = 1,522,341.81x
-0.50
with R
square 0.91. The chart is calculated based on the data
speed of the whole arm roll with vehicle operating costs
required.

Calculated based on the cost of transporting waste cost
divided by the volume of waste transported. The large
volume of waste transported obtained from a survey
vehicle movement. The relationship between the speed
chart with transport costs can be seen in Figure 5.

Toyota New Dyna WU 342R
y = 195.115,39x
-0,50
R = 0,97
Toyota New Dyna Ryno
y = 150.442,97x
-0,50
R = 0,97
-
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
C
o
s
t
(
I
D
R
/
m
3
)
Speed
(Km/hour)
Gambar Grafik Hubungan Kecepatan Kendaraan Arm Roll
Terhadap Biaya Pengangkutan Sampah
TOYOTA NEW DYNA WU 342 R TKMQ AD 3
TOYOTA NEW DYNA RYNO BY 43

Fig5: The relationship between transportation costs and the Arm Roll speed

Based on Figure 5. Toyota New Dyna WU 342R has
the equation Y = 195,115.39x
-0,50
. while for vehicles
Toyota Dyna BY obtained function equation Y =
150,442.97x
-0,50
, where Y in the equation is the cost of
transport per m
3
. while the X variable is the speed of the
vehicle in each equation with R
2
of 0.97.

When calculating the cost of transporting waste to the
equation above, using the speed in the city is 27 km / h
then the cost to Toyota Dyna WU 342R is IDR
37,549.97, while the Toyota Dyna New Ryno is IDR
28,952.76. In the calculation of the cost of transporting
the Toyota Dyna WU 342R is more expensive IDR
8,597.21 or 29.69% than Toyota Dyna Ryno.

Modeling the cost of transporting waste by Arm roll is
calculated based on cost of transportation of any type of
vehicles. Cost model arm roll transporting waste types
are shown in figure 6.

302
y = 171,329.33x
-0.50
R = 0.81
-
20,000.00
40,000.00
60,000.00
80,000.00
100,000.00
120,000.00
-
1
0

2
0

3
0

4
0

5
0

6
0

C
o
s
t
(
I
D
R
/
m
3
)
Speed
(Km/hour)
Gambar Grafik Hubungan Kecepatan Kendaraan Arm Roll
Terhadap Biaya Pengangkutan Sampah
Arm Roll

Fig6: The relationship between the transportations costs and the ArmRoll speed

Based on the cost of transporting waste chart
relationships with Arm Roll speed, then the equation Y
= 171.329,33x
-0,50
with the magnitude of R
2
is 0.81.

3.2. The Freight Cost Based on Existing Speed:
Vehicle speed is a determining factor in the calculation
of vehicle operating costs (Yanagiya. 1990). Vehicle
speed is obtained from the distance trips devided by the
travelling time of services. Meanwhile, the volume of
transported wastes is obtained from the average of the
wastes volume every kind of vehicle type ArmRoll over
a certain period of time as shown in Table 3.

Table3: Speed and volume of waste in each brand of vehicle

N
o.
Vehicle Type
Avg. speed
(km/h)
Avg.
(km/h)
Vol. Waste
(m
3
)
Avg.
(m
3
)
Distnc.
(km)
Avg.
(km)
1 Toyota New Dyna WU 342R 21.23
21.96
8.68
7.23
94.70
77.30
2 Toyota New Dyna WU 342R 23.55 6.01 72.13
5 Toyota Dyna Rino By 43 21.09
21.63
8.97
10.92
88.78
90.40
6 Toyota Dyna Rino By 43 20.79 10.21 89.47

Table 3 points out that the type of Toyota Dyna Rino BY 43 has the fastest speed: 21.63 km / h. Toyota New Dyna
WU 342 R reaches up to 21.96 km / h. If the speed is included in the cost of transporting waste equation. the
following results are obtained;
303
Table4: Freight costs under the existing speeds

Arm Roll Type Equation Speed (Km/hour) Freight Cost (IDR/m
3
)
T. New Dyna WU 342R 195.115,39x
-0,50
21.63 41,953.02
T. New Dyna Rino BY
43
150.442,97x
-0,50
21.96 32,103.75
Arm Roll 171.329,33x
-0,50
21.795 36,698.92

Based on Table 4. it can be seen that the cost of
transporting wastes using Arm Roll for Toyota New
Dyna Rino is cheaper than Toyota New Dyna WU 342
R. Cost of transporting waste to the Toyota New Dyna
Rino BY 43 IDR 32,103.75 / m
3
. While Toyota New
Dyna WU 342 R amounting to IDR 41,953.02 / m
3
. The
cost of transporting waste in Malang using Arm Roll
requires cost of IDR 36,698.92 / m
3
.

4. Conclusion:

The model of waste transport equation with Arm Roll
system is Y = 171,329.33x
-0.50
(Y is a transportation cost
(IDR/m
3
) and X is a vehicle speed (km/h)). The cost of
transporting by Toyota Dyna WU 342R is more
expensive 29.69% of Toyota Dyna Ryno. In Malang
city, cost of transporting waste by using the Arm Roll
system cost IDR 36,698.92 /m
3
at the existing vehicle
speed of 21.795 km/h.

5. Acknowledgement:

The authors sincerely acknowledge the modifications
recommended by the reviewer, Dr. Gito Sugiyanto, ST.,
MT. at 27
th
Sept. 2013 as Associated Profesor of Civil
Engineering in Faculty of Science and Engineering,
Jenderal Soedirman University Purwokerto, Indonesia
and Dr. Nindyo Cahyo Krisnanto, ST., MT. at 1
st
Nov
2013 as Lecture of Transportation at Civil Engineering
Department, Faculty of Science, Janabadra University,
Jogjakarta, Indonesia. Special thanks for the Indonesian
Directorate General of Higher Education which has
funded this research.

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www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.305-312

Structural Health Monitoring Techniques in Civil Engineering: An
Overview
BHAVANA PATEL S S
1
, KATTA VENKATARAMANA
1
, K S BABU NARAYAN
1
, BHAGYASHRI PARLA
2

AND YUKINOBU KIMURA
3

1
Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, Mangalore 575025, INDIA
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Government Engineering College, Ramnagar, INDIA
3
Department of ocean Civil Engineering, Kagoshima University, JAPAN
Email: bhavana8patel@gmail.com

Abstract: Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is an emerging and promising technology for safety and integrity of
structures. Vibration Based Monitoring (VBM) has gained more importance in the field of civil engineering as
damage parameters are sensitive to vibration. This paper presents brief introduction on SHM and VBM. Traditional
and advanced techniques adopted for damage identification, localization and quantification by various authors have
been discussed. However it is still a challenging task for the researchers to develop a technique which gives efficient
and reliable solution for a particular Structure.

Keywords: Structural Health Monitoring, Vibration Based Monitoring, Damage, Identification, Localization,
Quantification.

Introduction:

Increased importance for safety and economy has given
more prominence for SHM from the past two decades.
Early detection of damages avoids catastrophic failure
and aids in providing necessary support for its
prolonged working condition. Visual inspection can
detect damages, if they are large enough to see through
the eyes and located in the accessible region. This
becomes complicated while monitoring large structures,
in which damages are present in the inaccessible region.
In such situations effective nondestructive techniques
such as SHM can be used to monitor the integrity of
structural systems.

SHM is a scientific process of non-destructively
monitoring the health of the system. This is carried out
in three phases: a) Monitoring the operational /
environmental load that acts on the system; b) System
diagnosis, to identify, locate and quantify the extent of
damage that occurs in the system due to loading; c)
System prognosis, i.e., to predict the present and future
performance of the system in the presence of damage(s).
Advent of SHM has replaced traditional periodic
maintenance by condition based maintenance, which in
turn reduces the down time and labour cost. During the
extreme events such as earthquake, accidents and
blasting SHM has been used to determine the extent of
damage on the structural components and also to check
its adequacy for the occupation. One of the major
drawbacks of this system is to convince the customers
to use SHM since it is still in the developmental stage.
Fig.1 by Ma T W et al. (2005) shows the procedure
Carried out in SHM.

Fig1: Procedure in SHM
VBM is the commonly adopted method for monitoring
civil structures. This method relies on global parameters
for damage identification, localization and
quantification. Structural damage alters dynamic
306
characteristics such as stiffness, mass and damping
which in turn changes frequency, mode shapes and
damping ratio. The change in these parameters depends
on location, nature and severity of the damage.

Advent of new sensors has made SHM an efficient and
robust technology for monitoring the structural systems.
The use of sensors like piezoelectric, Fiber optics,
magnetostrictive and other sensors have given rise to
many advanced techniques which are effective in
locating and quantifying damage in the structural
damage.

Literature Review:

Various damage identification, localization and
quantification methods using VBM have been reviewed
by many researchers. Doebling et al (1996) discussed on
the application oriented technological development, by
discussing the critical issues related to monitoring of the
structures. Chang et al (2003) have given the recent
developments in the field of SHM in advanced countries
and various sensors adopted are listed. Hsieh et al.
(2006) discussed on the factors affecting damage and
sensor selection based on the parameter. Sohn et al
(2004) have discussed on various parameters affecting
damage, selection of such features and their extraction.
Sohn also gives information about different types of
sensors, excitation methods, and application of damage
detection methods in the real time structures. Humar et
al. (2006) have presented the description of some of the
simple structures, on which monitoring can be done.
They conclude by stating vibration based methods are
completely not reliable for monitoring. Brownjohn et
al.(2011) have given a brief introduction on SHM,
comparison of the early vibration based monitoring and
present day vibration based damage detection is given.
Further case studies on mainly bridges and other
structures are presented. Paper is concluded with the
recommendation for the vibration based monitoring.

Traditional Methods:

In traditional methods there are mainly two domains:
one is time and another frequency domain. Damage
detection in frequency domain is carried out by
comparing the response of healthy and unhealthy
structure. Some of the damage sensitive parameter in
this domain is frequency, mode shape, modal curvature,
stiffness and damping ratio. Sheinman (1996) has
developed an algorithm for damage detection and also
for updating mass and stiffness matrices based on the
minimum static and/or dynamic modes. Johnson et
al.(2004), Yuen et al.(2004) and Ragland et al.(2010)
have discussed the damage identification based on the
dynamic parameters stiffness, frequency and mode
shapes, also different types of damages are studied.
Escobar A. et al (2005) have located and quantified
damage in two and three dimensional analytical models
by using transformation matrix which is used to obtain
reduced stiffness matrix. Nayeri et al. (2007) have
discussed the advantage of using natural excitation
technique with Eigen system realization algorithm for
the evolution of the modal properties. The natural
frequencies are correlated with time for damage
localization and quantification. Nayeri et al. (2009)
improved the same technique by considering degree of
freedom as the reference for selection of modes. Blames
E. et al. (2008) have worked on non-parametric damage
identification algorithm based on mode shapes, using
averaging operation to smoothen the temperature effect.
Esmaeel et al. (2011) have used Energy damage index
for arriving at empirical modal decomposition used for
damage localization algorithm.

Salawu (1997) has given a review on structural
assessment using frequency changes which is one of the
sensitive, easily and cheaply available responses.
Salawu has concluded frequency alone cant be the
criteria for the health assessment of a structure. Hwang
and Kim (2003) have discussed on damage localization
and its severity. This have been carried out by using
frequency response function (FRF) of tests and
analytical, which is used for model updating. Mal et al
(2005), Catbas et al. (2006) & Golafshani et al.(2010)
identify damage location using damage correlation
index, modal flexibility and Minimum rank
perturbation respectively obtained from frequency
response function (FRF). Cury & Borges (2010) have
discussed the damage localization and quantification
using strain and frequency data.

In time domain displacement, amplitude and
acceleration are considered as damage sensitive
parameters. It is very difficult to obtain the accurate data
and also difficult to get the physical meaning of these
data. Catbas et al. (2007) have discussed limitations of
damage identification using time response data on large
scale structures. Yang & Sun (2010) have discussed the
static based method of localization and quantification of
damage in the structural systems. Adbo (2012) has
extended Yang and Sun work using displacement
curvature. Sanayei et al. (2012) have discussed damage
detection on bridges using strain measurements. He
conducts tests in three methods on a bridge structure i.e.
conventional, NDE data and model updating using
FEM.

Sohn & Farrar (2000), and Lei et al.(2003) have
proposed damage localization using time series of
vibration signals of auto regressive models. Ma et al.
(2005) have located the damage using time domain for
linear system. Quantification has been carried out by
using system identification in an iterative way. Carden
and Brownjohn (2008) have discussed the damage
307
BHAVANA PATEL S S, KATTA VENKATARAMANA, K S BABU NARAYAN,
BHAGYASHRI PARLA AND YUKINOBU KIMURA
detection in time domain using Autoregressive Moving
Average (ARMA) models. Zhang et al.(2008) have
discussed damage identification of linear systems using
Support Vector Regression (SVR) data processing
technique. Further Trendafoilova et al.(2009) have
introduced the idea of using larger amplitude vibrations
in the time domain, and this can be adopted for the
nonlinear structures. Wang et al.(2011) have discussed
the monitoring of bridges in time domain using flutter
and buffeting analysis. Gao et al. (2002) have developed
an algorithm for damage localization using damage
localization vector (DLV) where inducing stress field
has zero magnitude in the damaged region. This method
is carried out using flexibility matrix. Sim et al. (2011)
have extended the work with acceleration and strain
data.

Advanced methods:

Impedance method uses high frequency vibrations and
electromechanical coupling property of sensor, by
observing the changes in impedance damages are
detected. Advancement of the sensor technology has
increased in the usage of impedance based damage
identification. When piezoelectric transducers are
stressed it generates electric field and in turn mechanical
strain. This electrical response can be used to detect
damage through phase shift or magnitude chance. Fig.2
shows impedance model diagram by Peairs et al.
(2007).The major advantages of this method are low
power consumption, piezoelectric transducers are small
in size and they are model dependent. Park et al. (2000)
have experimentally applied impedance based damage
detection algorithm for composite reinforced concrete
wall. This method is validated with other commonly
adopted methods. Peairs et al. (2007) have carried out
damage detection using electro-mechanical Impedance
method. Since high frequencies are used in this method,
spectral finite element method has been used and further
these results are validated using experimental data.

Fig2: Impedance model
Statistical Pattern recognition method can be divided
into four steps, operational evaluation, Data acquisition
and cleansing, feature selection and data compression
and statistical model development. Features like modal
properties, flexibility, time and frequency domain
responses are being considered. Farrar C. et al. (1999)
and Yao and Pakzad (2012) have carried literature
survey on statistical pattern recognition method. Further
Yao and Pakzad have proposed model spectra and
residual auto correlation for damage detection. Sohn and
Farrar (2000) have used statistical process control
technique for damage diagnosis, by using auto
regressive models acceleration time histories are
measured. Altunok et al. (2007) have adopted a non-
statistical approach known as possibility approach. This
is independent of damage feature, do not require
probabilistic knowledge. Fig. 3 by Yao R and Pakzad S
N (2012) shows the general procedure for statistical
process control.

Fig3: Statistical Process Control

System identification uses statistical method for
developing the mathematical models. Koh et al. (2006)
have developed a system identification (SI) system
using stiffness matrix. Incomplete stiffness matrices are
obtained from the system and further using
condensation model damage identification algorithm is
308
developed. Gul and Catbas (2008) have discussed SI
based on complex mode indicator function coupled with
random decrement for identifying modal parameters.
Unscaled flexibility and deflection profiles of healthy
and unhealthy structures are used for damage
assessment. Hsieh K. et al. (2008) have proposed
damage detection method based on Spectral finite
element method with the combination of SI, finite
element method and model updating process. Natural
frequency shift and mode shape change is used as
damage indicating parameter. Das A. et al. (2012) have
proposed damage identification based on iterative least
squares extended Kalman filter. The procedure uses
finite element method based time domain system
identification for damage identification.

A wavelet is the extension of the Fourier series where a
signal is demonstrated only using time domain where as
in wavelet analysis a signal can be used in time as well
as frequency domain, hence wavelet analysis has gained
more importance in the recent years. It is also very
sensitive to the singularities caused by the sudden
change in stiffness and masses of the structure. The
software like matlab provides a good built in program
for wavelet transforms. Khatam H. et al. (2007) have
carried out damage identification process by using
wavelet transformation. The sudden change in the
spatial variation of the transformed response helps in
identifying and locating the damage. Bouboulas and
Anifantis (2010) have discussed on nonlinear dynamic
equation, which are solved using incremental iterative
procedure. Parametric studies are carried out to identify
the sensitivity of vibration behaviour. The derived time
response is analyzed using Fast Fourier Transform,
Continuous Wavelet Transform and Discrete Wavelet
Transform. Chanpheng T. et al (2012) have also
proposed a damage detection method using Degree of
Non linearity (DON) as the parameter for earthquake
excitation. DON can be obtained based on the ground
motion and vibration of the structure, Hilberts
transform is used for analysis. Pai and Sundaresan
(2012) have discussed on damage identification on thin
wall using dynamic based methodology. Boundary
effect evaluation, operational deflection shapes and
conjugate pair decomposition are used for the analysis
of space-wave number and time-frequency domain.
Short time Fourier transform, Hilbert-Hung transform
are adopted.

Neural networks are the computational models which
works based on the inputs provided to the system. The
connected set of processing units is called as neurons.
These connected sets are trained with the available static
or dynamic responses using forward or back
propagation algorithm. Further these trained data are
tested for workability using test data. The capability of
the NN depends upon the input data. The training is
repeated till it gives satisfactory performance. Fig. 4 by
Jeyasehar and Sumangala (2006) show the ANN
Schematic representation for back algorithm. Jeyasehar
and Sumangala (2006) have developed Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) based approach for monitoring the
structure. This Technique is based on the stiffness and
frequency, training and the test data are generated by
conducting experiments on damaged and undamaged
structures. Zapico and Gonzalez (2006) have used
frequencies and developed and algorithm using ANN.
Mass sensitivity has been considered for damage
identification of 4 storeys building excited using seismic
excitation. Figueiredo E et al. (2010) have discussed
damage identification in operational and environmental
variation conditions using ANN.

Fig4: ANN Back Propagation
Banks et al. (1996) has discussed on damage detection
and localization by parameterized partial differential
equations and Galerkin approximation technique. This
is one of the inverse optimization techniques which use
the changes in the mass density, elastic modulus and
damping ratio. Jaishi and Ren (2005) have given a finite
element model updating technique. Dynamic parameters
are studied and Guyan reduction technique has been
adopted for model upgradation. Chandrashekhar and
Ganguli (2009) have developed an optimization
algorithm for damage localization and quantification
using Fussy Logic System (FLS). Modal curvature
changes are observed using Gaussian fussy sets and
Mapped for location.

Genetic algorithm (GA) is a natural selection process
based on the Darwins evolution theory. An initial
population is chosen then process of selection, genetic
operation and replacement is carried out until the
convergence criteria are achieved. Caicedo and Yun
(2010) have developed an algorithm for identifying
309
local and global minima for model updating. This has
been achieved through steady state GA. Meruane and
Heylen (2010) have developed an optimization
technique called Parallel Genenetic Algorithm (PGA).
This is an advantage over the GA as it is fast and
simpler to solve. Srinivas et al. (2010) have developed
an evolutionary algorithm for localizing the damage and
thereby reducing the parameters in the objective
function. Further using genetic algorithm damage has
been quantified.

Development of small, autonomous and easily hand-
able sensing system becomes important for effective
monitoring. Micro-Electro-Mechanical systems are one
such technology which measures the physical
parameters. Sensor prototypes are developed for
sensing, processing, communication and actuation of the
structural system. These sensor prototypes communicate
wirelessly by forming Wireless Sensor Networks
(WSN). Wireless system most commonly employed in
military, life science, robotics and so on. Chacon et al.
(2009) used WSN for acquiring strain data. Ramos L. et
al. (2010) have monitored wirelessly using modal
analysis. The results obtained using WSN is compared
with the conventional frequency change method and
reliable results are obtained. Quinn W. et al. (2011) has
described the design and performance analysis under
replicated site condition. Wireless sensors with
temperature and humidity measuring capacity are used
for monitoring the structure.

