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What is a cell?
A cell is a unit of life
Why must life be organized in cells?
Life requires a structural compartment separate from the external environment in which
macromolecules can perform unique functions in a relatively constant internal environment
Cells consists of living matter called protoplasm
A jelly-like substance in which chemical activities are carried out
Consists of 70-90% water, the rest consists of mineral salts and organic compounds (carbon
compounds) such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins
Its composition varies from animal to animal and from plant to plant
Consists of 2 forms
Sol (liquid) state
Gel state (semi-solid)
Cell Theory
all organisms are made up of one or more cells
the smallest organisms are single cells
cells are the functional units of multicellular organisms
all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Cell Size
Cells range in size from a few micrometers to several centimeters
Most cells are small because larger cells do not function efficiently because small cells can
more easily transport materials into and out of themselves.
Advantageous to have a large surface-to-volume ratio
as cell size increases, the volume grows more rapidly than surface area
The larger the surface area of a cell, the faster a cell can take in substances and remove waste
products.
Whereas large internal volume relative to surface area makes it more difficult to traffic materials
into and out of the cell
How to view cells?
Use microscopes can magnify cell sizes
Light Microscope (LM)
Pass visible light through a specimen
Magnify cellular structures with lenses
Magnifies up to 1000x
Electron Microscope (EM)
Uses a beam of electrons
Has a higher resolving power than the light microscope
Able to magnify more than 1000x
2 types:
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
Makes it possible to explore call structure.
Beams of electron can only pass through thin samples so cells & tissues must be cut into ultra
thin slices

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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Electrons scan over the surfaces of the specimen.
No need thin slices
Can produce 3-D images.
Characteristics of Cells
A surrounding membrane Plasma membrane
Protoplasm cell contents in thick fluid
Organelles structures for cell function
Control centre with DNA - Nucleus
Nucleus
Consists of a small spherical mass of denser protoplasm, the nucleoplasm, surrounded by a
nuclear envelope
Controls the normal cell activities
Responsible for cell reproduction
Needed for the continued life of the cell and repair of worn-out parts
Within the nucleus are:
Nuclear envelope: double membrane surrounding nucleus
Separates the nuclear content from the surrounding cytoplasm
Perforated with thousands of nuclear pores to allow materials to move into and out of the
nucleus to and from the rest of the cell
Nucleoli: spherical structures
Main function is the production of ribosomes
Chromatin: a network of long thread-like structures (DNA bound to proteins)
Contain hereditary materials
Control the activities of the cell
During cell division, chromatin threads condense and become highly coiled structures called
chromosomes
Whats in the cytoplasm?
Cytoplasm: the place where most life processes occur
Embedded in the cytoplasm are important organelles:
o Mitochondria: small spherical or rod-shaped organelles
Involved in release of energy from food substances during cell respiration
Chloroplasts
o In plant cells only
o Sites where plants make food, combining carbon dioxide and water, using energy from
sunlight, to make sugar
Centrioles
o Play a part in cell division
o Absent in most plant cells
Ribosomes (2 types)
Free floating ribosomes in cytoplasm
Attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum
o Ribosomes build all the cells proteins
o Cells active in protein synthesis are often packed with ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
o Composed of smooth and rough ER
o Produces an enormous variety of molecules

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Golgi Apparatus
o Works in partnership with the ER
o Refines, stores, and distributes the products of cells
Vacuoles: Lysosomes
Lysosome: a membrane-enclosed sac
In animal cells
Contains digestive enzymes
The enzymes break down macromolecules
Vacuoles: Central Vacuole
In plant cells
Membrane bound storage sacs
Contents
o Water
o Food
o Wastes
Make the cell firm by swelling that helps the plant cell maintain support and rigidity
Mitochondria
Sites of cellular respiration, which involves the production of energy from food molecules
The matrix contains enzymes which break down carbohydrates and other nutrients for energy.
The breakdown of these molecules in the presence of oxygen to produce energy is called
aerobic cellular respiration.
Energy releases may be temporarily stored in small molecules called ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) batteries
ATP can be transported from one part of the cell to another
When needed, ATP break down to release energy
Cell Surface Membrane
Also known as Plasma Membrane
Separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment
Partially permeable to control substances entering or leaving the cell
Selective permeability
o Allowing some substances to cross more easily than others
o Block passage of some substances altogether
Consists of Phospholipid Bilayer
o consists of a polar portion, called the head,
o and 2 long fatty acids (non-polar), the tail.
Plant Cell Wall
All plants have cellulose cell walls.
Made up of cellulose fibers.
protect the cell from mechanical damage and help the cell maintain its rigidity under turgor
pressure
o prevents over-expansion of the cell when water diffuses into the cell.
It is a barrier to many fungi, bacteria, and other organisms that may cause plant diseases.
It is fully permeable to all substances.
bacterial and fungi cells also have a cell wall, but it is not made of cellulose.
Plant Cell
Presence of cellulose cell wall
Presence of chloroplast

