Wire Rope Users Manual

WIRE ROPE
USERS MANUAL
Second Edition
COMMITTEE OF WIRE ROPE PRODUCERS
American Iron and Steel Institute
Washington, D.C.
This publication is a joint effort of the
and the
WIRE ROPE TECHNICAL BOARD
The Wire Rope Technical Board (WRTB) is an association of engineers
representing companies that account for more than 90 percent of wire rope
produced in the United States; it has the following objectives:
To promote development of engineering and scientific knowledge relating to
wire rope;
To assist in establishing technological standards for military, governmental and
industrial use;
To promote development, acceptance and implementation of safety standards;
To help extend the uses of wire rope by disseminating technical and engineering
information to equipment manufacturers; and
To conduct and/or underwrite research for the benefit of both industry and
user.
The material presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance with recognized
engineering principles and is for general information only. This information should not be
used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for any given
application. The publication of the material contained herein is not intended as a representation
or warranty on the part of American Iron and Steel Institute-or of any other person named
herein-that this information is suitable for any general or particular use or of freedom from
infringement of any patent or patents. Anyone making use of this information assumes all
liability arising from such use.
1000 16th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
Copyright @ 198 1 by American Iron and Steel Institute
Second Edition, August 19 8 1
First Edition, March 1979
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
Permission to reproduce or quote any portion of this book as editorial
reference is hereby granted. When making such reproductions or quotations,
the courtesy of crediting this publication and American Iron and Steel
Institute will be appreciated.
CONTENTS
3
1
INTRODUCTION / 5
BASIC COMPONENTS / 7
IDENTIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION / 9
HANDLING AND INSTALLATION / 18
Receiving, Inspection and Storage / 18
Wire Rope Installation / 18
Unreeling and Uncoiling / 20
Seizing Wire Rope / 23
Cutting Wire Rope / 25
End Preparations / 26
End Terminations / 26
Socketing / 29
Wire Rope Clips / 29
How to Apply Clips / 29
Wedge Sockets / 34
Drums-Grooved / 35
Drums-Plain (Smooth) / 36
Drums-Multiple Layers / 37
OPERATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF WIRE ROPE / 38
Sheaves and Drums / 38
Bending Rope Over Sheaves and Drums / 40
Inspection of Sheaves and Drums / 43
Strength Loss of Rope Over Stationary Sheaves or Pins / 46
Fleet Angle / 47
Factors Affecting the Selection of Wire Rope / 47
The "X-Chart9'-Abrasion Resistance vs. Bending-Fatigue Resistance / 50
Breaking-in a New Wire Rope / 51
Wire Rope and Operations Inspection / 51
Guideline to Inspections and Reports / 51
Field Lubrication / 68
Wire Rope Efficiency Over Sheaves / 70
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES / 73
Elastic Properties of Wire Rope / 73
Constructional Stretch / 73
Elastic Stretch / 74
Design Factors / 77
Breaking Strengths / 77
APPENDICES
Ordering, Storing and Unreeling Wire Rope / 99
Wire Rope Fittings / 101
Socketing / 112
Shipping Reel Capacity / 117
Weights of Materials / 118
Glossary of Wire Rope Terms / 120
ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF CONTENTS / 131
Acknowledgments
Tabular data for wire rope clips, along with related drawings, were provided by
The Crosby Group. All other data and illustrations used throughout were furnished
by member companies of the Committee of Wire Rope Producers (AISI) and
the Wire Rope Technical Board (WRTB) . Drawings, prepared especially for this
publication, are based wholly or in part on graphic material that originally
appeared in literature issued separately by various member companies of the
Committee.
Unless credited otherwise, all numerical and factual data were obtained from
published and unpublished sources supplied by the Committee (AISI) and by the
Wire Rope Technical Board ( WRTB) .
1 Introduction
ma-chine: an assemblage of parts . . . that transmit forces, motion, and energy one
to another in some predetermined manner and to some desired end . . .
-Webster's Third New International Dictionary
In and of itself, wire rope is a machine. The geometry---or configuration--of its
cross-section and the method and material of its manufacture are precisely
designed to perform "in some predetermined manner and to some desired end."
Hence, as befits any useful machine, it is imperative that the rope's potential use
be fully recognized, that its functional characteristics be understood, and that
procedures for proper maintenance be scrupulously adhered to. By giving active
recognition to these generally accepted concerns, the user can be reasonably
certain that maximum service life and safety will be realized for every rope
installation or application.
A thorough understanding of wire rope characteristics is, of course, a primary
essential. This means familarity with operating conditions, load factors, rope
grades and constructions. Full recognition of their inherent use-potential derives
from a realization of the great number and wide variety of wire ropes available
for general and special operating needs. It is of special importance that the user
become familiar with the particular characteristics of the various constructions in
order to make the right selection for a given function.
Fabricated to close tolerances, wire rope is inspected at all significant
manufacturing intervals to assure the user of a uniformly high quality product.
Immediately after manufacture, wire rope care becomes an absolute necessity. At
no time can a proper regard for care and maintenance be neglected; this rule must
be observed in handling, shipping, storage and installation procedures. Following
this-after the rope is placed in operation-approved maintenance practices and
rigorous inspection (of both the rope and its associated equipment) must be
carried out on a continuing basis. Only through strict adherence to these care and
maintenance procedures can there be positive assurance that the rope will perform
with optimal safety and efficiency throughout its entire life span.
This publication is the culmination of a joint effort by the wire rope industry.
Its intended audience may be viewed, in broadest terms, as comprised of two
sectors :
One of these-made up of those with a working knowledge of wire ropes-
will find in these pages a comprehensive and convenient source of reference data
from such areas as properties and characteristics, handling, storage, operation and
maintenance-in short, a handy checklist.
For the second sector-the not-too-well informed or new user-this
publication can serve as a broad-ranging introduction; for those readers, the
information provided can help establish sound practices in rope selection and
application. This means practices that are efficient and economical.
As a cooperative industry effort, this manual brings together a significant
portion of the enormous collection of data now scattered about in the files
and publications of many individual companies. The text offers many
recommendations, both explicit and implied, but these have been made solely
for the purpose of providing some initial judgment point from which ultimate
decisions as to design and use may be made. The reader is urged to consult with
the wire rope manufacturer as to the specific application planned. The
manufacturer's experience can then help the user make the most appropriate
choice. In the final analysis, responsibility for design and use decisions rest with
the user.
The selection of equipment or components is frequently influenced by the
special demands of an industry. An equipment manufacturer may, for reasons of
space, economy, etc., feel a need to depart from suggested procedures given
in these pages. It is important to remember that such variations from recommended
practices should be regarded as potential dangers. However, when such
circumstances are unavoidable they demand compensating efforts on the
part of the user. These "extras" should include (but not necessarily be limited to)
more frequent and more thorough inspections by skilled, specifically trained
personnel. Additionally, these circumstances may demand the keeping of special
maintenance and lubrication records, and the issuance of special warnings
regarding removal and replacement criteria.
2 Basic Components
Wire rope consists of three basic components; while few in number, these vary in
both complexity and configuration so as to produce ropes for specific purposes
or characteristics. The three basic components of a standard wire rope design are:
1) wires that form the strand, 2) multi-wire strands laid helically around a core,
and 3 ) the core (Fig. 1 ) .
Wire, for rope, is made in several materials and types; these include steel,
iron, stainless steel, monel, and bronze. By far, the most widely used material is
high-carbon steel. This is available in a variety of grades each of which has
properties related to the basic curve for steel rope wire. Wire rope manufacturers
select the wire type that is most appropriate for requirements of the finished
product.
Steel wire strengths are appropriate to the particular grade of the wire rope
in which they are used. Grades of wire rope are referred to as traction steel (TS),
mild plow steel (MPS) , plow steel (PS) , improved plow steel (IPS), and extra
improved plow steel (EIP). (These steel grade names originated at the earliest
WI RE
CENTER
-WIRE ROPE
Figure 1, The three basic components of a
stages of wire rope development and have been retained as references to the
strength of a particular size and grade of rope.) The plow steel strength curve forms
the basis for calculating the strength of all steel rope wires; the tensile strength
(psi) of any steel wire grade is not constant-it varies with the diameter and is
highest in the smallest wires.
