WORK

Here is the simplification of explanation for Work, Energy, Power and Efficiency

Work, Energy, Power and Efficiency

Work
1. Work is defined as the product of the applied force and the displacement of an object in the
direction of the applied force.
2. W = F x S
3. W= work done, F = force applied, S = displacement in the direction of force.
4. SI unit for work = Joule (J), other unit = Nm

5. Work is not done when:
a. The object is stationary aka not moving
b. No force is applied on the object in the direction of displacement.
c. The direction of motion of the object is perpendicular to that of the applied force.
6. When work is done to an object, energy is transferred to the object.

Energy (Energy is the capacity to do work)
1. Energy exists in different forms: kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, elastic
potential energy, sound energy, heat energy, light energy, electrical energy and chemical
energy.
2. The unit for energy is Joule (J) same as work
3. The work done is equal to the amount of energy transferred.
4. Kinetic energy is the energy of an object due to its motion.
5. Kinetic energy or work done is given by:
a. Mv
2

b. M = mass, v = velocity
c. Unit: Joule /
-->
kgm
2
s
-2


6. Gravitational potential energy is the energy of an object due to its higher position in the
gravitational field.
a. E = mgh
b. M = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity, h = height in metre

Conservation of energy
1. The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed
but can change from one form to another form of energy.
2. Total amount of energy remains the same.
3. When water falls from a dam, its potential energy changes to kinetic energy.
4. When a swing moves from one position to another position, its potential energy changes to
kinetic energy alternately.

Power
1. Power is defined as the rate of doing work.

a. Power = (Work / Time)

b. P = power, W = work, T = time

2. SI unit for work is = watt (W).

Efficiency

1. Efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is transformed
into useful energy.

2. Efficiency = (useful Energy output / Energy input ) X 100%

a. Efficiency = (Useful power output / Power input) X 100%

b. Unit is given in percentage.

You must know the importance of maximising the efficiency of device.
Power, Energy and Efficiency
I've simplified a few concepts here, hope it helps

POWER

1. The power,P, is the rate at which work is done or the rate of change of energy.

Power, P = Work done ,W / Time taken , T

Or

Power, P = Change of energy / Time taken , T

2. The SI unit of power is watt (w).
3. 1 watt is defined as the power required to perform 1 joule of work in 1 second.
4. Power depends on the time taken and the work done as an analogy, people or engine with
high power rating can get the work done in short time.
6. For a force F which produces a constant velocity, V,or a stationary object , the power
generated is:
P = Fv
Proof:

Power = Work / Time
= (Force x Displacement) / Time

=Force x ( Displacement/ Time)
= Force x velocity
P = Fv

POTENTIAL ENERGY
1. Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its position or state.
2. Potential energy can be classified into gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy.


GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
The gravitational potential energy of an object depends on:
a) its mass
b) its height
c) the gravitational field


RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY


The work done against the force of gravity is known as the gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy= mgh
Where,
m= mass
g= Acceleration due to gravity
h= Change in the height of the object

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
1.Energy is needed to compress and extend an elastic material such as a spring and rubber.
2.The spring obtains its energy when work is done on it by compressing or stretching it.
3. The energy which an object possesses when it is compressed or stretched is known as the
elastic potential energy .

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Work done = mean force x displacement
W= 1/2 fx

The extension of spring will increase if the force applied increases.
Therefore, the elastic potential energy stored in the spring.
=Work done
= 1 / 2 Fx

KINETIC ENERGY

1. Kinetic energy is the energy acquired by an object due to its motion.
2. The kinetic energy of a moving object depends on its mass and speed.
Kinetic Energy= 1/2 mv^2 = (one over two multiply mass multiply velocity squared)

Where m is the mass of an object, v is speed of the object.


RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY

1. Newtons first Law of motion states that an object that moves with constant velocity will
continue to move at this velocity if no external force acts on the object.
2. That mean an object which moves with constant velocity will conserve its kinetic energy.
3. Work is done when the kinetic energy increases or decreases. The change in kinetic energy
of an object is equal to the work done on that object.
4. W= change in kinetic energy
= 1/2 (mv^2- mu^2)

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be destroyed nor
created but it can change from one form to another.
The changes of kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy also proves the equation of
kinetic energy, v = u -2gh


EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is transformed
into useful energy.

Efficiency = ( Useful energy output / energy input) x 100 %


EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES

1.Machines are devices that make our work easier.
2.Machines require energy to work. This energy is called the input.
3.Machines transforms this input into other forms of energy to perform useful works.
4.However, the useful work obtained is not equal to the input as there is energy loss In this
process. This loss is mainly due to work done against frictional forces and takes the forms of
heat.
5.So, a machines is not perfect because the work done by the effort or input energy is not
entirely used to overcome the load.
Work and Energy
Work


1. Work is done when a force is exerted to move an object through a distance in the direction
of the force.
2. Work, W, is defined as product of the force and the displacement of an object in the
direction of the force.
Work=Fs
Where,

F= the force acting
S= the displacement (or distance traveled in the direction of the force)

3 .Work is a scalar quantity and its unit is joule (J) or N m. 1 joule =1Nm

Example:
A block which is at rest is acted on by force of magnitude 3 N in different direction.
Determine the wok done by the block in each case.
a) The force act from the left, the object move to the right for 2 m.
b) The force act from the right, the object to the left for 2 m.


Solution

a) F=3 N
Moving to the right for 2m.

Work done, FS = 3 x 2
= 6Nm

b) F= -3 N
Moving to the left for 2 m (negative
sign indicates object move to the left)

Work done = FS = -3 X -2
= -3 N x (-2m)
=6 Nm


5 .1 joule is the work done when a force of 1 Newton moves of an object for 1 m in the
direction of the force .
6 . Work is not done when a force is exerted on an object but the object does not move.
7 . In conclusion, work is not done when:

a) The direction of motion is perpendicular to the direction of the force exerted
b) Force is exerted on the object but the object does not move.

Energy


1. We need energy to do work.
2. Energy is defined as the Potential or the ability to do work.
3. Energy is scalar quantity and its unit is the joule (J) or N m.
4. Energy can exist in various form. Examples potential energy, kinetic energy, heat energy,
electrical energy and sound energy.
5. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. The work done related to the change of the form of
the energy.
Example

A student of mass 50 kg walks up a flight of stairs 1.5 m high. What is

a) the work done by the student?
Work = Fx s
=mg x s
=(50 x 10) N x 1.5 m
=750 J
b) energy needed = work done
=750 J
ELASTICITY
Understanding Elasticity

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size when the external
force acting on it is removed.

It is due to the strong intermolecular forces between the molecules of the solid.
(you have to be able to explain elasticity in terms of intermolecular forces)

Hookes Law States that the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force
provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded.

Elastic limit of a spring is the maximum force that can be applied to a spring such that the
spring will be able to be restored to its original length when the force is removed.

If the elastic limit is exceeded, the length of the spring is longer than the original length even
though the force no longer acts on it. It is said to have permanent extension.

Hooke's law Graph
Force Vs Extension

k = force constant of the spring (equal of the gradient of the graph)
x = extension
Force constant is the force that is required to produce one unit of extension of the spring.It is
the measure of the stiffness of the spring.

The curve at the end occurs represents the moment before the material breaks.

Factors influencing the elasticity of a spring:

a. Type of spring material
b. diameter of the coil of spring
c. diameter of the wire of spring
d. arrangement of the spring.


Point 1 is the Limit of Proportionality. Point 2 is the Elastic Limit. Point 3 is the Yield Point.

Before the limit of proportionality, the material obeys Hookes Law. After it, Force is no longer
proportional to extension, and the graph begins to curve.

The Elastic Limit is the point when a material stops behaving elastically, and starts behaving
plastically. The area before this point is called the elastic region; after it, the plastic region.

The Yield Point is the point where the material starts to stretch without applying any
additional force.
Elastic Potential Energy, U

Elastic potential energy is the energy transferred to the spring when work is done on the
spring.

k = force constant
x = spring extension

Source: http://stuffaboutphysics.wordpress.com/2009/01/11/forceextension-graphs/
Posted by O'Deen at 3:20 PM
Labels: Elasticity, Hookes Law, Nota Fizik SPM Physics Notes
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Analysing Forces in Equilibrium
Analysing forces in equilibrium

Vector Addition of Forces

1. A resultant force is a single force that represents the combined effect of two or more
forces in magnitude and direction. The direction of the forces have to be taken into
consideration when forces are added.

2. If the forces act in the same straight line, the resultant is found by simple addition or
subtraction as shown in figure 2.1

Resultant force, F = F1 F2

Figure 2.1

3. The resultant of forces that do not act in the same straight line can be determined by
using the parallelogram law.


4. The parallelogram law states that if two forces acting at a point are represented in size
and direction by the sides of a parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is
represented in size and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the
point.




Forces in Equilibrium

1. An object is said to be in equilibrium if the object is at rest or is moving with a constant
velocity in a straight line.

2. The resultant force that acts on an object is zero if it is in equilibrium. In other words, the
forces that act on the object are balanced in all directions.

3. If object is in equilibrium, the resultant force that acts is zero.

4. For two forces acting in the same direction or opposite direction, if the force is not zero,
then the object is not in equilibrium.



Impulse and Impulsive Force
Impulse and impulsive Force

1. Impulse is defined as the change momentum

How to derive impulse?

2. From, F= ma, a = (v-u)/t

Ft=mv-mu (change of momentum)

3. Impulse is the product of the force F acting on a body and the time t for which the force
acts.
Hence, impulse = Ft = mv mu

4. The SI unit of impulse is kg m s1 or N s.
5. Impulsive force is the rate of change of momentum.
Impulsive force = Impulse / time
6. The SI unit of impulse is kg m s or N.

The Effect of Time on an impulsive Force
1. From the formula for impulsive force, we get
Ft = mv mu
F = (mv - mu) / t
This shows that the time of action is very important factor in the calculation of the impulsive
force.
2.When the time of action is prolonged, the impulsive force will decrease.
3. On the other hand, if the time of action is shortened, the impulsive force will increase.


Ways to Reduce Impulsive Forces
The Design of a car

1. A car is mainly designed for the safety of the driver.
2. The front and the rear parts of the car are made of soft metal so that the car is easily
crumpled during an accident.
a) During collision, the time taken for the change in speed (from a high speed to zero) is
prolonged. Since the impulsive force
= Distance / Time , the force will decrease when the time increase.
b) This will decrease the impulsive force on the passengers and the driver.
3. The seats of the passengers are strengthened to protect the passengers.
4. Safety belts:
a) Passengers have to fasten the safety belts. When the car stops suddenly, the inertia of the
passengers will result in the passengers being flung to the front and hitting the windscreen of
the car.
b) Hence, safety belts will slow down the motion of the passengers.
5. Airbags are built in some cars. When an accident happens, the airbags will be filled with air.
This will prolong the time of action and reduce the impulsive force on the passenger.

Ways to utilize impulsive force

Material arts player break a few pieces of bricks
- A martial arts player ia able to break a pile of bricks with ease.
- This is because the hand of the player moves very fast and stops when it hits the top brick.
- Hence, the time of contact of the hand with the brick is short and this will increase the
impulsive force on the bricks.
- The bricks are easily broken because of the big impulsive force.

