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COAGULATION 101

David J. Pernitsky, Ph.D., P.Eng.
pernitskyd@ae.ca
Associated Engineering, Calgary, Alberta
Phone: 403-262-4500


ABSTRACT

In drinking water treatment, the coagulation process is used to destabilize suspended particles
and to react with dissolved organic material in the raw water. Proper coagulation is essential for
good filtration performance and for disinfection byproduct (DBP) control. Optimizing
coagulation is the most cost-effective way to decrease treated water turbidity and DBP levels.
This paper attempts to summarize the coagulation chemistry necessary for optimizing
coagulation for both turbidity and organic carbon removal, and presents guidelines and strategies
for selecting the best coagulant and maintaining the best coagulation conditions for individual
raw waters.

The first section of this paper reviews the fundamental chemistry of coagulants, colloids and
natural organic matter (NOM). Recent research on coagulant solubility, and the chemical species
formed after the addition of coagulants to raw water is reviewed and the relevance of this
research to water treatment applications is discussed. Traditional coagulants such as alum and
ferric chloride, as well as newer coagulants such as polyaluminum chloride, polyaluminum
sulfate and aluminum chlorohydrate are included in the discussion. The chemical behaviour of
particles and NOM and the chemical interactions between coagulants and these contaminants are
also described. The role of pH is stressed.

Next, a series of research and case studies are used to illustrate the importance of the chemistry
discussed above in selecting the best coagulant and best coagulation conditions for individual
raw waters. A series of guidelines are presented which summarize the most important chemical
characteristics of the raw water and how they should be matched to the chemical characteristics
of the coagulant used. Again, the role of pH is stressed.

Finally, advances in process monitoring and control for coagulation processes are highlighted.
The use of UV absorbance measurements for monitoring changes in raw water quality,
coagulation performance, and as a surrogate for TOC is discussed. Options for pH control with
CO
2
, a safer alternative to acid, are also included.

FUNDAMENTALS OF COAGULATION

Coagulation involves reactions between coagulant chemicals, NOM molecules, and the surfaces
of particles. This section reviews the fundamental chemistry of particulates, NOM, and
coagulants, and describes the coagulation mechanisms through which these reactions occur.

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Coagulation Mechanisms The removal of dissolved natural organic matter (NOM) and
colloidal particles in drinking water coagulation is thought to occur via four primary
mechanisms:
Enmeshment.
Adsorption.
Charge neutralization/destabilization.
Complexation/precipitation.

These mechanisms are presented conceptually in Figure 1, and will be referred to in the
following sections. These coagulation mechanisms have been studied extensively, and many
good references are available (Amirtharajah and Mills 1982; Dempsey, Sheu et al. 1985;
Edwards and Amirtharajah 1985; Hundt and O'Melia 1988; Randtke 1988; Edzwald and Van
Benschoten 1990; Van Benschoten and Edzwald 1990; Dempsey 1994).

Figure 1 Conceptual View of Coagulation Reactions


Chemistry of Particulates Inorganic particles such as clays make up a large proportion
of the particles present in natural waters. These particles may consist of iron oxides, silicates,
calcites, clays, aluminum oxides, and many other minerals (Wiesner and Klute 1997). Although
the particles in each watershed are unique, all show similar electrochemical behaviour, since
their surfaces are generally covered with surface hydroxyl (OH) groups, as shown in Figure 2.