Some of the other techniques adopted by researchers are
presented. Bayissa and Haritos (2007) have given
damage detection based on bending moment response
power mass spectral density (MSD) in two dimensional
plate structures. The total energy output under bending
MSD gives mean square value (MSV), Damage index is
derived from MSV. Damage indices, normalized
damage index, MSV curvature and relative root mean
square error are used for damage identification and
localization. Xu et al. (2011) has proposed a new
stochastic damage detection method. Probability density
function (PDF) of structural stiffness has been obtained
by integrating statistical moment based method with
probability density evolution for the damaged and
undamaged structure. Xue et al. (2009) have adopted
auxiliary particle filtering method to track the stationary
system for their sudden change in parameters due to the
presence of damage. In this method density is proposed
as a mixture density that depends upon the past state and
most recent observation.

Wave based methods have gained more importance as
they aid in damage localization with their directional
properties. Scalea et al. (2003) have adopted guided
stress waves for stress monitoring and damage
identification in the strands. Magnetostrictive
transducers are used in the experiments for excitation
and sensing. Medda and DeBrunner (2009) have used
frequency and time analysis using local vibration
characteristics which are sensitive to the damage. The
novel beam forming technique has been adopted, in
which array of beam generated from the transducer
produces ultrasonic waves to scans the region. Further
Wavelet packet sub band signals are used to produce
energy map, using frequency as parameter for damage
location. Nucera and Scalea (2011) have discussed a
monitoring of steel strands using ultrasonic guided
waves. The relation between the guided waves and the
amplitude of the strands are derived to detect the
damage. Experimental and numerical studies on this
procedure are discussed. Further Climent et al.(2011)
have proposed a method in which Acoustic emission
energy and history of plastic strain energy was
calculated from acceleration and displacement
measurements. Correlation exists between energy
dissipation and plastic deformation; hence a tentative
formula is derived.

To improve the robustness of the present day
monitoring strategies, researchers have combined two
methods and proved to obtain reliable results. Hua et al.
(2009) have proposed static based optimization problem
for damage detection on cable stayed bridges. Forces
are redistributed in different strand and further using
model updating damages are localized. Lautour and
Omenzetter (2010) have given an algorithm with
combination of Auto regression (AR) models and ANN.
AR models are used to obtain the acceleration time
series data from the experiments. Coefficients of AR are
considered as the damage sensitive parameters. ANN is
trained for damage classification. Loh C. et al. (2011)
have extended Lautour and Omenzetter work for
application on dams. Xu et al (2011) have proposed the
method for parameter identification and damage
detection using displacement measurement. Further
Neural network is adopted for both parameter and
system identification. Root mean square and root mean
square of the prediction displacement difference vector
is used for evaluation. Yu et al. (2012) have proposed a
crack monitoring method by dual mode sensing. It is
based on Acoustic emission and ultrasonic wave
propagation technique. It is promising technique as it
does not require the past performance of the system.

Conclusions:

This paper provides the review on techniques of damage
identification, localization and quantification in SHM.
All the described methods are successful in damage
localization and quantification with their own
limitations. Environmental disturbances and size of the
damage plays a major role in structural monitoring.
Recent development of hybrid techniques has shown
310
promising results but research has to be carried out to
bring out much efficient technique. It is still a challenge
for the research community to say that one single
technique that can be applied to all the structures under
all conditions. Hence, it should be well understood that,
the methods developed in SHM are application based or
specific to a particular component and is not
generalized. Hence, opportunities are available to look
for different damage sensitive parameters or damage
identification techniques to be adopted.

Acknowledgements:

The financial support from the Technical Education
Quality Improvement Programme (TEQIP) for this
research work is gratefully acknowledged.

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Dynamic characteristics of a cable-stayed pedestrian and cyclists
footbridge 120 m long
IZABELA J MURZYN
Institute of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, POLAND
Email: imurzyn@pk.edu.pl

Abstract: The paper presents dynamic characteristics, i.e. natural frequencies and modes of vibrations of a cable-
stayed pedestrian and cyclists footbridge over the Raba River, Southern Poland. The total length of the suspended
structure is 120 m. The dynamic analysis was carried out with the ABAQUS software. Four variants of a numerical
model were created on the basis of different types of finite element (shell, solid and beam) used for modeling the
pylons, plate and girder. The results revealed that the natural frequencies are relatively low and could coincide with
the frequency of pedestrian steps (walking or running) causing the resonance phenomenon.

Keywords: Footbridge, Dynamic characteristics of footbridges, Numerical modeling of Footbridges, ABAQUS.

1. Introduction:

Footbridges are objects of public space which primary
use is to carry pedestrians over an obstacle [7]. But, in
recent decades, footbridges have become peculiar
symbol of the development of civil engineering.
Nowadays, footbridges are site-specific designs which
give their users the opportunity to enjoy advantages of
environment they are located in.

Footbridges should be designed according to the
recommendations of the standards which require an
analysis of the superstructure in the two limit states:
ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability limit state
(SLS). These objects significantly differ from the
conventional bridges, especially as far as their influence
on the users is considered. The pedestrians walk directly
on the deck, staying there longer time than while
traveling by car across the bridge. Hence, they directly
feel the structure behavior. At the design stage the
footbridges require special attention to ensure the proper
functional features and comfortable use.

Application of advanced materials, technology and
calculation techniques makes currently designed
footbridges to longer, lighter and more slender than
older ones. The new approach has an contrary effect on
the dynamic properties of footbridges. Sometimes, the
lowest natural frequency of a structure coincides with
the frequency of pedestrian steps (while walking or
running). This situation may cause a resonance
phenomenon and contribute to the failure of the
structure. Failures of bridges, caused by excessive
vibrations in former times, have been reported by
historical sources [7, 10]. The bridge in Broughton, UK,
collapsed due to the march of 60 soldiers. This event
resulted in putting on bridges boards warning the troops
to break step when crossing [10]. It should be noted
that not only the pedestrians are a source of dynamic
load for footbridges. These structures can also be
exposed to kinematic excitation originating from
seismic or paraseismic phenomena, like mining tremors.

From recent history of civil engineering the most
famous example was the Millennium Bridge located in
London. Its dynamic problems that emerged during its
opening day on 10 June 2000 attracted the scientists
attention and underlied more than 1000 articles and over
150 broadcasts in the media around the world [10].

2. The dynamic characteristics of footbridges:

Usually the first step in the dynamic analysis is to
determine the dynamic characteristics of the structure,
i.e. mode shapes and natural frequencies of a structure.
It could be carried out by performing the solution of the
classical eigenvalue problem of a general multi-degree
of freedom structure presented in formula [4]:

(1)

where: mass and stiffness matrix, respectively
displacement vector. Assuming the linear work
of the structure matrices and are independent of .
Formula (1) is a homogeneous system of differential
equations with constant coefficients. After a series of
simple transformations [8] equation (2) has the form:

(2)

where: vector of amplitudes, angular
frequency.

314
Dynamic characteristics of a cable-stayed pedestrian and cyclists footbridge
120 m long
The recognition of the dynamic characteristics of a
footbridge is the extremely important issue in the
analysis of broad sense of limit states of these objects,
such as: comfort, possibility of resonant excitation and
load-bearing capacity or deformation of the structure.

Many works were dedicated to the evaluation of the
dynamic characteristics of pedestrian bridges [1, 2, 7,
and 10]. The vast majority of these researches are based
on the results of in situ tests. During the tests various
forms of excitation were used: random vibrations,
harmonically forced vibration, stochastically forced
vibration.

The basic natural frequency as a function of the span of
the footbridge is shown in Fig. 1 for 67 pedestrian
bridges from different parts of the world [1]. In Figure
1 the critical range of frequencies from 1.4 to 2.4 Hz are
clearly marked. These are typical frequencies of vertical
vibrations caused by walking pedestrians [1, 7, and 10].

Fig1: The basic natural frequency as a function of the span structure. Results for 67 pedestrian bridges [1]

3. Geometry and material data of the footbridge:

The calculations of the dynamic characteristics were
performed for an existing footbridge (Fig. 2) located in
Pcim, Southern Poland. The primary purpose of the
structure is to carry pedestrians and cyclists across the
Raba River. It is a part of the road junction situated
within 300 m of the national expressway S7.

The suspended structure consists of three spans: the
middle one is 60.00 m long, whereas two extreme are
25.50 m long. The total theoretical length is 120 m.

The footbridges plat is composite with steel girders.
The modulus of elasticity of steel girders and cross-bars
was taken as 210 GPa. The Poisson's ratio was assumed
as 0.29. The superstructure has been suspended from
steel pylons 11.80 m high. The pillars and abutments are
founded on reinforced concrete piles with a diameter
100 cm. The cross-section of the footbridge is shown in
Fig. 3, whereas the side view of the object and its main
dimensions are presented in Fig. 4.

300
340
200 70 70
2% 2%
IPE 220
IPE 360
resin epoxy-polyurethane 3 mm
reinforced concrete plate 15 - 18 cm

Fig2: The cross-section of the footbridge [9]

315
IZABELA J MURZYN

Fig3: Footbridge in Pcim, Southern Poland [9]

17
2550 6000 2550
1200 1350 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1350 1200
11100
200 200
450 450
1
1
8
0

Raba

Fig4: Side view and main dimensions [cm] of the footbridge in Pcim [9]

The footbridge is equipped with elastomeric bearings as
linking elements between the deck and the piers.
Usually, a two-coefficient Mooney-Rivlin model is used
as a constitutive model of hyperelastic nonlinear
elastomeric material of bearings. However, the
parameters of the Mooney-Rivlin material: C
10
and C
01

can be replaced with equivalent elasticity modulus:
E = 6 (C
10
+ C
01
). In this paper the parameters of the
Mooney-Rivlin model, assumed as C
10
= 0.292 MPa and
C
01
= 0.177 MPa [3], were replaced with the equivalent
elasticity modulus 2.814 MPa. Such simplification is
commonly used in calculations of bridges with
elastomeric bearings [3, 6]. The Poissons ratio of
elastomeric material was taken as 0.49.

4. Numerical model of the footbridge:

The analysis of the dynamic characteristics of the
footbridge was carried out with the ABAQUS which is
a package of programs for solving complex engineering
problems. ABAQUS is composed of modules in which
is defined the next stage of modeling: Part (module
responsible for defining geometry); Property (module
responsible for determining characteristics of material);
Assembly (combination of the model and creation a set
of parts); Step (configuration procedures for analysis
and expected results); Load (load application and
determination of boundary conditions); Mesh (module
in which is generated mesh); Job (creation of task and
send it for analysis); Visualization (overview of
analysis).

The fixed boundary conditions, reflected the high
rigidity of the foundation rock, were applied at the end
of the piers. The Lanczos algorithm implemented in
Abaqus software was used for the solution of
eigenproblem, as a powerful tool for a quick solution of
tasks of a large size [8]. The FE model of the footbridge
along with some details of the structure is shown in Fig.
5.

316
120 m long

Fig5: The FE model of the footbridge

Four Variants of the numerical model were created. The
differences in the models concerned finite elements
which were used for modeling particular parts of the
footbridge, i.e. pylons, plate, grids and cross-bars (see
Table 1). In all Variants of the model abutments and
pillars modeled by 3D Solid elements, whereas steel
cables attached to pylons and abutments were modeled
by Truss elements. It has been assumed that the
structure works in linear-elastic range. The material
parameters and geometry have been adopted on the
basis of technical design [9].

Table1: Characteristics of four variants of the model

Variant
of model
Pylon Plate Grid
Variant 1 Beam Shell Beam
Variant 2 Beam Solid Beam
Variant 3 Shell Shell Shell
Variant 4 Shell Solid Shell

The assembling of all parts (Assembly) is an important
step in creating a FE model in the ABAQUS package.
In all variants of the model of the footbridge parts were
connected by Constraints. The idea of this solution is to
partially or fully eliminate degrees of freedom of a
group of nodes and couple their motion to the motion of
a master node. In summary, the four models of the
footbridge consisted of four types of elements: Beam,
Truss, Solid and Shell as well appropriate types of
constraints.

The models of footbridge were created by four types of
elements: Beam, Truss, Solid and Shell. In all Variants
of the model appropriate types of Constraints were used
considering the differences in the number of degree of
freedom at nodes of shells, beams and solids.

For all variants of the models connection of the steel
cable with abutments (and pylons) was implement by
Kinematic Coupling type. It was defined as constrained
degrees of freedom: U1=1, U2=1, U3=1, UR1=0,
UR2=0, UR3=0 (where: U translational DOF, UR
rotational DOF). It is a good solution for elements
which lack in rotational stiffness connected to solid
elements (see Fig. 6).

Fig6: Connection of the steel cable with abutments
(Kinematic Coupling)

In Variant 3 and 4 of the model in case to assembly
Shell elements with Solid elements a Shell-to-solid
coupling type was used. This solution is very useful in
situations in which local modeling requires 3D solid
elements but other parts of the structure can be modeled
317
IZABELA J MURZYN
as shells. The idea of this coupling is to link the motion
of a line of nodes along the edge of the shell part to the
motion of a set of nodes on a solid surface. The
connection of the pylon with pillar (Shell-to-solid
Coupling) as well as the cross-section of the pylon
(constructed as a box section) is presented in Fig. 7.

Fig7: Connection of pylon with pillar (Shell-to-solid
Coupling) and cross-section of pylon

In the ABAQUS package fully constrained contact
behavior is defined by using Tie constrains it is a
simple way to permanently bond surfaces (from
different parts) together. It also should be noted that Tie
function guarantees easy mesh transitioning. In the
model the elements of the abutments were connected
together by Tie function. The example of such
connection with marked slave and master surface is
presented in Fig. 8.

The size of the numerical task for all Variants of the
model is summarized in Table 2. The size of the task
was described by Number of nodes and Number of
elements.

Fig8: Connection elements of abutments (Tie)

Table2: The size of the task

Variant
of model
Number
of nodes
Number
of elements
Variant 1 116945 79794
Variant 2 790589 475710
Variant 3 159839 113375
Variant 4 1641320 1032595

5. Dynamic characteristics of the footbridge:

As a result of the modal analysis the natural frequencies
and mode shapes of the footbridge were obtained. The
value of first three natural vibration frequencies is
collected in Table 3.

Table3: Natural vibration frequencies for different
Variants of the model

Variant
of model
Natural frequency [Hz]
1 2 3
Variant 1 1.90 2.10 2.64
Variant 2 1.89 2.08 2.59
Variant 3 1.94 2.10 2.63
Variant 4 1.87 2.15 2.67

The modes of vibration for Variant 3 of the model are
presented in Figs 9-13. It should be emphasized that for
all Variants modes of vibration have the same shape.

Fig9: The first mode of natural vibration (1.94 Hz)

Fig10: The second mode of natural vibration (2.10 Hz)

318
120 m long

Fig11: The third mode of natural vibration (2.63 Hz)

Fig12: The fourth mode of natural vibration (4.54 Hz)

Fig13: The fifth mode of natural vibration (4.72 Hz)

The first natural frequency is accompanied with vertical
mode of vibration (see Fig. 9). It falls into the critical
range of vibration frequencies caused by walking
pedestrians (see Fig. 1). Hence, the resonance
phenomenon may occur due to marching pedestrians.

The second natural mode is lateral (see Fig. 10). Since
in case of lateral vibration the critical range of
frequencies is from 0.5 Hz to 1.2 Hz, the second
frequency of 2.1 Hz is located outside critical range.

Finally, the third natural frequency (2.63 Hz) is
connected with vertical mode. Although is beyond the
critical range of frequencies of vibrations caused by
walking pedestrians, but it equals the frequency of
vibrations caused by running people. This type of
dynamic impact on the footbridge may also lead to the
resonance.

6. Conclusions:

The dynamic characteristics, i.e. natural frequencies and
modes of vibration of a cable-stayed pedestrian and
cyclists footbridge over the Raba River, Southern
Poland were evaluated. On the basis of the results the
following conclusions may be formulated:
- The results of the dynamic analysis of the
footbridge revealed that the natural frequencies of
the structure are relatively low. They could
coincide with the frequency of pedestrian steps
(walking or running) which may result in the
resonance phenomenon;
- The dynamic characteristics were obtained for four
Variants, which consisted of various types of finite
elements. Obtained results, both: natural
frequencies and modes of vibration, were very
similar for all Variants;
- The dynamics of footbridges is the extremely
relevant issue. Recognition of the dynamic
characteristics of footbridges is important while
analyzing limit states of these objects in a broad
sense, such as: comfort, possibility of resonant
excitation and load-bearing capacity or deformation
of the structure.

It should be pointed out that the evaluation of the
dynamic characteristics of the footbridge was carried
out on the basis of the numerical modeling of the
structure. However, a numerical model always presents
idealization of a real structure. Hence, a model and a
structure could differ as far as physical properties are
concerned. In order to perform a more detailed dynamic
analysis and to assess more reliable results it is
recommended to perform in situ research. The results
will also enable the validation of the calculation model
(e.g. by using the Modal Assurance Criterion).

7. Reference:

[1] Bachmann H., Ammann W., (1987), Vibrations in
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Structural Engineering Documents, International
Association of Bridge and Structural Engineering
(IABSE), Zurich, vol. 3e.
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Challenge, Proc. 1
st
International Conference on
Design and dynamic of footbridges Footbridge
2002, Paris.
[3] Buckle I., Nagarajaiah S., Ferrell K., (2002),
Stability of Elastomeric Isolation Bearings:
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Engineering 128 (1): 3-11.
[4] Clough R.W., Penzien J., Dynamics of structures,
New York, 1993.
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[5] Duliska J., (2010), Evaluation of Dynamic
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Advanced Materials Research, 133-134: 605-610.
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serviceability of footbridges under human-induced
excitation: a literature review, Sheffield, 2003.

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ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.320-324

Experimental studies on the effects of corrosion on the flexural
strength of RC beams
POORNACHANDRA PANDIT
1
, KATTA VENKATARAMANA
1
, K S BABUNARAYAN
1
, BHAGYASHRI
PARLA
2
AND YUKINOBU KIMURA
3

1
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka,
Surathkal, Mangalore 575025, INDIA
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Government Engineering College, Ramnagar, INDIA
3
Department of ocean Civil Engineering, Kagoshima University, JAPAN
Email: poornachandra16@gmail.com

Abstract: RC structures are generally very durable and are capable of withstanding a variety of adverse
environmental conditions. However, failures of these structures still occur and reinforcement corrosion is one of the
major causes. In the present research, corroded Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) beams were tested in the
laboratory to evaluate their flexural behavior. Accelerated corrosion technique was adopted to corrode the beams.
The corrosion was measured using Applied Corrosion Monitoring (ACM) instrument. From the results, it is seen
that, as the rate of corrosion increases, the load carrying capacity decreases. The deflection increases initially and
then decreases. It is observed that the stiffness of the beams is reduced when rate of corrosion is increased due to
changes in the modulus of elasticity of corroded steel.

Keywords: Accelerated Test, Corrosion rate, Load-Deflection curve.

Introduction:

Corrosion of steel reinforcement is a major cause of
degradation of RC structures. The corrosion process
leads to several coupled effects: cracking of concrete
cover due to expansive corrosion products; steel cross-
section reduction; and the degradation of steelconcrete
bond. As a result of these effects, the service life and the
load-bearing capacity of RC elements are considerably
reduced. The studies become more important especially
in corrosive environment such as coastal regions, where
structures are exposed to the environment having high
humidity and salt content. The moment carrying
capacity of an under-reinforced concrete beam depends
mostly on the strength of reinforcing steels. Therefore,
loss of reinforcing steel may be critical and requires
special consideration.

Corrosion is one of the important causes of steel area
loss (Castro et al. 1997). General corrosion, which
appears uniformly along the length of the reinforcement,
will have two effects: firstly, it will reduce the cross-
sectional area of the steel and secondly, it will create
local discontinuities in the steel surface. These effects
reduce the tensile capacity of the steel in proportion to
the loss of its cross-sectional area. Thus, as the
corrosion products increase, the cross-sectional area of
steel decreases and hence, in addition to the bond
deterioration, the ultimate moment capacity of structure
also decreases, till the area of the steel becomes so small
that it can no longer withstand the load and hence
results in the collapse of the structure (Ahmad 2003).