The pestle and mortar
- The pestle and mortar are made of hard materials.
- During pounding or grinding, the pestle moves very fast. The mortar stops the motion of the
pestle in a short time.
- A strong impulsive force is produced and the food can be broken into pieces easily.

The pile and the pile driver
- A pile driver is made of hard steel alloy.
- The pile driver is released very fast hit the hard pile.
- The time taken to hit the pile is short because both surfaces are hard.
- Hence, a big impulsive force is produced on the pile and it will be driven into the ground to
support the foundation of the structure of a tall building.
Analysing Momentum
Momentum

The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and its velocity.

p = m X v

The principles of conservation of liner momentum states that the total linear momentum of a closed system
is constant.

The linear momentum before and after a collision is conserved if there is no external force acting on it.

Elastic collision: linear momentum, kinetic energy and total energy are conserved.

Inelastic collision: only linear momentum and total energy are conserved and there is a loss in kinetic
energy.

In an EXPLOSION, where two objects move in opposite directions, the total linear momentum before and
after the explosion is zero.

The acceleration of a rocket leaving the earth increases because:
a) its mass is decreasing.
b) air resistance is decreasing.
c) gravitational pull is decreasing.


Conservation of Momentum

1. The term conservation is derived from the root word conserve which means constant.
2. The principle of conservation of momentum states that in the absence of an external force, the total
momentum of a system remains unchanged.
3. An example of external force is friction and this can be contact friction or air friction.
4. An isolated or closed system the sum of external forces is zero, thus, the principle of conservation of
momentum is true for a closed system.

Collisions

1. There are two types of collision:
(a) Elastic collision
(b) Inelastic collisions

2. In Elastic collision: Two objects collide and move apart again after a collision. Momentum is conserved.
Total energy is conserved. Kinetic energy is conserved.
Formula: m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2
Elastic Collision

3. In Inelastic collision: Two objects combine and stop or move together with a same velocity after a
collision. Momentum is conserved. Total energy is conserved. Kinetic energy is not conserved (the total
kinetic energy after the collision is less than the total kinetic energy before collision, excess energy is
released as heat, sound energy etc).
Formula: m1u1+m2u2 = (m1+m2)v
Inelastic Collision

Understanding Inertia
SITUATION 1

Have you ever stood in a bus which starts suddenly from rest? You are likely to fall backwards.
If the moving bus stops suddenly, you are likely to fall forward.

SITUATION 2

Have you noticed that a bigger vehicle (Truck) is more difficult to stop than a light vehicle
(Motorcycle)?

What Causes This to Happen?

Explanation:

When the bus moves suddenly from rest, our feet are carried forward but the inertia of our
body tends to keep us at rest. This causes our body to fall backwards. When the bus stops
suddenly, our feet are brought to rest, but the inertia of our body tends to continue its
forward motion. This causes our body to fall forward.

The two situations above show that our body has an inbuilt resistance to any change in its
state of rest or motion. This reluctance is called inertia.

The inertia of an object is the tendency of the object to remain at rest or, if moving, to
continue its uniform motion in a straight line.

The concept of inertia was explained by Sir Isaac Newton in the first law of motion.


MASS AND INERTIA

It is to be put in mind that inertia is dependent upon the mass of the object. The larger the
mass, the larger its inertia. Hence, we can see that its harder to push a heavy box than to push
a lighter box.


EFFECTS OF INERTIA

Many phenomena in our daily lives involve inertia. We make use of the positive effects of
inertia to solve some of our daily problems. On the other hand, there are many negative
effects of inertia that can endanger our lives and wee need to find ways to reduce them.

Examples are: Its more effective to fit the head of a hammer (with a higher mass) tightly onto
the wooden handle by hitting the bottom of the handle against a hard surface. The head which
has a larger mass remain in its state of motion and thus presses itself more tightly around the
handle.

Inertia also can be observed in ice skaters where inertia enables ice skaters to keep gliding
over the surface of ice at an almost constant speed in a straight line effortlessly.
Ways to reduce inertia in vehicle:
1. Seat belts help to tighten the passenger during collision. This is to prevent the passenger
from being thrown forward due to inertia.
2. Air bag is fitted inside the steering wheel. It provides a cushion to prevent the driver from
hitting the steering wheel.
Newton's Three Laws of Motion
Newton's First Law

An object at rest continues its states of rest and a moving object will continue
to move with a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force.

or

A body continues to be in the state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line path unless an external force
is applied.

Newton's Second Law

The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force
acting on it and is in the direction of the force.

Newton's Third Law

Every action has an equal and opposite direction.


This is the simplified version of Newton's Three Laws of Motion Explanation. It may give you
mark but not full marks.
Posted by O'Deen at 6:29 PM
Labels: Newton's First Law, Nota Fizik SPM Physics Notes, Second Law and Third law
CHAPTER = 03 FORCES AND MOTION
Applications of Bernoulli's Principle
1. Aerofoil

The flight of an aeroplane is based on the principle regarding to the effect of the flow of air
around its wings, which is, the aerofoil.

An aerofoil shape has a rounded front edge and pointed (sharp) trailing edge. The top surface
is arched (curved) and the bottom is flat.

When a wing in the form of aerofoil moves through air, the flow of the air over the top has to
travel faster to cover the longer distance (compares to the lower portion) and creates a region
of low pressure. The flow of air below the wing is slower resulting in a region of higher
pressure.

The difference between the pressures at the top and the bottom creates a NET UPWARD
FORCE..(remember! bottom part higher pressure..upper part lower pressure).This is called a
Lift and helps the plane to take off.

In addition to that, inverted aerofoils are used in racing cars to create a donward force and
stabilize the cars at high speed.

2. Bunsen Burner

When a bunsen burner is connected to a gas supply, the gas flows at high velocity through a
narrow passage in the burner, creating a region of low pressure.

The outside air, which is at atmospheric pressure, is drawn in an mixes with the gas.

The mixture of gas and air enables the gas to burn completely to produce a clean, hot fire.

Other applications that you must read on your own.

- Hydrofoil Boat
- Insecticide Spray (or whatever sprays that available)
- The shape of canvas roof ( in car) when its moving - why the roof bulges upward?
- Carburettor
- Curve Ball Spin offs
- The shape of a ski-jumper's body when he's jumping..its curved right? Why?

All the best!!
Bernoulli's Principle as Applied to Fluid Flow in Tubes


When a fluid passes through a tube which, narrows or widens along its length, the velocity of
the fluid varies. As the tube narrows, the fluid flows faster and, correspondingly, pressure in
the narrow section decreases.

As can be seen on the diagram, water is flowing from d1 to d2 to d3.

The water has the highest level at d1 and d3 because the diameter of the tube is narrower at
d2. (note that the diameter of d1 = d3). Theoretically, the water level in d3 will be slightly
lower than that of d1 because the flow of water won't be as fast as in d1. (remember, the
water now is coming form d2) but as for a generalization, I think it is ok to emulate
understanding in minds of pupils.

Understanding Bernoulli's Principle
Have you ever thought why birds can fly so efficiently in the air?
or likewise the plane?

that movement or phenomenon can be explained by Bernoulli's Principle.

Bernoulli's Principle states that as the speed of a moving fluid increases, thepressure within
the fluid decreases.

Therefore, the pressure in a moving fluids depends on its flow velocity (remember fluids =
water, air)

A full definition of Bernoulli's Principle is:

IN a steady flow of a fluid, the pressure of the fluid decreases when the velocity of the fluid
increases.

Bernoulli's principle is very important as it is used in the design of airplanes, boat hulls, fan
blades and cars.

Example of situations that involves Bernoulli' s Principle:

Ping Pong Balls and Funnels

An inverted filter funnel can hold a ping pong ball if you blow air through the funnel, it does
not drop down. Thats because the air flows around the ping pong ball at high speed and
creating a low-pressured area, the higher atmospheric pressure supports the ball from falling.



Curve Balls in Baseball

Now lets move on from ping pong to baseball. A pitcher occasionally tries to fool the batter
into a strike by throwing a curve ball. It seems to be heading straight into the strike zone but
veers off at the last minute. STRIKE! How do they do that?

OK, you can try this at home.

Try blowing through two pieces of paper. Separate the papers slightly so you can blow air
through it. Instead of the paper being separated it will get nearer to each other. That's
because the faster air flow in the middle of the papers creating a lower-pressure region and
the higher atmospheric pressure pushes the paper so it gets nearer to each other.

There are more situations of Bernoulli's principle in daily life if you dare to think and spend a
little time observing.

Application of Archimedes' Principle
Hello guys, these are only a few examples of the application of Archimedes' Principle. This examples only
serve as a guidance and you should try to search for other examples. :) Hope this helps.

1. Submarine:

A submarine has a large ballast tank, which is used to control its position and depth from the surface of the
sea.



A submarine submerges by letting water into the ballast tank so that its weight becomes greater than the
buoyant force.

Conversely, it floats by reducing water in the ballast tank.-thus its weight is less than the buoyant force

2. Hot-air balloon

The atmosphere is filled with air that exerts buoyant force on any object.



A hot air balloon rises and floats due to the buoyant force (when the surrounding air is greater than its
weight). It descends when the balloon's weight is higher than the buoyant force. It becomes stationary
when the weight equals the buoyant force.

The weight of the Hot-air balloon can be controlled by varying the quantity of hot air in the balloon.

3. Hydrometer

A hydrometer is an instrument to measure the relative density of liquids.



It consists of a tube with a bulb at one end. Lead shots are placed in the bulb to weigh it down and enable
the hydrometer to float vertically in the liquid.



In a liquid of lesser density, a greater volume of liquid must be displaced for the buoyant force to equal to
the weight of the hydrometer so it sinks lower.

Hydrometer floats higher in a liquid of higher density.

Density is measured in the unit of g cm-3.


4. Ship



A ship floats on the surface of the sea because the volume of water displaced by the ship is enough to have
a weight equal to the weight of the ship.

A ship is constructed in a way so that the shape is hollow, to make the overall density of the ship lesser
than the sea water. Therefore, the buoyant force acting on the ship is large enough to support its weight.

The density of sea water varies with location. The PLIMSOLL LINE marked on the body of the ship acts
as a guideline to ensure that the ship is loaded within the safety limit.

A ship submerge lower in fresh water as fresh water density is lesser than sea water. Ships will float higher
in cold water as cold water has a relatively higher density than warm water.


5. Fishes

Certain group of fishes uses Archimedes principles to go up and down the water.

To go up to the surface, the fishes will fill its swim bladder (air sacs) with gases (clever isn't
it?).

The gases diffuse from its own body to the bladder and thus making its body lighter. This
enables the fishes to go up.

To go down, the fishes will empty their bladder, this increases its density and therefore the
fish will sink.

6. FLIP Floating instrument platform.
This is a research ship that does research on waves in deep water. It can turn horizontally or
vertically. When water is pumped into stern tanks, the ship will flip vertically.

The principle that is used in FLIP is almost similar with the submarines. Both ships pump water
in or out of tank to rise or sink.

Law of Flotation
Have you ever wondered what causes things to float on water or liquid?

Well, floating is caused by an upthrust force that act on the material and interestingly there's
a LAW that governs whether an object floats or not it is called the LAW of Flotation.

