Conductivity

Conductivity is a measurement of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an

electrical current. An ion is an atom of an element that has gained or lost an
electron which will create a negative or positive state. For example, sodium
chloride (table salt) consists of sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-) held
together in a crystal. In water it breaks apart into an aqueous solution of sodium
and chloride ions. This solution will conduct an electrical current.
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity. Ordinary distilled water in
equilibrium with carbon dioxide of the air has a conductivity of about 10 x 10
-
6
W
-1
*m
-1
(20 dS/m). Because the electrical current is transported by the ions in
solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration of ions increases.
Thus conductivity increases as water dissolved ionic species.




Significance
The impurities in water increase its conductivity. Because of this, if we measure
the conductivity of water, we have some estimate of the degree of impurity. The
current is actually carried almost entirely by dissolved ions. The ability of an
ion to carry current is a functions of its charge and its mass or size: Ions with
more charge conduct more current; larger ions conduct less.

Measurement
To measure conductivity we use a machine called a conductivity meter. The
actual amount of electricity that a given water solution will conduct changes
with how far apart the electrodes are and what temperature the water is. This
quantity is expressed in units called mhos (the unit of resistivity is the ohm;
mho is ohm spelled backwards). The meter has a probe with two electrodes,
usually 1 centimeter apart. Most of the modern ones sense the temperature as
well and electronically correct for its effects. Since the meter gives a reading
which is corrected for temperature and electrode separating distance, the
number is called "specific conductance," expressed in mhos per centimeter at
25 C.

pH
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in water. Water can be ionized
by the following reaction:
H
2
O <=> H
+
+ OH
-

Mathematically:
pH = -log[H
+
]
In pure water, [H
+
] = [OH
-
] = 10
-
7 M. So the pH of pure water is pH 7. Adding
acids or bases to water shifts this balance. Acids add H
+
, so adding acid raises the
[H
+
] and lowers the pH.


Significance
When water has a low pH, it is often referred to as "soft water." Soft water is
more acidic, therefore, it can be corrosive and harmful to any metals it comes
into contact with. When the water corrodes the metal, this corrosion can then
seep into the water. Another problem with soft water; it can cause stains in any
clothing that is washed in it.
When water has high levels of pH, it is considered to be "hard water." Hard
water isn't necessarily harmful to us. However, it is known to make water have a
bad taste and it causes lime scale to build up on plumbing fixtures and pipes.
Hard water can also create a scum like appearance on clothing and dishware.






Optimum Values

*pH



*Conductivity

Sample S/cm
Totally pure water 0.055
Typical DI water 0.1
Distilled water 0.5
Raw water 50-100
Domestic "tap" water 500-800
Potable water (max) 1055
Sea water 56,000

Samples

pH

Tap water

7

Sea water

Varies from 7.5 -8.4

Well water

Varies from 6.5-8.5

Distilled water

5.8



Deviation
pH:
A water sample with a low pH (< 6.5) could be acidic, soft, and
corrosive. Therefore, the water could leach metal ions such as: iron,
manganese, copper, lead, and zinc from the aquifer, plumbing
fixtures, and piping. Therefore, a water with a low pH could contain
elevated levels of toxic metals, cause premature damage to metal
piping, and have associated aesthetic problems such as a metallic or
sour taste, staining of laundry, and the characteristic "blue-green"
staining of sinks and drains . The primary way to treat the problem of
low pH water is with the use of a neutralizer. The neutralizer feeds a
solution into the water to prevent the water from reacting with the
house plumbing or contributing to electrolytic corrosion ; a typical
neutralizing chemical is soda ash. Neutralizing with soda ash
increases the sodium content of the water.

A water with a pH > 8.5 could indicate that the water is hard.
Hardwater does not pose a health risk, but can cause aesthetic
problems. These include:
Formation of a "scale" or precipitate on piping and fixtures causing
water pressures and interior diameter of piping to decrease.

Causes an alkali taste to the water and can make coffee taste bitter;

Formation of a scale or deposit on dishes, utensils, and laundry
basins;

Difficulty in getting soaps and detergents to foam and formation of
insoluble precipitates on clothing, etc.; and

Decreases efficiency of electric water heaters.
Conductivity

Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic
dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate
anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or sodium, magnesium,
calcium, iron, and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive
charge). Organic compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol, and sugar do
not conduct electrical current very well and therefore have a low
conductivity when in water. Conductivity is also affected by
temperature: the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. For
this reason, conductivity is reported as conductivity at 25 degrees
Celsius (25 C).
Conductivity in streams and rivers is affected primarily by the
geology of the area through which the water flows. Streams that run
through areas with granite bedrock tend to have lower conductivity
because granite is composed of more inert materials that do not ionize
(dissolve into ionic components) when washed into the water. On the
other hand, streams that run through areas with clay soils tend to have
higher conductivity because of the presence of materials that ionize
when washed into the water. Ground water inflows can have the same
effects depending on the bedrock they flow through.