The most common finish for steel wire is "bright" or uncoated. Steel wires
may also be galvanized, i.e., zinc coated. "Drawn galvanized" wire has the same
strength as bright wire, but wire "galvanized at finished size" is usually 10%
lower in strength. In certain applications, "tinned" wire is used, but it should be
noted that tin provides no sacrificial, i.e., cathodic, protection for the steel as does
zinc. For other applications, different coatings are available.
"Iron" type wire is actually drawn from low-carbon steel and has a fairly
limited use except in older elevator installations. When, however, iron is used for
other than elevator applications, it is most often galvanized.
Stainless steel ropes, listed in order of frequency of use, are made of AISI
Types 302/304, 316, and 305. Contrary to general belief, hard-drawn stainless
Type 302/304 is magnetic. Type 3 16 is less magnetic, and Type 305 has a
permeability low enough to qualify as non-magnetic.
Monel Metal wire is usually Type 400 and conforms to Federal Specification
QQ-N-28 1.
Bronze wire is usually Type A Phosphor Bronze (CDA # 5 10) although
other bronzes are specified at times.
Strands are made up of two or more wires, laid in any one of many specific
geometric arrangements, or in a combination of steel wires with some other
materials such as natural or synthetic fibers. It is conceivable that a strand can be
made up of any number of wires, or that a rope can have any number of strands.
The following section, IDENTIFICATION and CONSTRUCTION, provides
a complete description of wire rope constructions.
The core is the foundation of a wire rope; it is made of materials that will
provide proper support for the strands under normal bending and loading
conditions. Core materials include fibers (hard vegetable or synthetic) or steel.
typical wire rope. A steel core consists either of a strand or an independent wire rope. The three most
commonly used core designations are : fiber core (FC) , independent wire rope
core (IWRC), and wire strand core (WSC) (Fig. 2 ) . Catalog descriptions of the
various available ropes always include these abbreviations to identify the
core type.
To summarize: a wire rope consists, in most cases, of three components:
wires, strands, and a core (Fig. I ) . T o these may be added what can be considered
a fourth component: the wire rope's lubricant-a factor vital t o the satisfactory
performance of most operating ropes.
FIBER (FC) INDEPENDENT WIRE
WIRE ROPE STRAND
CORE (IWRC) (WSC)
Figure 2. The three basic wire rope cores.
In selecting the most appropriate core for a
given application, a wire rope manufacturer
should be called upon for guidance.
The core is the foundation of a wire rope.
If the core cannot support the compressive
load imposed, the rope will lose its clearance
and its service life will be shortened. Steel
cores (WSC or IWRC) should be used when
there is any evidence that a fiber core will not
provide adequate support. Also, if the tem-
perature of the environment may be expected
to exceed 180F (82C) steel cores must
be used.
3 Identification and Construction
Wire rope is identified not only by its component parts, but also by its construction,
i.e., by the way the wires have been laid to form strands, and by the way the
strands have been laid around the core.
In Figure 3, "a" and "c" show strands as normally laid into the rope to the
right-in a fashion similar to the threading in a right-hand bolt. Conversely,
the "left lay" rope strands (illustrations "b" and "d") are laid in the opposite
direction.
Again in Figure 3, the first two ("a" and "b") show regular lay ropes.
Following these are the types known as lang lay ropes ("c" and "d"). Note
that the wires in regular lay ropes appear to line up with the axis of the rope; in
lang lay rope the wires form an angle with the axis of the rope. This difference in
appearance is a result of variations in manufacturing techniques: regular lay
ropes are made so that the direction of the wire lay in the strand is opposite to the
direction of the strand lay in the rope; lang lay ropes are made with both strand
lay and rope lay in the same direction. Finally, "e" called alternate lay consists
of alternating regular and lang lay strands.
Figure 3. A comparison of typical wire rope lays: a) right regular lay, b ) l eft regular lay,
c ) right lang lay, d) l eft lang lay, e) right alternate lay.
Of all the types of wire rope in current use, right regular lay (RRL) is found
in the widest range of applications. Nonetheless, in many equipment applications
right lang lay (RLL) or left lang lay (LLL) ropes are required. At present, left
lay rope is infrequently used. As for alternate lay (R-ALT or L-ALT) ropes,
these are only used for special applications.
Compared to other types, the superiority of lang lay rope in certain
applications derives from the fact that when bent over sheaves, its life span is
longer than the others. Stated in another way, the advantage of lang lay rope
is its greater fatigue resistance. Yet another claim is made for lang lay ropes:
they are more resistant to abrasion. Broadly speaking, this is true, but there are
some reservations that should be taken into account.
It is important to understand the reasons for the advantages of lang lay rope.
To begin with, consider its fatigue and bending properties. Figure 4A shows,
in part, how the lang lay construction characteristics result in greater fatigue
resistance than is found in regular lay rope. Note, how the axis of the wire relates
to the axis of the rope in both cases. When the regular lay rope is bent, the same
degree of bend is imparted to the crowns of the outer wires.
Superior fatigue life in lang lay rope is also attributable to the longer exposed
length of its outer wires. In the upper photograph of a regular lay rope (Fig. 4A),
the valley-to-valley length of individual wires is about % "; the length of the
lang lay wires in the lower photograph is about 1 ?h " or 30% longer. Bending the
lang lay rope results in less axial bending of the outer wires and greater torsional
flexure. These combined stresses notwithstanding, the lang lay rope displays a
15 to 20% superiority over regular lay when bending is the principal factor
affecting service life.
It is said that lang lay is more flexible, but flexibility should not be confused
with fatigue resistance. These two attributes may, under certain circumstances,
bear some relationship, but they are distinctly separate characteristics. Flexibility
defines the relative ease with which a rope "flexes" or bends. Fatigue resistance
defines the rope's ability to endure bending.
Figure 4A. A comparison of wear characteristics between regular lay and lang lay ropes.
The lines a-b, on drawings and photographs, indicate the rope axis.
L ANG REGULAR
Figure 4B. The worn crown of the regular lay wire has a shorter exposed length.
Two other factors relate to fatigue; they are discussed here along with
abrasion and peening characteristics.
Figure 4A illustrates, in drawings and photographs, the wear pattern in
regular lay vs. lang lay ropes. The drawings (of a single strand) show the wire
direction relative to the rope axis in both types. Dimension lines in the upper
drawing set off the exposed length of one wire crown in the regular lay rope. The
lower drawing shows the corresponding four wire crowns involved in the lang
lay rope. The line a-b shows the relation of the wire crown to the rope axis.
Although there is little difference in total contact area between rope and sheave
in these two rope types, the forces and wear on the individual wires are quite
different (Fig. 4B).
The fact that the wires of regular lay rope are subject to higher pressure,
increases the rate of wear (abrasion and peening) of both wire and mating surface
of the drum or sheave. Moreover, this higher pressure is transmitted to the
interior rope structure and this, in turn, decreases fatigue resistance.
Finally, the worn crown of the regular lay wire combiied with its shorter
exposed length, permits the wire to spring away from the rope axis (Fig. 4B).
Subsequent passage on and off a sheave or drum, results in early fatigue breakage.
A nore of caution: lang lay rope has two important limitations. First, if either
end is not fixed, it will rotate severely when under load, and secondly, it is less
able to withstand crushing action on a drum or sheave, than is regular lay rope.
Hence, lang lay rope should not be operated without being secured against
rotation at both ends; nor should it be operated over minimum-sized sheaves or
drums under extreme loads. Additionally, poor drum winding conditions are not
well tolerated by lang lay ropes.
Pre-forming is a wire rope manufacturing process wherein the strands and
their wires are formed-during fabrication-to the helical shape that they will
ultimately assume in the finished rope or strand.