"Law of flotation is an application of Archimedes' principle"

When a piece of wood of density more than water is placed on water, it sinks and
displaces some water.

As it sinks, more and more water is displaced. This increases the buoyant force as the the
buoyant force is equal to the weight of water displaced.

The wood will sink until the buoyant force equal its weight.

Therefore,

The law of flotation states that a floating object displaces its own weight of the fluid in which
it floats.

i.e.

Weight of floating object= weight of fluid displaced

Mass of floating object = mass of fluid displaced

Any changes in the density of the surrounding liquid affects the level in which an object floats.

Thus, you have to remember that an object will DISPLACE the amount of water or liquid that is
equal to its own mass in order to float.

Buoyant Force and Flotation
What Causes Buoyant Force?

The difference between the forces acting on the UPPER surface and the LOWER surface is the net force
acting UPWARDS.

This net force is known as the BUOYANT FORCE. (Remember! Pressure = Force / Area). If you
rearrange the Force to become the subject F = P x A.

Pressure, P = hpg (h = height, p = density, g = gravitational force)

Say,
Force acting on the upper surface, F1 = P1 A
= h1pg A

Force Acting Underside, F2 = P2 A
= h2pg A

Net Force Acting Upwards = F2 - F1
= Buoyant Force
= Weight of Liquid Displaced = mg



h1 is the distance from the TOP area of the object to the surface

P1 is pressure 1

p is density of liquid

g is gravity value

A is the total surface area.


h2 is distance from surface to BOTTOM part of the object

P2 is pressure exerted on the lower side

Therefore, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of liquid displaced, which is in accordance with
Archimedes' Principle as I will explain here.




In the above figure, the object is lowered into the water, the following observations are made.

i) The object experiences a reduction in weight. The object of the weight in water is less than its weight in
air. The apparent loss in weight of the obejct is caused by the buoyant force of the surrounding water
on the object.

Apparent loss in weight of object
=Weight of object - weight of object in water.

ii) The object displaces a vlume of water.
Volume of water displaced
= volume of the submerged part of the stone

iii) From the figure, the apparent loss in weight is due to the buoyant force.

Therefore :
Bouyant Force = Actual weight - weight in water
= (Say) 70N - 40 N
= 30 N

Applying Archimedes' Principle
Steel is denser than water. However they still float, why?

Have you ever wondered why hot air balloon floats in the air? Even though the mass of the
balloon is big?

Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) was a greek scientist who first discovered that

"an object submerged in a liquid is acted on by an upward buoyant force (or upthrust)."

The buoyant force is due to the surrounding liquid which causes the object to weigh less in the
liquid. Archimedes realised that submerged objects always displace liquid upwards, (when you
put an ice to a glass of water, the water level rise). Later he did show that the upthrust is
equal to the weight of water displaced.

Archimedes' principle states that an object, whether completely or partially immersed in a
fluid, is acted on by a buoyant force, which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Applications of Pascal's Principle in Everyday Life
A hydraulic system is a device in which a small applied force can give rise to a larger force.

The principle in the hydraulic system is widely used in jacks, vehicle brake systems, hydraulic
presses and heavy machinery and a few more examples which you can find (for yourself)

Hyraulic Jacks

Hydraulic jacks are used to lift a heavy load such as when changing a car tyre. When the
handle is pressed down, a valve closes and the small piston forces hydraulic fluid through
another valve to the larger cylinder. The pressure transmitted results in a large force on the
load.



When the handle is raised, valve B closes and hydraulic fluid flows from the buffer tank
through valve A into the small cylinder. The handle is moved up and down repeatedly until the
load is sufficiently lifted up.

The large piston can be lowered at the end by opening the release valve to allow all the
hydraulic fluid to flow back into the buffer tank.

Hydraulic Brakes

Hydraulic brakes are used in cars, lorries and motorcycles.

In a hydraulic brake system, a liquid, known as brake fluid,
is used to transmit pressure from the brake pedal to all the wheels of the vehicle.


When the brake pedal is pressed, the piston of the control cylinder applies a pressure on the
brake fluid and this pressure is transmitted, via a system of pipes, to each cylinder at the
wheels.

The cylinder at the wheels cause a pair of pistons to push a pair of friction pads to press
against the surface of the brake discs or brake drums. The frictional forces between these
brake components cause the vehicle to slow down and stop.

When the brake pedal is released, a spring restores the brake discs to their original positions.

Hydraulic Pumps

Hydraulic pumps are used to raise cars in a motor workshop.

The machine is equipped with a small cylinder connected to a large cylinder. Both cylinders
are filled with oil.

Compressed air is introduced into the small cylinder in which the compressed air exerts a
pressure on the surface of the oil.

This pressure is transmitted by the oil to the large cylinder where the pressure acts on a large
piston to produce a force which is large enough to lift a car.

Basic Hydraulic System
A hydraulic system operates based on Pascal's principle.

In this hydraulic system, a small force, F1 is applied to the small piston resulting in a large
force , F2 at the piston K. The pressure, due to the force, F1, is transmitted by the liquid to
the large piston.

Pressure, P = F1/A1

This pressure is transmitted through the liquid and acts on the base of the large piston.

Force on the large piston, F2 = P X A2.
= (F1/A1) X A2.

The large force causes the load to rise.

Also F2/F1 = A2/A1

Output force / input force = output piston area / input piston area

Because of the much larger surface area, A2 of the piston K compared to the surface area, A1
of the piston, the resultant force, F1.


This shows that a large force can be produced by a small force, using Pascal's principle.

Hydraulic systems act as a force multiplier where A2/A1 is the multiplying factor.

For example, if A2=5A1, then F2 = 5F1

since F2 = F1 X (A2/A1)

A hydraulic system must not contain any air bubbles in any portion of its hydraulic fluid
system.

The presence of air bubbles in the hydraulic fluid system will reduce the efficiency of the
system as part of the applied force will be used to compress the air bubbles.

Instruments for measuring Gas Pressure
There are several instruments for measuring gas pressure, I will explain only two here

1. Manometer

A manometer consists of a U-tube filled with a liquid (mercury, water or oil) with a certain
density.

The manometer is used to measure the difference in pressure between the two sides of the U-
tube.

When the manometer is not connected to the gas supply, i.e. when both arms are open to the
atmosphere, the liquid levels in both arms are equal.

To measure the pressure of a gas, the other arm is connected to the gas pipe and the gas
pressure acts on the surface of the liquid in the respective arm.

if the gas pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, the liquid in the respective arm
(say arm B) will be pushed downwards. Under equilibrium conditions, (same pressure from
both arms), the level of the liquid will be at the same level.

2. Bourdon Gauge
A Bordon gauge consists of a coil of flattened copper tube with an oval cross section connected
to a lever system.

When the gas supply is connected, the pressure in the gas acts to straighten the copper coil.






The movement of the copper coil is transferred to the lever system which actuates a pointer to
move across a scale which has been calibrated to give readings of pressure.

The unit of measurement used in the Bourdon gauge is Pascal. Bourdon gauges are normally
connected to gas cylinders to give an indication of the quantity of gas in the cylinders.

Bourdon gauges are more robust than manometers and more suitable for measuring higher
pressures. But they have to be calibrated before they can be used.

Instruments for measuring atmospheric pressure
Instruments for measuring atmospheric pressure:

1. Mercury Barometer

A mercury barometer consists of a thick-walled glass tube, which is closed at one end.

The tube is completely filled with mercury and inverted several times to remove air bubbles.
The tube is then completely filled again with mercury.

After all air has been removed, the open end of the glass tube is inverted into a container of
mercury.

The mercury column drops until it reaches a height about 76 cm above the lower surface. The
space between the top of the mercury and the end of the tube should contain no air; it is a
complete vacuum.

The column of mercury in the tube is supported by the atmospheric pressure and its height
depends on the magnitude of the atmospheric pressure

2. Fortin Barometer

A fortin barometer is a type of mercury barometer which has a higher accuracy.

This barometer has a vernier scale which gives a more accurate reading of the atmospheric
pressure. The mercury level in the container can be adjusted by a screw until the pointer
touches the surface of the mercury. This eliminates the zero error.

The atmospheric pressure is measured in mm Hg.


3. Aneroid Barometer
An aneroid barometer does not use any liquid. It consists of a sealed metal chamber in the
form of a flat cylinder with flexible walls. The chamber is partially evacuated and a spring
helps prevent it from collapsing.

The chamber expands and contracts in response to changes in atmospheric pressure. The
movement of the chamber walls is transmitted by a mechanical lever system which moves a
pointer over a calibrated scale.

The Aneroid Barometer can be used a an altimeter (to determine altitude) by mountaineers or
pilots to determine an airplane's altitude. The scale can be calibrated to give readings of
altitude equivalent to a range of values of atmospheric pressure.

- an aneroid barometer is also used as a weather glass to forecast the weather.
Rain clouds form in large areas of lower pressure air, so a fall in the barometer reading often
means that bad weather is coming.
Atmospheric pressure and altitude
Atmospheric pressure and altitude

1. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, or the height above of sea level. At higher
altitudes, the density and temperature of the air are lower. As a result, the frequency of
collisions of the molecules is decreased (lower). Hence, atmospheric pressure is lower.



Total pressure below the surface of a liquid.

1. The formula for liquid pressure, P = hpg, is used to determine the additional pressure due to
the weightmof the liquid at any point below the liquid's surface.

2. As a result, the total pressure acting at a depth, h below the liquid's surface is the sum
of the pressure due to the weight of the liquid (P) and the atmospheric pressure acting on
the liquid's surface.

Total pressure acting on an object below a water with a depth of h = atmospheric pressure
+ hpg.

Application of Atmospheric pressure
Applications of atmospheric pressure:

Drinking Straw

1. When drinking with a straw, one has to suck the straw. This causes the pressure in hte straw
to decrease.

2. The external atmospheric pressure, which is greater, will then act on the surface of the
water in the glass, causing it to rise through the straw.


Rubber Sucker

1. When the rubber sucker is put onto a smooth surface, usually a glass or tiled surface, the air
in the rubber sucker is forced out. This causes the space between the surface and the sucker
to have low pressure.

2. The contact between the rubber sucker and the smooth surface is airtight.

3. The external atmospheric pressure, which is much higher, acts on the rubber sucker,
pressing it securely against the wall.

Siphon

1. A rubber tube can be used to siphon liquid from a container at a higher level to another at a
lower level. For example, we can remove petrol from the petrol tank of a vehicle or dirty
water from aquarium.

2. The tube is first filled with the liquid and one end is placed in the liquid in the container A.
The other end is placed at a level which must be lower than the surface of the liquid in
container A.

3. The pressure in the rubber at the lower end is equal to atmospheric pressure plus the
pressure due to h cm column of liquid. As the pressure at the lower end is greater than the
atmospheric pressure, the liquid flows out.

Vacuum Cleaner

1. vacuum cleaner applies the principle of atmospheric pressure to remove dust particles.
When it is switched on, the fan sucks out the air from space inside the vacuum (space A).
Space A then becomes a partial vacuum.

2. The atmospheric pressure outside, which is greater, then forces air and dust particles into
the filter bag. This traps the dust particles but allows the air to flow through an exit ath the
back.