Coagulant Active Coagulant Species Contaminants Product Mechanism
Colloids
Alum NOM
Al
3+
, AlOH
2+
,
Al(OH) 4
-
Colloids
H
+
NOM Al-NOM
Al-NOM(am)
Colloids
PACl
NOM
Colloids
NOM
Al13-NOM
Al13-NOM(am)
Note: Al(OH)3
*
(am) refers to the amorphous phase formed by precipitation of PACl.
C. Charge Neutralization/Destabilization
A. Enmeshment
NOM=Al(OH)3
*
(am) B. Adsorption
A. Enmeshment
C. Charge Neutralization/Destabilization
Al
3+
, SO4
2-
Al(OH) 3(am)
Al(OH)3(am)+Colloid
NOM=Al(OH)3(am)
Hydrolysis
Alkalinity
Consumption
B. Adsorption
D. Complexation/Precipitation
Al
3+
, AlOH
2+
Al=Colloid
Al(OH)3
*
(am)+Colloid
D. Complexation/Precipitation
Al13
7+
,Al
3+
,
AlOH
2+
Al(OH) 3
*
(am)
Al13=Colloid
Al13O4(OH)24
7+
, Al
3+
,
AlOH
2+,
Al(OH)
4-
,
Al2(OH)4
4+

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Figure 2 Surface Chemistry of a Clay Particle







Depending upon the pH of solution, the charge of these hydroxyl groups may be positive or
negative, as shown in Figure 3a. Similar surface chemistry is also found on organic particles
such as bacteria, as shown in Figure 3b. Under the pH conditions of most natural waters, these
particles have a negative surface charge, typically in the range of 0.1 to 1 eq/mg
(Thurman 1985).

Figure 3 Electrochemical Behaviour of Hydroxyl Groups

a) Clay Particle









b) Bacteria








Low pH High pH

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Under certain conditions, particles can be effectively destabilized by the neutralization of this
surface charge by positively charged coagulant species, as shown in pathway C of Figure 1.
Coagulants that destabilize particles by charge neutralization will have dosage dependence
related to turbidity. For example, a water with 10 mg/L of clay turbidity having a negative charge
of 0.5 eq/mg will have a positive charge demand of 5 eq/L.
In many instances, an amount of coagulant in excess of that required for reaction with particle
charge is required to react with NOM. Or, excess coagulant is added to produce large amounts of
floc that will settle rapidly. In these situations, suspended particles are removed by enmeshment
into precipitated floc particles (sweep floc), and turbidity has little effect on the required
coagulant dose. This is illustrated by pathway A of Figure 1.

Chemistry of NOM Natural Organic Material (NOM) is a heterogeneous mixture of
organic compounds that enter the water column from decaying vegetation, organic soils, and
biological activity. NOM from different source materials has different characteristics. In general,
NOM molecules are large and contain many functional groups that affect their chemical
behaviour. One example structure is shown in Figure 4, which highlights some of the common
functional groups present. The charge on these functional groups can also change with pH.
Several comprehensive references on NOM chemistry are available (Croue et.al. 1999; Thurman
1985).

Figure 4 Typical NOM Molecule
















Although much research has been devoted to the coagulation of inorganic particles, it has been
shown that for most surface waters, coagulant doses are controlled by NOM concentration rather
than by turbidity (Edzwald and Van Benschoten 1990). Positively charged coagulant species can
complex negatively charged functional groups forming Al-NOM precipitates that can be
removed in subsequent solids separation processes, as shown in pathway D of Figure 1. The
charge density of these NOM functional groups is typically 10 to 100 times greater than the
charge density of inorganic particles discussed above. For example, a water containing only

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3 mg/L DOC with a negative charge of 10 eq/mg, will have a positive charge demand of
30 eq/L, six times that of the 10 mg/L clay turbidity case discussed above (Edzwald and Van
Benschoten 1990).

In addition to the amount of NOM present, the nature of the NOM has a significant effect on
whether NOM controls coagulant dosages and on how much NOM is removed by coagulation.
Coagulation has been shown to be most effective in removing NOM in the high and intermediate
molecular weight ranges (Sinsabaugh, Hoehn et al. 1986; Chadik and Amy 1987). Complex
analytical techniques are available to fractionate NOM on the basis of molecular weight,
hydrophobicity, and acidity. However, these techniques are exceedingly complex, and do not
lend themselves to routine monitoring and control of coagulation in water treatment plants.