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A large central vacuole
Cytoplasm reduced to a thin lining
Present of starch grains
Absence of lysosomes
Animal Cell
Absence of cellulose cell wall
Absence of chloroplast
Numerous small vacuoles (lysosomes)
Cytoplasm fills the cell
Absence of starch grains
Cell Factory
Cell Wall Factory Wall
Plasma
membrane
Shipping & receiving Depts
Nucleus the executive department (Manages activities, initiates production, controls activities of factory)
Cytoplasm factory floor where most of the products are assembled, finished, and shipped.
Ribosome assembly line assemble raw material to manufacture item
Golgi
apparatus
packaging, shipping, distributing
Endoplasmic
reticulum
conveyor belt move product within factory
Mitochondrion generator produce energy for the factory
Vacuole store area - store material for later use
Lysosome collection centre breakdown and recycle used parts
Cell
membrane
door allows certain things to enter and leave factory
Specialized cells, tissues, organs, and systems
Types of cells:
Root hair cell:
Long and narrow shape to increase surface area to volume ratio for efficient
absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil
Red blood cell (erythrocyte)
Contain a red pigment called haemoglobin, enabling the cell to transport
oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body
Circular biconcave shape to increase surface area to volume ratio so oxygen
can diffuse into and out of the cell at a faster rate
Lacks nucleus, provide more space for haemoglobin.
Xylem vessels:

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Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the stem and leaves
No cross walls and protoplasm enables water to move easily through the
lumen
Lignin strengthens the walls and prevents collapse of the vessel
When bundled together, xylem vessels provide mechanical support to the plant
Cells in multicellular organisms consist of many different types of cells that do different jobs.
What does it mean for a cell to be specialized?
Specific types of cells performs specific functions
As cells mature, they may change and differentiate
Differentiation: Process where a cell becomes specialised for a specific function
Differentiation could target any number of the following:
Shape of cell
Component proteins
Cell structures or organelles
Cell growth
Cell division
The cell becomes adapted to perform a specific function.
Tissues, Organs, and Systems
Cells of the same type may be grouped together to carry out a special function called simple
tissue
Examples:
epithelial tissue: a sheet of cells covering both the internal and external
surfaces of body
plants have similar covering tissues called the epidermis
muscle tissue: a collection of muscle cells which bring about movement in our
body by their contraction and relaxation
Complex tissue: tissues containing several types of cells
Examples: Nervous tissue, glandular tissue etc
Organs
Different tissues may be united to form an organ eg stomach, liver
An organ is a group of different tissues working together and enabling the organ to
perform a particular functions

Organ System
Several organs working together for a special purpose make up an organ system
Example: digestive system, respiratory system
An organism may have a few organ systems.
Plants: stem and leaves as a system
Humans have about 40 organs that are grouped into about 10 named systems.
The human nervous system includes:
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Systems
An organ system is made up of several organs working together for a special purpose.
Example: Digestive system
Function: Breakdown and absorb nutrients that are necessary for growth &
maintenance
Major organs: Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small & large intestines

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Human Body Systems
Respiratory System
Takes in oxygen from the surroundings. Removes carbon dioxide and water vapour into
the surroundings
Digestive System
Breaks down the food we eat into simpler substances that can be absorbed by the
blood.
Nervous System
Controls our actions, ensures all the parts of our body work smoothly together and
enables us to respond to changes.
Blood circulatory system
Carries food, oxygen and water to various parts of the body. Carries wastes away to be
removed.
Excretory System
Removes wastes from the body
Immune System
Defends against infections
Human Body Systems
Skeletal system
Supports our body, gives us shape, protects our organs and enables movement.
Muscular system
Enables movement
Reproductive system
Female Produces eggs for reproduction
Male Produces sperms for reproduction
Integumentary system (skin)
Waterproof barrier
Regulate temperature
Lymphatic system
Filters bacteria
Destroy bacteria
Endocrine System
Secret hormones
Produce response in the body
Plants: Vascular Tissue System
The xylem and phloem that functions in transport and support; is continuous
throughout the plant.