Lift Pump

1. A lift pump is used to pump water out of a well or to a higher level. The greatest height to
which the water can be pumped is 10 m. This is equivalent to the atmospheric pressure.

2. When the plunger is lifted, the upper valve closes and the lower valve opens. The
atmospheric pressure, acting on the surface of the water, causes water to flow past valve B
into the cylinder.

3. When the plunger is pushed down, the lower valve closes and the upper valve opens. Water
flows above the plunger.

4. When the plunger is next lifted, the upper valve closes again and the lower valve opens
once more. the atmospheric pressure, acting on the surface of the water, forces water past
the lower valve into the cylinder. Simultaneously, the water above the plunger is lifted and
flows out through the spout.

5. This process is repeated until sufficient water is obtained.

Understanding Gas pressure and Atmospheric pressure
1. Existence of Gas pressure:

Imagine when someone throws a stone to you. It feels painful isn't it. Imagine all of your
classmates throw stones at you, will you feel less or more painful? That's the same thing with
gas. Gas molecules moving at a high speed in a large number will cause greater pressure on a
wall or surface (but considerably less than that of the stones perhaps??)

2. Kinetic Theory of gases

The kinetic theory of gases is based on the following assumptions:

The molecules in a gas move freely in random motions and possess kinetic energy.
The forces of attraction between the molecules are negligible
The collisions of the molecules with each other and with the walls of the container are of
elastic collisions.

The molecules of a gas in a container move in all directions to fill the entire space of the
container
until they collide with its walls.

The collisions of the gas molecules with the walls of the container are elastic collisions and the
molecules rebound with the same speed which results in a change in momentum for each
molecule.

The total change of momentum when the gas molecules collide with the walls of the container
in one second produces a force which acts on the walls of the container.

By the definition of Pressure = Force / Area (P = F/A)


3. Factors Affecting Air or Gas Pressure

a. Pressure increases when the density of gas increases.
b. Pressure increases when temperature increases due to kinetic energy of molecules
increases.

Atmospheric Pressure

1. Existence of Atmospheric pressure

.According to the kinetic theory of gases, gases consist of molecules which are far apart and in
random motion at high speeds.

The gas molecules have mass and experience the gravitational pull. The result is that gases
have weight.

The atmosphere is a thick layer of air that surrounds the Earth. You may probably have known
this.

The atmosphere exerts a pressure called atmospheric pressure which is caused by the weight
of the thick layer of air above the Earth's surface.

Atmospheric pressure acts on every object on the surface of the earth. No one is in exception.

Activity to show the existence of Atmospheric Pressure

Fill a glass with water to the brim. Cover it with a thick cardboard. Invert it downwards. The
water does not fall down. Why? because atmospheric pressure supports the cardboard (and
water) from falling. The resultant force on the cardboard is greater than the weight of water.
Even in the existence of gravity!

Boil an empty tin half-filled with water. Cap the tin. Let it cool under running tap water.
Wallaa....the tin will get crumpled as the water cools down. As the steam condenses, the
pressure
inside the metal tin decreases, The external atmospheric pressure which is Higher, crushes the
tin.

Mercury Barometer

1. A mercury barometer consists of a thick-walled glass tube, which is closed at one end.

2. The tube is completely filled with mercury and inverted several times to remove air
bubbles.
The tube is then completely filled again with mercury.

3. After all air has been removed, the open end of the glass tube is inverted into a container of
mercury.

4. The mercury column drops until it reaches a height of about 76cm above the lower surface.
The space between the top of the mercury and the end of the tube should contain no air; it
must be in a complete vacuum.

5. The column of mercury in the tube is supported by the atmospheric pressure and its height
depends on the magnitude of the atmospheric pressure.

6. Since the atmospheric pressure at sea level can support a vertical column of mercury 76 cm
or 760 mm high, we can, for convenience, express mm Hg as a unit of pressure. 1 Standard
atmospheric pressure (1 P atm) = 76 cm Hg or 760 mm Hg (also known as one atmosphere).

P atm = 76 cm Hg = 10 000 Pa.

1 P atm = 76 cm Hg = 10 000 Pa = 1 bar.

7. In unit m water: P atm = 10 m water.
Understanding Pressure in Liquids
1. For a liquid at rest, the pressure at a certain point in the liquid is the same in all directions.

2. The pressure in a liquid is due to

a) Density of the liquid, p.
b) Depth of the liquid, h, below the surface liquid.
c) Acceleration of the gravity, g.


3. The pressure on a liquid is proportional to the density of the liquid, p and the depth, h, at
which the liquid is measured.

4. The pressure in a liquid at rest (static liquid) is independent of the shape (area and slope) of
the container.

5. The applications of pressure in liquids are:
i) Dams
ii) Domestic Water supplies

i) Dams

Dams are very much thicker at the bottom than at the top, since the pressure at the bottom is
the greatest.

Large dams are built for the hydroelectric generation of electricity.

The high pressure on the deep-water side of the dam causes water to flow through these holes
at great speed turning the turbines in the holes and generate the electricity.

ii) Domestic Water Supplies

The main water comes from a reservoir but in order to maintain a constant high pressure to
the consumer, it is pumped to the top of a water tower located on high ground.

The main pressure is determined by the height, h.

Understanding Pressure
Pressure involves the concept of force and surface area.

1. Pressure on an area, A is the normal force, F, which is being applied perpendicularly to the
area.

2. Pressure on an area, A is expressed as the normal force, F per unit area, A.

3. P = (F/A)

4. This SI unit for pressure is the pascal, Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 (metre square).

5. Pressure is increased:
if the force, F applied to a given area, A is increased
if a given force, F is applied to a smaller area, A

6. If a balloon is pressed against by a finger, the balloon will only change its shape a bit.

If the balloon is pushed against by a needle with the same force, the balloon will burst.

This is because a finger has a larger surface area (A) than a needle. Hence, the needle exerts
much pressure than the finger and perforates through the surface of the balloon, making a
hole and freeing the air inside the balloon (or pops the balloon instead!)

CHAPTER 04 : HEAT
Uses of Gas Laws
1.Bicycle Pump

When the piston is pushed into the cylinder, the air in the cylinder is compressed.

According to Boyle's Law, the air pressure inside the cylinder will increase.

This causes the air pressure in the cylinder to become higher than the pressure inside the tyre.
Therefore, the air can flow into the tyre.

2. Hot-air balloon

When the air in a balloon is heated at atmospheric pressure, its temperature will increase.

According to Charles' Law, the volume of gas in the balloon will increase when its temperature
increases.

Thus, the upward thrust on the balloon will increase when the volume of air displaced by the
balloon increases.

Therefore, the balloon will climb upwards if the upward thrust exceeds the weight of the
balloon.

3. Car Tyre

When a car is moving, the car tyre will experience frictional force and compression. This
condition causes an increase in the temperature of the air inside the tyre.

According to the Pressure Law, the rise in the temperature of air inside the tyre will cause the
pressure inside the tyre to increase. Therefore, it is wise to pump the tyre just slightly below
the recommended value in order to prevent over inflation and prevent bursting (though this
rarely happens)
Universal Gas Law
From the various Gas Laws, the relationship among the three quantities; Volume, V,
Temperature, T and Pressure, P can be connected by the equation as follows:

Boyle's Law : PV = a constant with T fixed

Charles' Law: V/T = a constant with P fixed

Pressure Law: P/T = a constant with V fixed

All three Gas Laws are connected to obtain a Universal Gas Law which is given by PV/T = a
constant.

That constant is known as the Universal Gas Constant.

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
Absolute zero temperature and the absolute zero scale
The absolute zero temperature of - 273 C is the lowest possible temperature that could be
attained.

The volume of the gas becomes zero at the absolute zero temperature but before this
temperature is attained, all of the gas would have changed to liquid.

The Kelvin Scale is also known as the absolute zero temperature scale.

The SI Unit is Kelvin (K)

The temperature interval is 1K = 1 C .

By referring the Celsius scale, we have the Kelvin scale, T = ( + 273) K

With T being the temperature at the Kelvin being the temperature at the Celsius scale.

Pressure Law
The Pressure Law can be clarified using the Kinetic Theory of Gases.

When gas is heated at a fixed volume, the gas molecules will move faster and with more
energy.

The rate of collision of the gas molecules onto a unit area of the wall of the container will
increase.

Each collision will also produce a greater force, because the change in momentum for each
molecule increases when its speed is higher.

To maintain the same pressure in the container, the volume og the gas will increase so that
the above effects will be balanced by the effect of an even smaller number of molecules per
unit.

The Pressure Law states that:

For a fixed unit of mass and volume of a gas, the gas pressure is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.

P1/T1 = P2/T2

P1 = Initial Pressure
P2 = Final Pressure
T1 = Initial temperature in kelvin
T2 = Final temperature in Kelvin
Charles' Law
Charles' Law can be explained by the kinetic theory of gases.

When the temperature of a gas is raised, the gas molecules will move more actively and with
more energy.

The rate of collision of the gas molecules onto a unit area of the wall of the container will
increase.

Each collision will also produce a greater force because the change in momentum for each
molecule increases when its speed is higher.

To maintain the same pressure in the container, the volume of the gas will increase so that the
above effects will be balanced by the effect of an even smaller number of molecules per unit.

Charles' Law states that for a mass of gas held at a fixed pressure, the volume of the gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.

According to Charles' Law

V1/T1 = V2/T2

V1 = initial volume
v2 = final volume
T1 = initial temperature in Kelvin
T2 = final temperature in Kelvin

Boyle's Law
Boyle's Law can be explained by using the kinetic theory of gases.

When the volume of a gas in a container of gas molecules is reduced.

a) its density increased, that is, the number of gas molecules per unit volume increases.
b) the surface area of the container decreases.

The end result is that, the number of gas molecules which hit onto a surface area of the
container per unit area also increases.

The increase in this rate of change of momentum in turn causes the pressure of the gas to
increase.

If the volume of the container is otherwise increased:

a) density of the gas decreases, the number of gas molecules per unit volume increases.
b) the surface area of the container increases.

Therefore, the number of gas molecules hitting a unit surface area per unit time decreases.

The pressure is thus decreased.

BOYLE'S LAW states that for a fixed mass of gas at a fixed temperature, the pressure of the
gas is inversely proportional to its volume.




According to Boyle's Law
P1V1 = P2V2

P1 = initial pressure
V1 = initial volume
P2 = final pressure
V2 = final volume

Understanding the Gas Laws: Gas Laws and Kinetic Theory of
Gases
Gas theory can be explained by way of the kinetic energy.

When gas molecules hit the walls of the container and bounce back, a change in momentum occurs in a
split second. This is obviously a very very fast action.

The end result of the above momentum is that the walls of the container experience a force.

Pressure is defined as the force that acts on a unit surface area. Therefore, all surfaces that are knocked by
air will experience a pressure. In order for this to take effect all of the gases molecules in the container or
free surface must be moving swiftly in a very short time and hit the surface repeatedly.

This pressure is called gas pressure.

Kinetic Theory of Gases
The basic assumption for the kinetic theory of gas is as follows:

Gas is composed of molecules.

Gas molecules are continually in random and independent motion in all directions at high and different
speed.

