Civil Structures

Bridges
Two types:
Simply supported beam Cantilevered beam
Innovations:
From 10,000BC, primitive beam and suspension bridges to cross rivers and ravines
Greeks perfected beam bridges
Roman engineers design arch bridges more stable and secure, arch did not impede !ater
traffic
Fall of Roman "mpire in #
th
century medieval arch bridges not as efficient
1$
th
century % truss girder bridge longer spans !ith safety
1&
th
century % modern suspension bridge
Bo!string girder embraced by rail!ay engineers
'0
th
century % first bo( girder used for free!ays
Cantilevered bridges, limited impediment to !ater traffic
Brooklyn Bridge % first suspension bridge to use steel cables
Concrete used as a building material for arch bridges
Sydney )arbour Bridge completed in 1&*'+ Cuts travel time to ,orth Sydney
-acoma ,arro!s Bridge failure % leads to safer suspension bridges
Sections designed to deal !ith !ind+
Materials:
Material Advantages Disadvantages
1+ -imber
'+ Rope
*+ Stone
.+ Bricks
#+ Cast iron
$+ /rought iron
0+ Steel
1+ Concrete
Readily available
"asy to use distributes load cheap
2oesn3t rot strong in compression
availability
2oesn3t rot strong in compression
easily shaped
Strong in compression melt into
various shapes hollo!able
considerable !eight reduction
4sed for cabling
Strong in tension and compression
e5ually cheap
Strong in compression % reinforcing
!ith steel gives strength in tension
easy to transport6shape
Rots
Rots6breaking
)eavy time7consuming e(pensive to
manufacture
,ot strong in tension
Rusts have to paint !eak in tension
and shear
4nreliable material due to fibrous
structure
Rusts 5uite heavy
Can crack heavy
Stress: 8 9
:
6
;
8 9 stress <:a=
: 9 load <,=
; 9 cross7sectional area<m
'
=
Strain: e 9
(
6
l
e 9 strain
( 9 e(tension <m=
l 9 original length <m=
>mar "l Be?ri "nginneering Studies 1
Shear stress: 8
s
9
:
6
;
8
s
9 shear stress <:a=
: 9 load <,=
; 9 shear area <m
'
=
Terms:
"lastic limit % the stress up to !hich the ob@ect !ill return to its original form
Aield stress % the stress !here there is a marked increase in strain !ithout a corresponding
increase in stress
:roof stress % the amount of stress necessary to bring about a certain amount of permanent
strain in a material
-oughness % the ability of a material to absorb energy
)ooke3s Ba! % CStress is proportional to strain up to the elastic limitD <Aoung3s Eodulus=
Youngs Modulus:
" 9 8 9
F
6
;
9 Fl
e
(
6
l
;(
actor o! Sa!ety:
For ductile materials, For brittle materials,
FofS 9 Aield stress FofS 9 4-S
Ea(imum allo!able stress Ea(imum allo!able stress
Stress"Strain diagrams:
S t r a i n ( e )
S
t
r
e
s
s

(

)
E l a s t i c P l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n
U n i f o r m e x t e n s i o n
N e c k i n g
d o w n
W
o
r
k
h
a
r
d
e
n
i
n
g
Truss Analysis:
Support Image BD Attri#utes $easons !or use
Fi(ed Can support vertical and
hori?ontal loads and moments
-o firmly anchor a
structure
:in or hinge Can support vertical and
hori?ontal loads
Free to rotate
-o provider a non7
moving support for
a bridge
Roller Can only provide reactions
normal to the surface
Free to rotate
-o allo! side
movement for
e(pansion in a
truss
>mar "l Be?ri "nginneering Studies '
Ff the shear plane runs perpendicularly across
the ob@ect, the shear area !ill be the cross7
sectional area+ Ff, ho!ever, the shearing
operation punches a hole then the shear area
!ill be the circumference of the hole
multiplied by the thickness of the material+
:roportional
limit
"lastic limit
:rogressive
yield
4ltimate tensile
strength
Breaking point
$eactions at the supports:
1+ 2ra! a FB2 sho!ing all loads and dimensions
'+ 2etermine the hori?ontal ;nd vertical Components of any angled forces
*+ -ake moments around the non%roller support !irst to determine the reaction
.+ 4se GF
v
and GF
h
to find the reactions at the pin support
#+ Find the total reaction at the pin support
Method o! &oints:
4sing three forcesH
2ra! a force triangle, and then use trigonometry to solve for the needed forces+
4sing four forcesH
Break all angled members up into their hori?ontal and vertical components, and then use GF
v
and
GF
h
to find the re5uired forces+
Method o! Sections:
Cut the truss through more than t!o members, that cuts through the re5uired force+ -ake a
moment around a point that eliminates some of the unkno!n forces+
Shear orce: Bending Moment:
"ither start at the left and add the forces at the
point loads, or dra! all the e(ternal forces onto
the diagram and link them !ith hori?ontal lines+
"ither sum the moments about active and reactive
forces, or !ork out the area under the SF diagram
<if it has already been dra!n=, adding and
subtracting the positive and negative values
accordingly+
The neutral a'is and outer !i#re stresses: the upper surfaces undergo compression, !hile the lo!er
surfaces undergo tension+
Bending stress:
E 9 " 9 8
b
E 9 bending moment at section <,m=
F r y F 9 second moment of area <m
.
=
" 9 Aoung3s Eodulus for the material <:a=
8
b
9 Ey R 9 radius of curvature <m=
F 8
b
9 bending stress at section <:a=
y 9 section3s distance from the neutral a(is <m=
(ni!ormly Distri#uted )oads *(D)+: a load that is uniformly spread across a beam+
>mar "l Be?ri "nginneering Studies *
,eutral a(is
of the beam
1 0 0 0 k g u n i f o r m e a m
1 0 m

! " # k N $ m
Crac, Theory: -he !ay cracks form is closely linked !ith the applied stress, the Aoung3s Eodulus of the
material and the strain energy present+
Strain -nergy:
S" 9 I 8e S" 9 strain energy 6 unit volume <J6m
*
=
8 9 stress <:a=
e 9 strain
Critical crac, length:
B
g
9 '/" B
g
9 critical crack length <m=
K8
'
/ 9 !ork of fracture for each surface <J6m
'
=
" 9 Aoung3s Eodulus <:a=
8 9 average tensile stress <:a=
-o prevent cracks in a metallic material, !e !eld the material together+ Fn polymeric materials, it may be
possible to use adhesives, or replace the item altogether+ Fn ceramic materials, replacement is often the
only option+
/e can eliminate cracks from forming by creating an ob@ect !ith no corners, or placing interfaces !ithin
an ob@ect+ -hese are areas !ithin a material, !eaker than the surrounding area, that run perpendicularly
to the e(pected gro!th of cracks+ /hen the crack reaches this interface, it is blocked from passing it+
-ngineering materials:
Testing o! materials:
,on7destructive tests includeH
o L7ray testing % used to determine if small cavities are present
o 2ye penetrant % used to find small cracks in the surface by placing a dye on the
surface and e(amining the surface under 4M light
o 4ltrasonic % ultrasonic pulses are used to determine if cavities are present
2estructive tests includeH
o -ensile % used to determine the tensile strength of materials+ -est piece is
stretched and load and e(tension are recorded
o Compressive % used to determine the compressive strength of materials+ -est piece
is compressed and load and deformation are recorded
o -ransverse % used to determine a materials performance !hen undergoing bending
and shear
o -orsion % done to see ho! a material !ill cope !ith t!isting forces <couples=
Ceramics:
o Stone % !eak in tension, strong in compression, lo! in toughness <brittle=
>mar "l Be?ri "nginneering Studies .