Reinforcement corrosion causes deterioration of
concrete structures in a chloride environment; affects its
durability and service life of Reinforced Concrete (RC)
structures (Cabrera 1996, Glass 2003, Poupard et al.
2006 and Zhang et al. 2011). Various prediction models
have been developed to predict the service life of
concrete structures (Ahmad 2003 and Jung et al. 2003).
Such methods usually consist of a theoretical method
combined with an empirical approach. However, most
of these methods are very difficult to apply because
often too many parameters are unknown (Liang et al.
1999).The basic problem associated with the
deterioration of reinforced concrete, due to
reinforcement corrosion is not that the reinforcing steel
itself is reduced in mechanical strength, but rather that
the products of corrosion exert stresses within the
concrete which cannot be supported by the limited
tensile strength of concrete, and therefore it cracks. This
leads to a weakening of the bond and anchorage
between concrete and reinforcement which directly
affects the serviceability and ultimate strength of
concrete elements within a structure. In addition, due to
tensile stresses developed during corrosion, existing fine
cracks and micro cracks in the surrounding concrete
tend to enlarge and form a network of interconnected
321
POORNACHANDRA PANDIT, KATTA VENKATARAMANA, K S BABUNARAYAN,
cracks. In the present study the corrosion rate is
measured using Applied Corrosion Monitoring (ACM)
instrument which is a non-destructive testing method.

Experimental Program
Concrete Mix design:

The mix proportion used for M
20
grade of OPC concrete
was 1:2.24:3.67 and water cement ratio has been taken
as 0.5. The slump obtained was between 80 to 120mm.

Reinforcement details:

Reinforced concrete cantilever beams tested were of
cross section 300mmx400mm and 2150mm in length.
These beams had a shear span of 1750mm and bearing
length of 400mm. Beams with an effective cover of
30mm were designed based on the sizes of the
components in RCC Building as per IS 456:2000.
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was used. Two
20mm diameter and one 16mm diameter TMT bars
were provided at top and same reinforcement was
provided at bottom. Shear reinforcement consisted of
12mm diameter TMT bars with a spacing of 150mm c/c
for a length of 1350mm from the free end, and with a
spacing of 75mm c/c for a length of 800mm for
remaining length of beam to ensure that flexural failure
would dominate over shear failures shown in the Fig.1.

Accelerated Corrosion:

In this experiment the electrochemical corrosion
technique is used to accelerate the corrosion of steel
bars embedded in concrete. Direct current is impressed
on the bar embedded in the specimen using an
integrated system incorporating a small direct power
supply with an output of 64V and 10Amps to monitor
the current. After specimens were immersed in a 5%
NaCl solution for a day to ensure full saturation
condition, the direction of current was arranged so that
the steel bars in the specimen served as the anode. The
stainless steel plate used as a cathode was placed along
the length of beam (Yoon et al2001). This arrangement
ensured a uniform distribution of corrosion current
along the whole length of the bar. A schematic
representation of the test set-up is shown in Fig.2. To
obtain the desired levels of reinforcement corrosion, the
current intensity and the electrifying time were
controlled (Ahmad 2009).

Corrosion Rate Measurements using Guard Ring:

These beam specimens were divided into number of
grids to place the guard ring probe to polarize the
definite area on concrete rebar as shown in Fig.3. At
each node, corrosion current density was measured by
LPR technique. These beam specimens were tested with
the corroded beams for different levels of corrosion.
The current density for each specimen is shown in Table
1. The established method of measurement uses a
galvanostatically controlled guard ring device. In this
method the reinforcing steel is polarised
potentiostatically by an inner auxiliary electrode and the
real time plot of the current response is displayed on a
laptop computer which controls the guard ring device.
The area of steel polarised is confined by a current
applied from an outer guard ring electrode which is
controlled by two sensor electrodes positioned between
the inner auxiliary and outer guard ring electrode (Law
et al., 2000). The potential between the two sensor
electrodes is frequently monitored, and the current
output from the guard ring electrode varied to maintain
a constant potential difference between the two sensor
electrodes. The method has been validated on an
electrical test circuit simulating active and passive
reinforcement corrosion. It is a non-destructive tool
used to measure corrosion current density in (mA/cm
2
).

Test Setup:

Flexural testing of the cantilever beam was carried out
under the specially prepared loading frame. Loading set
up was constructed in the existing reaction bed at
laboratory to test the beam as a vertical cantilever by
applying point load at the free end of the beam in
transverse direction. To achieve the fixity at the fixed
end of the beam, heavy duty hydraulic jack was used
against the steel column section at the other side of the
beam. Full fixity was achieved at the bottom end of the
beam by adjusting the movement of the hydraulic jack
arm.

All beams are tested as cantilever beam in a 15 tonne
capacity steel testing frame made up of rolled steel
joists, the beam having a span of 1750mm was fixed at
one end for a bearing length of 400mm. The span and
load points were kept constant for all the beams. The
concentrated load is applied on the free end of a beam.
The load spreader arm, wherever used is a rolled steel
joist which is supported on the rollers kept on the
loading points. Over the load spreader arm the proving
ring of 20 tonnes capacity which is used to measure the
applied load, is placed over which the hydraulic jack of
20 tonnes was fixed to the rolled steel joist of the
loading frame. The pump of a hydraulic jacks operated
by a hand lever. Fig.4 shows the loading details of the
beam specimen.

Theoretical Calculations:
Ultimate moment capacity of beam:

'
416 . 0 d d C x d C M
us u uc u

320 2 . 462 ) 416 . 0 ( 543 . 0
u u ck u
x d b x f M
mm N M
u

6
10 154 . 128

Therefore, theretical ultimate load

322
Experimental studies on the effects of corrosion on the flexural strength of
RC beams
P
u
= =
N
3
6
10 23 . 73
1750
10 154 . 128

Where,
Mu = Ultimate moment (N-mm)
C
uc
=Compressive force in Concrete
C
us
=Compressive force in Steel
d = Effective depth (mm)
X
u
= Depth of Neutral axis (mm)
d' = Effective cover (mm)
l = Effective length (mm)

Deflection calculation for beam specimen

=
eff
EI
PL
3
3

4
max
10 950 . 8

u
P mm 54 . 65

Where,
P = Load (N); P
u
=Ultimate Load (N)
L = Effective length (mm)
E = Modulus of elasticity of concrete
(N/mm
2
)
I
eff
= Moment of inertia (calculated as per IS 456- 2000
Annex C) (mm
4
)

Results and Discussions:

For different rates of corrosion of OPC beams, the load
deflection relationship for control beams initially varied
linearly up to 80kN then started varying non linearly
(Fig.5). The control beams failed at an average load of
92kN. The average beam-end deflection was 60.96mm.
2.5% Corroded beams failed at 4.8% lesser load than
control beams (CB) and beam-end deflections increased
by 17.9% compared to CB. 5% corroded beams failed at
6.81% lesser load than CB and beam-end deflections
increased by 7.3%. 7.5% corroded beams failed at
27.6% lesser load and beam-end deflections decreased
by 6.5% compared to CB. 10% corroded beams failed at
30.6% lesser load and beam-end deflection decreased by
22.7% compared to CB.

As per the above observations, the stiffness of the
beams is reduced when rate of corrosion is increased.
For corrosion level up to 5%, with increase in rate of
corrosion the beams exhibit large deflection compared
to control beam specimens. The reason for such
behaviour is the change in the modulus of elasticity of
steel as the corrosion rate is increased. Due to this
effect, beams generally failed at lesser load with more
deflection compared to control beams.

Concluding Remarks:

It was observed that the control beams attained the
highest load carrying capacity of about 23% more
compared to theoretical ultimate load.

As the rate of corrosion increases, the load carrying
capacity of OPC beams decreases. For 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%
and 10% of corrosion level the reduction is by 4.8%,
6.8%, 27.6% and 30.62% respectively.

As the rate of corrosion increases the deflections of the
beams of OPC for 2.5% and 5% corrosion increases by
18%, 7.3% respectively, but for the 7.5% and 10%
corrosion, it decreases by 6.1%, 22.6% respectively .

Acknowledgement:

The Partial financial support from BRNS Research
Grant No. 2009/36/115-BRNS/ 3371 is gratefully
acknowledged.

Reference:

[1] Ahmad, S. (2003). Techniques for inducing
accelerated corrosion of steel in concrete. Arabian
Journal for Science and Engineering, 34(2), 95
104.
[2] Ahmad, S. (2009).Reinforcement corrosion in
concrete structures, its monitoring and service life
predictiona review. Cement and Concrete
Composites, 25(45), 459471.
[3] Cabrera, J.G. (1996). Deterioration of concrete due
to reinforcement steel corrosion. Cement and
Concrete Composites. 18(1), 4759.
[4] Castro, P., Weva and Balancim, M. (1997).
Corrosion of reinforced concrete in a tropical
marine environment and in accelerated tests.
Construction and Building Materials, 11(2), pp. 75-
88.
[5] Glass, G.K. (2003). Reinforcement corrosion.
Advanced concrete technology set, J. Newman and
B. S. Choo, eds., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
127.
[6] IS 456:2000, Plane and reinforced concrete code
of practice, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
[7] Jung, W. Y., Yoon, Y. S., and Sohn, Y. M. (2003).
Predicting the remaining service life of land
concrete by steel corrosion. Cement and Concrete
Research, 33(5), 663677.
[8] Law, D.W., Millard, S.G., and Bungey, J.H. (2000).
Linear polarisation resistance measurements using a
potentiostatically controlled guard ring. NDT and E
International, 33, 1521.
[9] Liang, M. T., Wang, K. L., and Liang, C. H.
(1999). Service life prediction of reinforced
concrete structures. Cement and Concrete Research,
29(9), 14111418.
[10] Poupard, O., LHostis, V., Catinaud, S., and Petre-
Lazar, I. (2006). Corrosion damage diagnosis of a
reinforced concrete beam after 40 years natural
323
POORNACHANDRA PANDIT, KATTA VENKATARAMANA, K S BABUNARAYAN,
exposure in marine environment. Cement and
Concrete Research, 36(3), 504520.
[11] Yoon, S., Wang, K., Weiss, W.J., and Shah, S. P.
(2001). Interaction between loading, corrosion,
serviceability Reinforced concrete. ACI Materials
Journal, 97(6), 99-181.
[12] Zhang, W., and Ba, H. (2011). Accelerated life test
of concrete in chloride environment. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, 23(3), 330-334.

Fig1: Reinforcement details of beam specimens

Fig2: Schematic representation of acc accelerated corrosion of beam

Fig3: Beam specimen marked in to number of grid to measure corrosion current density
324
Experimental studies on the effects of corrosion on the flexural strength of
RC beams

Fig4: Testing setup

Fig5: Variation of deflection(mm) with Load(kN) for OPC beam Specimens
Table1: Corrosion current density for OPC beam Specimens

Corrosion current density, i
corr
(mA/cm
2
)
Grid Number 1 2 3 4 5 Avg
Beams
Control Beam 0.0036 0.0049 0.0044 0.0037 0.0045 0.0040
2.5% Corroded Beam 0.0220 0.0231 0.0238 0.0241 0.0246 0.0236
5% Corroded Beam 0.0268 0.0274 0.0282 0.0285 0.0276 0.0277
7.5% Corroded Beam 0.0306 0.0298 0.0308 0.0295 0.0302 0.0302
10% Corroded Beam 0.0268 0.0272 0.0256 0.0264 0.025 0.0262

Table2: Ultimate Loads and Deflection for different rates of corrosion of OPC Beams
Beam Specimen
Average of
Ultimate LoadP (kN)
Average of End Beam
Deflection (mm)
P/
P/, normalized
with respect to
control beams
0% corrosion
(control beams)
92.04 60.96 1.50 1.00
2.5% corrosion 87.83 74.35 1.18 0.79
5% corrosion 86.17 65.77 1.31 0.87
7.5% corrosion 72.14 57.24 1.26 0.84
10% corrosion 63.85 47.13 1.35 0.90

www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.325-330

Modelling of the Cu and Fe transport in sand-bentonite and sand-fly
ash mixtures
SHANKARA
1
, MAYA NAIK
2
AND P V SIVAPULLAIAH
3

1
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Bangalore 560035, India,
2
Dept. of Civil Engineering, BMS College of Engineering, Bull Temple Road, Bangalore 560019, India,
3
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Sir C.V. Raman Avenue, Bangalore 560012, India,
Email: bcreative_shank@yahoo.com snmcivbmsce@gmail.com siva@civil.iisc.ernet.in

Abstract: Evaluation of the various landfill liner systems requires the contaminant transport modeling through
selected liner. Normally clay soils alone or bentonite amended with sand are widely used as bottom liner. Bentonite
is used due to its high adsorption capacity and sand is used to impart the required volume stability and strength. The
performance of the liner has to be assessed for the breakthrough times under different hydrological regime knowing
the hydraulic conductivity of the compacted liner and sorption capacity. The data available on sorption capacity of
the liner for copper and iron is used to select the appropriate sand bentonite mixture combination. It was found that a
mixture of 20% bentonite and 80% sand possess better sorption capacity for copper. The hydraulic conductivity of
this mixture has been determined by laboratory testing. The breakthrough curves, under different hydraulic gradients
for the compacted mixtures and for the diffusion coefficient of copper, are obtained through the use of POLLUTEv7
software for a liner thickness of 1m. To promote the waste materials for liner construction fly ash is often used as
material. To enable comparison and to improve the stability of the 10% fly ash containing 90% sand is used. It was
found that fly ash sand mixture possesses better sorption capacity for iron. But the hydraulic conductivity of the
mixture was high and the break through times as modeled was very small. To reduce the hydraulic conductivity 5%
of bentonite is incorporated to sand fly ash mixture. The breakthrough times as modeled have improved
considerably.

Key words: BTC curves, Pollute, Diffusion, Advective, Contaminant transport, Modelling, Bentonite, Fly ash.

1. Introduction:

The concept of waste containment system is to isolate
the wastes from the surrounding environment, and to
provide an effective leak-proof system. Sharma et al.
[1]. As an integral part of engineered cleanup program,
on-land waste containment systems constructed with
clay materials are common. Natural clay liners have
been extensively used to preclude leakage of effluents
from waste disposal facilities. Christensen et al. [2]. The
suitability of a clay liner has been conventionally
evaluated on the basis of hydraulic conductivity to
control the advective mass transport. From the
consideration lower hydraulic conductivity, strength and
shrinkage the density to be compacted at the water
content required for a given compactive effort has to be
arrived. Generally the liners are compacted at their near
respective optimum moisture content to their maximum
dry densities. Rowe et al [3]. The hydraulic conductivity
of the liner material has been obtained to calculate the
rates of migration of the contaminants through them by
advective transport. However, under optimum
compaction conditions dominant mass transfer in liners
is by diffusion Quigley et al; Rowe 1994 et al [4, 5]. To
calculated the rates of migration of the contaminants by
diffusion process, it is necessary to know the effective
diffusion coefficient of the contaminant in any given
liner material. Further to calculate the contaminant
transport by combined processes of advection and
diffusion it is necessary to know both the velocity of the
fluid through the liner and effective diffusion
coefficients. Daniel et al. [6]. In this paper it is proposed
to determine the rates of migration of copper and iron
ions by pure diffusive transport and through combined
processes of advection and diffusion through sand
bentonite and sand fly ash compacted liner material. In
most cases the contaminants transport through barrier
system mainly depends on the permeability of the
soil/soil mixture, and advective diffusion related
phenomena. Rowe et al; Daniel et al. [5, 8]. Also, it is
proposed to study the suitability of using bentonite or
fly ash as liners. To attribute the required strength of the
liner material sand needs to be incorporated in the liner
material. The performance of Sand-Bentonite and Sand-
fly ash mixtures to contain migration of leachate with
respect to typical metal ion contaminants such as copper
and iron has been the main focus of the present study.

326
2. Materials:

2.1. Sand used: A foundry sand which Consists
primarily of clean, uniformly graded, high-quality silica
sand or lake sand that is bonded to form molds for
ferrous (iron and steel) and nonferrous (copper,
aluminum, brass) metal castings. The automotive
industry and its parts suppliers are the major generators
of foundry sand. Silica fine sand was collected from
foundry lab of Amrita school of engineering, Bangalore,
supplied by Arun Alloy Cast Company.
2.2. Fly ash used: A fly ash of class F category
procured from Raichur Thermal Power Station (RTPS),
in Karnataka, India, called Raichur fly ash (RFA), used
in the present study. The fly ash used was grey in color;
the physical properties and the chemical composition of
the fly ash are given in Table 1and Table 2. It is seen
that fly ash used contains high amount of sand sized
particles as it is collected from the dump. Though the
fly ash is non-plastic the liquid limit is obtained from
cone penetration is indicative of strength rather than the
plasticity character. The relatively low shrinkage may
be more due its calcium content.
2.3. Bentonite used: Bentonite is a natural clay mineral
and is found in many places of the world it belongs to
2:1 clay family. The basic structure is composed of two
tetrahedrally coordinated sheets of silicon ions
surrounding by a sandwiched octahedrally coordinated
sheet of aluminum ions. The isomorphs substitution of
Al3+ for Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer and Mg2+ or
Zn2+ for Al3+ in the octahedral layer results in a net
negative surface charge on the clay. Compared with
other clay types, it has excellent sorption properties and
possesses sorption sites available within its interlayer
space as well as on the outer edges. Bentonite procured
from Kolar region of Karnataka was used in the present
study and typical analysis is presented in table 3.
2.4. Chemicals used: Synthetic heavy metals were
prepared by dissolving a known quantity of Ammonium
ferrous sulphate in distilled water to represent iron;
similarly cupric sulphate crystals were dissolved in
distilled water to represent copper. pH adjustments were
carried out using 0.1N hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
0.1N sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The chemicals used
were supplied by Qualigens Company of Analytical
Grade (AR).

Table1: Physical Properties of fly ash

Specific gravity 2.03
Liquid Limit (%) 35
Plastic Limit (%) --
Plasticity Index (%) --
Shrinkage Limit (%) 18.5
Compaction Characteristics
Maximum dry density (kN/m
3
) 11.7
Optimum moisture content (%) 25.0
Grain size distribution
Gravel (%) 00
Sand (%) 58
Silt and clay (%) 42

Table2: Chemical composition of fly ash

Constituents Percentage
SiO
2
61.10
Al
2
O
3
28.00
TiO
2
1.30
Fe
2
O
3
4.20
MgO 0.80
CaO 1.7
K
2
O 0.18
Na
2
O 0.18
L.O.I 1.40

Table3: Physical properties of bentonite

Properties Bentonite
Specific gravity 2.76
Liquid limit, (%) 374
Plastic limit, (%) 63
Plasticity index, % 311
Sediment volume in water (ml/g) 16
Max dry unit weight (kN/m
3
) 11.7
Optimum moisture content (%) 45
Soil classification (ASTM D24487-
unified Soil classification system
CH-Fat clay
Clay fraction, % 2

3. Method:

3.1. Sand bentonite and sand fly ash mixtures selected
for modeling of transport of Cu and Fe ions:
It was shown in the literature Shankara et. al [8] that at
different Soil to Liquid ratios (S/L) sand bentonite
mixture with 20% bentonite sorbs the higher amount of
copper whereas sand fly ash mixture with 10% fly ash
sorbs the higher amount of iron. In this paper these
mixtures are tested for hydraulic conductivity, porosity,
dry density at laboratory conditions and the migration
of respective metal ions are modeled to check their
suitability of breakthrough times in the design of liner
systems. It is found that hydraulic conductivity of the 20
% sand-bentonite and 10% sand-fly ash mixtures are
8.88E-08, 1.78E-05 cm/s respectively. The engineering
327
SHANKARA MAYA NAIK AND P.V. SIVAPULLAIAH
specification for a compacted clay liner usually consists
of a hydraulic conductivity of < 1x10
-7
cm/s. In order to
reduce the hydraulic conductivity of 10% sand-fly ash
mixture 5% of bentonite was incorporated to this
mixture. Therefore the mixtures under consideration for
the modelling were i) 20%Bentonite + 80% Sand (Mix
1), ii) 10% fly ash +90% sand (Mix 2) and iii) 10% fly
ash +5% bentonite+85% sand (Mix 3).

