University of California at Berkeley CE 130

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Section 2

J. Lubliner Spring 2007
Summary of Concepts and Formulas
I. General Principles
1. Statics
(a) External equilibrium (loads, reactions):

F = 0,

M = 0
(b) Internal forces (free-body diagram)
(c) Stress
i. stress tensor
_

x

xy

xz

yx

y

yz

zx

zy

z
_

_
ii. Moment equilibrium:
xy
=
yx
, etc.
iii. Mean stress
0
=
1
3
(
x
+
y
+
z
); pressure p =
0
iv. Equilibrium of thin shells of revolution: (cylindrical)
z
= pR/2t,

= pR/t,
r
0;
(spherical)

= pR/2t,
r
0.
2. Geometry
(a) Displacement eld: u(x, y, z), v(x, y, z), w(x, y, z)
(b) Strain
i.
x
=
u
x
(longitudinal),
xy
=
yx
=
u
y
+
v
x
(shear), etc.
ii. strain tensor
_

x
1
2

xy
1
2

xz
1
2

yx

y
1
2

yz
1
2

zx
1
2

zy

z
_

_
3. Constitutive Properties
(a) General: relation between stress, strain and temperature
(b) Linear elastic isotropic
i. general:
x
=
1
E
[
x

z
] + T etc.,
xy
=

xy
G
etc.; G =
E
2(1 +)
ii. plane stress (in xy-plane):
z
=
yz
=
zx
= 0,
x
=
E
1
2
(
x
+
y
) etc.
iii. plane strain:
z
=
yz
=
zx
= 0,
x
=
E
(1 +)(1 2)
[(1 )
x
+
y
] etc.
(c) Elastic-perfectly plastic: stress-strain curve becomes horizontal after yield, unloading is
elastic.
1
(d) Yield stress: uniaxial
yp
, shear
yp
(e) Yield criteria
i. Tresca: ||
max

yp
=
1
2

yp
ii. Mises,
1
2
[(
x

y
)
2
+ (
y

z
)
2
+ (
z

x
)
2
] + 3(
2
xy
+
2
yz
+
2
zx
)
2
yp
= 3
2
yp
4. Work, energy
(a) Global work-energy relation: (elastic) W = U,

W =

U; (linear elastic) U =

U
i. W =
_
F d or
_
M d,
ii.

W =
_
dF or
_
dM
(b) Linear elastic
i. Local:
1
2
(
x

x
+
y

y
+
z

z
+
xy

xy
+
yz

yz
+
zx

zx
) = U
o
(
x
, . . .) =

U
o
(
x
, . . .);
ii. Global: U =
_
V
U
o
dV (strain energy),

U =
_
V

U
o
dV (complementary energy)
(c) Castiglianos theorems for elastic systems
i. 1st Theorem: P
i
=
U

i
, M
i
=
U

i
ii. 2nd Theorem:
i
=

U
P
i
,
i
=

U
M
i
(d) Reciprocal relations (linear elastic)
i. Finite number of degrees of freedom: U =
1
2

j
k
ij

j
, k
ij
= k
ji
([k
ij
] = stiness
matrix, {
i
} include displacements and rotations)
ii. Finite number of loads:

U =
1
2

j
f
ij
F
i
F
j
, f
ij
= f
ji
([f
ij
] = exibility matrix, {F
i
}
include both forces and moments)
(e) Potential energy: = U +
i. =

(F + M) or
_
L
0
qv dx etc.: potential energy of applied loads
ii. Minimum potential energy: = 0 for equilibrium (nite number of degrees of
freedom: /
i
= 0, /
j
= 0)
5. Transformation of axes in two dimensions
(a) Vectors: F
x
= e
x
F, etc.,
_
F
x

F
y

_
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_ _
F
x
F
y
_
(b) Tensors:
_

x

x

y

y

_
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_ _

xx

xy

xy

yy
_ _
cos sin
sin cos
_
where
xx
=
x
,
xy
=
xy
etc.
i.
x
=

=
1
2
(
x
+
y
) +
1
2
(
x

y
) cos 2 +
xy
sin 2,
y
=
+/2
ii.