The concept of Specific UV Absorbance (SUVA) has been developed as an operational indicator
of the nature of NOM and the effectiveness of coagulation in removing NOM, TOC, and DBP
precursors (Edzwald and Van Benschoten, 1990; Edzwald and Tobiason, 1999). SUVA values
offer a simple characterization of the nature of the NOM based on measurements of UV
absorbance and DOC. SUVA is defined as the normalized UV absorbance of a water sample
with respect to the DOC. It is expressed in units of m
-1
of absorbance per mg/L of DOC.

SUVA
UV cm
DOC mg L
=

254
1
100 ( )
( / )


Guidelines for the interpretation of SUVA values are presented in Table 3. For supplies with low
SUVA (2 or less), TOC will not control coagulant dose. For water supplies with SUVA greater
than 2, the amount of NOM typically exerts a greater coagulant demand than the amount of
particles. For these waters, the required coagulant dose increases with increasing TOC.

Coagulant Chemistry The coagulation mechanisms described above involve either
charge neutralization or precipitation by positively charged, dissolved coagulant species, or
enmeshment in or adsorption on the surfaces of precipitated floc particles. To understand
coagulation, one must understand the conditions under which dissolved versus solid-phase
species are present, and the charge on these species.

Under water treatment conditions, alum chemistry can be described by the presence of three
species: Al
3+
, Al(OH)
2+
, and Al(OH)
4
-
in equilibrium with an amorphous Al(OH)
3(am)
solid phase
(Hayden and Rubin 1974; Van Benschoten and Edzwald 1990a). The distribution of these
species as a function of pH is shown in Figure 5. The figure shows that alum is least soluble at
pH 6.0. This means that at pH 6.0, the maximum amount of coagulant is converted to solid-phase
floc particles. At pH values higher or lower than this pH of minimum solubility, dissolved Al
levels in the treated water will increase. As well, the figure also shows that at pH values less than
the pH of minimum solubility, the highly charged Al
3+
and Al(OH)
2+
species are most prevalent
dissolved species. The solid phase formed upon precipitation, Al(OH)
3(am)
, has a surface charge
that is dependent on pH, due to the hydroxyl groups present. As was described for inorganic

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particles and NOM, the surface charge is more positive at lower pH. This has implications for the
adsorption of NOM onto the floc surface, and the filterability of the floc.

Figure 5 Solubility of Various Aluminum Coagulants


Polyaluminum chloride (PACl) chemistry is similar to that of alum, except that PACls contain
highly charged polymeric aluminum species as well as the monomers described above. An Al
13

species with the formula Al
13
O
4
(OH)
24
(H
2
O)
12
7+
(abbreviated as Al
13
7+
) has been shown to be the
dominant polymeric species (Parthasarathy and Buffle 1985; Bertsch, Thomas et al. 1986;
Bertsch 1987; Van Benschoten and Edzwald 1990; Parker and Bertsch 1992).

Polyaluminum coagulants are characterized by their degree of neutralization (r), or basicity.

r = [OH
-
] / [Al
T
]
basicity = (r / 3) 100%

where [OH
-
] represents the quantity of base added during production. The value for r can vary
from zero to three, corresponding to basicities of 0 to 100%. Commercial PACls are generally
available with basicities between 15 and 85%. The basicity affects the alkalinity consumption of
the coagulant, as well as the amount of polymeric species present. In general, the higher the
basicity, the greater the Al
13
7+
fraction, up to an r of approximately 2.1 (70% basicity) (Bottero,
Cases et al. 1980).

-8
-7.5
-7
-6.5
-6
-5.5
-5
-4.5
-4
-3.5
-3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
pH
l
o
g

A
l

C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
M
)
Al13
7+
Al(OH)4
-
Al
3+
Al(OH)
2+
PACl - high
basicity
Al-Chlorohydrate
Alum