The wire arrangement in the strands is an important determining factor in
the rope's functional characteristics, i.e., its ability to meet the operating conditions
to which it will be subjected. There are many basic strand patterns around which
standard wire ropes are built; a number of these are illustrated in Figure 5.
1 7 WI RE STRAND I 9 WIRE WARRI NGTON 19 WIRE SEALE 25 F W STRAND
I
1
Figure 5. Four basic strand patterns.
Wire ropes are identified by a nomenclature that is referenced to: 1 ) the
number of strands in the rope, 2) the number (nominal or exact) and arrangement
of wires in each strand, and 3) a descriptive word or letter indicating the type
of construction, i.e., the geometric arrangement of wires (Fig. 5 ) .
Cross-sections of four basic constructions are illustrated in Figure 6 ;
Figure 7 shows combinations of these constructions.
At this point, it would be useful to discuss wire rope nomenclature in
somewhat greater detail because the subject may generate some misunderstanding.
The reason for this stems from the practice of referring to rope either by class
or by its specific construction.
Ropes are classified by the number of strands as well as by the number of
wires in each strand, e.g., 6 x 7, 6 x 19, 6 x 37, 8 x 19, 19 x 7, etc. However,
these are nominal classifications that may or may not reflect the actual construction.
For example, the 6 x 19 class includes constructions such as 6 x 21 filler wire,
6 x 25 filler wire, and 6 x 26 Warrington Seale. Despite the fact that none of the
three constructions named have 19 wires, they are designated as being in the
6 x 19 classification.
Hence, a supplier receiving an order for 6 x 19 rope may assume this to be a
class reference, and is, therefore, legally justified in furnishing any construction
within this category. But, should the job require the special characteristics of a
6 x 25 filler wire, and a 6 x 19 Seale is supplied in its stead, a shorter service life
may be expected.
To avoid such misunderstandings, the safest procedure is to order a specific
construction. In the event that the specific construction is not known or is in doubt,
the rope should be ordered by class along with a description of its end use.
Identification of wire rope in class groups facilitates selection on the basis of
strength and weight/foot since it is customary domestic industry practice that all
ropes (from a given manufacturer) within a class have the same nominal strength,
weight/foot, and price. As for other-functional-characteristics, these can be
obtained by referencing the specific construction within the class.
Only three wire ropes under the 6 x 19 classification actually have 19 wires:
6 x 19 two-operation (2-op) , 6 x 19 Seale (S) , and 6 x 19 Warrington (W) .
All the rest have different wire counts. In the 6 x 37 class there is a greater variety
of wire constructions. However, the commonly available constructions in the
6 x 37 class include: 6 x 3 1 Warrington Seale (WS), 6 x 36 WS, 6 x 41 Seale Filler
Wire (SFW), 6 x 41 WS, 6 x 43 Filler Wire Seale (FWS), 6 x 46 WS, etc.-
none of which contain exactly 37 wires.
For the users' convenience, the most widely used rope classifications are
listed and described in Table 1.
While the interior of a strand is of some significance, its important
characteristics relate to the number and, in consequence, the size of the outer wires.
This is discussed in somewhat greater detail in the section titled FACTORS
AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF WIRE ROPE (p. 47).
Wire rope nomenclature also defines the following:
Rope Description
length
size (diameter)
Preformed (pref) or non-preformed (non-pref)
direction and type of lay
finish
grade of rope
type of core
If direction and type of lay are omitted from the rope description, it is
presumed to be right regular lay. Two other assumptions are made by the
supplier: 1 ) if finish is omitted, this will be presumed to mean uncoated "bright"
finish, and 2) if no mention is made with reference to preforming, preforming
will be presumed. (Note that an order for elevator rope must have an explicit
statement since both pref and non-pref ropes are used extensively.)
6 x 7 FI BER CORE 6 x 1 9 WARRINGTON 6 x 1 9 SEALE 6 x 2 5 FI LLER Wl RE
FC F C IWRC
Figure 6. Basic wire rope constructions.
6 x 31 WARRINGTON 6 x 4 9 SEALE 6 x 4 3 FI LLER WIRE 6 x 4 6 SEALE
SEALE WARRINGTON SEALE SEALE
FI LLER Wl RE
1 IWRC IWRC FC l W RC
Figure 7. A few combinations of basic wire rope constructions.
13
As an example, a complete description would appear thus:
600 ft %I" 6 x 25 FW pref RLL
Improved Plow Steel IWRC
When a center wire is replaced by a strand, it is considered as a single wire,
and the rope classification remains unchanged.
There are, of course, many other types of wire rope, but they are useful
only in a limited number of applications and, as such, are sold as specialties.
Usually designated according to their actual construction, some of these special
constructions are listed in Table 2 and shown in Figure 8.
TABLE 1 WIRE ROPE CLASSIFICATIONS
Based on the Nominal Number of Wires in Each Strand
Classification Description
6 x 7 Containing 6 strands that are made up of 3 through 14
wires, of which no more than 9 are outside wires.
6x19 Containing 6 strands that are made up of 15 through 26
6 x 6 1 Containing 6 strands that are made up of 50 through 74
--
6 x 127 Containing 6 strands that are made up of 11 0 or more
--- -
8 x19 Containing 8 strands that are made up of 15 through 26
19 x 7 Containing 19 strands, each strand is made up of 7 wires.
and It is manufactured by covering an inner rope of 7x7 left
1 8 x 7 lang lay construction with 12 strands in right regular lay.
(The rotation-resistant property that characterizes this
highly specialized construction is a result of the counter
torques developed by the two layers.) When the steel wire
core strand is replaced by a fiber core, the decription
becomes 1 8x7.
5x19 MARLI N CLAD 6 x 12 GALVANIZED 6 x 4 2 TI LLER ROPE
F C RUNNING ROPE FC
FC
6 x 2 5 B FLATTENED STRAND 6 x 2 7 H FLATTENED STRAND 6x 30G FLATTENED STRAND
TRIANGULAR CENTER WIRE ( 3 WIRE CENTER) (PLAI TED CENTER)
FC FC IWRC
Figure 8. Some special purpose constructions.
TABLE 2 SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS
3 x 7 Guard Rail Rope
3 x 19 Slusher
6 x 12 Running Rope
6 x 24 Hawsers
6 x 30 Hawsers
6 x 42 ( 6x6~7) Tiller Rope
6 x 3 x 19 Spring Lay
5 x 19 Marlin Clad
6 x 19 Marlin Clad
6 x 25B Flattened Strand
6 x 27H Flattened Strand
6 x 30G Flattened Strand
Table 2 is a much abbreviated listing of ropes specifically designed for highly
specialized applications. Within the scope of this publication it would not be
feasible either to list or to describe all the possible rope design variations.
The wire rope cross-sections illustrated in Figures 9 and 10 represent some
of the most commonly used configurations, and are arranged under their
respective classification groups. Since these are in greater demand, they are more
generally available.
There are, however, two specialized wire rope categories where the selection
of the right rope requires more than ordinary care : elevator and rotation-resistant
ropes.
I 6 x 19 CLASSI FI CATI ON
Figure 9. Cross-sections of some commonly
used wire rope constructions.
/ 6x19 SEALE 6 x 2 1 FI LLER WIRE 6 x 2 5 FI LLER WIRE
l WR r Fr I WRC
6 x 7 CLASSI FI CATI ON
/ 6 x 37 CLASSI FI CATI ON
/ 6x31 WARRINGTON SEALE 6x 36 SEALE FILLER Wl RE 6 x 3 6 WARRINGTON SEALE
l WRC IWRC IWRC
1 6x41WARRl NGTONSEALE 6x41SEALEFI LLERWI RE 6x46SEALEFl LLERWl RE
IWRC IWRC IWRC
1 8 x 19 CLASSI FI CATI ON
0 x 1 9 SEALE 8 x 2 5 FILLER WIRE
FC IWRC
6 x 2 6 WARRINGTON SEALE
IWRC
6x31 FI LLER Wl RE
IWRC
6 x 4 9 FILLER WIRESEALE
-
To begin with, elevator rope can be obtained in four principal grades: 1 ) iron,
2) traction steel, 3) high-strength steel, and 4) extra-high-strength steel.