3.2. Parameters for contaminant migration model:

3.2.1. Compaction test of soil mixtures:
The compaction tests were conducted using a specially
made apparatus Sridharan et al. [9] which requires about
1/10
th
of soil needed for the standard proctor test. Also
the time and effort involved to carry out the compaction
test were less. The sample mold is of 3.81 cm internal
diameter and 4.61 cm external diameter and 10cm in
height. The sample mold assembly has detachable base
plate and a removable collar of 3.50 cm in height. A
hammer of 1kg in weight falls freely through a height of
16cm. The number of blows required to achieve
standard proctor energy per layer is 36 and in three
layers. The remaining procedure is same as that of Light
Compaction test as per IS 2720(part 7) 1980. A curve
between dry density and water content is plotted as in
Fig.1 and 2. The water content corresponding to
maximum dry density is found from the curve. The
index and Physico chemical properties and hydraulic
conductivities of the soil mixtures are summarized in
Table 4.

Fig1: Compaction Curves for Sand Fly ash mixtures

Fig2: Compaction Curves for Sand Bentonite mixtures

3.2.2. Column Assembly for Hydraulic conductivity:
Hydraulic conductivity and effective porosity values
were estimated independently using standard
geotechnical tests. The column assembly consists of
Plexiglas cylinder of 10 cm long, 4 cm inner diameter
and 0.3 cm thick. The Plexiglas cylinder is attached to
the base plate which houses, a filter paper and a porous
stone. The schematic diagram of hydraulic conductivity
test set up is given in Fig. 3. The bentonite /fly ash after
dry mixing with sand were added with the amounts of
water corresponding to their respective Proctor
maximum dry densities, the wet mixed material was
then compacted using static compaction technique in the
column cell as per ASTM D5856-07 [10]. Prior to the
compacting of the sample in the cell, the inside of the
cell was coated with a thin layer of silicon grease. This
will ensure that there is good contact between the
compacted material and the inner surface of the cell.
Porous discs were placed at top and bottom of the
mould and the mould was tightened. The column cell
with the compacted mix was fitted into position and
connected to the flexible tube as shown in Fig. 3. Water
was allowed to flow through the specimen and the
hydraulic conductivity of the specimen was determined
as per ASTM D5856-07 [10].

328

Fig3: Schematic diagram of hydraulic conductivity test
set up
1) Graduated water reservior 2) Flexible tube 3)
Column cell 4) Porous stone 5) Sampling flask 6)
Regulating valve 7)L- Length of specimen.

Table4: Geotechnical Properties of the sand bentonite
/fly ash mixtures

Mix
Max DD,
(g/cc)
Sp.
Gr
Void
ratio
Porosity
H C (k),
cm/s
Mix 1 1.82 2.71 0.490 0.33 8.88E-8
Mix 2 1.72 2.64 0.522 0.34 1.78E-5
Mix 3 1.74 2.65 0.523 0.34 1.18E-7

3.2.3. I nput of data into Pollute v7.13 and procedure
to run the software:
Input data into Pollute v7.13 software are tabulated in
Table 5. The input of data were given to the software in
four steps i.e. General data, Layer data, Boundary
conditions and Run parameters. After saving all these
sections POLLUTEv7 program was run and output files
were obtained. The output files can be obtained in excel
and it were imported to origin and the data was plotted.

Table5: Input parameters to POLLUTEv7 software

Input parameter Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3
Pure Diffusive Transport mechanism
Darcys Velocity,
(cm/s)
0 0 0
Porosity .33 .35 .34
Dry density of soil
mixture, (g/cc)
1.82 1.72 1.74
Migrating ion Cu Fe Fe
Diffusion
Coefficient, (cm2/s)
2.22E-6 2.85E-6 2.85E-6
Constant Source
concentration,
(Mg/L)
100 100 100
Advective Diffusive Transport mechanism, Hydraulic
gradient = 1
Darcys
Velocity,(cm/s)
8.88E-8 1.79E-5
1.185E-
7
gradient = 0.5
Darcys Velocity,
(cm/s)
4.44E-8 8.93E-6
5.93E-
08
gradient = .33
Darcys Velocity,
(cm/s)
2.93E-8 5.89E-6
3.91E-
08
gradient = 0.1
Darcys Velocity,
(cm/s)
8.88E-9 1.79E-6
1.19E-
08

4. Results and Discussion:

In this section the variation of relative concentration
with time for copper ion in 20% bentonite + 80% sand
mixture and 10% fly ash +5% bentonite+85% sand,
10% fly ash + 90% sand for iron ion is modelled using
POLLUTEv7 software. The models are prepared by
using the measured hydraulic conductivity, dry density,
porosity and assumed 1 m liner thickness and diffusion
coefficients, it is reported that diffusion coefficients for
copper, iron as 2.22E-6, 2.85E-6 cm
2
/s respectively. M
Zeki et al. [11]. For the above three mixtures under
different hydraulic gradients contaminant transport
models discussed along with their graphs.

329
SHANKARA MAYA NAIK AND P.V. SIVAPULLAIAH

Fig4: Break through curves for pure diffusive transport condition

Fig. 4 shows the variation of relative concentration with
time for respective ions with pure diffusive transport in
all the three soils. The model clearly shows under pure
diffusion all the three soil mixtures perform better. The
differences in breakthrough times, which are small at
lower relative concentrations, increase quickly and
reach equilibrium at relative concentration of almost 0.6
for 300 years.

Fig5: Break through curves for 10% fly ash +90% sand
mixture under different hydraulic gradients

Fig.5 shows the variation of relative concentration with
time for iron ion with advective diffusive mechanism
the model clearly shows that the 10% fly ash +90% sand
mixture performs very poor as there are breakthrough
times are at lower side under all hydraulic gradients. As
stated above this mixture do not satisfies the hydraulic
conductivity criteria in the liner design, and because of
the higher hydraulic conductivity of the mix the
breakthrough times for all conditions is only <1 year.

Fig6: Break through curves for 20% bentonite+80%
sand mixture under different hydraulic gradients

time for copper ion with advective diffusive mechanism
in soil containing 20% bentonite+80% sand mixture
under different hydraulic gradient conditions. The
differences in breakthrough times, which are small at
lower relative concentrations, increase gradually and
reaches equilibrium at relative concentration of almost
1.0 for hydraulic gradients 1, 0.5 and 0.33, but when
hydraulic gradient is reduced to 0.1, the breakthrough
time quickly increases to 100 years at relative
concentration of 0.6. So this mixture performs better
when hydraulic is lower. Rates of migration of copper
ions in soil containing 20% bentonite+80% sand is
faster this is probably due to higher diffusion coefficient
of iron and lower retardation factor.

330

Fig7: Break through curves for 10% fly ash +5%
bentonite+85% sand mixture under different hydraulic
gradients

time for iron ion with advective diffusive transport in
soil containing 10% fly ash +5% bentonite+85% sand
mixture under different hydraulic gradient conditions
The differences in breakthrough times, which are small
at lower relative concentrations, increase gradually and
reach equilibrium at relative concentration of almost 1.0
for hydraulic gradients 1,0.5,.33, but when hydraulic
gradient is reduced to 0.1 the breakthrough time quickly
increases to 100 years at relative concentration of 0.6.
So this mixture performs better when hydraulic gradient
is lower. Rates of migration of copper ions in soil
containing 10% fly ash +5% bentonite+85% sand
mixture is faster might be due to higher diffusion
coefficient of iron and lower retardation factor.

5. Conclusion:

Based on the breakthrough curves obtained using
evaluation Pollute v7.13 software for copper through
sand bentonite mixtures for iron for fly ash mixtures for
iron as liners for waste disposal facilities following
conclusions are drawn:
1. Under only diffusion controlled migration both
sand bentonite mixture and san flash mixtures
perform very well as they give breakthrough times
of more than 100 years for both copper and iron.
2. Sand with 20% bentonite mixture performs well to
retard copper only low hydraulic gradient of 0.1
only.
3. Sand with 10% fly ash mixture is poor to retard the
migration of iron even under low hydraulic
gradient.
4. Sand with 10% fly ash and 5% bentonite gives high
breakthrough times for iron and can be used as
liner.

6. Reference:

[1] H. D. Sharma, P. L. Sangeeta, Waste Containment
Systems, Waste Stabilization, and Landfills
Design and Evaluation, John Wiley and Sons INC,
Canada, 1994.
[2] T. H Christensen, R Cossu, R Stegmann,
Landfilling of Waste: Barriers, E & FN Spon, and
London. 1994.
[3] K. R. Rowe, R.M. Quigley, R.B. Brooker, Clayey
Barrier Systems for Waste Disposal Facilities, E &
FN Spon, London, 1995
[4] R. M. Quigley, F. Fernandez, E K. Yanful,
Helgason, A Margaritis, J. L Whitby, Hydraulic
conductivity of contaminated natural clay directly
below a domestic landfill, Can. Geotech. J., l 24,
377383, 1987.
[5] R.K. ROWE, Diffusive transport of pollutants
through clay liners. In: T.H. Christensen, R. Cossu,
R. Stegmann (eds), Landfilling of Waste: Barriers.
E & FN Spon, London, 219245, 1994.
[6] D.E. Daniel, C.D., Shackelford Diffusion in
saturated soil: I. Background. ASCE J. Geotech.
Eng., 117(3): 467-84, (1991).
[7] Daniel, D.E., Shackelford, C.D., 1988. Disposal
barriers that release contaminants only by
molecular diffusion. Nuclear Chem. Waste
Manage. 8, 299305.
[8] Shankara, S. N. Maya Naik, sivapulliah, Studies on
Use of Sand-Bentonite and Sand-Fly ash Mixtures
as Prospective Liner Materials to Retain Iron and
Copper in Aqueous Solutions, EMSD, Print: ISSN
2164-7682, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2012.
[9] A. Sridharan and P. V. Sivapullaiah, Mini
Compaction Test Apparatus for Fine Grained Soils,
ASTM Journal of Testing and Evaluation, 28, pp.
240-246, (2005).
[10] ASTM D5856, Standard Test Method for
Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity of Porous
Material Using a Rigid-Wall, Compaction-Mold
Permeameter. ASTM West Conshohocken, PA,
2007.
[11] M. Zeki Camur, Hasan Yazicigil Impact of Human
Activity on Groundwater Dynamics (Proceedings
of a symposium held during the Sixth IAHS
Scientific Assembly at Maastricht, The
Netherlands, July 2001, IAHS Publ. no. 269, 2001.

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February 2014, P.P.331-335

Non Destructive Tests with Rebound Hammer and Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity Measurements on Geopolymer Concrete
SHANKAR H SANN AND R B KHADIRANAIKAR
Department of Civil Engineering, Basaveshwar Engg. College, Bagalkot, Karnataka, INDIA
Email: shsanni@gmail.com, dr.rbknaikar@gmail.com

Abstract: Geopolymer is a class of aluminosilicate binding materials synthesized by thermal activation of solid
aluminosilicate base materials such as fly ash, metakaolin, GGBS etc., with an alkali metal hydroxide and silicate
solution. The geopolymer was activated with sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate and heat. This paper presents the
results of non-destructive testing done on geopolymer concrete. The molarity used for the preparation of geoploymer
specimens was 12. The grades choosen for the investigation were M-30, M-40, M-50 and M-60. The alkaline
solution used for present study is the combination of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solution with the ratio of
2.50. The test specimens were 150x150x150 mm cubes heat-cured at 60C in an oven. The experimental
investigation using NDT methods showed that a good correlation exists between conventional compressive strength,
Schmidt rebound hammer (SRH) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) on geopolymer concrete, which is similar to
that of conventional concrete. The rebound hammer readings had a correlation coecient of 0.9144 while the
ultrasonic pulse velocity had a correlation coecient of 0.8897.

Key words: geopolymer concrete, Schmidt Rebound Hammer (SRH), Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV), molarity,
sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate.

Introduction:

Geopolymer concrete, named after the reaction between
polymer and geological origin source material proposed
to replace all cement portions in concrete as the main
binder [Davidovits, 1997]. The reduction of cement
portion in concrete is expected to decrease the Portland
cement demand; hence reducing the environmental
issues generated from cement production. Geopolymer
concrete is commonly produced from alkaline liquid
and source material. The alkaline liquid is a
combination of sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide with sodium silicate or potassium silicate
[Barbosa, et al., 2000]. The utilization of single alkaline
hydroxide activator will have lower rate reaction
compared to those containing soluble silicate [Palomo et
al., 1999], therefore sodium silicate solution is added to
sodium hydroxide solution to enhance the reaction rate
between alkaline liquid and source material [van
Deventer, et al., 2000]. Fly ash is the most common
source material for making geopolymers. Normally,
good high-strength geopolymers can be made from class
F fly ash [Schmucker, et al., 2004]. These low calcium
materials were chosen because high calcium content in
source material can affect the polymerization process
[Fenandez-Jimenez, et al., 2003]. The variation of fly
ash and water content was studied in producing the
geopolymer concrete. As fly ash content increases, the
compressive strength also increases as long as there is
sufficient fluid to coat fly ash particles and involve them
in polymerization reaction. This indicates that the fly
ash content directly contributes to compressive strength
of geopolymer concrete. For given water content, the fly
ash content increases the compressive strength of
geopolymer concrete increases up to certain amount
beyond which strength decreases. [Rangan, 2008]

Experimental Investigations:
Materials:

The following materials have been used in the
experimental study [Shankar et al., 2011]
a. Fly Ash (Class F) collected form Raichur Thermal
power plant having specific gravity 2.00.
b. Fine aggregate: Sand confirming to Zone III of IS:
383-1970 having specific gravity 2.51 and fineness
modulus of 2.70.
c. Coarse aggregate: Crushed granite metal
confirming to IS: 383-1970 having specific gravity
2.70 and fineness modulus of 5.85.
d. Water: Clean Potable water for mixing
e. Alkaline Media: Specific gravity of
i. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) = 1.16
ii. Sodium Silicate (Na
2
SiO
3
)

= 1.57
f. Superplasticizer : Conplast (SP-430)

The tests carried out on the hardened concrete were the
Ultra sonic pulse velocity test, Rebound hammer test
and conventional destructive test. The NDT tests were
332
Measurements on Geopolymer Concret
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 01, February, 2014, pp.331-335
carried out according to IS: 13311-1992 (Part 1 & 2),
whereas the conventional destructive test was carried
out as per IS: 516-1959. The cube specimen of standard
size 150x150x150 mm was considered for the entire
investigation. The age of 7 and 28 days for concrete
cubes were chosen throughout the investigation, since
the UPV and SRH tests were unaffected between 3 days
to 3 months [Mirmiran, 2001].

Mix design of geopolymer concrete:

In the design of geopolymer concrete mix, coarse and
fine aggregates together were taken as 77% of entire
mixture by mass. This value is similar to that used in
OPC concrete in which it will be in the range of 75 to
80% of the entire mixture by mass. Fine aggregate was
taken as 30% of the total aggregates. The density of
geopolymer concrete is taken similar to that of OPC as
2400 kg/m
3
[Rangan, 2008]. The details of mix design
and its proportions for different grades of GPC are
given in Table 2.

Mixing, Casting, Compaction and Curing of
Geopolymer Concrete:

Mixing process was divided into two stages, dry mix
and wet mix. Initially, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate,
fly ash was mixed together in rotating pan mixer for 3
minutes. Alkaline activator with the combination of
sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate was prepared just
before the mixing with fly ash. Alkaline solution plays
an important role in geopolymer synthesis for the
dissolution of silica and alumina as well as for the
catalysis of polymerization reaction [Kale, 2007].
Alkaline solutions were then poured into the dry mixed
material and continued for wet mixing for another 4
minutes. The ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash by mass
was varied accordingly with grade of concrete. The ratio
of Na
2
SiO
3

to NaOH used in the current study was 2.50
for all the mixes. This ratio of 2.50 was selected since it
produced the highest compressive strength [Shankar, et
al., 2012]. The workability of the fresh concrete was
measured by means of conventional slump test. After
casting the specimens, they were kept in rest period for
two days and then they were demoulded. The
demoulded specimens were kept at 60C for 24 hours in
an oven.

Nondestructive tests on geopolymer concrete:

Nondestructive tests are of great scientic and practical
importance especially the need for quality
characterization of damaged constructions made of
concrete. Its importance can also be seen in the desire
for a proposed change of usage or extension of a
structure, acceptability of a structure for purchase or
insurance, assessment of the quality or integrity of the
repairs, monitoring of strength development in relation
to formwork stripping, curing, pre-stressing or load
application.

This research therefore seeks to compare the most
common non-destructive techniques, the rebound
hammer and the ultrasonic pulse velocity methods so as
to see which method has a superior capability in the
sense that it is capable of providing more information
on geopolymer concrete properties.

Schmidts Rebound Hammer Test:

The Rebound Hammer has been around since the late
1940s and today is a commonly used method for
estimating the compressive strength of in-place
concrete. Developed in 1948 by a Swiss engineer named
Ernst Schmidt, the device measures the hardness of
concrete surfaces using the rebound principle. It is
basically a surface hardness test and is used only on
concrete where the surface has not been carbonated as
the results tend to be very high and unrealistic on a
carbonated surface.

Ultrasonic pulse velocity method:

Ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete can indicate
degree of dense of the microstructure of concrete, low
porosity and high compactness of the concrete matrix
would lead to higher velocity of propagation of
ultrasonic waves. A complex system of stress waves
develops, which include both longitudinal and shear
waves, and propagates through the concrete. The first
waves to reach the receiving transducer are the
longitudinal waves, which are converted into an
electrical signal by a second transducer. Electronic
timing circuits enable the transit time T of the pulse to
be measured.


Workability of geopolymer concrete:

Fresh GPC mixes were found to be highly viscous and
cohesive with medium to high slump. The workability
of the geopolymer concrete decreases with increase in
the grade of the concrete as presented in Table 1, this is
because of the decrease in the ratio of water to
geopolymer solids. Hence we can say that as the grade
of the concrete increases, the mix becomes stiffer
decreasing the workability.

Correlation of compressive strength between
rebound hammer and destructive testing:

A correlation of compressive strength between RSH and
destructive testing for geopolymer concrete for 7 and 28
days are given in Fig. 1 and Table 3. It shows that
compressive strength by SRH is higher than destructive
test results for the samples. As SRH is based upon
surface hardness, the compressive strength becomes
higher in all the cases. SRH test results give a
333
conservative value. Regression analysis was computed
on the data obtained; the rebound hammer readings
had a correlation coefcient of 0.9144.
The regression equation for the rebound hammer
method is s = 0.928 r + 5.067.

Correlation of compressive strength between
ultrasonic pulse velocity and destructive testing:

In case of Portland cement based concretes, an UPV
value of more than 4 km/sec represents a very good
quality quality [IS:13311]. As the chemical nature of
matrix of P-C based concretes and GPCs are different, a
direct comparison of UPVs in these type concrete is not
rational. However the observed UPV for different
grades of GPC are in the range of 3.57 to 5.4 km/sec
which indicate that the concrete is Good to Very
Good type.

A correlation of compressive strength between UPV and
destructive testing for geopolymer concrete for 7 and 28
days are given in Fig. 2 and Table 3. It shows that
compressive strength by UPV is slightly deviating from
the destructive test results. Regression analysis was
computed on the data obtained; the ultrasonic pulse
velocity had a correlation coefcient of 0.8897. The
regression equation for the UPV is s = 0.0582 v +
1.6807. Where s is the strength and r is rebound
number, v is the ultrasonic pulse velocity.