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Significant differences exist between the solubility characteristics of PACls and alum (Van
Benschoten and Edzwald 1990; Pernitsky and Edzwald 2003). PACls are more soluble and have
a higher pH of minimum solubility than alum. For different PACls, the pH of minimum
solubility increases with increasing basicity. Solubility data for a high basicity PACl (basicity
70%) and aluminum chlorohydrate (basicity 85%) are shown in Figure 5. It is important to note
that the pH of minimum solubility for these two PACls is significantly higher than that for alum.
This means that these PACls can be used at higher pH values without resulting in elevated
dissolved Al levels, and that the highly charged Al
13
7+
species is present over a higher pH range.
Due to the presence of the Al
13
polymer, the surface charge on PACl floc has a larger positive
charge density than alum floc. Further details of PACl chemistry can be found elsewhere
(Pernitsky and Edzwald 2003). Polyaluminum sulfates (PAS) have solubility characteristics
similar to alum (Pernitsky and Edzwald 2003).

The solubility of ferric iron (i.e. ferric chloride, FeCl
3
) is shown in Figure 6. Of primary
importance is the much lower overall solubility of Fe(III) compared to Al(III). This means that
Fe-based coagulants can be used over a much greater pH range than Al-based coagulants without
worrying about dissolved metals concentrations in the finished water. Figure 6 also shows that
the pH of minimum solubility for Fe(III) is near pH 8.8. Unlike Al-based coagulants, FeCl
3
is not
an effective water treatment coagulant at its pH of minimum solubility, due to the weak positive
charge of the Fe(OH)
2
+

species. More effective performance is seen at lower pH, as low as pH
5.5, where more positively charged species are present, and where the negative charge on
colloids and NOM is less. Like the other coagulants, the surface charge on ferric floc,
Fe(OH)
3(am)
, has a pH dependent surface charge.

Figure 6 Solubility of Amorphous Fe(OH)
3




















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For all of the metal coagulants, it is also important to note that the pH of minimum solubility
increases as temperature decreases, as shown in Table 1. This is especially important in Canada,
due to the wide range in raw water temperatures experienced. For example, the pH of minimum
solubility for alum increases from 6.0 at 20
o
C to 6.2 at 5
o
C. High basicity PACl changes
from 6.4 to 6.8.

FACTORS AFFECTING COAGULATION

For all raw water types, there are several water quality parameters that affect coagulation
performance, including the amount of particulate material, the amount and nature of the NOM
present, and the bulk chemical and physical properties of the water. These parameters are listed
in Table 2. The effects of each of these parameters, and guidelines for selecting proper
coagulation conditions (coagulant type, dose, and pH) are discussed below.

Alkalinity/pH Alkalinity refers to the acid-neutralizing capacity of water, and is a
general indication of a waters buffering capacity. Alkalinity and pH are related; higher alkalinity
waters have higher pH. Metal coagulants are acidic, and coagulant addition consumes alkalinity.
For low alkalinity waters, coagulant addition may consume all of the available alkalinity,
depressing the pH to values too low for effective treatment. High alkalinity waters (highly
buffered) may require high coagulant additions to depress the pH to values favorable for
coagulation. Alum and ferric chloride are more acidic than PACls, and therefore result in greater
alkalinity consumption after addition. For PACls, alkalinity consumption is related to basicity.
Higher basicity PACls will consume less alkalinity than low or medium basicity ones.

The pH at which coagulation occurs is the most important parameter for proper coagulation
performance, as it affects the:
Surface charge of colloids.
Charge of NOM functional group.
Charge of the dissolved-phase coagulant species.
Surface charge of floc particles.
Coagulant solubility.

For aluminum-based coagulants the best coagulation performance is generally seen at pH values
that are as close as possible to the pH of minimum solubility of the coagulant. This controls
dissolved Al residuals, as well as maximizing the presence of floc particles for adsorption of
NOM.

The effects of coagulation pH are illustrated in Figure 7, which shows the relationship between
electrophoretic mobility (EPM), a measure of particle surface charge, and coagulant dose for two
pH conditions for a low turbidity, low TOC reservoir water (Hemlocks Reservoir, Fairfield, CT).
At pH 6.3, near the pH of minimum solubility for alum and PACl, the charge of the NOM is
neutralized at a relatively low coagulant dose of 1.5 mg/L as Al (this corresponds to a dry alum
dose of approximately 16 mg/L ), and a floc of neutral to positive charge results. At pH 7.5,
much higher coagulant doses are required to react with the NOM. At all alum doses tested, the

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resulting floc has a negative charge, which can be difficult to filter through the negatively
charged grains of a sand filter. In contrast, the floc formed with the high basicity non-sulfated
PACl exhibits a higher positive charge at this elevated pH.