The motion of gas molecules follows all of the Newton Laws of Motion.

All collisions between the gas molecules (i.e. one with another) and the walls of the container are assumed
to be perfectly elastic. Therefore, momentum and kinetic energy are conserved during collision.

The volume of the molecules can be conserved compared to the volume occupied by the gas.

The force among the gas molecules can be neglected except during collision.

The time period of a collision can be neglected when compared with the time interval between two
collisions.
Application of Specific Latent Heat
Steaming Food

The specific latent heat of vaporisation for water is large.

Plates filled with food are able to absorb heat from the hot steam.

The condensation of steam at the base of the plate releases a large quantity of heat and thus
enables food such as cakes,fish, eggs and others to be steamed.


Cooling drinks with cold water and ice

A glass of hot water can be cooled faster by adding cold water or ice into it.

During the melting of ice, a large quantity of specific latent heat is absorbed from the drink
and this causes the drink towards a temperature that approaches the melting limit of ice.

Ice absorbs a large quantity of latent heat during the process of melting.

Extinguishing fire by using boiling water

Water that is quickly boiled will become steam which is able to absorb a larger quantity of
latent heat from the fire.

Melting Ice on the road by using Salt

It is known that the specific latent heat of fusion of salt is higher than of ice. Therefore, when
salt is put on the road - having a thick layer of ice, salt will require more heat energy and
absorb energy from the ice. Therefore, Ice will melt.
Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation
The specific latent heat of vaporisation, L of a substance is the heat quantity required to
convert one unit mass of a liquid into water vapour at its boiling limit without any change in
temperature.

Its unit is JKg-1.

If m Kg of liquid or water vapour is involved, the quantity of heat, Q absorbed or released is
Q = ml

Q = quantity of heat that is absorbed or released.
m = mass of the substance
l = specific latent heat of vaporization

The list below show the specific latent heat of vaporization for a few substances

Methylated spirit - 1.12 X 10^3

Ether - 3.70 X 10^2

Mercury - 2.72 X 10^2

Water - 2.26 X 10^6

Thanks
Specific Latent Heat

The specific latent heat of a substance is the energy which is required to change 1 Kg of a
substance from a certain physical condition to another physical condition without any change
in temperature.


The unit for specific latent heat is JKg-1.



The graphs above shows how the temperature of a quantity of substance such as water
changes over time when heat is supplied to it.

As you can see above,, all along the temperature from 0 to 273 K, water is in the form of solid,
that is ice.
In this phase:
- When the temperature is raised, the water molecules vibrate even faster.
- Heat energy supplied is converted to kinetic energy.

All along the straight line at 273K, a change of phase from ice to water occurs.
As:
- Even though heat is still supplied to it, the temperature does not increase all along.
- This is because the heat energy supplied is needed to separate the water molecules and not
for the increasing their energy.
- The heat that is required in the change of phase from Solid to liquid is termed the latent
heat of fusion.

At the end of the straight line at 273K, all of the solid (ice) has melted into liquid.

All along the graph from 273K to 373K, water only exist in the form of liquid only.
Therefore, the temperature of water will increase when heat is supplied to it.

All along the graph of 373 K (the level phase), the change of phase from liquid to gas occurs.
Along the line:
- Water is boiling.
-it is observed that the temperature does not change even though heat is constantly supplied
to the substance.
- Heat is required to separate the water molecules and to do the work of opposing air pressure
when the liquid changes into gas.
-The heat required to convert liquid into gas is termed the latent heat of evaporation.

At the end of the level line at 373K, all of the liquid has been changed into gas.

At the graph from 373K to 473K, water is in the form of gas and the temperature rises when
heat is supplied.

When there is cooling, the reverse process occurs.

Latent heat of fusion and latent heat of evaporation will be released.

Since the heat energy supplied during the change in phase cannot be detected by a
thermometer, this type of heat is referred to as latent heat.

Therefore, the change of state is an 'energy change without any loss of temperature change'
phenomenon.

Now I am going to discuss about the, Specific Latent heat of fusion. Specific latent heat of
fusion, L of a substance is the quantity of heat which is required to change one unit mass of
the substance from solid to liquid without any change of temperature at the melting limit.

Its unit is JKg-1.

Specific latent heat of fusion occurs at the melting point of the solid.

For example, 336000J of heat is required to change 1Kg of ice at 0C.
Therefore the latent heat of fusion, L for ice is 336 000 JKg-1.

It has to be noted that when liquid solidifies, the specific latent heat of fusion will be
released.

This condition occurs at the freezing limit of a liquid.

For example, when 1 Kg of water at 0C solidifies to become 1 Kg of ice of 0C, 336 000 J of
heat are released.

If m Kg of solid or liquid is involved, the quantity, Q of heat absorbed or released is Q = mL
where Q = quantity of heat that is absorbed or released
m = mass of substance
L = latent heat of fusion

Below are examples of substance with its specific latent heat
Aluminum 3.96x105 JKg-1.
Copper 2.05x105 JKg-1.
Iron 2.67x105 JKg-1.
Lead 0.23x105 JKg-1.
Brass Unknown
Magnesium 3.7x105 JKg-1.
Zinc 1.1x105 JKg-1.
Hope you will understand what Specific latent heat is.
Understanding Specific Latent Heat : Latent Heat
Before we begin, let's think about this situation.

When ice melts. There is a change of phase from solid to liquid. The ice absorbs heat from the
surroundings. The heat energy absorbed by the ice does not cause the increase in
temperature. The energy absorbed is not transferred to the molecules of ice as kinetic energy.

1. When a substance experiences a change of phase, it absorbs heat energy without a change
in temperature. The heat absorbed is known as latent heat.

2. Heat energy needs to be supplied to change a substance from solid to liquid phase and from
liquid to gaseous phase.

3. When a solid melts, heat is absorbed but the temperature remains constant.

4. When a a liquid is boiling, heat is also absorbed but the temperature remains constant.

5. From the principle of conservation of energy, we can infer that:

a) latent heat must be given out when a gas condenses to become a liquid and when the liquid
solidifies to the solid phase.

b) These two processes also occur at constant temperature.

The four main changes of phase are melting, boiling, condensation and solidification.

Later, we will study the heating curve and cooling curve for a substance. That's all for now
Application of Specific Heat capacity
As we have read (supposedly) about the concept of heat capacity and specific heat capacity,
we will discuss briefly about the application of Specific Heat capacity in daily situations.

1. Substances having a small specific heat capacity can be quickly heated up, it also
experience a big change in temperature even though only small amount of heat is supplied.

2. Substances having a small specific heat capacity, are very useful as material in cooking
instruments such as frying pans, pots, kettles and so on, because, they can be quickly heated
up even when small amount oh heat is supplied.

3. Sensitive thermometers also must be made from materials with small specific heat capacity
so that it can detect and show a change of temperature rapidly and accurately.

4. Substances that have a high specific heat capacity is suitable as a material for constructing
kettle handlers, insulators and oven covers, because, a high amount of heat will cause only a
small change in temperature aka the material won't get hot too fast!

5. Heat storage instruments are very useful and they are usually made of substances with a
high specific heat capacity.

6. Water as a cooling agent acts excellent as a cooling agent in engines. Water is also used in
houses in cold climate countries because as it is heated up (boiled) it tends to retain heat and
warm the house due to its high specific heat capacity.
Understanding Specific Heat Capacity: idea of Specific Heat
Capacity
Understanding Specific Heat Capacity

Heat Capacity

1. The heat capacity,C , of a substance is the heat which is required to increase the temperature of the
substance by 1C.

2. The unit for heat capacity is J / C.

3. Fore example, the heat capacity for 100 g of water is 420 J/ C. This means that 420 J of heat energy is
required to raise the temperature of 100 g water by 1C. To increase temperature by 2C, 840 J are needed
and so on.

4. Different substance, materials or body has different specific heat capacity.

5. If a body absorbs a lot of heat but there is only a slight increase in temperature, then the body is said to
posses a large heat capacity.

6. On the other hand, if a body absorbs a little amount of heat but shows a big rise in temperature, then the
body is said to posses a small heat capacity.

7. The relationship between heat capacity, C and specific heat capacity, c is shown by the following
equation.

C = mc

Specific Heat Capacity

1. Specific heat capacity, c, of a body is the heat that is needed to increase the heat of a unit of mass or the
substance by 1C or 1K.

2. The unit of specific heat capacity is J kg-1C-1.

3. For example, the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1C-1 . This means that 4200J of heat is
needed to increase the temperature of 1 Kg of water by 1C.

4. Therefore, when a body of a mass m and specific heat capacity, c, absorbs a quantity of Heat, H, then its
heat will increase by .

5. Therefore H = mc .


6. On the contrary, when the heat of a body falls by , the quantity of heat that disappears or lost is also H
= mc .


7. The specific heat capacity is dependent upon the type of substances. Different substances have different
specific heat capacity.


8. By knowing the specific heat capacity, we can determine the mass and also the change of temperature of
a body if we know the amount of heat that is transferred.


9. Total heat transferred H = mc .


10. Generally, liquid has more specific heat capacity than solids. This means that liquids need more heat
energy than solids to show the same value of rise in temperature.

Hope this helps!
Types of Thermometer
There are several types of thermometer, here, I explain only a few of the possibly many types
of thermometer.

Mercury thermometer


1. The physical quantity that is used to determine the temperature of a body by means of a
mercury thermometer is the length of the thread mercury, or to be more exact, the volume of
mercury.

2. When the temperature increases, the volume of the mercury increases too.

3. The sensitivity of a mercury thermometer can be increased by

a. reducing the diameter of the capillary tube.
b. increasing the size of the bulb.
c. using a thinner-walled glass bulb.

4. Normally mercury is used in a thermometer because it:

a. Expands uniformly.
b. has a higher boiling limit.
c. is opaque and therefore it is easier to read off the temperature.
d. is a good conductor of heat.
e. does not stick to the glass.

5. One weakness of the mercury thermometer in the measurement of an accurate temperature
is that the glass of the capillary tube also expands when the temperature expands.

In addition to that, it is extremely dangerous if the glass tube breaks because mercury is very
poisonous.

Mercury thermometer is suitable to measure temperature between -30 degree celsius to 300
degree celcius.

Resistance thermometer


1. Thermometers which use liquids inside the glass are not suitable to be used for measuring a
wide range of temperature. e.g temperature ranging from -250 degree celcius to about 700
degree celsius.

2. A suitable thermometer which is used for the above range of temperatures is a resistance
thermometer.

3. A resistance thermometer uses the property of the change in the platinum wire with a
change in temperature.

4. The current flowing in the wire experiences more resistance when the wire becomes hot.

5. The change in the resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the change in
temperature.

6. A milliammeter can and should be calibrated before hand to measure the temperature.

7. Its calibration of the melting limit of water and the boiling point of water at a pressure of 1
atmosphere is able to convert the milliameter scale to a temperature scale in degree celsius.

8. Therefore, tis thermometer is very accurate.


Thermocouple thermometer


1. An electromotive force (e.m.f) will be produced in a thermocouple when there is a
temperature difference between the hot junction and the cold junction. Once this happens, a
current will flow.