Correlation between rebound hammer and ultra-
sonic pulse velocity readings:

Although SRH gives the compressive strength but UPV
helps to determine the density, uniformity and
modulus of elasticity of the concrete structures which
are the factors for durability of the structures and
also predicting the service life of the structures but
compressive strength is one of the parameter which
always has a prime importance for determining the
quality of the structure [Mohammadreza Hamidian, et
al., 2012]. As SRH is very much handy for determining
the compressive strength, a correlation with UPV will
be very much helpful for establishing the
standardization of both NDT methods for better
accuracy. A correlation showed in Fig. 3 between
compressive strength by SRH and UPV where a best
fitted curve is drawn to show the relation between these
two values. Regression analysis was computed on the
data obtained; the compressive strength by SRH had a
correlation coefcient of 0.8716. The regression
equation is s = 15.566 r 20.057.

Conclusions:

Based on the obtained results of the present
investigations the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The fly ash can be used to produce geopolymeric
binder phase which can bind the aggregate systems
consisting of sand and coarse aggregate to form
geopolymer concrete (GPC).
2. Conventional methods of mixing, compaction,
moulding and demoulding was adopted for GPCS
also.
3. The workability of freshly prepared geopolymer
concrete mix decreases with increase in grade of
concrete.
4. The routine techniques were employed for
conducting NDT tests on geopolymer concrete,
which were similar to conventional concrete
testing. The experimental investigation showed that
a good correlation exists between compressive
strength, Schmidt Rebound Hammer and ultrasonic
pulse velocity for a geopolymer concrete.
5. The sensitivity of the pulse velocity test in
measuring strength is aected by the concrete age,
as the concrete matures, the sensitivity of the
ultrasonic pulse velocity to strength achieved by the
geopolymer concrete increases.
6. The rebound hammer shows less sensitivity as the
concrete matures since it is a surface hardness test
and for age above 7 days there is little or no gain in
surface hardness.
7. The regression equation for the rebound hammer
method is s = 0.928 r + 5.067, whereas that of
ultrasonic pulse velocity method is s = 0.00582 v +
1.6807 with destructive testing and the combined
correlation of SRH and UPV is s = 15.566 r
20.057 on geopolymer concrete.

y = 0.928x + 5.067
R
2
= 0.9144
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 20 40 60 80
Destructive Comp. Strength
R
e
b
o
u
n
d

H
a
m
m
e
r

Fig1: Correlation b/n SRH Vs Comp. strength

334
Measurements on Geopolymer Concret
y = 0.0582x + 1.6807
R = 0.8897
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 20 40 60 80
U
l
t
r
a
s
o
n
i
c

p
u
l
s
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
Destructive Comp. strength

Fig2: Correlation b/n UPV Vs Comp. strength
y = 15.566x - 20.057
R = 0.8716
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
2 3 4 5 6
R
e
b
o
u
n
d

H
a
m
m
e
r
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Fig3: Correlation b/n SRH Vs UPV

Acknowledgements:

The authors are thankful to the reviewer Dr. N. P.
Rajamane, SRM University for his valuable and critical
suggestions that helped to enhance the quality of the
paper. The authors are also thankful to Prof. D. Venkat
Reddy, Editor-in-Chief of IJEE, Dr. M. C. Narasimhan,
Professor, NITK Surathkal and Dr. B. T. Patil, former
Principal, GMIT, Davanagere for their valuable
suggestions.

Reference:

[1] Davidovits, J., High Alkali Cements for 21st
Century Concretes, Concrete Technology: Past,
Present and Future. P. K. Mehta, ACI, Detroit,
USA. 1997, SP 144-19:383-397.
[2] Barbosa, V.F.F., MacKenzie, K. J. D. et al,
Synthesis and Characterization of Materials Based
on Inorganic Polymers of Alumina and Silica:
Sodium Polysialate Polymers, International Journal
of Inorganic Materials 2(4), 2000, 309-317.
[3] Palomo, A, Grutzeck, M. W. et al, Alkali-
Activated Fly Ashes, A Cement for the Future,
Cement and Concrete Research, 29(8), 1999, 1323-
1329.
[4] Xu, H. and van Deventer, J.S.J. The
Geopolymerisation of Alumino-Silicate Minerals,
International Journal of Mineral Processing, 59(3),
2000, 247-266.
[5] Schmucker, M. and MacKenzine, K. J. D
Microstructure of sodium polysialate
siloxogeopolymer, Ceramic International, 2004,
433-437.
[6] Fenandez-Jimenez, A and Palomo, A.,
Characteristics of fly ashes, Potential reactivity as
alkaline cements, Fuel, 2003, 2259-2265.
[7] Rangan, B.V., Mix design and production of flyash
based geopolymer concrete, The Indian Concrete
Journal, 82(5), 2008, 7-14.
[8] Mirmiran, A. and Wei, Y., Damage assessment of
FRP-encased concrete using ultrasonic pulse
velocity. J. Eng. Mech., 127, 2001, 126-135.
[9] Kale, D. and Chaudary, R., Mechanism of
geopolymerization and factors influencing its
development: A review, Journal of Material
Science, 42(3), 2007, 729-746.
[10] Mohammadreza Hamidian, Ali Shariati, M. M. et
al, Application of Schmidt rebound hammer and
ultrasonic pulse velocity techniques for structural
health Monitoring Scientific Research and Essays,
7(21), 2012, 1997-2001.
[11] Shankar H. Sanni and R. B. Khadiranaikar,
Performance of geopolymer concrete under various
severe environmental conditions, International
Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering, 3(2),
2012, 396-407.
[12] Shankar H. Sanni and et al., Permeability
characteristics of geopolymer concrete, B.E Project
Report, Basaveshwar Engineering College,
Bagalkot, 2011.
[13] M. S. Shetty, Concrete Technology, (S. Chand and
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2002)
[14] IS: 2386 (Part-IV)-1963, Methods of test for
aggregates for concrete-mechanical properties,
Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[15] IS: 456-2000, Code of practice for plain and
reinforced concrete, Bureau of Indian standards,
New Delhi.
[16] IS: 383-1970, Specification for coarse and fine
aggregates from natural sources for concrete,
Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[17] IS: 516-1959, Methods of test for strength of
concrete, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[18] IS: 13311(PT1): 1992, Methods of non-destructive
testing of concrete: Part 1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity,
Bureau of Indian standard, New Delhi.
[19] IS: 13311(PT2): 1992, Methods of non-destructive
testing of concrete: Part 2 Rebound hammer,
Bureau of Indian standard, New Delhi.

335
Table1: Slump values for different grades of GPC
Grade Na
2
SiO
3
/ NaOH Slump (mm)
M-30 2.5 135
M-40 2.5 130
M-50 2.5 110
M-60 2.5 95

Table2: Mix proportions of GPC mix with molarity of 12M (Na
2
SiO
3
/ NaOH as 2.5)

Materials
Mass (kg/m
3
)
M-30 M-40 M-50 M-60
Coarse
aggregates
20 mm 277.20 277.20 277.20 277.20
14 mm 369.60 369.60 369.60 369.60
7 mm 646.80 646.80 646.80 646.80
Fine sand 554.40 554.40 554.40 554.40
Fly ash 380.69 394.29 408.89 424.62
Na
2
SiO
3
/ NaOH 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50
SiO
2
/Na
2
O (by mass) 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Sodium hydroxide solution 48.95 45.06 40.89 36.4
Sodium silicate solution 122.36 112.65 102.22 91
Super Plasticizer 5.70 5.91 6.13 6.37
Extra water 38.06 39.42 40.88 42.46

Table3: Compressive Strength for different grades

Sl. No Grade
Rebound Hammer (MPa) UPV (km/sec) Destructive test
7 Days 28 days 7 Days 28 days 7 Days 28 days
1 M 30 28.4 35 3.57 3.75 25 32
2 M 40 36.8 44 3.48 3.85 38 40
3 M 50 47 56 4.05 4.67 44.6 58
4 M 60 54 62 4.87 5.4 56 54

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Performance Studies on Cement Stabilized Gravel Soils Exposed to
Acid Environment
A C S V PRASAD AND C N V SATYANARAYANA REDDY
Department of Civil Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam-533003, INDIA
Email: atmakuri2000@rediffmail.com, cnvsnreddy@rediffmail.com

Abstract: Earth is being used as construction material in all parts of the world for all civil engineering works. Some
locally available soils are not suitable for intended purpose, due to lack of properties. Stabilization of soils in order
to improve strength and durability properties often relies on additives such as cement, lime, fly ash, and other
chemicals. These materials are low-priced, relatively easy to apply and provide benefits to different soils. In the
present study, comprehensive laboratory work is carried out on the durability characteristics of cement stabilized
gravelly soils exposed to three hydrochloric acid solutions with concentrations of 1%, 3% and 5%, with exposure
periods up to 6months. Two types of soils, namely clayey gravel (GC) and silty gravel (GM) are stabilized with
varying cement content ranging from 4 to 14% by dry weight of the soil in increments of 2%. As per the results, the
compressive strength gain of CSGM and CSGC cubes with age continued with addition of cement under the same
concentration of HCl acid. However, the compressive strength decreased with increasing concentration of
hydrochloric acid for same cement content.

Keywords: Cement stabilization, compressive strength, durability, hydrochloric acid.

1. Introduction:

The construction cost in many projects can be
substantially reduced by the use of stabilized local soils
in place of conventional concrete materials.
Encountering difficult and problematic soil seems to be
unavoidable in some construction projects due to
various reasons in many places. Therefore, it is
necessary to search the suitable solution to improve the
properties soil. Soil stabilization is one of the techniques
for improving the properties of poor soils. The
engineering properties of soils and gravels, such as
plasticity and strength can often be improved
significantly by mechanical stabilization, cement
stabilization, lime stabilization and addition of chemical
stabilizing agents. Generally cement stabilization is
used for granular and sand soils for improving the
strength and durability of the soils. Cement stabilization
is generally recommended for construction of roads
(Ingles and Metcalf [1]). The major engineering benefits
of cement stabilization are increased strength, stiffness,
better volume stability and increased durability. HCl is
not a common natural chemical compound, but it can
cause damage to concrete in industrial environments.
Many factors, such as cement type, HCl concentration
and exposure period may affect the acid resistance.

1.1. Literature Review:
The acidic attack is based on the interaction of the
environment and cement based materials, both being of
complex character. The rate of the attack may be
influenced, i.e. accelerated or inhibited by many factors.
All of them should take into consideration the
evaluation of the aggressiveness of the medium and the
resistance of cement based materials and the choice of
protective measurements.

Lohani et al [2] observed that compressive strength of
concrete with quarry dust as partial replacement to sand,
increased with dust content up to 30% and thereafter
decreased. Further it was reported that the compressive
strength of quarry dust concrete continued to increase
with age for all the percentage of quarry dust contents.
Based on durability studies, it was reported that there
was no loss of strength for immersion in
Magnesium-sulfate (MgSO4) and Sodium-chloride
(NaCl) solutions in comparison with immersion in
normal water and the strength gain continued in
almost all specimens with no loss in weight.
However, in case of hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution, it
was observed that there was a loss of strength and
weight in comparison with immersion in normal water.
The deteriorating effect was observed to increase with
increase in time of exposure of concrete to HCl solution.

Arunakanthi et al [3] investigated on high-performance
concrete (HPC) with partial replacement of cement by
20% metakaolin and subjected to various concentrations
of HCl. Compressive strength and split tensile strength
of HPC increased with the partial replacement of
337
cement by 20% metakaolin. However, the strengths
decreased with the increase in concentration of HCl in
mixes and curing water.

Madhusudhana Reddy et al [4] investigated that the
effect of Hydrochloric acid (HCl) on Blended Cement
[Fly ash based (BC)] and Silica Fume Blended Cement
(SFBC) and their concretes. The results showed that
with increase in HCl concentration there is retardation
in initial and final setting of cements (BC and SFBC).
The compressive strength of both blended cement
concrete and silica fume blended cement concrete has
reduced with an increase in the concentration of HCl at
both 28 and 90 days. Compressive strengths of BCC and
SFBCC have decreased in the range of 2 to 19%, at 28
and 90 day age respectively, with an increase in HCl
concentration (100mg/l to 900mg/l), when compared
with the control specimens.

1.2. Materials and Experimental Program:
1.2.1. Gravel Soil:
The soils investigated in the present study are
procured from gravel quarries located near
Tadepalligudem in West Godavari District, Andhra
Pradesh. The engineering properties of soils are
determined from laboratory investigations as per IS
2720 [5, 6, 7] and are presented in Table 1. The effect
of compaction on grain size of the soils has been also
studied. The grain size distribution curves of soils
before & after IS heavy compaction tests are shown in
Fig.1.

Fig.1 Gradation curves for Gravel Soils
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size in mm
%

f
i
n
e
r
,
N
GC-before compaction
GC- after compaction
GM-before compaction
GM-after compaction

Table1: Engineering Properties of Gravel soils

Soil property Soil 1 Soil 2
Grain size analysis
Before compaction
Gravel size (%)
Sand size (%)
Fines (%)

61
22
17

76
15
9
After compaction
Gravel size (%)
Sand size (%)
Fines (%)

56
23
21

40
36
24
Plasticity Characteristics
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Plasticity Index (%)

39.7
16
23.7

33.2
23.6
9.6
IS classification of soil GC GM
Compaction characteristics
Optimum moisture content (%)
Maximum dry density (g/cc)

8.0
2.15

12.4
1.91
Soaked C.B.R (%) 19.5 21.9
Differential free swell index (%) 18.2 0

1.2.2. Cement:
The cement used in the study is 43 grade Ordinary
Portland Cement. The properties of cement
determined from laboratory tests are presented in
Table 2.

Table2: Properties of Cement

Property Value
Specific Gravity 3.12
Initial setting time (min) 165
Final setting time (min) 230
Compressive strength (N/mm
2
)
i) at 3 Days 31
ii) at 7 Days 42

1.3. Details of Experimental Studies:
1.3.1. Compaction tests:
The compaction characteristics are determined by
performing heavy compaction tests on gravel soil
mixed with varying percentages (0-14) of cement by
weight. The tests are performed as per IS 4332 (part
3)-1995 [8].

1.3.2. Preparation of specimens:
Cement stabilized soil cube specimens of size 150mm
x 150mm x 150mm are cast from gravel soil
stabilized with varying percentages of cement by
compacting at respective OMC and MDD values. The
densities may vary 0.01.The selected soil materials
are first thoroughly mixed with the cement and then
distilled water is added and again mixed till uniform
consistency is obtained. The prepared mix is poured
into the cube moulds in three layers and are
compacted with a tamping rod and vibrated on
vibrating table to remove the entrapped air. After
casting and finishing, the moulds are covered with
plastic sheets and kept under laboratory conditions for
338
24 hours and then demoulded. After demoulding, the
specimens are cured by covering with wet gunny bags
at room temperature for further 27 days.

1.3.3. Exposure and testing:
After 28 days of curing, the cement stabilized soil
specimens are placed in tubs containing the following
chemical solutions.
Hydrochloric acid concentrations
i. 1% HCl (10ml/l)
ii. 3% HCl (30ml/l)
iii. 5% HCl (50ml/l)

The exposure solutions are prepared by mixing
Hydrochloric acid with distilled water. Nine
specimens representing similar composition are
immersed in each solution. The concentrations of the
HCl acid solution are checked periodically and the
solution is changed after three months period.

Three cement stabilized soil cube specimens
representing similar composition are retrieved from
the test solution after 1, 3 and 6 months of exposure.
The effect of hydrochloric acid on cement stabilized
soil is evaluated by measuring the compressive
strength.

1.4. Results and discussion:
1.4.1. Compaction characteristics:
The results of IS heavy compaction tests on gravel
soils and cement stabilized gravel soils are presented
in Table 3. It can be observed that from the test results
that the maximum dry density of gravel soils
increased slightly with increase in cement content
initially and thereafter decreased slightly and after
that the change became insignificant. The OMC
values increased slightly with increased cement
content.

1.4.2. Compressive Strength:
The strength development trend of cement stabilized
clayey gravel soil (CSGC) is depicted in Figures 2 to
4 and cement stabilized silty gravel soil (CSGM) is
shown in Figures 5 to 7. The results of CSGC
exposed to 1% HCl acid solution presented in Fig. 2
show that the compressive strength of cement
stabilized cubes for different exposure periods
increased with increase in percentage of cement
content up to 12% and thereafter the compressive
strength decreased with increase in the exposure
period due to deterioration of the hardened cement
with acid attack. The same trend is observed in the
other exposure solutions with HCl acid concentrations
of 3% and 5% (Figs 3 and 4). However, the
compressive strength of CSGC exposed to HCl acid
decreased with increasing concentration of HCl acid
at same exposure period for all cement contents.

Figures 5 to 7 shows the results for the CSGM
exposed to 1%, 3% and 5% HCl acid solutions. It may
be noticed from the figures that the compressive
strength of cement stabilized cubes for different
exposure periods increased with increasing
percentage of cement content. However, the
compressive strength of CSGM exposed to HCl acid
decreased with increasing concentration of HCl acid
at same exposure period for all cement contents.

Table3: Compaction characteristics of cement
stabilized gravel soils

Details of Mix
Compaction characteristics of
soils
GC GM
OMC
(%)
MDD
g/cc
OMC
(%)
MDD
g/cc
Soil + 0% cement 8 2.15 12.4 1.91
Soil + 2% cement 8.1 2.17 12.5 1.96
Soil + 4% cement 8.3 2.18 12.52 1.96
Soil + 6% cement 8.6 2.18 12.58 1.97
Soil + 8% cement 8.8 2.19 12.65 1.95
Soil + 10% cement 9 2.19 12.72 1.95
Soil + 12% cement 9.6 2.2 12.8 1.96
Soil + 14% cement 10 2.2 13.1 1.97

339

1.5. Conclusions:
Based on the studies carried out on cement stabilized
gravel soils exposed to different concentrations of
hydrochloric acid solutions for different exposure
periods, the following conclusions are made.
The compressive strength of Cement Stabilized
Clayey Gravel (CSGC) under study is not affected
by HCl acid for stabilizing cement contents below
12 percent.
Clayey Gravel (CSGC) reduced when cement
content used for stabilization is above 12%.
Silty Gravel (CSGM) under study is not affected by
HCl acid attack for stabilizing cement contents up
to 14 percent.
However, the rate of gain in compressive strength
of both CSGC and CSGM slowed down with age
for all cement contents.
The compressive strengths of CSGC and CSGM
under study decreased with increasing
concentration of HCl acid.
340
The Cement Stabilized Clayey Gravel has better
resistance to HCl acid attack compared to Cement
Stabilized Silty Gravel.
The effect of HCl acid on cement stabilized soils is
less significant compared to hydrochloric acid
attack on concrete as amount of cement used for
stabilization is not high.

1.6. Acknowledgement:
The authors thank Prof. E. Saibaba Reddy and Prof. S.
Nagendra Prasad, the reviewers for sparing their
valuable time for reviewing the research paper and for
their valuable suggestions. The authors also thank Prof.
D. Venkata Reddy, Editor- in- Chief, IJEE, for
extending necessary help in publication of the paper in
the journal.