Figure 7 Effects of pH on Floc Charge

















Coagulant Dose (mg/L Al)
0 1 2 3 4 5
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

E
P
M

(

m
/
s
/
V
/
c
m
)
-2
-1
1
2
0
Alum
HBNS
HBS
pH: 6.2
Coagulant Dose (mg/L Al)
0 1 2 3 4 5
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

E
P
M

(

m
/
s
/
V
/
c
m
)
-2
-1
1
2
0
pH: 7.5
Alum
HBNS
HBS
1. Summer 1999 raw water sample: pH = 7.1; UV = 0.083 cm
-1
;Turbidity = 0.83 NTU
HBNS High basicity non-sulfated PACl
HBS High basicity sulfated PACl

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Very low pH (pH 5.5) is often recommended to maximize TOC removal for alum. PACls, on the
other hand, do not require pH this low. This is shown in Figure 8, which shows the effects of pH
adjustment on the performance of a high basicity PACl for Shoal Lake, MB. Shoal Lake has
moderate to high TOC concentrations, low turbidity, and moderate concentrations of alkalinity.
Without pH adjustment, coagulation pH with the PACl varied between 7.6 and 7.8. By adjusting
the pH to 7.0, dramatic increases in NOM removals were seen. Further pH reductions showed
diminishing returns.

Figure 8 Effects of pH on NOM Removal

LBNS low basicicity non-sulfated PACl MBS medium basicity sulfated PACl
HBS high basicity sulfated PACl HBNS high basicity non-sulfated PACl

Coagulant Dose (mg/L as Al)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
U
V

F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Unadjusted pH
pH 7.0
pH 6.5
pH 6.2
pH 7.8
pH 7.7 pH 7.6
HBNS PACl with pH adjustment
Coagulant Dose (mg/L as Al)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
U
V

F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

R
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Alum
LBNS
MBS
HBS
HBNS
Medium Alkalinity, Medium TOC Lake
Unadjusted pH

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NOM

Sufficient coagulant must be added to satisfy the charge demand of the raw water NOM for
effective treatment to occur. SUVA guidelines can be used to predict whether NOM will
influence or control coagulant doses, and the degree of NOM removal expected. In most
situations where NOM is present, it is more important for determining coagulant dosage than
turbidity or other parameters. However, the amount or type of NOM present is less important for
choosing an individual coagulant (for example, a high versus medium basicity PACl) than the
raw water alkalinity. For most waters, alum, PACls, and FeCl
3
can achieve similar TOC removal
when used at the appropriate pH. NOM removal will be less at higher pH for all coagulants. The
required coagulant dose for NOM removal will also likely increase as water temperature
decreases.

Turbidity For low TOC raw waters in which turbidity controls coagulation, sufficient
coagulant must be added to destabilize suspended colloids or to create a good settling floc.
SUVA guidelines can be used to predict whether turbidity will influence or control coagulant
doses. However, raw water turbidity is less important for coagulant selection and dosage than the
raw water NOM or alkalinity. Coagulant doses are generally higher when raw water turbidity
increases, although the relationship is not linear.

Temperature Low temperature affects coagulation and flocculation processes by altering
coagulant solubility, increasing water viscosity, and retarding the kinetics of hydrolysis reactions
and particle flocculation. Higher coagulant doses, the addition of flocculation or filter aids,
longer flocculation times, and lower flotation, sedimentation, and/or filtration rates are often
required to produce low turbidity treated water. Sedimentation processes are most affected. In
full-scale plants, processes are often operated at lower hydraulic loading rates in the winter due
to decreased water demands. This tends to compensate for the lower settling rates.

