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1. Explain ohms law and kirchoffs law.

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the
constant of proportionality, the resistance,
[1]
one arrives at the usual mathematical
equation that describes this relationship:
[2]


where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of
the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this
relation is constant, independent of the current

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two approximate equalities that deal with
the current and voltage in electrical circuits.
This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, or Kirchhoff's
junction rule (or nodal rule).
The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:
At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that
node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node, or:
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.
This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule,
and Kirchhoff's second rule.
The principle of conservation of energy implies that
The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed
network is zero, or:
More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the
potential drops in that loop, or:
The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents
in them in a closed loop is equal to the total emfavailable in that loop.

2. Explain why earthing is used.
An earthing system, commonly called a grounding system, is used in electrical
wiring to set up a ground connection. This connection serves as a safety measure to
drain off the flow of electricity in the event of a short-circuit or power surge. This is
accomplished through the provision of a direct connection to the Earth. Earthing
systems are designed in two varieties: the protective earth and the functional earth.
3. How electricity is produce.
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of
energy.
The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s
and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still
used today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of
copper between the poles of a magnet

There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy into
electrical energy:
Static electricity, from the physical separation and transport of charge
(examples: triboelectric effect and lightning)
Electromagnetic induction, where an electrical
generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into
electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity and is based on Faraday's
law. It can be experimented by simply rotating a magnet within closed loops of a
conducting material (e.g. copper wire)
Electrochemistry, the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in
a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse
Photoelectric effect, the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells
Thermoelectric effect, the direct conversion of temperature differences to electricity, as
in thermocouples, thermopiles, and thermionic converters.
Piezoelectric effect, from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic molecules or
crystals. Researchers at the US Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have developed a piezoelectric generator sufficient to operate
a liquid crystal display using thin films of M13 bacteriophage.
[7]

Nuclear transformation, the creation and acceleration of charged particles
(examples: betavoltaics or alpha particle emission)

4. Copper is best conductor of electricity among aluminium & copper.

5. How do you calculate current in simple series & parallel circuits.

A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so the current has only
one path to take. The current is the same through each resistor. The total resistance of the
circuit is found by simply adding up the resistance values of the individual resistors:
equivalent resistance of resistors in series : R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ ...

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with their heads connected
together, and their tails connected together. The current in a parallel circuit breaks up, with
some flowing along each parallel branch and re-combining when the branches meet again.
The voltage across each resistor in parallel is the same.
The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by adding up the reciprocals of the
resistance values, and then taking the reciprocal of the total:
equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel: 1 / R = 1 / R
1
+ 1 / R
2
+ 1 / R
3
+...



6. Convert 6 feet into metre.
6 foot = 1.8288 metre

7. Explain bit ,byte ,nibble ,word.
What is a bit?
A bit is the smallest unit in digital representation of information. A bit has only two
values, ON and OFF where ON is represented by 1 and OFF by 0. In terms
of electrical signals a 1 (ON) is normally a 5 volt signal and a 0 (OFF) is a 0 volt
signal.
Bit
1
What is a nibble?
A group of 4 bits are referred to as a nibble.
Nibble
1 0 0 1
What is a byte?
In the world of computers and microcontrollers, 8 bits are considered to be a standard
group. It is called a byte. Microcontrollers are normally byte oriented and data and
instructions normally use bytes. A Byte can be broken down into two nibbles.
Byte
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
What is a word?
Going bigger, a group of bytes is known as a word. A word normally consists of two
and sometimes more bytes belonging together.
Word
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

Bit 1 digit
Nibble 4 digit
Byte 8 digit
Word - The standard memory bus width in your architecture eg.- 16bit
,32bit ,64bit.
8. Aluminium metal is used for IC fabrication.

9. If gas is heated in close container then more kinetic energy is added to
each molecule of gas so the overall average kinetic energy is greater. This means
more collisions between the molecules of the gas and the sides of the container -
resulting in a greater pressure. If the container is rigid and not able to expand, the
volume can in no way increase when the container is heated. Lastly, if the container is
heated, the temperature will of course rise because heating means the addition of heat
which changes temperature.

10. When temp. Is increased what happens to the conductivity of semiconductor.

Heat excites the electrons in the valence band of a semiconductor and gets them to
move to the conduction band, freeing up spots for electricity to flow. In metalic
conductors, however, the heat provides no benefit as far as the electron bands go since
the conductor already has free spots in it's valence band. The heat still excites the
electrons, however it turns into increased friction.

11. What is the purpose of bus bar in panel.
In electrical power distribution, a busbar (also spelled bus bar, buss bar or bussbar,
with the term "bus" being a contraction of the Latin omnibus- meaning "for all") is a
strip or bar of copper, brass or aluminium that conducts electricity within
a switchboard, distribution board, substation,battery bank or other electrical
apparatus. Its main purpose is to conduct electricity, not to function as a structural
member.
The cross-sectional size of the busbar determines the maximum amount of current that
can be safely carried. Busbars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as
10 mm
2
but electrical substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (20 cm
2
)
or more as busbars. An aluminium smelter will have very large busbars used to carry
tens of thousands of amperes to the electrochemical cells that produce
aluminium from moltensalts


12. What all protections are implemented in a typical panel.
It can be done by using MCB MCCB with ELCBor switch fuse unit for earthing.
And it can also be done by:
Proper ventilation
Proper light in the panel
Scaling of the panel gate
Earthing of the panel
Cable glending etc.
13. Why power is transmitted in AC not in DC.

Power is treansmitted in AC because the output of power stations comes from a rotary
turbine, which by it's nature is AC and therefore requires no power electronics to
convert to DC.
Secondly it is much easier to change the voltage of AC electricity for transmission
and distribution.
thirdly the cost of plant associated with AC transmission (circuit breakers,
transformers etc) is much lower than the equivalent of DC transmission
AC transmission provides a number of technical advantages. When a fault on the
network occurs, a large fault current occurs. In an AC system this becomes much
easier to interrupt, as the sine wave current will naturally tend to zero at some point
making the current easier to interrupt.
It is also easier to meter AC connections, to monitor power flows accross a network.
DC transmission however, is used to link two completely different AC systems.

14. What do you mean by power factor. Why is it important & how it can improve.

The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real
power flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the circuit,
[1][2]
and is
a dimensionless number between -1 and 1. Real power is the capacity of the circuit for
performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current
and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source,
or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the
source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. A negative power
factor occurs when the device which is normally the load generates power which then
flows back towards the device which is normally considered the generator.

The biggest importance of power factor is the cost. If your electricity supplier has
high penalties for poor power factor then its good reason to consider it. If there are no
penalties and you only pay for kwh then it may not pay to be too concerned. Of course
your losses will be higher due to larger currents but this may not justify power
factor correction.

Usually the overall power factor of a facility is lagging due to the main loads (motors)
having a lagging power factor. To improve it you need to add loads of leading power
factor. Either capacitor banks or synchronous motors.

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