1.7. Reference:
[1] O.G. Ingles, and J.B. Metcalf, Soil Stabilization
Principles and practice, Butterworths, Australia,
(1972).
[2] T. K. Lohani, M. Padhi, K.P. Dash and S. Jena,
Optimum Utilization of Quarry Dust as Partial
Replacement of Sand in Concrete, International
Journal of Applied Sciences and Engineering
Reseach, (2012), Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 391-404.
[3] E. Arunakanthi, H. Sudarsana Rao and I.V. Ramana
Reddy, Effects of Hydrochloric Acid in Mixing
and Curing Water on Strength of High-
Performance Metakaolin Concrete, International
Journal of Applied Engineering and Technology,
(2012), Vol. 2, No.2, pp.68-76.
[4] B. Madhusudhana Reddy, H. Sudarsana Rao and
M.P. George, Effect of Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
on Blended Cement (Fly Ash based) and Silica
Fume Blended Cement and their Concretes,
International Journal of Science and Technology
(2012), Vol. 1, No. 9, pp. 476-480.
[5] IS: 2720 Part 4, Indian Standard Code of Practice-
Methods of Tests for soils- Grain Size Analysis,
(1985).
Methods of Tests for soils- Determination of Free
Swell, (1977).
Methods of Tests for soils- Determination of Liquid
and Plastic limit, (1985).
Methods of Tests for Stabilized soils, (1995).

www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.341-348

GANESHA MOGAVEERA AND G SARANGAPANI
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Engineering, Mysore-570 006, India, Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belgaum, Karnataka, INDIA
Email: hodciv@mite.ac.in, gsp.nie@gmal.com

Abstract: This paper reports the experimentally obtained values of compressive strength, water absorption and
chemical composition of laterite blocks collected from four different quarries. In this investigation an attempt has
also been made to determine the stress-strain characteristics and water transport phenomenon of one of the types of
laterite blocks. Three types of cement mortars i.e. 1:3 cement mortar; 1:4 cement mortar and 1:6 cement mortar have
been considered in this investigation for the study of water transport phenomenon. From the studies, the wet
compressive strength of laterite blocks is found to vary from 0.5 MPa to 1.9 MPa. The wet strength is around 33% to
74% of dry strength. It is also observed that, the compressive strength increases as the iron content increases.

Key words: Laterite block, Sand, Compressive strength, Chemical analysis, Water transport, Modulus of elasticity.

1. Introduction:

Laterite rocks have been used for building construction
in tropical and subtropical regions of the world where
they are readily available and economical compared to
other natural stones. Laterite from the western coastal
region of India has been utilised for the construction of
historic monuments like ports, palaces, temples,
churches and residential structures. They are mainly
used as building blocks for construction of masonry in
buildings [IS 3620- 1979].In India, laterites occurs in
the states of Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya
and Orissa. Plate 1 to 3 shows some of buildings where
laterite blocks have been used for construction.

Plate1: Building in Goa

Plate2: Jade Hills Homestay, Coorg

Plate3: Shenbagha Vilasan heritage homestay

Laterite is one of the types of masonary units which are
widely used in the present day constructions as they are
cost effective, energy efficient and environmental
342
friendly building material. The word laterite has been
derived from the Latin word later meaning brick
[Gidigasu M.D (1974)]. Laterite is an unusual soil
which is rich in iron and alumina. They are usually
found in heavily rainfall areas all over the world. They
get formed by intensive and long-lasting weathering.
Silica in the clay is usually leached out over a long
period of time leaving a soil rich in iron oxides,
hydroxides and alumina. When such lateritic soils are
exposed to atmosphere, the iron hydroxides lose the
moisture quickly to form iron oxides, which develop a
good bond with other particles in soil to form the laterite
blocks. Laterite cannot be placed in the triplet family of
rocks, namely Igneous, Sedimentary or Metamorphic. It
may be considered to be a metasomatic rock [Kasthurba
et. al 2007)]. Metasomatism is a metamorphic process
by which the chemical composition of a rock or rock
portion is altered in a pervasive manner which involves
the introduction and/or removal of chemical
components as a result of the interaction of the rock
with aqueous fluids (solutions). During metasomatism,
the rock remains in a solid state [Zharikov, et.al (2007)].
There is a wide variation in the property and appearance
(color, texture & structure) of laterite blocks. As such it
is very difficult for the engineers to identify and select
laterite block for building purposes. Further testing of
laterite blocks is cumbersome due to laborious specimen
preparations.

In this experimental investigation, compressive strength,
water absorption and chemical composition of laterite
blocks collected from four different quarries have been
determined. Detailed water transport studies and stress-
strain behavior has also been done for one of the types
of laterite blocks. Laterite blocks of size 325mm x
220mm x175mm have been used in this study.

Literature Review:

Very few investigations have been done on laterite
blocks and laterite block masonry, eventhough it is
being used in many Civil Engineering structures.

Kasthurba et.al (2005-b) carried out a detailed study of
laterite building stones from four major quarries in
widely scattered locations of Malabar region, Kerala.
The compressive strength of laterite blocks were
evaluated according to Indian standard specifications.
According to this study, the strength of laterites depends
on the specimen size and its geometry. It has been
observed that decrease in the size of cube specimens is
accompanied by increase in compressive strength, as in
concrete cubes. In the reported results, compressive
strength of most of the specimens tested were below 3.5
MPa, which is the prescribed minimum for use in
laterite stone masonry, as per IS 3620-1979. Since the
local practitioners vouch for the good quality of laterite
from these local quarries, this study has suggested a
relook into the codal provisions. It has also been
suggested that the strength evaluation of laterite be
carried out on standard size blocks used for masonry,
like in the case of bricks and hollow blocks, instead of
cubes.

Kasthurba et.al (2006-a) evaluated laterites based on
their performance in traditional buildings and also by
determining engineering properties of fresh laterite from
widely located quarries within Malabar region, Kerala.
There is a wide variation in the experimental results
(1.3- 4.3 MPa) of compressive strength of commercially
available, machine-cut laterites from Malabar region.
From a comparison of wet and dry strengths, it is
observed that there is a significant reduction in strength
(47-75%) due to saturation. Hence, it is suggested that
laterite masonry is to be protected from dampness.

Kasthurba et.al (2006-b) studied the weathering forms
and properties of laterite building stones used in historic
monuments of Western India. This study found that the
deterioration of laterite masonry may be caused due to a
variety of reasons. They have identified dampness as a
major factor which induces deterioration and hence
protection from dampness would prolong the life of
laterite monuments.

Kasthurba et. al (2007) investigated laterite stones used
for building purpose from Malabar region of Kerala
state in India. According to this investigation, laterites
show a wide variation in their engineering properties
depending on the geographic location of the quarry and
within a quarry with depth. It is noted that specific
gravity and compressive strength decreases with depth
whereas water absorption increases with depth, which
results in a decline in quality of laterite blocks of the
deeper layers. According to the authors, laterites with
dark reddish brown to red colour, taken from top portion
of the profile, generally possess better strength, higher
specific gravity and lower water absorption and hence
are good for building purposes.

Sujatha et.al (2008) carried out tests on laterite blocks
and determined the secant modulus at 30% of ultimate
stress. The secant modulus of the laterite blocks tested
varied from 749MPa to 1240MPa.The compressive
strengths of commercially available laterite blocks of
Mangalore region varies from 1.8 to 4.83MPa. This has
been reported by Sujatha et.al (2008a). They have also
studied the effect of size of laterite blocks on the
compressive strength. As the size of the block decreases
the strength of the block increases.

Gidigasu et.al (1974) has discussed extensively the
chemistry and pedology of laterite blocks. The strength
of laterite blocks is generally low. An earlier study by
concrete and soil research laboratory, Chennai showed
that 150mm cube made out of Kozhikode laterite gave
343
strength of 1.7MPa.A more recent study of laterite from
Dakshina kannada district by Arun kumar Bhat et.al
(1997) gave a strength ranging from 1.04MPa to
3.47MPa.There was a wide variation in strength from
place to place. Of the 13 locations studied, 11 locations
had strengths below 2.5MPa.It must however be pointed
out that laterite has been used for a long time for house
construction when the height is limited to two stories.
There is a need to select the laterite of reasonable
strength to meet the requirements of two storied
buildings.

BIS code of practice for laterite blocks specifies an
average strength of 3.5 MPa. The standard laterite block
is supposed to have a thickness of 190 mm.The
minimum strength for burnt brick of 75 mm thickness is
also 3.5MPa. It is unrealistic to expect strength of
3.5MPa for a block of 190 mm thickness. The masonry
efficiency of laterite block masonry vis-a-vis burnt brick
masonry is bound to be better due to reduction in the
number of horizontal joints. The minimum strength
specification could probably be brought down to value
around 2 to 2.5MPa to take these factors into account.

Many studies have been made on the other different
types masonry units such as clay bricks, stabilised mud
blocks, boulder blocks, concrete blocks etc. Most of
the studies made by several investigators are on the
different characteristics such as compressive strength,
stress-strain behavior, water transport phenomena etc.
Sarangapani et.al (1998) studied the different
characteristics of four different types of bricks that are
available in and around the Bangalore region.

They also observed the rapid absorption capacity of
bricks in the initial stages of soaking. They found that
the bricks to attain 75% saturation water content, if they
are soaked in water for 20 minutes. The rate of
absorption slows down to a very low value after 75%
saturation. Further they also carried out studies on water
transport from mortar to brick and recommended the use
of partially saturated bricks in the masonry construction.
Suresh Chandra (2012) in his elaborate studies on
various types of masonry units determined the
properties such as compressive strength, water
absorption, flexural strength, initial rate of absorption
and stress strain characteristics of stabilized mud
blocks, hollow concrete block bricks, hand molded solid
concrete blocks, waste plastic concrete blocks, boulder
blocks and stones. He also studied the water transport
phenomena of stabilised mud blocks, boulder blocks,
hollow concrete blocks and bricks.

2. Experimental Program:

The information available on the properties of laterite
blocks are scanty, as such this experimental
investigation has been taken up. In this experimental
study the program consists of determining the
compressive strength, water absorption and chemical
composition of laterite blocks collected from four
different locations. The stress-strain characteristics and
water transport studies have also been made for one of
the types of laterite which had the highest compressive
strength compared to the other types of laterite blocks.
Table 1 gives the details of the sources from where the
laterite blocks were collected for the test.

Table1: Details of sources of laterite blocks

Source Designation
Balnad Type I
Churipadavu Type II
Sulliapadavu Type III
Peruvie Type IV

All the four sources are in the Mangalore region of
western India. They are located between 7430 E to 70

E longitude and 10
N to 12
30N latitude. Large

volume of mining is done in all the four quarries from
where the laterite samples have been collected. Plate 4
shows the location of the selected quarries. Samples
were collected at the depth of 1.0 m in all the quarries.

Plate4: Laterite samples

344
The following sections give the details of tests
conducted.

2.1. Chemical Composition:
The properties of the laterite depend on its chemical
composition. De creteset (1938) tried to classify the
laterite based on the chemical composition. The colour
and texture of the laterite block is a function of the
chemicals that are present in the block. This has been
shown by Eastagonal and Shange-Tu (1940) in the
studies made on the laterite blocks of china.

In this study a detailed chemical analysis has been done
to determine the chemical composition of all the four
types of laterite blocks that have selected for the study.
The procedure given in IS: 2720 (Part XXV) 1982 has
been adopted to determine the chemical composition of
laterite blocks to determine the percentage of Silica,
Iron oxide and Aluminum oxide.

2.2. Compressive strength of laterite blocks and water
absorption:
Compressive strength of the laterite blocks has been
determined as per the guidelines of the IS: 3620-1979,
where as the water absorption have been determined as
per the procedure given in IS: 1121 (part 1- 1974). The
size of the blocks used for testing has been taken as
325mm x 220 mm x175mm, even though the code
recommends a size of 50mm x 50mm x50mm. This has
been done because of the difficulty in cutting of the
parent laterite blocks to achieve small blocks of size
50mmx50mx50mm, moreover the size of laterite blocks
used for testing matches with that of the size of laterite
blocks that are generally used for masonry construction
in the locality. The compressive strengths have been
obtained for all the four types of laterite blocks. As per
the procedure given in the code, the two faces are caped
using 1:1 cement mortar. The compressive strength has
been determined under dry and wet conditions. The wet
condition has been achieved by immersing the blocks in
water for 72 hours before testing. The blocks are
subjected to compressive loading in a compressive
testing machine. The compressive strength has been
determined both along the direction parallel to the
grains and perpendicular to the grains.

2.3. Stress-Strain behaviour of laterite blocks:
The Stress Strain curve of laterite blocks (type III) are
determined under axial compression. Totally five blocks
have been tested in this program. The loads have been
applied in a compression testing machine and change in
length for every increment in the load has been
measured by using De-mech gauge. The loading has
been done till the specimens failed. With the help of
loads and change in length measured the values of
stresses and strains have been calculated. Plate 5 shows
the set up used for determining the stress-strain
behaviour of laterite blocks.

Plate5: Stress-Strain measurement setup

2.4. Moisture transport in laterite block and laterite
block masonry:
Laterite block is a porous material and has a tendency to
absorb water rapidly due to the capillary suction. The
rate at which a laterite block absorbs water, when
soaked in water also varies with time. In the initial
stages laterite blocks sucks water at high rate. The rate
of suction slows down after some time. This property of
laterite block has several ramifications on the behavior
of masonry. For instance, if the laterite block is dry at
the time of masonry construction, it is likely to absorb
significant amount of water from the mortar. This can
lead to a situation where the mortar becomes deficient
in water. The water deficiency can lead to two types of
problems.
a. Reduction of water cement ratio (w/c) of mortar
causing deficiency of water in the mortar so that
complete hydration will not occur. Incomplete
hydration will reduce the strength of masonry.
b. Reduction of bond strength between laterite block
and mortar. This will also affect the strength of
masonry.

It is thus clear that the moisture in laterite block and in
the mortar has to be carefully adjusted such that the
strength gain of mortar and laterite block-mortar
bonding do not suffer. This can be done by using
partially saturated blocks. Partial saturation of blocks
can be done by soaking of blocks in water before
construction.

345
2.4.1. Rate of moisture absorption of laterite
blocks:
The rate of moisture absorption of laterite blocks was
determined by soaking in water for different duration
of time (0,5min, 10min, 15min, 20min, 30min, 40min,
50min, 60min, 2hour, 3hour and 24hour). Five
specimens were used for each case.

2.4.2. Transport of moisture from mortar to laterite
block in masonry:
This study has been made by considering one type
(i.e, type III) of laterite blocks and three types of
cement mortars. Cement mortars considered for the
study are 1:3 cement mortar, 1:4 cement mortar and
1:6 cement mortar. The simple experiment suggested
by Groot (1993) to study the water transport
phenomena has been adopted. The steps of the
experiment are listed below.
a) The oven-dry blocks used in the experiment are
soaked in water for varying duration like 0
min, 5min, 10 min, 15min, 20min, 25min, and
30min.etc.
b) The partially saturated laterite block is covered
with fresh mortar to a thickness of 10mm on
top and another similarly saturated laterite
block is kept on the mortar.
c) The top laterite block is removed after one
hour and the mortar is scooped out and placed
in the container to note down the dry weight.
This indeed is been used to calculate the
moisture content of mortar.


3.1. Chemical Composition:
Table 2 gives the details of the chemical analysis results
for laterite blocks tested. From the test results it can be
observed that the silica content in the laterite blocks
varies from 58 to 76% and iron content varies from 14
to 26%. The alumina content is very less in all the
blocks and is in the range of 2 to 8 %. The maximum
iron content is for type III blocks at 26 %. For the same
blocks the silica content is 58 % and is the lowest
among all the blocks tested.

Table2: Chemical analysis
Name of
the quarry
Chemical Composition (%)
Silica Iron Alumina
Type I 76 14 2-4
Type II 71 16 3-5
Type III 58 26 6-8
Type IV 63 21 4-6

3.2. Compressive strength of laterite blocks and water
absorption:
Table 3 gives the details of the compressive strength
and water absorption results of the laterite blocks tested.
From the results it can be observed that the dry strength
varies from 0.9 MPa to 2.4 MPa and wet strength varies
from 0.5 MPa to 0.8 MPa for the blocks tested by
applying the load parallel to the grain. The same for
blocks tested by applying the load perpendicular to the
grains are 1.8 to 2.9 MPa in dry condition and 1.4 to 1.9
MPa in wet condition. In general the wet strength is
around 33% to 74% of dry strength. The blocks have
higher strength in a direction perpendicular to the grains
as compared to that of the strength parallel to the grains.
Important information revealed from this study is about
relationship between the iron content and compressive
strength. In all the cases the compressive strength
increases as the iron content increases and silica content
decreases. Same types of results have been obtained by
Manu et.al (2009) and Kasturaba et.al (2007) for the
laterite blocks they have tested.

Table3: Compressive strength and water absorption

Quarry Name
(Iron content
%)
Compressive strength in MPa Wet/Dry
strength
*
Wet/Dry
strength
**
Water
absorption
(%)
Dry state
*
Dry state
**
Wet state
*
Wet state
**
Type I (14) 0.9 1.8 0.5 1.4 0.55 0.77 22.85
Type II (16) 1.4 2.1 0.55 1.55 0.39 0.74 20.40
Type III (26) 2.4 2.9 0.8 1.9 0.33 0.65 8.5
Type IV (21) 1.8 2.5 0.7 1.7 0.38 0.68 11.80

*Loading applied parallel to the grains
**Loading applied perpendicular to the grains

3.3. Modulus of elasticity of laterite:
The stresses and strains obtained from the tests
conducted on type III laterite blocks have been plotted
in Fig 1.0. From the graph it is seen that the stress strain
curve is linear upto 30 % of ultimate stress and further it
becomes nonlinear. The modulus of elasticity of laterite
blocks at 30% of ultimate stress is found to be 375MPa
and is comparable to those of Sujatha (2008) results
346
obtained from laterite blocks of Mangalore region. The
modulus of elasticity of bricks at 30% of ultimate stress
is in the range of 350MPa to 500MPa (Sarangapani)
(1998).

Fig1: Stress-Strain curve
3.4. Moisture transport studies in laterite block
masonry in different mortars:
3.4.1. Rate of moisture absorption in laterite blocks:
Fig 2 shows the variation in water content of laterite
blocks which are soaked in water for varying durations
of time. The curve represents the mean of 5 specimens.
The graph indicates that as the soaking period increases
the rate of water absorption also increases. In the initial
stages laterite blocks sucks water at high rate. The rate
of suction slows down after the moisture content in the
laterite block is 75% of its saturation value the laterite
blocks need to be immersed in water for 20 to 25
minutes to achieve this situation.

Similar types of results have been obtained by
Sarangapani (2008) for clay bricks and cement mortar.

Fig2: Water content of laterite blocks v/s duration of
soaking in water
3.4.2. Transport of moisture from mortar to laterite
block in masonry:
The variation of water-cement ratio of mortar with
moisture content of laterite blocks have been plotted in
the figures 3 to 5 for the cement mortars 1:3 cement
mortar, 1:4 cement mortar, 1:6 cement mortar. The
water-cement ratios of mortar after one hour of contact
with the prewetted blocks have been considered for the
study. From the figures it is clear that if the laterite
blocks are dry, most of the moisture in the mortar finds
its way into the block within one hour. In case of 1:3
cement mortar and 1:4 cement mortar the w/c ratio
reduces to a value less than 0.4. However for 1:6 cement
mortar water-cement ratio value is around 0.6. For
complete cement hydration the minimum water-cement
ratio required is 0.4. To achieve a water-cement ratio
value more than 0.4 in 1:3 cement mortar and 1:4
cement mortar the block should have a moisture content
of 75 % of its saturation value. As such the blocks have
to soak in water for 20-25 minutes to have a moisture
content of 75 % of its saturation value.

Fig3: Variation of water cement ratio of 1:3 cement
mortar with water content of laterite block

347

4. Conclusions:

1. The silica content varies from 58 to 76% and iron
content varies from 14 to 26% in the blocks tested.
The alumina content is very less in all the blocks
tested and are in the range of 2 to 8%.
2. The blocks have lesser strength along the grains as
compared to that of the strength perpendicular to
the grains.
3. In general wet compressive strength varies from
0.5MPa to 1.9MPa.The wet strength is around 33 to
74% of dry strength.
4. Compressive strength increases as the iron content
increases.
5. Laterite blocks have to be soaked in water for 20 to
25 minutes before the construction to achieve high
masonry strength.