=
x

y
=
1
2
(
x

y
) sin 2 +
xy
cos 2
iii. For strains use
xx
=
x
,
xy
=
1
2

xy
etc.
iv. Chain rule for derivatives:

x

=
x
x

x
+
y
x

y
, etc.
2
v. Strain rosettes:

i
=
1
2
[(
x
+
y
) +(
x

y
) cos 2
i
+
xy
sin 2
i
], i = 1, 2, 3; solve for

x
,
y
,
xy
(c) Principal values
i. Denition:
x
=
1
and
y
=
2
when
x

y
= 0; also
d
x

d
= 0; convention:
1
>
2
(note that
1
=
2
if and only if
x
=
y
and
xy
= 0)
ii. Principal angles: tan 2
1,2
= 2
xy
/(
x

y
)
iii. Principal values:
1,2
=
1
2
(
x
+
y
)
_
[
1
2
(
x

y
)]
2
+
2
xy
(d) Maximum shear
i. Denition:
d
x

d
= 0
ii. Maximum shear angle: tan 2
s
= (
x

y
)/2
xy
iii. Maximum shear:
max
=
_
[
1
2
(
x

y
)]
2
+
2
xy
=
1
2
(
1

2
)
iv. Relation to principal angle:
s

1,2
= /4
(e) Mohrs circle
i. To draw: in the

plane, mark the points (

x
,
xy
and (
y
,
xy
), and draw the
line between them. The intersection of this line with the

-axis, i.e. the point

(
1
2
[
x
+
y
], 0), is the center of the circle.
ii. The radius is r =
max
.
iii. The circle intersects the

-axis at (
1
, 0) and (
2
, 0).
iv. Rotation on the circle is twice the physical rotation and in the opposite direction.
6. Transformation of axes in three dimensions
(a) Principal values and principal directions
i. In order to solve the system
_

_
(
x
)n
x
+
xy
n
y
+
xz
n
z
= 0,

xy
n
x
+ (
y
)n
y
+
yz
n
z
= 0,

xz
n
x
+
yz
n
y
+ (
z
)n
z
= 0
_

_
, it is necessary
that

x

xy

xz

xy

y

yz

xz

yz

z

= 0. This is a cubic equation in whose roots

1
,

2
,
3
are the principal values (eigenvalues), and the vector n = in
x
+jn
y
+kn
z
for
each of these values (eigenvector) gives the direction of the corresponding principal
axis.
ii. If one of the principal axes is known, two-dimensional analysis can be used to nd
the other two.
iii. When all three principal values are known, Mohrs circles can be drawn. The maxi-
mum shear is the radius of the largest Mohrs circle.
(b) Yield criteria in terms of principal stresses (no numbering convention in terms of value)
i. Tresca: max(|
1

2
|, |
2

3
|, |
1

3
|) = 2
yp
ii. Mises: (
1

2
)
2
+ (
2

3
)
2
+ (
1

3
)
2
= 2
2
yp
3
II. Slender Bodies
1. Internal Forces
(a) Axial force: P =
_
A

x
dA
(b) Torque (cylindrical shaft): T =
_
A

z
r dA
(c) Bending moment: M
z
=
_
A

x
y dA, M
y
=
_
A

x
z dA
(d) Shear force: V
y
=
_
A

xy
dA, V
z
=
_
A

xz
dA
2. Elastic energy
(a) Strain energy: U

=
_
A
U
o
dA, U =
_
L
0
U

dx
(b) Complementary energy:

=
_
A

U
o
dA,

U =
_
L
0

dx
3. Axial loading
(a) General
i. Strain-displacement relation: =
x
=
du
dx
ii. Elongation L = u(L) u(0) =
_
L
0
dx
iii. Resultant force P =
_
A
dA
iv. Equilibrium (dierential equation):
dP
dx
+p = 0 (p = distributed axial load per unit
length)
v. Work of virtual load:

F =
_
L
0

P dx (=

PL if uniform), where

P = bar force
due to virtual load

F conjugate to
(b) Linear elastic
i. Hookes Law = /E
ii. Elongation L =
_
L
0
(P/EA) dx ( = PL/EA if uniform)
iii. Strain energy: U

=
1
2
(
_
A
E
2
dA)dx (=
1
2
EA
2
, U = EA(L)
2
/2L if uniform)
iv. Complementary energy:

U

=
_
A
(
2
/E) dA (= P
2
/2EA if homogeneous,

U =
P
2
L/2EA if uniform, EA/L = axial spring constant)
v. Work of virtual load:

F =
_
L
0
(

PP/EA) dx (=

PPL/EA if uniform)
4. Torsion
(a) General (cylindrical shaft)
i. Strain-displacement(twist) relation: =
z
= r

