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CHAPTER 1- MECHANICS OF NON-FLOWING FLUIDS

1.1 Fluid Properties

Fluid- A liquid or gas which deforms continuously under the action of an applied shear
stress. Shear stress arises when there is a tangential force acting on a surface area due to
viscous effect.

Fluid Mechanics- A branch of applied mechanics which study the behavior of fluids at
rest or in motion under the action of applied forces.


Properties of fluid-
- density [kg/m
3
]- mass per unit volume of fluid

- specific weight [N/m
3
]- weight per unit volume of fluid

- specific gravity- ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at some
specified temperature

- pressure [N/m
2
] - force/unit area acting at a point in a fluid
- is a scalar quantity
- always acts at right angles on a given surface
Absolute pressures are measured relative to perfect vacuum.
Gauge pressure is measured relative to local atmospheric pressure.


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- bulk modulus [N/m
2
] to characterise the compressibility of a fluid
It is defined as the ratio of differential change in pressure to the differential change in
volume of a volume V.


(1)

The larger the value of E
v
, the smaller the compressibility of the fluid is as it takes
larger pressure change to cause a change in volume.
Liquids are usually considered incompressible while gases are normally regarded
compressible.

- vapour pressure - the pressure at which liquid is in equilibrium with its own
vapour, also at the same pressure.

If the pressure of a liquid falls below its vapour pressure, vapour bubbles may form
within the liquid.

Cavitation occurs when the pressure of a liquid drops below its vapour pressure with the
formation of vapour bubbles. Vapour pockets collapse explosively as they move into a
region of higher pressure. Cavitation collapse causes major damages to walls, pump
impellers
dV/V
dP
E
v
=
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- surface tension o [N/m]
- force per unit length of a line on an interface, acting in a direction normal
to the line and tangential to the interface.
Take for example a rain droplet, the unbalanced cohesive force acting on the liquid
molecules on the surface of the droplet causes a net force acting inwards whereas the
interior molecules are attracted to each other equally. From the FBD in Figure 1, we
may determine the relationship between the pressure change AP and its surface tension
o.
Figure 1: Free body diagram for half of a droplet.

Rise of a wetting liquid inserted in a capillary tube is a related phenomenon as shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2: Capillary effect

The FBD of the liquid in the tube yields the force balance in the y
direction as follows:



Therefore, the rise h of the liquid in the tube is given by

(2)
h =
R
cos

2


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- dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]

- The ratio of shear stress to the rate of shearing strain of the fluid.
- A measure of fluid resistance to the applied stress.

(3)


Equation (3) is Newtons law of viscosity.
It is used to compute the shear stress that arises when there is a flow in the x-direction
which is a function of y only.

Fluids are classified Newtonian or non-Newtonian.


Figure 3: Relationship between shearing stress and shearing strain

Newtonian fluid exhibits a linear relationship between the applied shear stress and rate of
deformation while non- Newtonian liquid shows a non-linear relationship. From figure 3,
can you figure out how does shearing stress vary with shearing strain for different types of
fluids?








dy
du
=

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Consider an example on linear Couette flow,
Figure 4: Couette flow

- Two plates are separated by a small gap, h and the gap is filled with a fluid of
viscosity . If the top plate moves with a velocity U relative to the bottom plate, and
the gap is small enough, the velocity profiles is linear.
- No slip condition is a phenomenon whereby there is no relative motion allowed
between the fluid and the surface in contact at their point of contact. It means that if
the upper plate is moving, the fluid at the upper plate sticks to it and moves at a
velocity U too. Therefore, at y =0, u =0 while at y =h, u =U.
- A tangential stress develops when there is an exchange of momentum between layers
of liquid molecules due to the difference in velocity along the vertical direction.


A change in temperature causes variations in viscosity.
Liquid viscosity decreases with an increase in temperature.
Gas viscosity increases with an increase in temperature.

- Kinematic viscosity v [m
2
/s]- ratio of dynamic viscosity to density of a fluid.


(4)

=
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1.2 Hydrostatics

All the discussions under 1.2 are only for a fluid at rest or moving as a rigid body

There is no relative motion between adjacent fluid elements and no viscous stress,
either normal or tangential, develops in any part of the fluid body.

Body force and surface force- two classifications of forces acting on the fluid.

- Body force - Forces which act on all elements of the fluid such as. Gravity
- Surface force- Forces which act on fluid elements surface area resulting from
mechanical contact between the fluid and the contacted matter( fluid or solid) such as.
pressure and viscous stress.

1.2.1 Pressure at a point

Pressure at a point in a fluid is independent of the orientation of the surface passing
through the point.

Pascal law- pressure at any point is the same at all directions.

Pascal law

Figure 5: Forces acting on an arbitrary wedge-shaped element



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Assuming that there is no relative motion between adjacent elements, hence there is no
shearing stress.

we may prove that P
s
=P
y
=P
z
=P
x
at a point by taking the limit of ox, oy, oz to zero.