5. Reference:

[1] IS 1121(Part 1)-1974 (Reaffirmed 2003). Methods
of Test for Determination of Strength Properties of
Natural Building Stones Compressive Strength,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[2] IS 1905-1987. Indian Standard Code of Practice
for Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[3] IS 2250-1981 (Reaffirmed 2000). Indian Standard
Code of Practice for preparation and use of
Masonry Mortars, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, India.
[4] IS:2720 (Part-XXV) ,Indian standard methods of
test for soils, Determination of silica sequioxide
ratio
[5] IS 3620-1979 (Reaffirmed 1998). Indian Standard
Specification for Laterite Stone Block for
Masonry, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
India.
[6] ASTM C 97 (2002) Standard test methods for water
absorption and bulk specific gravity of dimension
stone, ASTM, Philadelphia, USA.
[7] ASTM C170 (2004) Standard test method for
compressive strength of dimensional stone. ASTM,
Philadelphia, USA.
[8] Gumaste K.S., Nanjunda Rao K.S., Venkatarama
Reddy B.V., Jagadish K.S. (2007). Strength and
elasticity of brick masonry prisms and wallettes
under compression, Materials and Structures 40:
pp. 241-253.
[9] Hemanth B Kaushik, Durgesh C Rai and Sudhir K
Jain (2007-a). Uniaxial compressive stress strain
model for clay brick masonry, Current Science,
Vol. 92, No. 4, pp. 497-501.
[10] Hemanth B Kaushik, Durgesh C Rai, and Sudhir K
Jain (2007-b). Stress strain characteristics of clay
brick masonry under uniaxial compression,
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol.19,
No. 9, pp. 728-739.
[11] Study of weathering mechanisms of Malabar
laterite for building purposes, Ph.D thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Madras, India.
[12] Sarangapani G. Studies on the strength of Brick
masonry, Ph.D thesis, Department of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,
, India.
[13] Sureshchandra H. S., Structural characteristics of
Masonry units, Mortar and Masonry, Ph.D thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, P.E.S. College of
Engineering, Mandya.
[14] Kasthurba A. K. and Santhanam M. (2005-b). A
re-look into the code specifications for the strength
evaluation of laterite stone blocks for masonry
purposes, Journal of Institution of Engineers
(India), Architecture Division, Vol. 86, pp. 1-6.
[15] Kasthurba A. K. and Santhanam M. (2006-a).
Laterite as a prime masonry material for housing
construction in Malabar region of Western India,
International Journal for Housing Science and its
Applications, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 183-194.
[16] Kasthurba A. K., Santhanam M. and Mathews M.S.
(2006-b). Weathering forms and properties of
laterite building stones used in historic monuments
of western India, Structural Analysis of Historical
Constructions, New Delhi, pp. 1323-1328.
[17] Kasthurba A. K., Santhanam M. and Mathews M.S.
(2007). Investigation of laterite stones for building
purpose from Malabar region, Kerala state, SW
India Part 1: field studies and profile
characterization, Construction and Building
Materials, 21, pp. 73-82.
[18] Sujatha unnikrishnan, M. C. Narashiman and Katta
venkataramana, Studies on uniaxial compressive
strength of laterite masonry prisms, International
journal of Earth science and Engineering, India,
April-2011, pp. 336-350
348
[19] Sarangapani G., Venkatarama Reddy B.V. &
Jagadish K.S. (2005). Brick mortar bond and
masonry compressive strength, Journal of
materials in civil engineering, Vol.17, No.2, pp.
229-237.
[20] Gidigasu M. D. Laterite soils Engineering, Elsivier
scientific publishing Co. 1976
[21] Arunkumar Bhat, Study of geotechnical and
strength parameters of laterite blocks in and around
karkalla taluk. B. E. Project report, NMAM
institute of technology, NItte, Karkala
[22] Shrinivasa Rao S., Venkatarama Reddy B. V. and
Jagadish K. S. (1995). Strength characteristics of
soil-cement block masonry, Indian Concrete
Journal, 69(2), pp. 127-131.

www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.349-355

An Experimental Investigation on Some Strength Properties of
Light Weight Blended Aggregate Concrete
V BHASKAR DESAI
1
, A SATHYAM
2
AND K MALLIKARJUNAPPA
3

1
Dept. of Civil Engineering, JNTUA College of Engineering, Anantapuramu 515002, INDIA
2
Archaeological Survey of India, Anantapur sub circle, JNTUA college of Engineering, Anantapuramu, INDIA
3
Dharmavaram Municipality, Dharmavaram 515671, JNTUA College of Engineering, Anantapuram, INDIA
Emails: vbdesaijntu@gmail.com, mallikarjunappa.kanike@gmail.com, sathyamatluri@gmail.com

Abstract: In this present study the behavior of light weight aggregate concrete has been studied by blending the
cinder and pumice aggregate. Blending of pozzolanic admixtures like fly-ash, silica fume, peanut ash, rice husk ash,
saw dust etc., is being used by the young and dynamic researchers in the recent years to enhance the properties like
compressive strength, shear strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength, modulus of elasticity
and finally durability properties etc. But the limited study was initiated on blended aggregate concrete. Pumice is a
very light and porous igneous rock that is formed during volcanic eruptions was even used in roman structures.
Pumice is mined, washed and then used. Cinder is a waste material obtained from steel manufacturing units. It is
being used as a filler material for sunken slabs and also being used for structural purposes. Light weight aggregate
concrete is a concrete whose density varies from 300-1850 kg/m which is less than that of conventional concrete.
Light weight aggregate concrete is widely used in the construction industry. Its use is found in tall multi-storied
buildings, buildings with structural panels, roof beams for precast industrial sheds, long span bridges etc.

In this experimental investigation an attempt is made to study the strength properties of light weight blended
aggregate cement concrete by combining both the pumice and cinder in different proportions of 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 by
volume of concrete. By using these combinations the properties such as compressive strength, split tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity etc., are studied.

Key words: Cinder, pumice, light weight aggregate, compressive strength, tensile strength and youngs modulus.

1. Introduction:

The advancement in the new construction materials has
lead to develop high strength materials, which are
generally selected to reduce the weight of the
construction. Also the developments in the stress
analysis methods enable a more reliable determination
of local stresses in the materials, which permit safety
factors to be reduced resulting in further weight savings.
This induces low margins of safety for the structures
designed with high strength materials. But the service
stresses with aggressive environment may be high
enough to induce cracks, particularly if preexisting
flaws or high stress concentrations are present with in
the materials. As the residual strength of any structural
material under the presence of cracks is low, when small
cracks exists, the structures designed with high strength
materials may fail at stresses below the highest service
stresses for which they are designed.

2. Review of Literature:

Here the brief review of available studies related to the
present strength properties of cementitious materials is
presented. The review covers the study on strength
parameters investigated analytically and experimentally,
light weight aggregate concrete properties etc.,

Weigler, H. and Karl, S. Stahlleichtbeton (1) reported
that air entraining agents can be used with light
weight aggregate Concrete. Its use reduces the
density proportionally to the weight of the paste it
replaces, enhances the workability and reduces the
segregation and bleedings.

H.Bomhard (2) had reported that Structural light
weight aggregate concretes are considered as
alternatives to concretes made with dense natural
aggregates because of the relatively high strength to
unit weight ratio that can be achieved.

In Japan JASS (3) reported that, light weight
concretes do not specify any density values, and
properties are only provided for concrete made with
light weight coarse and fine aggregates.

Clarke, J.L (4) Tensile strength of concrete is important
when considering cracking. Light weight aggregate
concrete presents a flexural and tensile splitting
350
Aggregate Concrete
strength slightly inferior to that of normal weight
concrete of the same compressive strength.

Owens, P.L. (5) stated that light weight aggregate
concrete has been used for structural purposes since
the 20
th
century. The Light weight aggregate
concrete is a material with low unit weight and
often made with spherical aggregates. The density of
structural Light weight aggregate concrete typically
ranges from 1400 to 2000 kg/m

compared with
that of about 2400 kg/m

for normal weight
aggregate concrete.

Yang and Huang (6), stated that naturally available
light weight aggregate such as volcanic cinder,
pumice and scoria possess high strength due to the
higher porosity.

Khandaker M. Anwar Hossain, (7) concluded that the
volcanic pumice concrete (VPC) has sufficient strength
and adequate density to be accepted as structural
lightweight concrete and compared to control
concrete, the volcanic pumice concrete has lower
modulus of elasticity and has more permeability and
initial surface absorption.

3. Materials with properties used in the
Investigation:

Table1: Properties of Materials
Sl.
No
Name
of the
materia
l
Properties of material
1
OPC
53
Grade
Initial setting time 60 min
Final Setting time 489 min
Fineness 4 %
Normal consistency 33.50 %
2
Fine
Aggrega
te
passing
4.75mm
sieve
Fineness modulus 3.24
3
Pumice
Agg.
passing
20 10
mm
Bulk density
compacted
570
Kg/m
3

4
Cinder
Agg.
passing
20 10
mm
Bulk density
compacted
1050
Kg/m
3

Constituent materials used are shown in plate. 1
3.1. Properties of Cinder:
The surface of the cinder is usually rough and highly
porous due to mineral structure. No physical testing is
usually performed to quantify the angularity of the
material, however it is visually classified as having
100% crushed face. The water absorption for cinder is
around 1.5%.

3.2. Properties of Pumice:
Pumice is a natural sponge-like material of volcanic
origin composed of molten lava rapidly cooling and
trapping millions of tiny air bubbles. Pumice is the only
rock that floats on water, although it eventually
becomes waterlogged and sinks. Since pumice is a
volcanic rock, and retains its useful properties only
when it is young and unaltered, pumice deposits are
found in areas with young volcanic fields.

3.3. Water:
Potable water was used in this experimental work.

3.4. Need of Bleded Aggregate:
Many research scholars have studied the behavior of
concrete and strength properties by using single light
weight coarse aggregate without blending. Some of
them have studied the strength properties by replacing
light weight coarse aggregate with conventional
aggregate. But very little study is reported on strength
properties by using multiple light weight coarse
aggregates. That is why in the present investigation an
experimental study has been conducted by blending two
types of light weight coarse aggregate i.e. cinder and
pumice with different percentages.

The blending of light weight coarse aggregate is also
useful in many places where the conventional aggregate
are not available and also where the special concrete is
needed i.e. for insulation purpose etc.

4. Expermental Investigation:

An experimental study has been conducted on
concrete with partial replacement of light weight
coarse aggregate i.e., Cinder by another light weight
aggregate i.e., Pumice with few different volumetric
fractional additions ranging from 0% to 100%.
Concrete of M
20
design mix is used in the present
investigation. The analysis of results has been done to
investigate the strength properties.

4.1. Casting of Specimens:
The M
20
concrete mix was designed using ISI method
which gives a mix proportion of 1:1.55:3.04 with water
cement ratio of 0.50. Five different mixes studied are
designated as follows:

351
V BHASKAR DESAI, A SATHYAM AND K MALLIKARJUNAPPA
Table2: Details of Mix Designation
Name of
the Mix
Replacement of Coarse
Aggregate by Volume
percentage
No of
specime
ns cast Cinder
Aggregate
Pumice
Aggregate
B-4 100 0 9
B-3 75 25 9
B-2 50 50 9
B-1 25 75 9
B-0 0 100 9
Total 45

To proceed with the experimental program initially
steel moulds of size 150x150x150 mm were cleaned
and were brushed with machine oil on all inner faces
to facilitate easy removal of specimens afterwards. To
start with, all the materials were weighed in the ratio
1:1.55:3.04. First fine aggregate and cement were
added and mixed thoroughly and then coarse aggregates
with Cinder and partially replaced Pumice was
mixed with them. All of these were mixed thoroughly
by hand mixing. Each time 3 cubes and 6 cylinders were
cast. For all test specimens, moulds were kept on the
plat form vibrator and the concrete was poured into
the moulds in three layers each layer being
compacted thoroughly with tamping rod to avoid
honey combing. Finally all specimens were vibrated
on the table vibrator after filling up the moulds up
to the brim. The vibration was effected for 7 seconds
and it was maintained constant for all specimens and
all other castings. The specimens were demoulded
after 24 hours of casting and were kept immersed
in a clean water tank for curing. After 28 days of
curing the specimens were taken out of water and
were allowed to dry under shade for few hours.

5. Testing of Specimens:

The cube and cylindrical specimens were kept
vertically between the compressive platens of the
testing machine. The load was applied uniformly
until the specimens fails, and ultimate loads were
recorded. The test results of cube and cylinder
compressive strengths are furnished in table 3. This
setup is presented in plate 2 and 3. An attempt to find
out the modulus of elasticity has been done in a
3000kN automatic compression testing machine with
0.5kN/sec rate of loading. The results of modulus of
elasticity are furnished in table 5. The cylindrical
specimen was kept horizontally for finding the split
tensile strength. The test setup is shown in plate 5.

5.1. Discussion of Crack Pattern:
In case of cubes under compression test initial cracks
are developed at top and propagated to bottom with
increase in load and the cracks are widened at failure
along the edge of the cube more predominantly along
the top side of casting. In case of cylinders under
compression cracks are developed at top and bottom and
with the increase in load the cracks got widened at
central height. In case of cylinders subjected to split
tensile strength the cylinder is splitted into two pieces.

5.2. Discussion of Test Results:
In the present study the discussion of test results is as
follows.

5.2.1. I nfluence of Blended Aggregate Concrete on
Cube Compressive Strength:
The details of compressive strength are presented in
table 3. With increase in the percentage of replacement
of Cinder by Pumice aggregate, the compressive
strength of cube is found decrease continuously up to
100% replacement of Cinder by Pumice. The
variation of cube compressive strength of concrete with
the percentage of pumice replacing the cinder aggregate
is presented in fig 1. From them, it is observed that with
100% replacement of cinder by pumice the compressive
strength gets decreased by 47.53%.

Cylinder Compressive Strength:
The cylinder strength results are presented in table 3.
With increase in the percentage of replacement of
Cinder by Pumice aggregate the compressive strength of
cylinder is found to decrease continuously up to 100%
replacement of Cinder by Pumice and this variation is
presented in fig 2. From them, it is observed that with
100% replacement of cinder by pumice the cylinder
strength gets decreased by 40.40%.

Split Tensile Strength on Cylinder Specimens:
The split tensile strength results are presented in table 4.
Cinder by Pumice aggregate the split tensile strength
is found decreases continuously up to 100%
replacement of Cinder by Pumice. The variation
between split tensile strength and percentage of pumice
replacing cinder aggregate concrete is shown in fig 3.
From them, it is observed that with 100% replacement
of cinder by pumice the split tensile strength gets
decreased by 37.82%.

Youngs Modulus:
352
Aggregate Concrete
Table 5, presents the details of youngs modulus
calculated. The theoretical values of youngs modulus
are calculated by two approaches.

The first approach for calculating youngs modules used
the 28 days compressive strengths of blended aggregate
concrete mix by using I.S.Code formula
9
, because in the
absence of specific formula for light weight concrete.

E
c
= 5000f
ck
N/mm
2

where
f
ck
= 28 days characteristic compressive strength in
N/mm
2

Secondly by using another formula suggested by
Takafumi Naguchi et.al
9
which is given below.

E
c
= k
1
x

k
2
(1.486 x 10
-3
) x
b
x
2
N/mm.

Where
k
1
= correction factor for coarse aggregate i.e. 0.95
k
2
= correction factor for mineral admixture i.e. 1.026
b
= compressive strength of concrete in MPa.
= Density of concrete in kg/m
3

Cinder by Pumice aggregate the youngs modulus is
found decrease continuously up to 100% replacement
of Cinder by Pumice. The theoretical values of
youngs moduli of blended aggregate concrete are
continuously decreased by increasing pumice aggregate.
The corresponding graphical variation is presented in
fig 4. By observing the results it may be seen that the
values calculated from I.S.Code formula are higher than
those calculated by other empirical formula, and have
good agreement between two approaches.

Density:
The results of density are presented in table 6. The
variation between density and percentage of Pumice
replacing Cinder aggregate concrete is shown in fig.5.
From the above it is observed that, with the addition
of Pumice the density of specimens decreases
continuously up to 100% replacement of Cinder by
Pumice. The density of pumice aggregate concrete over
cinder aggregate concrete gets decreased by 30.50 % at
100% replacement.

Table3: compressive strength results
Sl.
No
Name
of the
mix
Replacement of Coarse Aggregate
by Volume percentage
Cube
compressive
strength
(N/mm)
Cylinder
compressiv
e strength
(N/mm)
Percentage of
increase or decrease
in compressive
strength
Ratio of
cylinder to
cube
compressive
strength
Cinder
Aggregate (CA)
Pumice
Aggregate (PA)
Cube Cylinder
1. B-4 100 0 24.53 15.00 0.00 0.00 0.61
2. B-3 75 25 20.71 14.73 -15.57 -1.80 0.71
3. B-2 50 50 16.19 12.05 -33.99 -19.67 0.74
4. B-1 25 75 13.39 10.84 -45.41 -27.73 0.81
5. B-0 0 100 12.87 8.94 -47.53 -40.40 0.69

Table4: split tensile strength results
S.
No
Name of
the mix
Replacement of Coarse Aggregate by
Volume percentage
Split tensile
strength
(N/mm)
Percentage of increase or
decrease in split strength Cinder
Aggregate(CA)
Pumice
Aggregate(PA)
1. B-4 100 0 2.38 0.00
2. B-3 75 25 1.97 -17.23
3. B-2 50 50 1.72 -27.73
4. B-1 25 75 1.52 -36.13
5. B-0 0 100 1.48 -37.82

353
Table5: youngs modulus

S.
No
Name of
the mix
Volume percentage
Youngs
modulus
E=5000f
ck
6.2.3.1

(N/mm)
Youngs modulus
E
c
=k
1
x

k
2
(1.486 x
10
-3
) x
b
x
2

(N/mm)
K
1
=0.95,k
2
=1.026
Cinder
Aggregate(CA)
Pumice Aggregate(PA)
1. B-4 100 0 2.48*10
4
2.15*10
4

2. B-3 75 25 2.28*10
4
1.71*10
4

3. B-2 50 50 2.01*10
4
1.44*10
4

4. B-1 25 75 1.83*10
4
1.05*10
4

5. B-0 0 100 1.79*10
4
0.84*10
4

Table6: density results

S.
No
Name of
the mix
Volume percentage Density
(kg/m)
Percentage of increase or
decrease in Density Cinder Aggregate
(CA)
Pumice Aggregate
(PA)
1. B-4 100 0 2262 0.00
2. B-3 75 25 2072 -8.39
3. B-2 50 50 1979 -12.51
4. B-1 25 75 1749 -22.68
5. B-0 0 100 1572 -30.50

Cement sand

Pumice cinder
Plate1: ingredients of concrete

Plate2: plain cubes

plate3: plain cylinders

354
Aggregate Concrete

Plate4: test set up for testing cubes

plate5: test set up for testing cylinders

FI GS:
0 25 50 75 100
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
C
u
b
e

c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
N
/
m
m
)
% of Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate
Scale
X-axis 1unit = 25%
Y-axis 1unit = 5N/mm

Fig1: Variation between Cube compressive strength
and percentage of Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate
0 25 50 75 100
0
5
10
15
C
y
l
i
n
d
e
r

c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

i
n

N
/
m
m
2
Percentage 0f pumice aggreagte replacing cinder aggreagte
Scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
y-axis 1 Unit = 5 N/mm
2

Fig2: Variation between Cylinder compressive strength
and percentage of Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate
0 25 50 75 100
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
S
p
l
i
t

t
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
N
/
m
m
)
% of Pumice replacing cinder aggregate
Scale
X-axis 1unit = 25%
Y-axis 1unit = 0.5N/mm

Fig3: Variation between Split tensile strength and
percentage of Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate
0 25 50 75 100
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
Y
o
u
n
g
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s

i
n

N
/
S
q
.
m
m
Percentage of Pumice Replacing cider aggregate
Emperical formula
I.S.Code

Fig4: Variation between Youngs modulus and
percentage of Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate
355
0 25 50 75 100
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
1750
2000
2250
2500
2750
3000
D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
k
g
/
m
)
% of Pumice replacing cinder aggregate
Scale
X-axis 1unit = 25%
Y-axis 1unit = 250kg/m

Fig5: Variation between density and percentage of
Pumice replacing Cinder aggregate
0 25 50 75 100
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

i
n

N
/
m
m
2
Percentage of Pumice replacing cinder aggreagte
Cylinder
Cube
scale
x-axis 1 Unit = 25%
y-axis 1 Unit = 2 N/mm
2

Fig6: The variation between compressive strength and
percentage of pumice replacing cinder aggregate

6. Conclusions:

From the limited experimental study the following
conclusions are seem to be valid:
From the study it is concluded that the densities
have decreased continuously with the increase
in percentage of Pumice.
The cube compressive strength has decreased
continuously with the increase in percentage of
Pumice.
The cylinder compressive strength has decreased
Pumice.
The split tensile strength has decreased
Pumice.
The youngs modulus has decreased continuously
with the increase in percentage of Pumice.
It is concluded that the results of youngs moduli
arrived from I.S.code formula are observed to be
more than the results arrived from the empirical
formula
The ratio of cylinder compressive strength to cube
compressive strength is observed to coincide more
or less with that conventional aggregate concrete
i.e. 0.85.