Additionally, bronze rope is sometimes used for a limited number of functions
within this category. It should be noted that the demand for the iron grade is
decreasing markedly; its use is generally limited to older existing equipment.
The most widely used constructions for elevator rope are 6 x 25 FW,
8 x 19 Seale, and 8 x 25 FW. But, on occasion, a number of other constructions are
used. In any case, these ropes differ significantly from one another in their wear
and fatigue characteristics, thus they should not be inter-changed indiscriminately.
There are, in fact, some applications-such as governor rope-where the ropes
may not be interchanged either in grade or construction without re-qualification.
A special construction (6 x 42) is still used from time to time as a hand rope
to control the elevator, and small diameter ropes (of 7 x 19 construction) are
used as control ropes for operating floor selection equipment.
From reel to reel, there are slight yet significant differences in the elastic
properties of wire rope. Because of such possible variations, it is strongly suggested
that all rope for a given elevator be obtained from a single reel. Recognizing
the need for such precaution, many codes and purchasing specifications make this
a standard requirement.
As noted, it is beyond the scope of this publication to discuss, in depth, design
and selection considerations for elevator rope. Information concerning sheave
diameters, design factors (ratio of nominal strength to working load), groove
contours, etc. can be found in the ANSI Code A1 7.1.
The second special category-rotation-resistant ropes-differs from
"standard" constructions because they are required to meet a different set of
service requirements. The essential nature of their construction which gives
these ropes the ability to meet the special operational requirements, imposes
certain limitations and necessitates special handling that are not encountered with
ropes of standard constructions.
To obtain current data and sound technical guidance on elevator and
rotation-resistant rope or on any other special requirements, consult a wire rope
manufacturer beforehand.
8 x 1 9 SEAL E 8 x 2 5 FI L L ER WI RE 18 x 7 1 9 x 7
I WRC I WRC FC
Figure 10. Cross-sections OF some rotation-resistant wire ropes.
17
4 Handling and Installation
RECEIVING, INSPECTION AND STORAGE
For all wire rope, the best time to begin taking appropriate care and handling
measures, is immediately upon receiving it. On arrival, the rope should be carefully
checked to make certain that the delivered product matches the description on
tags, requisition forms, packing slips, purchase order, and invoice.
After these necessary preliminary checks, the next concern is that of providing
weather-proof storage space. If wire rope is to be kept unused for a considerable
time, it must be protected from the elements. The ideal storage area is, of course,
a dry, well-ventilated building or shed. Avoid closed, unheated, tightly sealed
buildings or enclosures because condensation will form when warm, moist outside
(ambient) air envelops the colder rope. Although wire rope is protected by a
lubricant, this is not totally effective since condensation can still occur within the
small interstices between strands and wires, thereby creating corrosion problems.
On the other hand, if the delivery site conditions preclude storage in an inside
space and the rope must be kept outdoors, it should be effectively covered with
a waterproof material. Moreover, weeds and tall grass, in the assigned storage area,
should be cut away; the reel itself should be placed on an elevated platform that
will keep it from direct contact with the ground. Providing an adequate covering for
the reel also prevents the original lubricant from drying out and thereby losing
its protection.
Never store wire rope in areas subject to elevated temperatures. Dust and grit,
or chemically laden atmospheres, are also to be avoided. Although lubricant
applied at the factory offers some degree of protection, every normal precautionary
measure should be taken with every coil or reel of wire rope.
Whenever wire rope remains in position on an idle machine, crane, hoist,
etc., it should be coated with an appropriate protective lubricant. In these
circumstances, as with ropes stored outside, moisture, in the form of condensation,
rain or snow, may form on the wire rope. Some of the moisture may easily become
trapped inside the rope and cause corrosion problems.
If the wire rope is to be kept inactive for an extended period while wound
on the drum of the idle equipment, it may be necessary to apply a coating of
lubricant to each layer as the rope is wound on the drum. Cleaning, inspection
and re-lubrication should precede start-up of the equipment.
WIRE ROPE INSTALLATION
CHECKING THE DIAMETER
It is most important to check the diameter of the delivered rope before installation.
This is to make certain that the rope diameter meets the specified requirements
for the given machine or equipment. With an undersize diameter rope, stresses
will be higher than designed for and the probability of breaking the rope will
be increased; an oversize diameter rope will wear out prematurely. This happens
because of abuse to the rope caused by pinching in the grooves of the sheave
and drum.
In checking, however, the actual rope diameter must be measured. And this
is defined as the diameter of the circumscribing circle, i.e., its largest cross-sectional
dimension. To insure accuracy this measurement should be made with a wire
rope caliper using the correct method (b) shown in Fig. 11. For measuring ropes
with an odd number of outer strands, special techniques must be employed.
Design specifications for wire rope are such that the diameter is slightly larger
than the nominal size, according to the allowable tolerances shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3 OVERSIZE LIMITS OF WIRE ROPE DIAMETERS*
Nominal Rope Diameter Allowable Limits
Thru 96 f' - 0 +8%
Over 9% " thru $46" -0 f 7 %
Over %sf' thru !4 -0 +6%
Over 1/4 " and larger -0 +5%
*These limits have been adopted by the Wire Rope Technical
Board (WRTB), and are being considered for inclusion in the
forthcoming revised edition of "Federal Standard RR-W-410."
In the case of certain special purpose ropes, such as aircraft
cables and elevator ropes, each has specific requirements.
ACTUAL DIAMETER 1 -
J
A
B. CORRECT C. I NCORRECT
Figure 11. How to measure (or caliper) a wire rope correctly. Since the "true" diameter (A)
lies within the circumscribed circle, always measure the larger dimension (B).
UNREELING AND UNCOILING
Wire rope is shipped in cut lengths, either in coils or on reels. Great care should
be taken when the rope is removed from the shipping package since it can be
permanently damaged by improper unreeling or uncoiling. Looping the rope over
the head of the reel or pulling the rope off a coil whiIe it is lying on the ground,
will create loops in the line. Pulling on a loop will, at the very least, produce
imbalance in the rope and may result in open or closed kinks (Fig. 12). Once a
rope is kinked, the damage is permanent. To correct this condition, the kink
must be cut out, and the shortened pieces used for some other purpose.
Figure 12. Improper handling helps create open (a) or closed kinks (b). The open kink will
open the rope lay; the closed kink will close it.
Starting loop (c): Do not allow the rope to form a small loop. If, however, a loop does form
and is removed at the stage shown, a kink can be avoided.
Kink (d) : In this case, the looped rope was put under tension, the kink was formed, the rope is
permanently damaged and must be removed.
Unwinding wire rope from its reel also requires careful and proper procedure.
There are three methods to perform this step correctly:
1) The reel is mounted on a shaft supported by two jacks or a roller payoff
(Fig. 13). Since the reel is free to rotate, the rope is pulled from the reel by
a workman, holding the rope end and walking away from the reel as it unwinds.
A braking device should be employed so that the rope is kept taut and the
reel is restrained from over-running the rope. This is necessary particularly
with powered de-reeling equipment.
2) Another method involves mounting the reel on an unreeling stand (Fig. 14).
It is then unwound in the same manner as described above ( 1 ) . In this case,
however, greater care must be exercised to keep the rope under tension
sufficient to prevent the accumulation of slack-a condition that will cause
the rope to drop below the lower reel head.
3) In another accepted method, the end of the rope is held while the reel itself
is rolled along the ground. With this procedure the rope will pay off properly;
however, the end being held will travel in the direction the reel is being rolled.
As the difference between the diameter of the reel head and the diameter of
the wound rope increases, the speed of travel will increase.