2. This thermometer is very sensitive and responds towards slight change in temperature.

3. Since the physical quantity which is used to measure the temperature is the e.m.f, this
thermometer can be connected to other electrical circuits to control or record the surrounding
temperature.

4. A thermocouple thermometer is a very sensitive thermometer which is suitable for
measuring temperatures ranging from -250 degree celsius to 1600 degree celsius.
Thermometers and calibration of Thermometers

The definition of temperature as a physical quantity is based on the principle of thermal equilibrium.

Let say there are Thermometer A, Liquid B and Liquid C.

We put thermometer A into liquid B and then after thermal equilibrium is achieved we record the value.

We put thermometer A again into liquid C and after thermal equilibrium is achieved we record the value
of reading in the thermometer.

If the temperature in both cases are the same, then liquid B and liquid C are in thermal equilibrium with
one another. Eventhough, the two liquids (B and C) are not in thermal contact, they are in thermal
equilibrium because their temperatures are the same.

Therefore Temperature is a physical quantity which determines whether or not two objects are in thermal
equilibrium.

We measure temperature using a thermometer.

Thermometers must be calibrated before they can be used to measure temperatures.

The calibration of an instrument refers to the process of marking-up a scale on the instrument to be used as
measurement.

To produce a scale on a thermometer, two fixed points must be determined first. Then the two points must
be the temperatures which can easily and correctly reproduced in any part of the world.

On the Celsius scale, the two fixed points are the ice point (0C) and the steam/boiling point (100C).

The ice point (0C), or lower fixed point is the melting temperature of pure ice at standard atmospheric
pressure (760 mm Hg).

The steam point (100C), or upper fixed point is the temperature of steam at standard atmospheric pressure
(760 mm Hg).

After obtaining, the highest point and the lowest point. We divide the length between them to equal parts /
scale.
Understanding Thermal equilibrium
It has to be noted that temperature is one of the basic quantities in physics.

Temperature is a physical quantity which measures the DEGREE of HOTNESS of an object. So as
you probably have inferred, s hot object has a higher temperature than a cold object.

The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin, K. Other units such as Degree Celcius (centigrade) and
Fahrenheit is also used.

When two objects are in thermal contact, heat is transferred from one object to the other.

The temperature of the objects determines the direction of energy transfer between them.
The energy transferred between objects in thermal contact is known as heat.

Let say there are two objects A and B.

Say A has higher temperature than B. When A and B is in contact with each other, heat will be
transferred from A to B. That is A will give heat and B will receive heat. When this situation
occurs, it is called net heat transfer from A to B.

The heat transfer will continue until a state of thermal equilibrium is achieved.

It is expected that temperature of B will rise to a certain degree (due to increased kinetic
energy in the molecules), when thermal equilibrium is achieved and temperature A will fall. At
the end of transfer, both A and B will have the same temperature.

Heat

Heat is a form of energy. The SI unit for heat is joule, J.

Heat is produced by mechanical energy or from the conversion of other types of energy. such
as electrical energy to heat energy and so on.

It must be noted that Temperature is NOT the same as Heat.

Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness of an object, is a base quantity, SI unit is
kelvin and other units are degree celcius and fahrenheit. It determines the direction of heat
flow.

Heat is a form of energy, is a derived quantity and SI unit is Joule, J. (other unit is calorie,
cal.) It is being transferred from a region of higher temperature to another region of lower
temperature.

Hope this does not confuse you!

CHAPETR 5 : LIGHT
Relationship between Critical angle and Refractive Index and
Application of Total Internal Reflection



Lets say that the less dense medium is air (n=1).

Then the refractive index of the second medium is:

n = sin i /sin r

= sin 90 / sin c

n = 1 / sin c

So,

REFRACTIVE INDEX :

n = 1 / sin c or 1 divided by sin c

c = critical angle for the medium

Refractive Index, n, for some materials and their critical angles

Material Refractive Index (n) Critical angle (c)
Water 1.33 48.8
Glass 1.50 41.8
Diamond 2.42 24.4

Example:

If the critical angle for a material is 42. What is its refractive index?

n = 1 / sin c
= 1 / sin 42
= 1.49

What do you think the material is?

Yes, the refractive index is 1.49 nearing to 1.50 therefore from the table above, the material
is most probably glass.

Phenomena of Total Internal reflection



Diamonds
Brilliant diamonds have a high index of refraction.
Light entering a cleaved, or cut, diamond from the top may also eventually exit the
top.
This gives a false notion of internal sparkle.
Colored flashes of light occur in a fiery diamond when light is separated into colors.

Rainbow formation


When sunlight shines on raindrops, refraction and total internal reflection occur in the
raindrop.
When an observer receives the refracted light from the rainbows at specific angle, a vision of
rainbow is formed.

Mirage


A mirage occurs when an object appears displaced from its true position.

Atmospheric mirages are created when light is bent, or refracted, as it travels through layers
of air with differing densities.

Changes in air density are usually caused by changes in air temperature.

If the air near the ground is much warmer than the air above, light from the sky will bend up
towards an observers eyes so that an observer looking down at the distant ground sees light
from the sky.

The image of sky is shown as the mirage of a watery pavement, or water resting on hot desert
sand.

When the light from an object is bent, making the object appear higher than it actually is, a
superior mirage occurs.

When an object appears lower than it actually is, the mirage is called an inferior mirage.

Application of Total Internal Reflection

Fibre Optics


Fiber-Optics make use of total internal reflection to guide light along transparent fibres.

A strand of fiber-optic cable reflects the light that passes through it back into the fiber, so
light cannot escape the strand.

Fiber-optic cables carry more information than conventional cable.

USES:

Communication used in internet and telephone cables, t v cables.

Other uses
Transmission of light to places which is difficult to illuminate e.g. dentists drill.
Endoscope used to see internal organs of the body.

Binoculars


Binoculars are used to see distant objects.

There are two prisms arranged specially in each half of the binoculars.

Light rays from distant objects undergo total internal reflection in the prisms before entering
the eyes of the observer.

The image seen by the observer is erect.

Example of Questions:

A glass block has a refractive index of n = 1.52. Calculate the critical angle c for this glass.

The critical angle for water is 49.
Understanding Total Internal Reflection of Light
1. If the angle of incidence is allowed to exceed the critical angle, it is found that light rays
are not refracted. This is because all of the light rays are reflected back.

2.This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

3. Total Internal Reflection occurs when:
a. Light rays travel from a denser medium to a less dense medium.
b. The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.

Light ray which travels from a denser medium to a less dense medium will be refracted away
from the normal.

Here are some Q and A session:


Q: What happens when light passes from a transparent medium into air?

A: When light passes from a transparent medium into air, it bends away from the normal. It is
refracted.




Q: Why the angle of refraction becomes 90 and not more? What do we call the angle of
incidence at this limit?

A: This is the limit the light ray can be refracted in air because the angle in air cannot be
larger than 90. The angle of incidence in the denser medium at this limit is called the critical
angle, c.



Q: What happens when the angle of incidence is more than the critical angle?

A: When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, all the light undergoes
reflection.

Later we will study the Relationship between Critical angle and Refractive Index
Reflection of Light on a Curved Surface: Method to draw ray
diagrams
1. There are two main types of curved mirrors, namely:

(a) Convex Mirror
(b) Concave Mirror

2. On a Concave mirror, the rays that are parallel and close to the main axis (small opening)
converge to a point F (main or principal focus) and the distance FP is known as the focal
distance of the concave mirror. (P is the surface of the mirror)



More notes can be found here:
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/class/refln/u13l3d.html

3. On a Convex mirror, parallel rays that are close to the main axis, diverge from the surface
of reflection. The rays are seen to diverge from a poinf F (main focus) behind the mirror. The
distance FP is known as the focal length of the mirror.


More notes can be found here:

Refraction of Light
Why do you think that part of a spoon that is immersed in water looks bent?


Many people think that as a stick/solid is put in liquid it becomes bent.

Do you think the same?

The reason why the spoon appears to be bent is due to the refraction of light or the bending of
light. So we see spoon that appears bent in water or liquid, though in reality it is not.

What is REFRACTION OF LIGHT?

Refraction of light is a bending of the light rays phenomena when light passes from one
medium to another medium.

Refraction of light occurs when light passes through two transparent media having different
densities. There are several consequences when light passes through mediums with different
densities and direction.

Rays from Less Dense to Denser Medium

Q: What happens when a light ray passes through of a less dense medium into a denser
medium?



A: Light rays will refract towards the normal when passing through a less dense medium into a
denser medium, for example from air to glass.


Incidence Angle, Refracted Angle

The angle between the incident ray and the normal is named the angle of incidence, i.

The angle between the refracted ray and the normal is named the angle of refraction, r.



Denser to Less Dense medium

Q: What happens when a light ray passes through a denser medium into a less dense medium?

A: Light rays will refract away from the normal when passing through a denser medium into a
less dense medium, for example, from glass to air.



Normal

Q: What happens when a light ray is directed to normal?
A: When light ray (incident ray) is pointed normally on a glass block, the refracted ray is
unbent.




The Law of Refraction

The Law of Refraction states that:
(a) the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
(b) the ratio of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction for a given medium is fixed,
that is sin i / sin r = constant.

The Law of Refraction is also known as Snells Law. (From dutch mathematician, Willebrord
Snell)

Snells law states that for a light ray that passes from one transparent medium into another,
the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant.

The Law of Refraction is simplified as follows:
= sin i / sin r = n (a constant)

where
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
n = refractive index

A formula that is equivalent to Snells Law is n1 sin i = n2 sin r
Where

n1 = refractive index of medium 1
n2 = refractive index of medium 2
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction


The Refractive index

The refractive index is unitless

Here is shown the refractive index for a few materials:

Material Refractive index
Vacuum 1.000
Air 1.0003
Water 1.33
Ice 1.31
Glass 1.53
Paraffin oil 1.40
Diamond 2.40

Refractive index n is defined as:
n = speed of light in medium 1 (vacuum or air) / speed of light in medium 2

Refractive index can also be represented by the following equation, Snells law:
n = sine of the angle of incidence, sin i /sine of the angle of refraction, sin r ( n = sin i / sin r)

Refractive index can also be determined by using:
n = Real depth, H /Apparent depth, h ( n = H/h)

Phenomena Due to Refraction of Light

The apparent Depth A swimming Pool Looks Shallower than it Really is.

A Straight Object Placed in Water Looks Bent at the Surface (as discussed in the beginning).

Formation of Rainbow

Many more.... All the best!
Understanding the Reflection of Light: Law of Reflection of
Light

1. The reflection of light can be studied by using light ray(s) and a plane of mirror which is
placed on a piece of white paper.

image from: http://www.hsphys.com/pmirrb.jpg

2. When the ray of light is incident onto the surface of a plane mirror, the light ray does not
pass through the mirror but is reflected back by the plane mirror.

3. The phenomena of ths experiment shows the phenomena of reflected light.

The Law of Reflection of Light States that:

1. The incident Ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.

2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.