7. Reference:

[1] Weigler, H and Karl, S. Stahlleichtbeton.
Bauverlag GMBH, Wiesbaden and Berlin, pp. 38-
43, 1972.
[2] H. Bomhard, Light weight concrete structures,
potentialities, limits and realities, The Concrete
Society, The Construction Press, Lancaster, UK,
1980, pp. 227290.
[3] JASS 5 (Revised 1979): Japanese Architectural
Standard for Reinforced Concrete, Architectural
Institute of Japan, Tokyo, 1982 (March).
[4] Clarke, J.L. Design Requirements. Structural
Light weight Aggregate Concrete, Chapman &
Hall, London, pp. 45-74, 1993.
[5] Owens, P.L. (1993). Light weight aggregates
for structural concrete, Structural Light weight
Aggregate Concrete, Chapman & Hall, London,
pp.1-18.
[6] Chi, J.M., Huang, R., Yang, C.C., and Chang. J.J.
"Effect of aggregate properties on the strength and
stiffness of lightweight concrete. Cement &
Concrete Composites 2003. L. Cavaleri, N.
Miraglia and M. Papia, Pumice Concrete for
structural wall panels, Engineering structures, Vol.
25, No. 1, Jan 2003, pp. 115-125.
[7] Khandaker M. Anwar Hossain, Properties of
volcanic pumice based cement and lightweight
concrete, Cement and concrete research, vol.
34, No. 2, febrauary 2004, pp. 283-291.
[8] I.S.Code 456-2000 Code of practice for plain and
reinforced concrete Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
[9] Takafumi Noguchi, Fuminori Tomosawa, Kamran
M. Nemati, Bernardino M. Chiaia, and Alessandro
P. Fantilli (2009) A Practical Equation for Elastic
Modulus of Concrete. ACI structural journal/Sept-
Oct 2009, technical paper title no. 106-SXX.

www.cafetinnova.org
Indexed in

ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 01

February 2014, P.P.356-362

Estimation of Methane from Flooded Paddy fields in Andhra
Pradesh
ANUP MATTHEW, ATUL V RAO AND VENKATA RAVIBABU MANDLA
School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University, Vellore-632 014, TN, INDIA
Email: anupmathew2020@gmail.com, atulvrao@gmail.com, ravi.mandla@vit.ac.in

Abstract: Estimation of methane emission from paddy fields are necessary to understand the emissions at the
national or global scale, develop representative models and devise appropriate mitigation strategies to counter
climate change and its consequences. The objective of the present study is estimation of methane in the coastal
region of Andhra Pradesh, India using LANDSAT ETM+ image classification based on standard algorithm, the
temperature factor was obtained and methane emission estimated in the study area was 0.008Tg/ y. The estimates
are close to the estimates mentioned in available literature. Field based validation studies are necessary for
determining the accuracy since most literature differ in their methane estimates and modeling requires accurate
methane estimates. The present study is a preliminary step for developing the regional climate models which can be
used for climate, environmental and agricultural management studies.

Key words: climate change, greenhouse gas, methane flux, methane emission factors, land surface temperature,
maximum likelihood classification.

Introduction:

Methane emissions and its sources are being curiously
studied since one unit mass of methane has a radiative
effect 21 times greater than one unit mass of CO2 which
assigns it a very high greenhouse warming potential
(GWP). According to Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change [1] between 1750 and 1995,
atmospheric concentration of methane rose 150 % (as of
1998) which translates to increase from 700 to 1,745
parts per billion (ppb) by volume. Anthropogenic
methane source include activities in agriculture,
transportation, energy, industry and waste disposal. On
a global scale, methane emissions from agricultural
sources are projected to be 3135.75 Mt of CO2eq p.a.
making it the highest (50.63%) of anthropogenic source.
Agricultural methane emissions range from enteric
fermentation (59.84% of emissions from agricultural
sector), to the emissions from rice cultivation,
agricultural activities and manure management [2]. Net
GHG emissions were 1727.7 million tons (Mt) of CO2
eq. from India in 2007. The sources were energy sector
(57.8%), industrial (21.7%), agricultural (17.6%) and
waste (3.0%) sectors. Agricultural sector contributes
total emission of 334.4 Mt CO2 eq., the major sources
are enteric fermentation

(63.4%), rice cultivation (20.9%), agricultural soils
(13.0%), manure management (2.4%) and on-field
burning of crop residues (2.0%) [3]. Flooded paddy
fields contribute nearly 10% of total global methane
emissions and nearly 26% of the global anthropogenic
methane budget making paddy cultivation a significant
contributor to global warming. National level
measurements of methane from rice fields range from
0.1% (USA, 2005) to about 9.8% in India (2006) [4].
The quantity of methane released from rice paddies is
influenced by various factors like quantity of organic
materials, temperature, pH, soil quality and water
management practices [4].

In India, total area under rice cultivation is 42.32 Mha.
Large areas, anaerobic conditions, reducing
environments and organic loads in paddy cultivated
areas are major terrestrial sources of methane. Organic
materials degrade in anoxic conditions in flooded paddy
fields and release methane. Simulated annual emissions
from 42.32 Mha of rice fields of India were reported to
be 2.07 Tg y-1 [5].

Three major types of rice cultivation are dry land rice,
irrigated rice and rain fed rice. Irrigated rice constitutes
half of the rice growing area and produces more
methane due to constant water stagnation which favors
methane production. Rain fed rice varieties methane
generation varies with space and time and probably
emits lesser methane because of dry-moist cycles. The
irrigated fields are divided into continuously flooded
and intermittently flooded and constitute 16% (6.77
Mha) and 37% of the total cultivation area respectively
[6]. Rice is the most important staple food crop as it is
the staple food for 3.23 billion people worldwide. The
357
global annual rice production is estimated to increase
from 518 million tonnes in 1990 to 760 million tonnes
in 2020 to feed the growing population and this implies
there will be expansion and intensification of rice
cultivation in the coming years [7]. This increased
production is likely to increase methane fluxes in the
atmosphere if current technologies are continued.
Estimation of methane emission from flooded paddy
fields will aid in the assessment of emissions at the
national or global scale, develop representative models
and devise appropriate mitigation strategies to counter
climate change and its consequences.

Andhra Pradesh is a major rice producing state with
total of 4.75Mha of rice producing area amounting to
nearly 10% of Indias total paddy area under cultivation.
The major rice growing districts are in the coastal
region of Andhra Pradesh between the Eastern Ghats
and the Bay of Bengal, and from the northern border
with Odisha to south of the delta of the Krishna River
[8]. The 9 districts in this region and their area,
production and yield with respect to paddy during the
periods 1999-2000 are given in Table 1. Among these
districts, agricultural data indicates that West Godavari
and Krishna districts have vast areas of paddy fields.
Rice is cultivated under irrigated eco-system under
canals (52%), tube wells (19.31) tanks (16.2%), other
wells (8.8%) and other sources (3.7%) and being low
lying districts they are prone to flooding and rain water
stagnation. Rice is grown in 23 districts of Andhra
Pradesh and 14 of these are intensive rice cultivation
regions.[8, 9] Studies by state agencies indicate an
increase in average earth temperature and corresponding
increase in sea-surface temperature which is causing
further volumetric expansion of the sea [8,9]. Agarwal
and Garg [10] have performed methane estimation for
wetlands in Gujarat. Moderate resolution imaging
spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor with thermal
channels/bands (31&32) and optical channels/bands (1,
2, &3) was used and a methodology developed to
estimate methane emissions from various land types.
The model was based on 2 factors- temperature and
productivity. Temperature was obtained using constant
emissivity method (CEM) and productivity from
Sheppard et al [12]. The observed land surface
temperature (LST) values were validated using MODIS
satellite data imageries. The paper acknowledges the
lack of objective global methane estimates, which may
be due to lack of spatial-temporal data of wetlands.

Methane emissions from natural wetlands have been
estimated in New South Wales in Australia using
Landsat enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+)
satellite data and attempted to estimate the relationship
between methane emission and temperature increase.
Process based methane emission model dependent on
productivity, wetland area, methane flux and
evaporation-precipitation ratio was developed and
annual methane emissions were estimated. Validation
was done by performing ground studies. The
temperature, pH, moisture content and rainfall
variations have not been considered and the spatial
resolution for classification is coarse [13].

Bhatia et al [14] have estimated state wise methane
emissions by incorporating certain correction factors
(water management, cultivar, soil type, and fertilizer)
for methane emission methodology proposed by IPCC
in 1994-1995. The methane emission was estimated to
be 2.9 Tg y-1. The total area under rice cultivation was
42.24Mha of which 10.97 Mha was irrigated,
continuously flooded and contributed 1.4 Tg y-1
methane which is 47% of national emissions. State wise
methane generation depends on flooding period which
affects redox potential of the soil to create anaerobic
mechanisms. The temporal studies of redox potential
vary based on soil types. Lowland paddy cultivated
areas were found to emit 1.7Tg y-1 (continuously
irrigated) and 0.6 Tg y-1 over 6.77 Mha and 9.73Mha
respectively [6]. The study acknowledges that the data
available for methane emissions show variations and
there are certain inconsistencies. Cao et al [15] state that
methane emissions vary largely on spatial temporal
scales making accurate methane emission estimation
based on Net productivity value and point measurement
correlations challenging. Sheppard et al [12] have
proposed methane emission factors for various land
classes assuming methane emissions from tropical rain
forests to be nearly constant and all ecosystems are
normalized with respect to it. Methane flux from
respective ecosystems is used to estimate terrestrial
methane emissions. The methane productivity for rice
paddy ecosystem is 55g/m2 year which corresponds to
an emission rate of 39x1012 g/year.

Table1: District wise paddy cultivation area,
production and yield data for coastal region of Andhra
Pradesh as in 1999-2000 [11]

District
Area
(ha)
Yield
(kg/ha)
Production
(Tonnes)
Srikakulam 190400 1724 328300
Vizianagaram 134000 1905 255300
Visakhapatnam 106100 1336 141800
East Godavari 414300 3197 1324400
West Godavari 462000 3177 1468000
Krishna 403000 3215 1296600
Guntur 317700 3235 1027900
Prakasam 140400 2482 348500
Nellore 197300 3304 651800

358
The Study Area, Data used and Methodology:

Andhra Pradesh adjoins the Bay of Bengal and has a
coastline of 974 km
2
and continental shelf area of
33,227 km
2
which narrows down from north to south.
The study area is the north eastern district of Andhra
Pradesh, India. The geographical extent is between
latitudes of 15
0
N and 18
0
30 N and longitudes of 80
0
E
and 82
0
30E.

Fig1: Study area highlighting with political map of Andhra Pradesh along coastal districts

Agricultural regions are vast, with paddy cultivation
being the chief activity. The total unclassified region is
62567.8 km
2
, including the sea, inland water bodies,
forests and pockets of urban settlements.
Approximately, 12470.73 km
2
of agricultural lands
(nearly 19.93 % of the total region) has been considered
for methane estimation since it appeared to be an area of
flooded paddy cultivation type. As per the literature
accessed, areas under the irrigated-flooded paddy
cultivation display high methane emissions. The
estimated methane flux from cultivated paddy lands is
approximately 55 g/m
2
/year [12]. The classification
carried out for the study area has been shown below in
figure 2

The Landsat ETM+ data was used for this analysis. The
spectral bands used to estimate the methane emission
from the study area were the optical, visible, near-
infrared and thermal bands. The bands that were used to
extract the class information are the visible and the
near-infrared while the thermal band was used to
estimate the land surface temperature. Landsat ETM+
data of 28 October 2000 were used to estimate methane
emission from the wetlands. The image acquired were
cloud free and hence could be used for the analysis
purpose without encountering masking of regions by
clouds.

Coastal Region

359

Fig2: land use / land cover of the study area


The methane emission from tropical wetlands is
estimated from a two parameter model as given in eq
(1). The two parameters are temperature and
productivity ratio. The temperature data is compiled into
a factor known as T factor given by eq (6). Productivity
ratio was obtained from Sheppard et al [12]

Fig3: map of different agricultural areas with standing water (cyan in color).

360
The detailed method of obtaining each parameter for the
methane model is given below:

Estimation of Methane:

The flooded agricultural region, typical of paddy
cultivation, was chosen for evaluating the emission of
methane. The methane emission from the agricultural
area was estimate by using eq (1)

P AF E E
t
obs CH
,
4
......................eq (1)

Where,

4
CH
E = The methane estimated in (g/year)

obs
E = The observed methane flux from the class
(km
2
/year)
A = The Area of the class
P = Productivity Ratio.

The estimate methane is generally expressed in units of
Tg (tera grams, 1 tera gram = 10
12
grams). The area of
each class was estimated. The paddy cultivation area
with standing water was estimated to be around
1226km
2
. The areas of each of the classes have been
given below:

The inland water covers about 3447 km
2
, the forested
area is 10845.2 km
2
, Agricultural land is 12470.73 km
2

of which the Agricultural land flooded with water is
1266 km
2
and the remaining 11204 km
2
of Agricultural
land was divided into Agri 1 (3908.4 km
2
) and Agri 2
(7296 km
2
). The soil cover was found to be covering an
area of 19091.4 km
2
and the area under urban land was
1245.5 km
2
. The area covered by sea was calculated as
15170.8 km
2
.

The study area was a very important parameter in the
estimation of methane. The classification was carried
out using maximum likelihood supervised classification.
This included training the classifier with region of
interest (ROI). Supervised classification was obtained
since it was possible to verify the land use classification
on field from interaction with personnels from the area
and hence it was possible to train the classifier for the
classification. It was decided to use the maximum
likelihood classification as it often has lower variance
than other methods and they use most of the sequence
information.

The overall accuracy of the classification on the basis of
ground truth ROIs was obtained as 97.3389%.

Land Surface Temperature (LST) Estimation:

The thermal bands 62 of LANDSAT ETM+ data was
used to calculate the land surface temperature of the
given area. The digital number (DN) in satellite data of
the thermal band 62 was converted to Radiance which
was then converted to temperature to give the land
surface temperature by the following eq (2)

LMIN QCALLMIN DN X
QCALLMIN QCALLMAX
LMIN LMAX
L
) (
)
) (
---(2)

Where, for thermal band 62
65 . 12
LMAX
200 . 3
LMIN

0 . 255 QCALMAX
0 . 1 QCALMIN

The following expression was entered for converting the
DN to radiance for the area of interest
((12.650-3.200)/ (255.0-1.0))*(B6-1.0) + 3.200

[Where B6 is the input of thermal band 62].

The radiance value was then converted to temperature
by the eq (3) Plancks Radiance Function [20]

)
1
(
) (
2 5
1
T e
C
C
T B
..eq (3)

Where C
1
= 1.19104356 X 10
-16
W m
2
and C
2
=
1.43876869 x 10
-2
mK
The ground temperature can be theoretically obtained
by eq (4)

) 1
) (
1
ln(
5
2
2
T B
C
C
T

...eq (4)

The equation is shrunk by making the substitution
5
1
1
C
K and
2
2
C
K and satellite measured
radiant intensity

L T B ) ( we get the temperature as
eq (5)

) 1 ln(
1
2
L
K
K
T
eq (5)

Where, K
1
= 666.09 W m
-2
sr
-1
m
-1
and K
2
= 1282.71
kelvin.
The equation (1282.71D/(alog(666.09D/B6+1D)))-273
is used to calculate temperature where B6 is the
radiance value calculated above and D forces the
numbers into double precision.

The value of temperature returned is in Celsius. The
temperature values are then used to calculate the T
factor which is given by eq (6) & (7)

) (
) (
s
s
T F
T F
Tfactor
.eq(6)
361
) 23 ( 334 . 0
) 23 ( 334 . 0
2
2
1
) (

T
T
s
e
e
T F
eq(7)

and ) (
s
T F is the mean value of F(T
s
). The T factor (F
t
)
was evaluated for the region of interest (flooded
agriculture) and was found to be 1.000007.

Productivity Ratio:

The productivity ratio P is given as
) inf (
) cos (
orest tropicalra NPP
ystem e NPP
P
eq (8)

NPP is the net primary productivity and P is the ratio of
NPP of a given ecosystem to the NPP of tropical
rainforest. The ratio is to the NPP of a tropical rainforest
because it is assumed that the NPP of tropical rainforest
would be constant throughout the year. The productivity
ratio for the flooded agricultural land was calculated
from eq (9).

0
5 . 13 5 . 23
4 . 1 55
) inf (
) (

orest tropicalra NPP
parryfield cultivated NPP
P

.....eq(9)

The productivity ratio of the area is 0.24.

Observed Methane Flux:

Observed methane flux is obtained from [12] for
cultivated paddy fields as 27.85 g/m
2
/year.

Using the values of observed methane flux, area of the
field, productivity ratio and T factor, the methane
emission is evaluated as

P F A E E
t obs CH

4

24 . 0 000007 . 1 10 33 . 1226 85 . 27
6

year
g
E
CH
8196646576
4

year
Tg
E
CH
0081966 . 0
4

The methane emissions from the flooded agricultural
fields of area 1226.33 km
2
, considered as paddy fields
have been estimated to be 0.0082 Tg/year by the present
study. IPCC based model study in Andhra Pradesh
indicates that from 34560 km
2
of irrigated paddy fields,
the annual methane emissions are 0.35 Tg/year [16]
which roughly converts to 0.0123 Tg/year for the area
considered in our study which is higher than that
determined by the present study. Parashar et al [6] have
assessed that of the 97300 km
2
of irrigated paddy fields
in India, the methane emissions are 0.6 Tg/year. A
simple interpolation to 1226.33 km
2
yields a result of
0.007562 Tg/year which is very close to the value
obtained from the present study. Conclusive validation
geospatial studies like the present study is possible by
conducting thorough field studies at regular, pre-
determined intervals spanning all cropping seasons. The
field studies must also include the parameters such as
rice cultivar, water management, soil types, soil
characteristics, soil quality management and water
management practices since these are known to affect
the methane emissions. The inclusion of such
parameters will help approximately quantify the effects
of these- both in conjunction with, and independent of
the other parameters in particular and also analyze the
methane emissions in relation to the overall agricultural
management practices and climate conditions. When
field studies are combined with such geospatial based
studies, a comprehensive regional climate model
applicable to that specific region can be developed. The
regional climate model can provide a mechanistic basis
for spatio-temporal variations in methane emissions
which can serve as the basis for the development of
interactive software based decision support system for
undertaking sustainable agricultural practices.

Conclusions:

Methane emissions of 0.008 Tg / year were found for
the chosen study area which was under flooded paddy
cultivation. Validation of these estimates by appropriate
ground studies is necessary to develop pertinent model
of methane estimation that would eventually eliminate
the need for regular field studies which are tedious,
expensive and time consuming. The present study is
preliminary step for development of a regional climate
model to study relations between climate, agriculture
and GHG emissions. Methane mitigation in paddy
cultivation is possible by certain sustainable agricultural
practices which reduces emissions from rice cultivation,
reduces GHG additions and prevents economic losses to
the farmers by elimination of inefficient and
unsustainable farming practices. The regional climate
model can be used to analyze climatic factors that
influence agriculture; devise sustainable agricultural and
water management practices and a mechanism can be
developed for real time information dissemination to
guide the farmers on a regular basis towards sustainable
agriculture.

Acknowledgment:

Authors would like to thanks to anonymous reviewers
for their valuable suggestions.

Reference:

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