Figure 13. The wire rope reel is mounted on a shaft supported by jacks. This permits the reel Figure 14. A vertical unreeling stand.
to rotate freely, and the rope can be unwound either manually or by a powered mechanism.
REEL
-
A - CORRECT
A
B - WRONG
Figure 15. The correct (a) and the wrong (b)
way to wind wire rope from reel to drum.
Figure 16. Perhaps the most common and
easiest uncoiling method is to hold one end
of the rope while the coil is rolled along
the ground.
When re-reeling wire rope from a horizontally supported reel to a drum, it is
preferable for the rope to travel from the top of the reel to the top of the
drum; or, from the bottom of the reel to the bottom of the drum (Fig. 15).
Re-reeling in this manner will avoid putting a reverse bend into the rope
as it is being installed. If a rope is installed so that a reverse bend is induced,
it may cause the rope to become "cranky" and, consequently, harder to handle.
When unwinding wire rope from a coil, there are two suggested methods for
carrying out this procedure in a proper manner:
1 ) One method involves placing the coil on a vertical unreeling stand. The stand
consists of a base with a fixed vertical shaft. On this shaft there is a "swift,"
consisting of a plate with inclined pins positioned so that the coil may be placed
over them. The whole swift and coil then rotate as the rope is pulled off. This
method is particularly effective when the rope is to be wound on a drum.
2) The most common as well as the easiest uncoiling method is merely to hold
one end of the rope while rolling the coil along the ground like a hoop (Fig. 16).
Figures 17 and 18 show unreeling and uncoiling methods that are most
likely to provide kinks. Such improper procedures should be strenuously avoided
in order to prevent the occurrence of loops. These loops, when pulled taut, will
inevitably result in kinks. No matter how a kink develops, it will damage strands
and wires, and the kinked section must be cut out. Proper and careful handling
will keep the wire rope free from kinks.
Figure 17. Illustrating a wrong method of Figure 18. Illustrating a wrong method of
unreeling wire rope. uncoiling wire rope.
Figure 19A. METHOD A: Lay one end of
the seizing wire in the groove between two
strands; wrap the other end tightly in a close
helix over a position of the groove using a
seizing iron (a round bar % to %4 " diam. x
18" long) as shown above. Both ends of the
seizing wire should be twisted together
tightly, and the finished appearance as shown
below. Seizing widths should not be less than
the rope diameter.
Figure 19B. METHOD B: The procedure
illustrated at right is the second of the two
(A and B) accepted methods for placing
seizing on wire rope.
SEIZING WIRE ROPE
While there are numerous ways to cut wire rope, in every case, certain precautions
must be observed. For one thing, proper seizings are always applied on both
sides of the place where the cut is to be made. In a wire rope, carelessly or
inadequately seized, ends may become distorted and flattened, and the strands
may loosen. Subsequently, when the rope is put to work, there may be an uneven
distribution of loads to the strands; a condition that will significantly shorten
the life of the rope.
The two widely accepted methods of applying seizing are illustrated in
Figures 19A and 19B. The seizing itself should be soft, or annealed wire or strand.
Seizing wire diameter and the length of the seize will depend on the diameter
of the wire rope. But the length of the seizing should never be less than the diameter
of the rope being seized. Normally, for preformed ropes, one seizing on each side
of the cut is sufficient. But for ropes that are not preformed, a minimum of two
seizings on each side is recommended; and these should be spaced six rope
diameters apart (Fig. 20).
Table 4 lists suggested seizing wire diameters for use with a range of wire rope
diameters.
TABLE 4 SEIZING*
Suggested
Rope Diameters Seizing Wire Diameters* *
inches mm inches mm
1 % and larger 45.0 and larger .I24 3.15
*Length of the seizing should not be less than the rope diameter.
**The diameter of seizing wire for elevator ropes is usually somewhat smaller than that shown
in this table. Consult the wire rope manufacturer for specific size recommendations. Soft
annealed seizing strand may also be used.
CUTTING WIRE ROPE
Wire rope is cut after being properly seized (Fig. 20). Cutting is a reasonably
simple operation provided appropriate tools are used. There are several types of
cutters and shears commercially available. These are specifically designed to cut
wire rope.
Portable hydraulic and mechanical rope cutters are available. In remote
areas, however, it may at times be necessary to use less desirable cutting methods.
For example, using an axe or hatchet must be recognized as dangerous.
NONPREFORMED
I
;~~E~~IIIIIIIIIIIIIII@ BEFORE CUTTING BIIIIIIIIIIIIII&IIIIIIIIIIIIII~ BIIIIIIIIUIIIII~
L6::;E4 I ~ 6 ~ ~ ~ 4
//
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ AFTER CUTTING ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I ~ I ~ I ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PREFORMED
/
-IIIIIIIIIIIIII&IIIIIIIII- BEFORE CUTTING 1
AFTER CUTTI NG
~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 ~
Figure 20. Seizings, either on non-preformed or preformed wire rope, are applied
before cutting.
END PREPARATIONS
For a number of applications-such as tight openings in drums, or other
complicated reeving systems-there may be a need for making special end
preparations. When these are required, there are about four basic designs (and
combinations) to choose from (Fig. 21 ). Whenever possible end preparations
should be removed after the rope is installed (p. 34). Beckets are used when
another rope is needed to pull the new rope into place.
END TERMINATIONS
The rope end must be fastened to the mechanism so that force and motion are
transferred efficiently. End terminations thus become items of great importance for
transferring these forces. Each basic type of termination has its own individual
characteristic. Hence, one type will usually fit the needs of a given installation
better than the others.
It should be noted that not all end terminations will develop the full strength
of the wire rope used. To lessen the possibility of error, the wire rope industry
has determined terminal efficiencies for various types of end terminations.
Table 5-listing these efficiencies-permits holding power calculations to be made
of the more popular end terminations. (Fig. 22 ) .
A C D
PAD EYE LI NK TAPERED TAPERED
BECKET 8 WELDED END WITH
END LOOP
Figure 21. Beckets, or end preparations, are used on wire rope ends when another rope is
needed to pull the operating rope into place. Four commonly used beckets are illustrated.
Wl RE ROPE SOCKET -SWAGED
MECHANICAL SPLICE - LOOP OR THI MBLE
WIRE ROPE SOCKET- POURED SPELTER OR RESIN
~ ~ ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,, ,, ,, ,
LOOP OR THIMBLE SPLICE- HAND TUCKED
WEDGE SOCKET
CLIPS - NUMBER OF CLIPS VARIES WITH ROPE SIZE AND CONSTRUCTION
Figure 22. End fittings, or terminations, are available in many designs, some of which were
developed for particular applications. The six shown are among the most commonly used.
TABLE 5 TERMINAL EFFICIENCIES (APPROXIMATE)
Efficiencies are based on nominal strengths
Type of Termination
-
Efficiency
Rope with IWRC* Rope with FC* *
Wire Rope Socket (Spelter or Resin) 100% 100%
Swaged Socket (Regular Lay Ropes Only) 100% (Not established)
Mechanical Spliced Sleeve
1 ' dia. and smaller 95 % 92% %
Greater than 1 If dia. through 2" 92% % 90%
Greater than 2" dia. through 3% If 90% (Not established)
Loop or Thimble Splice-
(Carbon Steel Rope)
%iN
%sN
%"
K6"
w
5 / s N
%iN
7/s thru 2%"
-Hand Spliced (Tucked)
Loop or Thimble Splice-
(Stainless Steel Rope)
%in
946''
%"
Ks"
%"
5 / s N
%in
Y8"
-Hand Spliced (Tucked)
Wedge Sockets * * *
(Depending on Design)
Clips * * *
(Number of clips varies with size of rope) 80% 80%
*IWRC = Independent Wire Rope Core * *FC = Fiber Core
* * "Typical values when applied properly. Refer to fittings
manufacturers for exact values and method.