Polyaluminum coagulants are thought to be more effective than alum in cold water as they are
pre-hydrolyzed. The superiority of PACl compared to alum under cold-water conditions has been
widely reported (Odegaard, Fettig et al. 1990; Dempsey 1994; Edzwald, Bunker et al. 1994).

ADVANCES IN COAGULATION PROCESS CONTROL

UV
254
As discussed above, coagulation doses are often set by NOM removal
requirements. NOM removal in water treatment processes is typically quantified by TOC
measurements, which can be time consuming and expensive. Because the double bonds in
organic molecules absorb ultraviolet light at 254nm (UV
254
), UV absorbance measurements can
provide a quick estimate of the organic carbon content of raw or treated water samples. The
operator effort required to analyze UV
254
is similar to that required to measure turbidity. Online
UV absorbance instruments are also appearing on the market.


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Although the numerical relationship between UV absorbance and TOC is unique to each raw
water, a change in TOC can always be detected as a change in UV absorbance. This makes UV
absorbance measurements well suited to monitoring changes in NOM concentration. Daily
monitoring of raw water UV absorbance can provide valuable information to operators about
changing raw water TOC concentrations, and pending impacts to the required coagulation dose.
Changes in raw water TOC often occur without any change in raw water turbidity, and operators
are often not aware that their coagulant dose is insufficient to react with the increased NOM
levels until after clarifier or filter turbidity increases.

Tracking the removal of UV absorbing substances across the treatment process can also provide
a benchmark for coagulation performance. Coagulant dose can be adjusted to achieve a certain
UV absorbance removal, and this removal percentage used as an operational setpoint, similar to a
streaming current detector (SCD). Like an SCD, the UV absorabance removal set point to be
used should be the UV absorbance removal achieved by the plant when it is running well. This
setpoint may vary seasonally, but should be somewhere between 40 and 60% UV absorbance
removal.

UV
UV UV
UV
removal
raw post coagulation
raw
(%)
( )
=

100% , where UV = UV absorbance at 254 nm



UV absorbance removal can also be quickly checked during routine jar tests. For waters in which
NOM concentrations influence or control coagulation, UV absorbance measurements may
provide more useful information for selecting coagulant doses than settled turbidity
measurements alone.

Although not related to coagulation, collection of UV absorbance data for both raw and treated
water is also useful if UV disinfection is considered as a future upgrade.