=
d
dz
)
ii. Total rotation = (L) (0) =
_
L
0

dz
iii. Resultant torque T = 2
_
c
b
r
2
dr
iv. Equilibrium (dierential equation):
dT
dz
+ t = 0 (t = distributed torque per unit
length)
4
v. Work of virtual load:

M or

F =
_
L
0

dz
(b) Linear elastic (cylindrical shaft)
i. Hookes Law = /G
ii. Torque T = GJ

, J =
_
A
r
2
dA = (c
4
b
4
)/2 (c = outer radius, b = inner radius)
iii. Stress = Tr/J
iv. Total rotation =
_
L
0
(T/GJ) dz
v. Strain energy: U

=
1
2
_
A
G
2
dA (=
1
2
GJ

2
if homogeneous, U = GJ()
2
/2L if
uniform, GJ/L = torsional spring constant)
vi. Complementary energy:

U

=
_
A
(
2
/2G) dAdz (= T
2
/2GJ if homogeneous,

U =
T
2
L/2GJ if uniform)
vii. Work of virtual load:

M =
_
L
0
(

TT/GJ) dz (=

TTL/GJ if uniform)
(c) Elastic-perfectly plastic (cylindrical shaft)
i. Yield torque: T
yp
=
yp
J/c
ii. Ultimate torque: T
u
=
yp
_
A
r dr = (2/3)(c
3
b
3
)
iii. Solid shaft: T = T
u
[1 (1/4)(r
p
/c)
3
], T
u
= (4/3)T
yp
iv. In unloading strain change is linear, leading to residual stress
res
=
init
T
init
r/J,
and residual twist

res
= (d/dz)
init
T
init
/GJ.
v. At elastic-plastic interface: =
yp
= r
p

(d) Thin-walled closed tubes

i. Shear Flow q = t = constant
ii. Equilibrium T =
_
rq ds = 2q A (where A = area enclosed by mean curve of tube)
iii. Complementary elastic energy

U

=
1
2
_
(
2
/G)t ds dz =
1
2
q
2
_
(1/Gt)ds
iv. Twist

=
1
2
[T/(2A )
2
]
_
(1/Gt)ds
v. Torsional stiness: if G = constant, J = T/G

= (2A )
2
/
_
(1/t)ds
5. Bending
(a) General (loading in xy-plane)
i. Geometry: assume section symmetric about y-axis, origin of yz axes at the centroid
of the section
ii. Kinematics
A. Strain-curvature relation:
x
= (y y
0
) (where y
0
is the y-coordinate of the
neutral axis)
B. Curvature-displacement relation: v

,
C. Rotation-displacement relation: v

iii. Equilibrium (dierential equations)

dV
dx
= q,
dM
dx
= V (where V = V
y
, M = M
z
,
q = transverse load per unit length)
5
iv. Work of virtual force:

F =
_
L
0

Mdx (

M(x) = bending moment due to virtual
load

F, which may be either a force or a moment, conjugate to the displacement
[rotation] )
(b) Elastic pure bending about z-axis (V = 0, P = 0, M
y
= 0)
i. Hookes Law = E
ii. Moment M = M
z
= EI, (transformed sections) M = E
ref

I
iii. Second moment of area (moment of inertia): I = I
z
=
_
A
y
2
dA (y measured from
centroid); rectangle I = bh
3
/12, circle I = c
4
/4; for sections composed of simple
subsections use parallel-axis theorem I = I
o
+Ad
2
(where I
o
is calculated about the
centroid of the subsection and d is the y-distance from there to the centroid of the
whole section)
iv. Neutral axis (

F
x
= 0): y
0
=
_
A
Ey dA/
_
A
E dA (= 0 if homogeneous, i.e. E =
constant)
v. Stress = E(y y
0
) (= My/I if homogeneous)
vi. Strain energy: U

=
1
2
_
A
E
2
dA (=
1
2
EI
2
if homogeneous)
vii. Complementary energy:

U

=
_
A
(
2
/2E) dA (= M
2
/2EI if homogeneous)
viii. Work of virtual load:

F or

M =
_
L
0
(

MM/EI) dx
(c) Elastic bending with shear
i. Shear ow: q = V Q/I, Q =
_
A
y dA = yA

ii. Average shear stress: q/t; rectangular: (y) = (V/2I)[(h/2)