o Glass % made from silica, soda, and lime+ Ft is a very viscous li5uid+ -oughened glass
is heated, then the outer surfaces are cooled 5uickly to place them in compression
% this makes the glass a lot stronger
o Cement % a ceramic material formed by comple( reactions !hen alumina, soda and
lime are reacted+ Cement is a ceramic material !hile concrete is a composite that
partly consists of cement+ /hen cement is mi(ed !ith !ater, it produces a silicate
gel, !hich creates heat, so needs to be hosed do!n+ Cement and concrete also do
not reach full strength for many years+
Composites:
o -imber % consists of pored <hard!ood= and non7pored <soft!ood=+ :ored timbers
come from flo!ering plants <angiosperms= and non7pored timbers come from the
pines and conifers <gymnosperms=+ )as an e(cellent strength to !eight ratio, and
reasonable performance in bending, and a relatively high Aoung3s Eodulus+ Ft is
susceptible to attacks by !eather and pests+
o Eortar % used bet!een bricks in buildings+ Contains :ortland cement, sand and lime
in the ratio *H'H1+
o Concrete % consists of cement, sand and aggregate <usually gravel=+ Cost is reduced
by the aggregate, because less cement is re5uired+ >ffers far greater strength
than cement and is cheaper+ Consists of . parts aggregate to ' parts sand to 1 part
cement+ Reinforced concrete can be made in one of t!o !aysH
:re7stressed concrete is created !hen stressed cables are placed through
the !et concrete % !hen it dries, these are released, placing the concrete
in compression and increasing its strength+
:ost7stressed concrete is formed !hen concrete is cast !ith tubes running
through the material % after setting and curing, !ires are pulled through
the tubes and anchored in tension, increasing the strength of the concrete+
Concrete also gets Cconcrete cancerD % !hen the reinforcing steel corrodes it
e(pands, !hich causes the concrete to crack+ -o alleviate this, the concrete is
vibrated into position, to reduce porosity+
o ;sphalt % /idely used for road surfaces+ Ft is tough and crack7resistant due to the
e(posed aggregate+ Ft can deal !ith slight movements in the road surface better
than concrete, because of its toughness+
o Baminates % materials that consist of varying materials sand!iched together+ Some
of these includeH
:ly!ood % consists of layers of timber !ith the grain arranged at &0
o
to
each successive layer
Baminated glass % t!o layers of glass are passed through rollers that
compress a vinyl sheet lying bet!een them+ -he result is a shatter7proof
glass
Bimetallic strips % one metal !ill have a different thermal e(pansion rate to
the other so as it heats up it !ill deflect from its neutral position+ 4sed for
thermostats and protection circuits in gas systems
o Geote(tiles % !oven polymers or ceramic fibres used for a variety of purposes+
4sed to stabili?e road surfaces and stop drains from getting clogged
>mar "l Be?ri "nginneering Studies #
Corrosion: the chemical deterioration of a material+ Eetallic corrosion involves the breakdo!n of
metals or metallic alloys, and is basically the reverse of the refining process+
o >(idisation occurs !hen a metal loses electrons, and it occurs at the anode+
Reduction is !hen a metal gains electrons, and it occurs at the cathode+ ;n easy
!ay to remember thisH .I)$I/ *.'idisation is loss0 reduction is gain++
o 2ry corrosion occurs through chemical reactions of metals or alloys !ith gases in
furnaces at high temperatures+ /et corrosion occurs !hen a metal is placed into a
fluid, usually an electrolyte+
4niform attack % if a metal is placed in a li5uid, some parts !ill become
anodic !hile others !ill become cathodic+ -he locations of the anode and
cathode !ill continually change, resulting in uniform corrosion+
Galvanic attackH
Galvanic corrosion occurs !hen dissimilar metals are placed
together in the presence of a corroding environment
Concentration cells occur !here there is a difference in
concentration of the electrolyte, for e(ample !here the li5uid has
been settled for a period of time
Stress cells are the result of high residual stress in parts of a
metal ob@ect % these areas become anodic !hile the lo!er stress
areas become cathodic+
o Some protective methods are used to stop corrosion, including painting, and
galvani?ing, or dipping the steel pieces in molten ?inc !hich creates a protective
layer+
.rthogonal Drawing:
Developments:
; development is !hen a shape is laid out flat !ith any fold lines sho!n+ -hey can be
simple, such as a cube, or can be more difficult % for these !e use development by triangulation+
>mar "l Be?ri "nginneering Studies $