1.2.2 Pressure variation for a fluid at rest


Consider a fluid element at rest situated at a depth h below the liquid surface as shown
in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Forces acting on an arbitrary cube-shaped element

Six pressure forces and gravity act on the material on the cube. By applying a force
balance on the fluid element, we may derive equation (5). The pressure gradient indicates
how the pressure varies with direction. For a fluid at rest, the pressure gradient is only
non-zero in the z direction implying no change in pressure in the x and y direction
whereas the change in pressure in the z direction is due to weight of the fluid.




z =h
g






x
z
y
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=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
z
p
y
p
x
p
0 0
(5)


- Pressure is constant at points at the same elevation
- For a constant density fluid, pressure increases linearly with depth or pressure
decreases with an increase in height
- Pressure difference is expressed as a pressure head, h, given by

g
P
h

A
=
(6)

Head has the dimensions of length- interpreted as the height of a column of a fluid of
specific weight required to give a pressure difference of Ap.

1.2.3 Manometry

Pressure measurement by manometer:

- Pressure may be measured by manometer, a device which utilizes liquid columns in
vertical or inclined graduated glass tube to measure the pressure difference between
the two containers, two sections of a pipe.

- There are several type of manometer such as the piezometer tube manometer, U-tube
manometer and the inclined tube manometer.
Figure 7: U-tube Manometer

- Manometers are based on the application of equation (5).
- Inclining manometers improve the sensitivity of the reading.



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1.2.4 Forces on Submerged Surfaces in Static Fluid

(Geometric properties of areas is not going to be covered here eg. centroid and second
moment of area, revise it in Applied Statics Chapter 5, 5.8 and 5.9)

1. Hydrostatic Force on an inclined constant width plane surface (Type I surface)

Consider a constant width plane surface submerged just under the water surface.





Figure 8: Hydrostatic force on an incline plane surface with constant width submerged
just under water

Please take note that the Figure (8) is not drawn according to scale.
Pressure at depth h, P =P
o
+gh. The italics font for P is to denote absolute pressure.
Area over which it acts on an incremental area of length dy, dA =Wdy
W=width of plane
Total force acting can be calculated by , F =
}
PdA (7)
=
}
+ gh)Wdy (P
o

Putting h in terms of y, we may relate that h =y sin u.
If force due to atmospheric pressure P

acts on both sides of the plane surface, the resultant
force is simply due to water only.
F
R
=
}
Wdy ysin g


2
L Wsin
Wdy ysin
2
L
0
=
=
}

x
A
L
H
u
O
z
y
water
y W
dy
dy
F
R

h
L
y
R

y
c

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= sin L H as
2
L WH
= (8)
The outcome shows that resultant force can be interpreted as the product of the average
pressure and surface area.
P
ave
=
2
H
(9)

Considering the above equation, we can check its relationship to the volume of a pressure
prism. Pressure prism is a diagram formed by drawing the variation of pressure with the
plane surface of constant width W and length L. It is easier to visualize if we first draw
the prism from the side of the surface, OA, thus getting a triangular surface area. The
pressure prism has a triangular surface area OBA with a constant width W.



Figure 9: Pressure prism on an incline plane surface with constant width


OB represents the pressure variation with surface OA. The linear variation increases from
P=0 to a value of P=g. Take note that the pressure acts at a right angle on a surface and
from this point onwards, the pressure P that we are talking about is the gauge pressure
unless mentioned otherwise.
Resultant force acting on the surface due to water can be determined by using a general
equation.

F
R
=
}
PdA (10)
Since this equation is about integrating pressure about a surface area, it is well
represented by the volume of the pressure prism. To calculate the volume of the pressure
prism on the right, we take the product of surface area OAB and width W. As a
consequence,

W
O
A
B
O
B
P=g
L
L
F
R

y
R = L
3
2

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F
R
= area of OAB x width (11)
= W
2
L x H
x
=
2
L WH



So far, we have determined the resultant force for a constant width plane surface just
under the water surface. By drawing a pressure prism, we can calculate the hydrostatic
force with relative ease. Of course, we may discard pressure prism and just use F =
}
PdA to calculate as being done in the first part of the calculation.
As far as type I surface is concerned, we can utilize the pressure prism method to
calculate the hydrostatic force. Besides knowing about the magnitude of hydrostatic
force, the direction of the force is of equal importance in applications. Where does the
resultant force exactly pass through? The answer is obvious. If the force can be
represented by a pressure prism, then the point where the resultant force pass through
which is called centre of pressure must be the centroid of the pressure prism. In this case,
a triangular prism should have its centroid located as shown in Figure 9. We would
prove this one by developing moment equations in the lecture.






















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The other scenario that we frequently encounter is to determine the hydrostatic force
acting on a type I surface located at a certain depth below the water surface.

If the plane surface in Figure 9 is located at a certain depth below the
water surface as shown in the Figure 10, what are the changes to the pressure prism that
you expect ? How are we going to develop the equations for the resultant force?