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REFERENCES
Amirtharajah, A. and K. M. Mills (1982). Rapid-mix design for mechanisms of alum
coagulation. Journal of the American Water Works Association 74(4): 210-216.
Bertsch, P. M. (1987). Conditions for Al
13
Polymer Formation in Partially Neutralized
Aluminum Solutions. Soil Science Society of America Journal 51: 825-828.
Bertsch, P. M., G. W. Thomas, et al. (1986). Characterization of Hydroxy-Aluminum Solutions
by Aluminum-27 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Soil Science Society of
America Journal 50: 825-830.
Bottero, J. Y., J. M. Cases, et al. (1980). Studies of Hydrolyzed Aluminum Chloride Solutions.
1. Nature of Aluminum Species and Composition of Aqueous Solutions. Journal of
Physical Chemistry 84: 2933-2939.
Chadik, P. A. and G. L. Amy (1987). Molecular Weight Effects on THM Control by
Coagulation and Adsorption. Journal of Environmental Engineering 113(6): 1234-1248.
Croue, J.P., Debroux, J.F., Amy, G.L., Aiken, G.R., and Leenheer, J.A. (1999). Natural Organic
Matter: Structural Characteristics and Reactive Properties.Formation and Control of
Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water. P.C. Singer. Denver, AWWA:65-94.
Dempsey, B. A. (1994). Production and Utilization of Polyaluminum Sulfate. Denver, AWWA
Research Foundation: 71.
Dempsey, B. A., H. Sheu, et al. (1985). Polyaluminum Chloride and Alum Coagulation of Clay-
Fulvic Acid Suspensions. Journal of the American Water Works Association 77(3): 74-
80.
Edwards, G. A. and A. Amirtharajah (1985). Removing Color Caused by Humic Acids.
Journal of the American Water Works Association 77(3): 50-57.
Edzwald, J. K., D. Q. Bunker, Jr., et al. (1994). Dissolved Air Flotation: Pretreatment and
Comparisons to Sedimentation. Chemical Water and Wastewater Treatment III. Hahn and
Klute. Berlin, Springer-Verlag: 5-17.
Edzwald, J. K. and J. E. Tobiason (1999). Enhanced Coagulation: USA Requirements and a
Broader View. Removal of Humic Substances From Water, IAWQ/IWSA Joint Specialist
Group on Particle Separation, Trondheim, Norway.
Edzwald, J. K. and J. E. Van Benschoten (1990). Aluminum Coagulation of Natural Organic
Matter. Chemical Water and Wastewater Treatment. Hahn and Klute. New York,
Springer-Verlag: 341-359.
Hayden, P. L. and A. J. Rubin (1974). Systematic Investigation of the Hydrolysis and
Precipitation of Aluminum (III). Aqueous Environmental Chemistry of Metal. A. J.
Rubin. Ann Arbor: 318-379.
Hundt, T. R. and C. R. O'Melia (1988). Aluminum-Fulvic Acid Interactions: Mechanisms and
Applications. Journal of the American Water Works Association 80(4): 176-186.
Odegaard, H., J. Fettig, et al. (1990). Coagulation with Prepolymerized Metal Salts. Chemical
Water and Wastewater Treatment. H. H. Hahn and R. Klute. Berlin, Springer-Verlag:
189-220.
Parker, D. R. and P. M. Bertsch (1992). Formation of the "Al
13
" Tridecameric Polycation under
Diverse Synthesis Conditions. Environmental Science and Technology 26(5): 914-921.

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Parker, D. R. and P. M. Bertsch (1992). Identification and Quantification of the "Al
13
"
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COAGULATION 101

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TABLES

Table 1: Summary of Coagulant Solubility

Minimum Solubility
20
o
C
Minimum Solubility
5
o
C
Coagulant pH g/L Al PH g/L Al
Alum 6.0 16 6.2 3
Polyaluminum Sulfate
(PAS)
6.0 28 6.4 6
PACl low basicity non-
sulfated (LBNS)
6.2 27 6.7 4
PACl medium basicity
sulfated (MBS)
6.3 29 6.5 4
PACl high basicity
non-sulfated (HBNS)
6.4 36 6.8 9
PACl high basicity
sulfated (HBS)
6.4 52 6.9 5
Aluminum
Chlorohydrate (ACH)
6.7 101 7.6 53
FeCl
3
8.7 0.006 - -
Source: (Pernitsky and Edzwald 2003)

Table 2: Raw Water Parameters Affecting Coagulant Dosage and Selection

Factor Coagulant
Demanding
Substances
Nature of NOM Bulk Water
Properties
Measured or
Calculated
Parameter
Turbidity
TOC
UV
254

SUVA pH
Alkalinity
Temperature

Table 3: Guidelines on the Nature of NOM and Expected TOC Removals

SUVA Composition Coagulation DOC Removals
<2 Mostly Non-Humics
Low Hydrophobicity,
Low Molecular Weight
NOM Has Little Influence
Poor DOC Removals
< 25% for Alum,
Little Greater for Ferric
2 - 4 Mixture of Aquatic Humics
and Other NOM,
Mixture of Hydrophobic and
Hydrophilic NOM,
Mixture of Molecular Weights
NOM Influences

DOC Removals Should be
Fair to Good
25-50% for Alum,

Little Greater for Ferric
>4 Mostly Aquatic Humics,
High Hydrophobicity,
High Molecular Weight
NOM Controls
Good DOC Removals
> 50% for Alum,
Little Greater for Ferric
Source: (Edzwald and Tobiason 1999)

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