SOCKETING
Improperly attached wire rope terminals lead to serious-possibly unsafe-
conditions. To perform properly, all wire rope elements must be held securely
by the terminal. If this is not accomplished, the strands will become unequally
loaded and there is every likelihood that a strand will become "high". A high strand
condition is illustrated in Figure 42. In the case shown, selective abrasive
wear of the high strand will necessitate early removal of the rope.
Poured Sockets-Spelter or Resin
When preparing a wire rope for socketing, it is of extreme importance to follow
recommended procedures. (See Appendix D : SOCKETING PROCEDURES. )
Procedures other than those stipulated here, may develop the required strength
but this cannot be pre-determined without destructive tests. It is far safer-
and ultimately less costly-to follow well-established practices.
There are many ways to go wrong in socketing procedures. Some of the
more common pitfalls that should be guarded against include:
1 ) Turning back the strands-inward or outward-before the "broom" is inserted
into the socket;
2) Turning back the strands and seizing them to the body of the rope;
3) Turning back the strands and tucking them into the body of the rope;
4) Tying a knot in the rope;
5) Driving nails, spikes, bolts, and similar objects into the socket after the rope
js in, so as to "jam" it tight; this is particularly dangerous-and ruinous.
To avoid these and many other dangerous practices, play it safe by following
correct procedures.
U- BOLT FI ST GRIP
WIRE ROPE CLIPS
Wire rope clips are widely used for making end terminations.
Clips are available in two basic designs; the U-bolt and fist grip (Fig. 23).
The efficiency of both types is the same.
When using U-bolt clips, extreme care must be exercised to make certain
that they are attached correctly, i.e., the U-bolt must be applied so that the "U"
section is in contact with the dead end of the rope (Fig. 24). Also, the tightening
and retightening of the nuts must be accomplished as required.
HOW TO APPLY CLIPS
U-BOLT CLIPS (Table 6, p. 3 1 .)
Figure 23. Wire rope clips are obtainable Recommended Method of Applying U-Bolt Clips to Get Maximum Holding Power
in two basic designs: U-bolt and fist grip.
of the Clip
Their efficiency is the same.
1 ) Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble. Apply the first clip
one base width from the dead end of the wire rope (U-bolt over dead end-live
end rests in clip saddle). Tighten nuts evenly to recommended torque.
2) Apply the next clip as near the loop as possible. Turn on nuts firm but do not
tighten.
3) Space additional clips if required equally between the first two. Turn on nuts-
take up rope slack-tighten all nuts evenly on all clips to recommended torque.
4) NOTICE! Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the recommended torque.
Rope will stretch and be reduced in diameter when loads are applied. Inspect
periodically and retighten to recommended torque.
A termination made in accordance with the above instructions, and using
the number of clips shown has an approximate 80% efficiency rating. This rating
is based upon the nominal strength of wire rope. If a pulley is used in place of
a thimble for turning back the rope, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular or lang lay wire
rope, 6 x 19 class or 6 x 37 class, fiber core or IWRC, IPS or EIP. If Seale
construction or similar large outer wire type construction in the 6 x 19 class is to be
used for sizes 1 inch and larger, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown also applies to right regular lay wire rope, 8 x 19
class, fiber core, IPS, sizes 1 Xi inch and smaller; and right regular lay wire rope,
18 x 7 class, fiber core, IPS or EIP, sizes 1% inch and smaller.
For other classes of wire rope not mentioned above, it may be necessary to
add additional clips to the number shown.
If a greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the amount of
rope turnback should be increased proportionately. ABOVE BASED ON USE
OF CLIPS ON NEW ROPE.
IMPORTANT: Failure to make a termination in accordance with
aforementioned instructions, or failure to periodically check and retighten to the
recommended torque, will cause a reduction in eficiency rating.
I
RI GHT WAY FOR MAXI MUM ROPE STRENGTH
WRONG WAY: CLIPS STAGGERED
WRONG WAY: CLIPS REVERSED
Figure 24. The correct way to attach U-bolts is shown at the top; the "U" section is in contact
with the rope's dead end and is clear of the thimble.
TABLE 6 *
Min. no. Amount of Torque
Clip of rope to in Weight
Size A B C D E F G H clips turn back 1b/ft lb/100
*From The Crosby Group
31
FIST GRIP CLIPS (Table 7, on following page)
RECOMMENDED METHOD OF APPLYING FIST GRIP CLIPS
1) Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble. Apply the first clip
one base width from the dead end of the wire rope. Tighten nuts evenly to
recommended torque.
2) Apply the next clip as near the loop as possible. Turn on nuts firmly but do not
tighten.
3) Space additional clips if required equally between the first two. Turn on nuts-
take up rope slack-tighten all nuts evenly on all clips to recommended torque.
4) NOTICE! Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the recommended torque.
Rope will stretch and be reduced in diameter when loads are applied. Inspect
periodically and retighten to recommended torque.
A termination made in accordance with the above instructions, and using
the number of clips shown has an approximate 80% efficiency rating. This rating
is based upon the catalog breaking strength of wire rope. If a pulley is used in
place of a thimble for turning back the rope, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular or lang lay
wire rope, 6 x 19 class or 6 x 37 class, fiber core or IWRC, IPS or EIPS. If Seale
construction or similar large outer wire type construction in the 6 x 19 class is to be
used for sizes 1 inch and larger, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown also applies to right regular lay wire rope,
8 x 19 class, fiber core, IPS, sizes 1% inch and smaller; and right regular lay wire
rope, 18 x 7 class, fiber core, IPS or EIPS, sizes 1Y2 inch and smaller.
For other classes of wire rope not mentioned above, it may be necessary
to add additional clips to the number shown.
If a greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the amount
of rope turnback should be increased proportionately. ABOVE BASED ON
USE OF FIST GRIP CLIPS ON NEW WIRE ROPE.
IMPORTANT: Failure to make a termination in accordance with
aforementioned instructions, or failure to periodically check and retighten to the
recommended torque, will cause a reduction in eficiency rating.
TABLE 7 *
Min. no. Amount of Torque
Clip L of rope to in Weight
Size A B C D E F G H Approx. M N clips turn back lb/ft lb/100
*From The Crosby Group
33
Figure 25. The wedge socket is a very
popular end attachment; it is easily installed
and quickly dismantled. But it must be
applied correctly (A).
WEDGE SOCKETS
One of the more popular end attachments for wire rope is the wedge socket.
For field, or on the job attachment, it is easily installed and quickly dismantled.
The procedure is simple :
1) Inspect the wedge and socket; all rough edges or burrs, that might damage the
rope, should be removed.
2) If the end of the rope is welded, the welded end should be cut off. This will
allow the distortions of the rope strands, caused by the sharp bend around the
wedge, to adjust themselves at the end of the line. If the weld is not cut off, the
distortions will be forced up the working line. This may result in the development
of high strands and wavy rope.
3) Place the socket in an upright position and bring the rope around in a large,
easy to handle, loop. Care must be taken to make certain that the live-loaded-
side of the rope is in line with the ears (Fig. 25).
4) The dead end of the rope should extend from the socket for a distance of six to
nine times the rope diameter. The wedge is now placed in the socket, and a
wire rope clip is placed around the dead end by clamping a short, extra piece
of rope to the tail as close to the wedge as possible. ( Do not clamp to the live
part.) The U-bolt should bear against the tail; the saddle of the clip should bear
against the short extra piece.
5 ) Secure the ears of the socket to a sturdy support and carefully take a strain on
the live side of the rope. Pull the wedge and rope into position with tension
sufficiently tight to hold them in place.
6) After final pin connections are made, increase the loads gradually until the
wedge is properly seated. Avoid sudden shock loads.
The foregoing is the recommended procedure. If variations are made to suit
special conditions, they should be carefully evaluated beforehand.
A
RIGHT
B
WRONG
DRUMS-GROOVED
Drums are the means by which power is transmitted to the rope and thence to the
object to be moved. For the wire rope to pick up this power efficiently and to
transmit it properly to the working end, installation must be carefully controlled.