2
y
2
],
max
=
3V/2A; I-beam:
max
V/A
web
(d) Elastic bending with axial loads
i. Tensile P, use superposition for stresses ( = P/A My/I)
ii. Compressive P, use superposition for stresses; check for buckling
(e) Elastic-perfectly plastic pure bending about z-axis
i. Initial yield: M
yp
=
yp
I/y
max
ii. Rectangular section: M
yp
=
yp
bh
2
/6, M = M
u
[1 (1/3)(y
p
/(h/2))
2
], M
u
=
(3/2)M
yp
iii. Neutral axis: T = C, (ultimate state)
_
A
T

T
yp
dA =
_
A
C

C
yp
dA; A
C
= A
T
=
1
2
A if

T
yp
=
C
yp
=
yp
iv. Ultimate moment: Tl
T
+ Cl
C
= M
u
; if
T
yp
=
C
yp
=
yp
, M
u
=
yp
Ad/2, where d is
the distance between the centroids of the half-areas
v. Unloading: strain change is linear, resulting in residual stress
res
=
init
+M
init
y/I
and residual curvature
res
=
init
M
init
/EI.
vi. At elastic-plastic interface: =
yp
= y
p

(f) Singularity functions

i. Ramp function: <x> =
_
x, x > 0
0, x 0
ii. General (n > 0): <x a>
n
=
_
(x a)
n
, x > a
0, x a
6
iii. Special: Heaviside H(xa) = (d/dx)<xa>, Dirac delta (xa) = (d/dx)H(xa),
doublet

(x a) = (d/dx)(x a).
iv. Integration rules:
_

(x a) dx = (x a) + C,
_
(x a) dx = H(x a) + C,
_
H(x a) dx = <x a>+C,
_
<x a>
n
dx = <x a>
n+1
/(n + 1) + C
(g) Deections due to elastic bending
i. Dierential equation: (EIv

= q or EIv

= q for constant EI
ii. Boundary conditions
A. Fixed (built-in): = 0, v = 0,
B. Pin or roller: M = EIv

= 0, v = 0,
C. Free: M = EIv

= 0, V = EIv

= 0;
D. Intermediate roller support: v = 0 (v and v

are continuous),
E. Intermediate hinge: M = EIv

= 0 (v is continuous)
iii. Particular results: |v|
max
=
_

_
FL
3
/3EI endloaded cantilever
FL
3
/48EI centerloaded simple beam
5wL
4
/384EI uniformly loaded simple beam
6. Elastic stability and buckling
(a) General
i. Potential energy: = U +, where = P ( = displacement conjugate to P)
ii. Equilibrium (single-degree-of-freedom system):
d
d
= 0
iii. Equilibrium is stable when
d
2

d
2
> 0 and unstable when
d
2

d
2
< 0, neutral (limiting
condition) when
d
2

d
2
= 0
(b) Linearized
i. Critical load P
cr
is (a) the value of P allowing non-zero solutions of the equilibrium
equation (initially perfect system), (b) the asymptotic value of P as the deection
grows large (initially imperfect system)
ii. Multi-degree-of-freedom systems: critical loads are eigenvalues of equilibrium equa-
tions, buckling modes are eigenvectors.
(c) Elastic column
i. Linearized equilibrium: (general) (EIv

+Pv

= 0; (constant EI and P) EIv

+
Pv

= 0
ii. General solution (constant EI and P): v = A + Bx + C cos x + Dsin x, where
=
_
P/EI; nd
n
L (n = 1, 2, . . .) such that the boundary conditions are satised
with A, B, C, D not all zero
iii. Critical loads for uniform columns: P
cr
=
2
1
EI =
2
EI/L
2
e
, where L
e
= /
1
is the
eective length (length of equivalent pinned-pinned column)
A. Pinned-pinned (Euler): P
cr
=
2
EI/L
2
= P
E
, L
e
= L
7
B. Clamped-free (cantilever): P
cr
= P
E
/4, L
e
= 2L
C. Pinned-clamped: P
cr
= 2.05P
E
, L
e
= 0.699L
D. Clamped-clamped (no sidesway): P
cr
= 4P
E
, L
e
= 0.5L
E. Clamped-clamped (with sidesway): P
cr
= P
E
, L
e
= L
iv. Critical stress
cr
= P
cr
/A =

2
E
(L
e
/r)
2
, where r =
_
I/A
v. Elastic limit:
cr
=
yp
, so L
e
/r = (L
e
/r)
cr
=
_
E/
yp
8