Image courtesy:
http://www.curriki.org/xwiki/bin/download/Coll_Athabasca/Unit3-
Lesson2TheMovementofLight/reflection.jpg

More information at:

www.hsphys.com/ light_and_optics.html

Characteristics of Image that is formed on a plane mirror

1) It is upright
2) It is virtual
3) The distance form the object to the mirror is the same as the distance from the image to the mirror.
4) It is the same size as the object
5) It is laterally inverted

All the best!
Understanding the Reflection of Light: Law of Reflection of
Light

1. The reflection of light can be studied by using light ray(s) and a plane of mirror which is
placed on a piece of white paper.

image from: http://www.hsphys.com/pmirrb.jpg

2. When the ray of light is incident onto the surface of a plane mirror, the light ray does not
pass through the mirror but is reflected back by the plane mirror.

3. The phenomena of ths experiment shows the phenomena of reflected light.

The Law of Reflection of Light States that:

1. The incident Ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.

2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.


Image courtesy:
http://www.curriki.org/xwiki/bin/download/Coll_Athabasca/Unit3-
Lesson2TheMovementofLight/reflection.jpg

More information at:

www.hsphys.com/ light_and_optics.html

Characteristics of Image that is formed on a plane mirror

1) It is upright
2) It is virtual
3) The distance form the object to the mirror is the same as the distance from the image to the mirror.
4) It is the same size as the object
5) It is laterally inverted

All the best!

CHAPTER: 06 WAVES
Understanding Waves
Waves

Understanding Waves

Wave and Energy

A Wave is a disturbance that transfers energy between 2 points through vibrations (or
oscillations) in a medium, without transferring matter between the two points.

Example 1: When you hold the end of a rope and a friend of yours wave the rope at the other
end up and down, then a wavy movement appears. This is a movement of the rope and it
transfers energy but NOT the rope.

Example 2: When you throw a stone on the surface of a calm pond, a circular ripple will
appear and subsequently other smaller ripple will appear from the point of origin, these waves
will eventually turn into a few big circles which then encompass smaller circular ripples in the
middle. What happen is, the kinetic energy from the stone is transferred to the water in the
form of ripples, which is an example of wave.

There are two types of waves:

1. Transverse waves
2. Longitudinal waves

Transverse waves

Transverse wave is a wave in which direction of vibration is perpendicular to the direction of
movement of wave.

Examples are : water waves, waves on a string, radio waves, light waves and electromagnetic
waves.

Longitudinal waves

Longitudinal wave is a wave in which the direction of vibration is parallel to the direction of
travel of the wave

Examples are: sound waves and waves on a slinky spring.(which consists of regions of
rarefaction and compression).

Wavefronts

Wavefront is a line that joins all the points vibrating in phase, such as a line passing through
similar wave crests. It consists of crest and trough. Crest is the peaky part of the wave and
trough is the lowest part of the wave.

Wavefront is perpendicular to the direction of wave movement.

Oscillating System:

Waves are produced by oscillating systems (or vibrations) in a medium.

An oscillation is a to and fro movement along a fixed path.

Examples are: Swinging pendulum(horizontally) and a Spring swinging up and down (vertically).

What u must now is that:

One complete oscillation is a to and fro movement of a body when it has returned to its
original position and is moving in the same original direction.

Amplitude, a, is the maximum displacement from the resting position.

Period, T, is the time taken to make one complete oscillation.

Frequency, f, is the number of oscillations produced in one second.

Analysing Reflection of Waves
1. Reflection of waves occur when a wave strikes an obstacle. The wave undergoes a change in
the direction of propagation or transmission when it is reflected.

2. The incident wave is the wave before it strikes the obstacles, whereas the reflected wave is
the wave after it strikes the obstacle.


3. Reflection of waves can be explained the Laws of Reflection where:

i) The angle of incidence, i is equal to the angle of reflectance, r.

ii) The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal lie in the same plane which is
perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence.


Source: http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs%20/media/Communications/refl
ection.gif


Applications of reflection of Waves in Daily Life

Safety

i) The rear view mirror and side mirror in a car are used to view cars behind and at the side
while overtaking another car, making a left or right turn and parking the car. The mirrors
reflect light waves from other cars and objects into the driver's eyes.

ii) The lamps of a car emit light waves with minimum dispersion. The light bulb is placed at
the focal point of the parabolic reflector of the car lamp so that the reflected light waves are
parallel to the principal axis of the reflector. Parallel light waves have a further coverage.

Defence

i) A periscope is an optical instrument. It can be constructed using two plane mirrors for
viewing objects beyond obstacles. The light waves from an object which is incident on a plane
mirror in the periscope are reflected twice before entering the eyes of the observer.

Telecommunications

i) Infrared waves from the remote control of an electrical equipment (television or radio) are
reflected by objects in the surroundings and received by the television set or radio.

Analysing Refraction of Waves
Any type of wave can be refracted, refracted is a change in direction. Refraction occurs when
the speed of a wave changes, as it moves from one medium to another.

Refraction of Plane Water Waves

1. Water waves undergo refraction (bending) when its speed changes. Refraction is
accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves.


Source: http://www.school-for-
champions.com/science/images/waves_obstacles_refraction.gif


2. Water waves travel faster (with higher velocity, v) on the surface of deep water then they
do on shallow water. Thus, if water waves are passing from deep into shallow water, they also
will slow down. This decrease in speed will also be accompanied by a decrease in wavelength.
The change of speed of the wave causes refraction.

3. After refraction, the wave has the same frequency,but a different speed, wavelength and
direction.

4. When a water wave travels from deep water into shallow water, the wave is refracted
towards normal. Conversely, the wave is refracted away from the normal when the water wave
travels from shallow water into deep water.

Refraction of Light

1. A swimming pool seems much shallower than it actually is; a spoon appears bent when part
of it is in water and a boy's legs look shorter when immersed in pool. All these effects are due
to the refraction of light.

2. When a ray propagates from one medium to an optically dense medium, the ray refracts
towards the normal. Conversely, a ray propagating from one medium to an optically less dense
medium is refracted away from the normal.

3. The speed of light decreases as it propagates in the glass block, causing it to alter the
direction of propagation. Since the incident ray and the refracted ray are from the same
source, the frequency remains the same. Hence, the wavelength of the ray in the glass is
shorter than the ray in the air.


Source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/lightandcolor/images/refractionfigure1.jpg

Refraction of Sound waves

1. The sound of a moving train at a distance is clearer at night than that in the day time. This
is due to the effects of the refraction of sound waves.

2. At night-time, the layers of air close to the ground are cooler than the layers further from
the ground.

3. Sound travels at a slower speed in cold air. As a result, the sound waves are refracted in the
path of a curve (due to total internal reflection) towards the ground instead of disappearing
into the upper layers of the air.
Analysing Refraction of Waves
Any type of wave can be refracted, refracted is a change in direction. Refraction occurs when
the speed of a wave changes, as it moves from one medium to another.

Refraction of Plane Water Waves

1. Water waves undergo refraction (bending) when its speed changes. Refraction is
accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves.


Source: http://www.school-for-
champions.com/science/images/waves_obstacles_refraction.gif


2. Water waves travel faster (with higher velocity, v) on the surface of deep water then they
do on shallow water. Thus, if water waves are passing from deep into shallow water, they also
will slow down. This decrease in speed will also be accompanied by a decrease in wavelength.
The change of speed of the wave causes refraction.

3. After refraction, the wave has the same frequency,but a different speed, wavelength and
direction.

4. When a water wave travels from deep water into shallow water, the wave is refracted
towards normal. Conversely, the wave is refracted away from the normal when the water wave
travels from shallow water into deep water.

Refraction of Light

1. A swimming pool seems much shallower than it actually is; a spoon appears bent when part
of it is in water and a boy's legs look shorter when immersed in pool. All these effects are due
to the refraction of light.

2. When a ray propagates from one medium to an optically dense medium, the ray refracts
towards the normal. Conversely, a ray propagating from one medium to an optically less dense
medium is refracted away from the normal.



3. The speed of light decreases as it propagates in the glass block, causing it to alter the
direction of propagation. Since the incident ray and the refracted ray are from the same
source, the frequency remains the same. Hence, the wavelength of the ray in the glass is
shorter than the ray in the air.



Source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/lightandcolor/images/refractionfigure1.jpg

Refraction of Sound waves

1. The sound of a moving train at a distance is clearer at night than that in the day time. This
is due to the effects of the refraction of sound waves.

2. At night-time, the layers of air close to the ground are cooler than the layers further from
the ground.

3. Sound travels at a slower speed in cold air. As a result, the sound waves are refracted in the
path of a curve (due to total internal reflection) towards the ground instead of disappearing
into the upper layers of the air.



Analysing Diffraction of Waves

1. Diffraction of waves is a phenomenon in which waves spread out as they pass through an
aperture or round a small obstacle.


Source: http://www.launc.tased.edu.au/online/sciences/physics/diffgaps.gif

2. The effect of diffraction is obvious only if

a) the size of the aperture or obstacle is small enough.
b) the wavelength is large enough

3 Characteristics of diffracted waves:

a) Frequency, wavelength and speed of waves do not change.
b) Changes in the direction of propagation and the pattern of the wave.

Diffraction of Light

1. Light is diffracted if it passes through a narrow slit comparable in size to its wavelength.
However, the effect is not obvious as the size of the slit increases. This because the wave-
lengths of light are very short.


2. Diffraction of light is hardly noticeable compared with diffraction of sound waves and water
waves because the wavelength of light is very short or small (approx: 10-7 m)

3. Light waves will be diffracted if

a) Light is propagated through a pin hole or a tiny slit where its size is similar to that of the
light wavelength (around one hundredth of a millimetre or less)

b) the light source is monochromatic, i.e. light of one colour, and therefore one wavelength
only.

Analysing Interference of Waves
Principle of Superposition

1. The principle of superposition states that at any instant or moment, the wave displacement
of the combined motion of any number of interacting waves at a point is the sum of the
displacements off all the component waves at that point.

2. a + a = 2a

a + -a = 0

-a + -a = -2a


Source: www.pitt.edu


Interference of Waves

1. Interference is the superposition of two waves originating from two coherent sources.
Sources which are coherent produce waves of the same frequency,f, amplitude,a, and are
in phase.

2. The superposition of two waves emitted from coherent sources gives either constructive
or destructive interference.

3. Constructive interference occurs when the crests or throughs of both waves coincide to
produce a wave with crests and troughs of maximum amplitude.


4. Destructive interference occurs when the crest of one wave coincides with the trough
of the other wave, thus cancelling each other with the result that the resultant amplitude
is zero.

5. An antinode is a point where a constructive interference occurs, whereas a node is a
point where destructive interference occurs. The antinodal lines join all antinodes and the
nodal line joins all nodes.

Relationship between lambda, a, x and D (will be discussed later)

Interference of Light waves

1. Waves emitted from two coherent sources have the same frequency,f or wavelength
and in phase.



2. Light emitted by a single source of consists of waves which extend over a wide range of
wavelengths and are not in phase. because of this, it is difficult to have two sources of
light which are coherent.

3. In 1801, Thomas Young produced two coherent light sources in his experiment now
referred to as Young's double slit experiment.

a) Yellow light emitted by a sodium-vapour lamp has a very narrow frequency band. for all
its practical purposes, it can be considered as a monochromatic light which is light of only
one frequency or wavelength.

b) Slits s1 and s2 give rise to two coherent light sources since the light passing through
them are from the same monochromatic light, the sodium vapour light.

c) Interference occurs as a result of the superposition of the two light waves originating
from s1 and s2. A pattern consisting of a series of parallel and alternating bright and dark
fringes is formed.

d) The bright fringes are the region where constructive interference occurs, whereas the
dark fringes a Damping and Resonance of Waves
Displacement time and Displacement distance graphs.