If the drum is grooved, the winding conditions should be closely supervised
to assure adherence to the following recommended procedures :
1) The end of the rope must be secured to the drum by such means as will give
the end termination at least as much strength as is specified by the equipment
manufacturer.
2) Adequate tension must be maintained on the rope while it is being wound
so that the winding proceeds under continuous tension.
3) The rope must follow the groove.
4) It is preferable to have at least three dead wraps remaining on the drum when
the rope is unwound during normal operation. Two dead wraps are a mandatory
requirement in many codes and standards.
If the wire rope is carelessly wound and, as a result, jumps the grooves, it will
be crushed and cut where it crosses from one groove to the other. Another, almost
unavoidable problem is created at the drum flange; as the rope climbs to a second
layer there is further crushing and the wires receive excessive abrasion. Riser and
filler strips may help remedy this condition.
Another factor that must be given serious consideration is the pitch of the
drum grooves relative to the actual rope diameter. Wire rope is always
manufactured to a plus tolerance of up to 5 % of the nominal diameter. If this
oversize tolerance in the rope is not taken into account, it can mean severe damage.
As an example, a grooved drum made for %-inch rope may have a pitch of
.250 inches. Yet, by Federal standards, a % -inch rope may have a diameter as
large as .2625 inches. If a rope of this size were to be operated on a drum with a
.250-inch pitch, crowding would occur and the rope would be forced out of
the groove.
DRUMS-PLAIN (SMOOTH)
Installation of a wire rope on a plain (smooth) face drum requires a great deal
of care. The starting position should be at the correct drum flange so that each wrap
of the rope will wind tightly against the preceding wrap (Fig. 26). Here too,
close supervision should be maintained all during installation. This will help make
certain that:
1) the rope is properly attached to the drum,
2) appropriate tension on the rope is maintained as it is wound on the drum,
3) each wrap is guided as close to the preceding wrap as possible, so that there
are no gaps between turns.
4) and that there are at least two dead wraps on the drum when the rope is fully
unwound during normal operating cycles.
Loose and uneven winding on a plain- (smooth-) faced drum, can and usually
does create excessive wear, crushing and distortion of the rope. The results of
such abuse are lower operating performance, and a reduction in the rope's effective
strength. Also, for an operation that is sensitive in terms of moving and spotting
a load, the operator will encounter control difficulties as the rope will pile up,
pull into the pile and fall from the pile to the drum surface. The ensuing shock
can break or otherwise damage the rope.
UNDERWIND LEFT TO RIGHT LEFT LAY
USE LEFT LAY ROPE UNDERWIND
OVERWIND RIGHT TO LEFT LEFT LAY
USE LEFT LAY ROPE OVERWIND
OVERWI ND LEFT TO RIGHT RIGHT LAY
USE RI GHT LAY ROPE OVERWIND
UNDERW IND Rl GHT TO LEFT
USE RlGHT LAY ROPE
START ROPE AT
Rl GHT FLANGE
RIGHT LAY
UNDERWI ND
Figure 26. By holding the right or left hand with index finger extended, palm up or palm
down, the proper procedure for applying left- and right-lay rope on a smooth drum can be
easily determined.
The proper direction of winding the first layer on a smooth drum can be
determined by standing behind the drum and looking along the path the rope
travels, and then following one of the procedures illustrated in Figure 26. The
diagrams show: the correct relationship that should be maintained between
the direction of lay of the rope (right or left), the direction of rotation of the drum
(overwind or underwind), winding from left to right or right to left.
DRUMS-MULTIPLE LAYERS
Many installations are designed with requirements for winding more than one layer
of wire rope on a drum. Winding multiple layers presents some further problems.
The first layer should wind in a smooth, tight helix which, if the drum is
grooved, is already established. The grooves allow the operator to work off the
face of the drum, and permit the minimum number of dead wraps.
A smooth drum presents an additional problem, initially, as the wire rope
must be wound in such a manner that the first layer will be smooth and uniform and
will provide a firm foundation for the layers of rope that will be wound over it.
The first layer of rope on the smooth drum should be wound with tension sufficient
to assure a close helix-each wrap being wound as close as possible to the
Figure 27. After the first layer is wound
preceding wrap-and most, if not all, of the entire layer being used as dead wraps.
on a drum, the point at which the rope winds
The first layer then acts as a helical groove which will guide the successive layers.
back for each wrap is called the cross-over.
Unlike wire ropes operating on grooved drums, the first layer should not be
unwound from a smooth-faced drum with multiple layers.
After the rope has wound completely across the face of the drum (either
smooth or grooved), it is forced up to a second layer at the flange. The rope then
winds back across the drum in the opposite direction, lying in the valleys between
the wraps of the rope on the first layer. Advancing across the drum on the second
layer, the rope, following the "grooves" formed by the rope on the first layer,
actually winds back one wrap in each revolution of the drum. The rope must then
cross two rope "grooves" in order to advance across the drum for each turn.
The point at which this occurs is known as the cross-over. Cross-over is unavoidable
on the second, and all succeeding layers. Figure 27 illustrates the winding of
a rope on the second layer from left to right, and from right to left-the direction
is shown by the arrows.
At these cross-over points, the rope is subjected to severe abrasion and
crushing as it is pushed over the two rope "grooves" and ridemcross the crown of
the first rope layer. The scrubbing of the rope, as this is happening, can easily
be heard.
There are, however, special drum groovings available that will greatly
minimize the damage that can occur at cross-over points.
Severe abrasion can also be reduced by applying the rule for the correct rope
lay (right- or left-lay) to the second layer rather than to the first layer. It is for
this reason that the first layer of a smooth drum should be wound tight and used
as dead wraps.
5 Operation, Inspection and Maintenance of Wire Rope
SHEAVES AND DRUMS
In the course of normal operations, wire rope comes into contact with sheaves,
drums, rollers and scrub boards-all of which must be maintained in first class
condition.
What causes wear in both groove and wire rope?
Essentially, the answer derives from the fact that wire rope, when loaded,
stretches much like a coil spring. When bent over a sheave, the rope's load-induced
stretch causes it to rub against the groove. As a result, both groove and rope are
subject to wear. Within the rope itself, additional rubbing is encountered as the rope
adjusts-by movement of the wires and strands-while bent around the sheave
or drum. The smaller the ratio of sheave diameter to rope diameter (D/d), the
greater the adjusting movement, and the more rapid the resulting wear.
The amount of wear, and the speed at which it takes effect on both the wire
rope and grooves of the sheave or drum, are also determined by the sheave material,
and the radial pressure between rope and groove. Simply stated, excessive wear
can be caused either by sheave or drum material that is too soft, or a diameter
(tread diameter) that is too small.
To determine the unit radial pressure between rope and groove, use the
following formula :
2T
P ==
where p = Unit radial pressure in pounds per square inch
T = Load on the rope in pounds
D = Tread diameter of the sheave or drum in inches
d = Nominal diameter of the rope in inches
Table 8 gives examples of allowable unit radial bearing pressures of ropes
on various materials commonly used in sheaves and drums. The values given are
typical for the materials listed; they are not precise values since these materials
are made to a wide range of specifications.
In the foregoing equation, if the calculated value of "p" exceeds the allowable
radial pressure for the sheave or drum material, the groove will wear quite
rapidly. Wear will manifest itself in the form of either an undersize or corrugated
groove--either of which will contribute to accelerated wear in the rope.
Values for the allowable unit radial pressures given in Table 8 are intended
solely as-a user's guide. And use of these figures does not guarantee prevention
of any trouble. Further, the values should not be taken as restrictive with regard to
other or new materials. There are, for example, certain elastomers in current
use that are apparently providing excellent service, but since there is insufficient
data to support specific recommendations, such products are not mentioned.