Figure 10: Hydrostatic force on an incline plane surface with constant width submerged
at a depth H
1
below water





















x
A
L
H
2

u
O
z
y
water
y
W
dy
dy
F
R

L
y
R

y
c

H
1

B
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2. Hyrdrostatic Force on a plane surface of arbitrary shape



Figure 11: Hydrostatic force in an inclined plane surface of an arbitrary shape



For a general case of calculating the hydrostatic force acting on a plane surface of an
arbitrary shape, we may derive an equation to determine the resultant force by working
on equation (10). Taking the integration of the product of pressure and a differential area,
we get
F
R
=
}
PdA

A h
A y
c
c

=
=
=
=
=
}
}
}
sin
dA y sin
dA sin y
ghdA

(12)


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Therefore, to determine the resultant force on an arbitrary shape plane surface, if we
know the centroid of the shape, we may work out h
c
, the depth of centroid to the free
surface.


In order to determine the centre of pressure, y
R,
we may take moment of the distributed
pressure forces.

A y
I
A y
A h
y
F y
c
x
c
c
R
R R
=
=
=
=
}
}
}
dA y
dA y sin
dA sin y
2
2
2

(13)




























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3. Hydrostatic Forces on a Curved Surface with constant width




Figure 11: Hydrostatic force on a curved surface

For a curved surface, each elemental force will have a different magnitude and different
direction but it is still normal to the surface. As the elemental force is having a different
direction, it is important to note that we cannot use a single equation such as equation (7)
to find the resultant force, F
R.
Due to the curvature, we do not know the direction of the
resultant force before we decompose the force into its horizontal and vertical components
and determine the direction next.

The resultant force may be found by resolving the force into its orthogonal directions.
The force can be represented by one single resultant force acting at right angles to the
plane through the centre of pressure











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1.2.5 Buoyant forces on submerged and floating bodies

Since pressure increases with depth, the pressure forces acting on the lower half of a
submerged body have a magnitude greater than that of the forces acting on the upper half.

Buoyancy force is the subject of Archimedes principle.

Archimedes principle- A body submerged in the liquid experiences a buoyant force
which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.



Figure 12: Buoyant force on submerged and floating body












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1.2.6 Pressure variation in a fluid accelerating as a rigid body

1. Pressure variation in a fluid with linear motion
Figure 13: Linear acceleration of a liquid with a free surface

The pressure field P in a fluid accelerating as a rigid body is given by
) ( P a g = V
(14)

where and a are the density and acceleration of the fluid respectively and g is the
gravitational acceleration (if the z-axis points vertically upwards, g = -gk ).

Imagine if a fluid body accelerates with a constant acceleration a
y
in the y direction.
Choose the z-axis to point vertically upward, the following equation is obtained
g
z
P
a
y
P
x
P
y
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
0
(15)
.
Differential changes dP resulting from the differential changes dx, dy and dz is given by
gdz dy a dP
y
=
(16)

Along a surface of constant P, the differential change dP is zero. And under special
circumstances a
y
= 0, a
z
=0. Therefore the equation reduces to
0 = + gdz ady (17)

which, upon integration yields the equation
C gz ay = + (18)
What if a
z
= 0, a
y
= 0 ?
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2. Pressure variation in a fluid with rigid-body rotation


Similar analysis is done to a volume of fluid rotating at a constant speed

Figure 14: Rigid rotation of a liquid in a tank

An element of fluid experiences a radial acceleration
r
V
2
where V is circumferential
component of velocity and r is the distance from axis of rotation.

There is also an acceleration in the vertical direction due to gravity, so that the pressure
is a function of g and r, if rate of rotation is e rad/s,
2
2
r
r
V
r
P
= =
c
c
(19)

In z direction,
g
z
P
=
c
c (20)

Therefore the differential pressure is

dz
z
P
dr
r
P
dP
c
c
+
c
c
=

gdz dr r dP =
2
(21)

Along surface of constant pressure,

C
g
r
z
g
r
dr
dz
, dP
+ =
= =
2
0
2 2
2

(22)
z
x
y
u
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Integrating equation (22),
1
2 2
2
C gz
r
P + =

(23)

where constant of integration can be expressed in terms of a specified pressure at some
arbitrary point r
o
, z
o
.
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1.2.7 Stability of submerged and floating bodies

For submerged or floating bodies- stability is important in the design and operation of
such floating bodies.
Suppose a submerged solid has an averaged density equal to that of the surrounding
fluid assume a non-uniform density distribution so that its center of gravity does not
coincide with its centroid. After an initial transient motion, it will settle in stable
equilibrium orientation.



Figure 15: Stability of a completely immersed body

For a floating body, the question of stability is more complicated.
The center of buoyancy may move relative to the floating body.



Figure 16: Stability of a completely immersed body- stable configuration
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Figure 17: Stability of a completely immersed body- unstable configuration