Wave motion occurs because of the vibration of particles from their resting position.

We can show the displacement of particle (from its rest position) at different times by plotting
a DISPLACEMENT-TIME graph.

We can show the
displacements of particles of the wave at a certain time by plotting a DISPLACEMENT-DISTANCE
graph.


The relationship between speed, wavelength and frequency.

Frequency (f)= Velocity (v) / Wavelength ()
v = f x

Damping in an oscillating system

Any motion that repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called a PERIODIC MOTION.

If a particle in a periodic motion moves back and forth over the same path, we call the motion
OSCILLATORY or VIBRATORY.

Many of these oscillating bodies do not move back and forth between precise time fixed limits
because frictional forces DISSIPATE the energy of the motion. Thus a pendulum stops swinging
after some time.

The amplitude of oscillation of the simple pendulum will gradually decrease and become zero
when the oscillation stops.

The decrease of in the amplitude of an oscillating system is called damping.

Two types of damping:
1. External damping: loss of energy to overcome frictional forces or air resistance.
2. Internal damping: loss of energy due to the extension and compression of the molecules in
the system.

Damping in an oscillating system causes the amplitude and energy of the system to DECREASE
but frequency DOES NOT change.


Source: http://www.a-levelphysicstutor.com/images/waves/reson-damp01.jpg

We CANNOT eliminate frictional force from the periodic motion of an object BUT we can
cancel out its damping effect by feeding energy into the oscillating system so as to
COMPENSATE for the energy dissipated by the frictional force.

For Example, the oscillating pendulum in a pendulum clock uses energy derived from the fall
of a weight pulling a chain in the clock to supply external energy.

Resonance In An Oscillating System

When a system oscillates there is a loss of energy due to damping.
If the loss of energy is replaced by an external force of the same frequency, the system will
continue to oscillate and may reach a bigger amplitude.

The external force supplies energy to a system, such a motion is called a forced oscillation.

Natural frequency is the frequency of a system which oscillates freely without the action of an
external force.

RESONANCE occurs when a system is made to oscillate at a frequency EQUIVALENT at a
frequency to its natural frequency by an external force. The resonating system oscillates at its
MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE.

Here Resonance 1(R1) is more than Resonance 2 (R2)

The characteristics of resonance can be demonstrated with a Bartons pendulum system.


re regions of destructive interference.


Speed of Sound, Loudness and Amplitude of Sound
Speed of Sound

1. The speed of sound,v, in a medium can be defined as v = f, where is the wavelength
and f is the frequency. The SI units of v is ms-1, f is Hz and is m (metre).

2. The speed of sound in solid is greater than in liquid, and the speed of sound in liquid is
greater than in gas.

3. The speed of sound is unaffected by pressure. As an example, iIf the atmospheric pressure
changes, the speed of sound in air remains constant.

4. The speed of sound increases with temperature. At the peak of high mountains, the speed
of sound is less than that at sea level. This is not due to the lower pressures but because of the
lower temperatures at the peak of mountains.

Loudness and amplitude of sound

1. The loudness of sound is considered to be high or low according to the hearing ability of a
person.

2. Loudness is influenced by the amplitude of the sound wave.

3. Amplitude has several definitions, according
to http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/light/measure_amp.html. Amplitude is
a measurement from the lowest point that the wave hits to the
highest point the wave hits.
a measurement of the top half of the wave.
a measurement of the distance between two nearest peaks or
two nearest troughs.
a measurement of the bottom half of the wave.



Pitch and Frequency of Sound


1. The pitch of sound or a musical note is an indication of how high or how low the sound is. Is
is a subjective judgement which varies with different individuals.

2. The pitch of a sound is determined by its frequency: a high pitch corresponds to a high
frequency.

3. Frequency is how many oscillations a wave complete in a given period of time. Hence you
can see that high frequency waves are thinner than low frequency waves because more
oscillations are made in the high frequency waves as compared to the low frequency waves
within the same period of time.

Analysing Sound Waves
1. Sounds are mechanical waves. They are caused by vibrating objects. Hence, all vibrating
objects produce sound. As an example: The strings of a guitar, the skin of a drum and a tuning
fork vibrate to produce sound.


2. By using a loudspeaker as an example, the vibrating cone of a loudspeaker produces sound
by vibration.

3. Its vibrating diaphragm is continually compressing and stretching the air next to it.

4. This produces a series of compression and rarefaction travel through the air away from the
loudspeaker.

5. Compression is a region of increased pressure and rarefaction is region of decreased
pressure. The resulting succession of compression and rarefaction makes up the sound waves.



6. Sound wave is longitudinal in nature because the air molecules vibrate in a direction which
is parallel to the direction of propagation is essentially due to the vibration of molecules of its
medium.

7. Compression and rarefaction need a material which can be compressed and stretched. This
explains why we do not hear any sound from the outer space which mainly consists of vacuum.

Amplitude and Frequency of Sound Waves

1. The amplitude of sound waves depends on its loudness. The louder the sound, the bigger is
its amplitude.

2. The frequency of sound waves depends on its pitch. The higher the pitch of the sound, the
higher is its frequency.


Applications of sound waves

1. Sound can be generated at a wide range of frequency.

2. Sound waves generated between 20 Hz and 20 kHz can be heard by normal human ears and
are known as audio waves.

3. Those below 20 Hz are called infrasound and those above 20 kHz are known as ultrasound.

4. A bat can navigate in complete darkness by emitting very high-pitched sound waves in the
ultrasonic range. When the waves hit a nearby object, they are reflected and received by the
bat. The time lag between the emission of the sound waves and sensation of the reflected
waves helps the bat to estimate the position of the object accurately. The bat then adjust its
direction to avoid knocking the object.

5. Dolphins use ultrasonic frequency of about 150 kHz for communication and navigation.

6. Ultrasonic rulers in ships use ultrasonic echoes to measure distance.

7. High intensity ultrasonic shockwaves can be used to break kidney stones.

8. Opticians and goldsmiths use ultrasonic cleaner to clean spectacles, jewellery and
ornaments. The water used for the cleaning purpose is vibrated by ultrasound. The vibrations
shake off dirt attached to these objects.

9. Dentists also use ultrasonic beams to vibrate and shake off dirt and plaque off the the teeth
of patients.
Speed of Sound, Loudness and Amplitude of Sound
Speed of Sound

1. The speed of sound,v, in a medium can be defined as v = f, where is the wavelength
and f is the frequency. The SI units of v is ms-1, f is Hz and is m (metre).

2. The speed of sound in solid is greater than in liquid, and the speed of sound in liquid is
greater than in gas.

3. The speed of sound is unaffected by pressure. As an example, iIf the atmospheric pressure
changes, the speed of sound in air remains constant.

4. The speed of sound increases with temperature. At the peak of high mountains, the speed
of sound is less than that at sea level. This is not due to the lower pressures but because of the
lower temperatures at the peak of mountains.

Loudness and amplitude of sound

1. The loudness of sound is considered to be high or low according to the hearing ability of a
person.

2. Loudness is influenced by the amplitude of the sound wave.

3. Amplitude has several definitions, according
to http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/light/measure_amp.html. Amplitude is
a measurement from the lowest point that the wave hits to the
highest point the wave hits.
a measurement of the top half of the wave.
a measurement of the distance between two nearest peaks or
two nearest troughs.
a measurement of the bottom half of the wave.



Pitch and Frequency of Sound


Analysing Electromagnetic Waves

1. Electromagnetic waves consist of vibration of magnetic field and electric field which are
perpendicular to each other.

2. Therefore, Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.

3. The velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is 3 X 10 (8)(to the power of eight) meter
per second.

4. Differences in wavelength between electromagnetic waves producer a spectrum of
electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves sorted starting from High Frequency to the Lowest Frequenct

Gamma rays

X-Rays

Ultraviolet

Visible Light

Infrared

Micro Waves

Radio Waves




Hope you all have an idea :)



1. The pitch of sound or a musical note is an indication of how high or how low the sound is. Is
is a subjective judgement which varies with different individuals.

2. The pitch of a sound is determined by its frequency: a high pitch corresponds to a high
frequency.

3. Frequency is how many oscillations a wave complete in a given period of time. Hence you
can see that high frequency waves are thinner than low frequency waves because more
oscillations are made in the high frequency waves as compared to the low frequency waves
within the same period of time.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
When you watch television, listen to the radio or cook something in a microwave oven , you
are actually apply the properties of electromagnetic waves. Do you know what is an
electromagnetic wave?

Electromagnetic waves are propagating waves that travel in space with both electric and
magnetic components. These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the
direction of propagation.

Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum which may be given when they interact
with matter.

Electromagnetic waves comprise of a series of waves whose frequencies and wavelengths
extend over a broad range. Waves in the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size from very long
radio waves to very short gamma rays.

Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see. We see these waves as the
colours of the rainbow. Each colour has a different wavelength. Red has the longest
wavelength and violet has the shortest wavelength. When all the waves are seen together,
they produce white light.

When white light shines through a prism or through water vapour, the white light is broken
apart into the colours of the visible light spectrum.

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies and wavelengths over which
electromagnetic waves are propagated.

Sources of Electromagnetic Waves.

Matter is made up of elementary particles called atoms.

Every atom has a nucleus at its centre which is surrounded by orbiting electrons.

Electrons are negatively charged particles and they circle around the nucleus in orbits, each of
which is at a specific energy level. When a charged electron travels from an orbit with a
particular energy level to one of a lower energy level, electromagnetic waves are emitted.

Electromagnetic waves are also produced when a charged particle (electron or nucleus)
oscillates.

Properties of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are:

a. Transverse waves

b. Do not require a medium to propagate and can travel in a vacuum.

c. The magnetic and electric field components of the wave oscillate at right angles to each
other and to the direction of propagation of the wave.

d. Obey the wave equation c = f. c is the velocity of light, f is the frequency of the wave and
the is the wavelength.

e. In a vacuum , the waves travel at the speed of light c = 3 X 10^8 ms-1.

f. Undergo the same phenomena as light: reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.

g. The waves are electrically neutral.

h. Show characteristics of polarization.

i. Energy is transferred by the waves.

In a vacuum, c is a constant for all elecgromagnetic waves The formula c = f shows that the
frequency f is inversely proportional to the wavelength . (f = c/)

The velocities of an electromagnetic wave in other media are different from its velocity in
vacuum.

Detrimental effects of electromagnetic spectrum.

The invisible waves or radiation that are emitted from power lines, cellular phones, radio
antenna, could potentially be harmful to our health.

The detrimental effects of excessive exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves of
increasing frequencies:

a. Radio waves: harm body cells, prevalence of migraine, headache disorders.

b. Microwaves: internal heating of body tissue

c. Infrared: skin burns

d. Visible light: increased rates of premature skin aging and skin cancer

e. Ultraviolet: damage to surface cells (including skin cancer) and blindness.

f. X-rays: damage to cells.

g. Gamma rays: cancer, mutation