TABLE 8
SUGGESTED ALLOWABLE RADIAL BEARING PRESSURES OF ROPES ON
VARIOUS SHEAVE MATERIALS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH (PSI)
Material
Regular Lay Rope, psi Lang Lay Rope, psi Flattened Strand
Lang Lay,
6 x 7 6 x 1 9 6 x 3 7 8 x 1 9 6 x 7 6 x 1 9 6 x 3 7 psi Remarks
Wood
On end grain of
150 250 300 350 165 275 330 4-00 beech,hickory,gum.
Cast Iron
Based on minimum
300 480 585 680 350 550 660 800 Brinellhardness of 125.
30-40 Carbon. Based
Carbon Steel Casting 550 900 1,075 1,260 600 1,000 1,180 1,450 on minimum Brine11
hardness of 160.
Not advised unless
Chilled Cast Iron 650 1,100 1,325 1,550 715 1,210 1,450 1,780 surface is uniform
in hardness.
Grooves must be ground
Manganese Steel 1,470 2,400 3,000 3,500 1,650 2,750 3,300 4,000 andsheavesbalanced
for high-speed service.
BENDING WIRE ROPE OVER SHEAVES AND DRUMS
Sheaves, drums and rollers must be of a correct design if optimum service is to be
obtained from both the equipment and the wire rope. Because there are many
different types of equipment and many different operating conditions, it is difficult
to identify the one specific size of sheave or drum most economical for every
application.
The rule to follow is this: the most economical design is the one that most
closely accommodates the limiting factors imposed by the operating conditions
and the manufacturer's recommendations.
All wire ropes operating over sheaves and drums are subjected to cyclic
bending stresses, hence the rope wires will eventually fatigue. The magnitude of
these stresses depends-all other factors being constant-upon the ratio of the
diameter of the sheave or drum to the diameter of the rope. Frequently, fatigue
from cyclic, high-magnitude bending stress is the principal reason for shortened
rope service.
To illustrate, in order to bend around a sheave, the rope's strands and wires
must move relative to one another. This movement compensates for the difference
in diameter between the underside and the top side of the rope, the distance being
greater along the top side than it is on the underside next to the groove. Proper
rope action (and service) is adversely affected if the wires cannot move to
compensate for this situation. Also, there can be additional motion retardation
because of excessive pressure caused by a sheave whose groove diameter is too
small, or by lack of rope lubrication. Changing the bending direction from one
sheave to another should be scrupulously avoided as this reverse bending still
further accelerates wire fatigue.
The relationship between sheave diameter and rope diameter is a critical
factor that is used to establish the rope's fatigue resistance or relative service life.
It is expressed in the tread D/d ratio mentioned earlier in which D is the tread
diameter of the sheave and d is the diameter of the rope. Table 9 lists "suggested"
and "minimum" values for this ratio for various rope constructions. Tables 10
and 11 show the effect of rope constructions and D/d ratios on service life.
TABLE 9 SHEAVE AND DRUM RATIOS
Construction*
Suggested
D/d Ratio* *
Minimum
D/d Ratio* *
6 x 7
19 x 7 or 18 x 7 Rotation Resistant
6 x 1 9 s
6 x 25 B Flattened Strand
6 x 27 H Flattened Strand
6 x 30 G Flattened Strand
6 x 2 1 FW
6x26WS
6 x 2 5 FW
6 x 3 1 WS
6 x 37 SFW
6x36WS
6 x 43 FWS
6 x 4 1 WS
6 x 41 SFW
6 x 49 SWS
6 x 43 FW (2 op)
6 x 46 SFW
6x46WS
8 x 1 9 s
8 x 2 5 FW
6 x 42 Tiller
*WS -Warrington Seale
FWS -Filler Wire Seale
SFW C e a l e Filler Wire
SWS - 4eal e Warrington Seale
S -Seale
FW -Filler Wire
**D = tread diameter of sheave
d =nominal diameter of rope
To find any tread diameter from this table, the diameter for the rope construction to be
used is multiplied by its nominal diameter (d). For example, the minimum sheave tread
diameter for a ?h" 6 x 21 FW rope would be %" (nominal diameter) x 30 (minimum ratio)
or 15".
NOTE: These values are for reasonable service. Other values are permitted by various
standards such as ANSI, API, PCSA, HMI, CMAA, etc. Smaller values affect rope
life (Fig. 28).
TABLE 10 RELATIVE BENDING LIFE FACTORS
Figure 28. This service life curve only takes
into account bending and tensile stresses.
Its applicability can be illustrated by the
following example: A rope working with
a D/d ratio of 26 has a relative service life
of 17. If the same rope works over a sheave
that increases its D/d ratio to 35, the relative1
service life increases to 32. In short, this
rope used on a larger sheave, increases its
Rope
Construction
Rope
Factor Construction Factor
6 x 7 .6 1
19x 7 or 18 x7 Rotation Resistant .67
6 x 1 9 s .8 1
6 x 25 B Flattened Strand .90
6 x 27 H Flattened Strand .90
6 x 30 G Flattened Strand .90
6x21FW .89
6x26WS .89
6x25FW 1 .OO
6x31 WS 1 .OO
6 x 37 SFW 1 .OO
6x36WS
6 x 43 FWS
6x41 WS
6 x 41 SFW
6 x 49 SWS
6 x 43 FW (2 op)
6 x 46 SFW
6x46WS
8 x 1 9 s
8x25FW
6 x 42 Tiller
If a change in construction is being considered as a means of obtaining longer service on a rope
influenced principally by bending stresses, the table of factors may be useful. For example:
a change from a 6 x 25 FW with a factor of 1.00 to a 6 x 36 WS with a factor of 1.31 would
mean the service life could be expected to increase 1.16 times or 16%.
It must be pointed out however that these factors apply only for bending stresses. Other factors
which may contribute to rope deterioration have not been considered.
I
SERVICE LIFE CURVE FOR VARIOUS D/ d RATIOS
I
D/d RATI O
service life from 17 to 32--or 88%. I 1
42
Fignre 29. Cross-sections illustrating three
sheave-groove conditions. A is correct, B is
too tight, and C is too loose.
Figure 30. These sheave-groove cross-
sections represent three wire rope seating
conditions: A, a new rope in a new groove;
B, a new rope in a worn groove; and C, a
worn rope in a worn groove. (See also Figs.
29 and 3 1 .)
INSPECTION OF SHEAVES AND DRUMS
Under normal conditions, machines receive periodic inspections, and their over-all
condition is recorded. Such inspections usually include the drum, sheaves, and
any other parts that may come into contact with the wire rope and subject it to
wear. As an additional precaution, rope-related working parts, particularly in the
areas described below, should be re-inspected prior to the installation of a new
wire rope.
The very first item to be checked when examining sheaves and drums, is the
condition of the grooves (Figs. 29, 30, and 3 1 ) . To check the size, contour and
amount of wear, a groove gage is used. As shown in Figure 29, the gage should
contact the groove for about 150" of arc.
Two types of groove gages are in general use and it is important to note
which of these is being used. The two differ by their respective percentage
over nominal.
For new or re-machined grooves, the groove gage is nominal plus the full
oversize percentage. The gage carried by most wire rope representatives today is
used for worn grooves and is made nominal plus Y2 the oversize percentage.
This latter gage is intended to act as a sort of "no-go" gage. Any sheave with
a groove smaller than this must be re-grooved or, in all likelihood, the existing
rope will be damaged.
When the sheave is re-grooved it should be machined to the dimensions for
"new and machined" grooves given in Table 1 1. This table lists the requirements for
new or re-machined grooves, giving the groove gage diameter in terms of the
nominal wire rope diameter plus a percentage thereof. Similarly, the size of the
"no-go" gage is given, against which worn grooves are judged. Experience has
clearly demonstrated that the service life of the wire rope will be materially
increased by strict adherence to these standards.
3/4 DIAM. + 5%
TREAD DIAM.
PITCH DIAM.
OUTSIDE DIAM.
Figure 31. Illustrating the various dimensions of a sheave, and the use of a groove gage.
43
TABLE 11
MINIMUM SHEAVE- AND DRUM-GROOVE DIMENSIONS*
*Values given are applicable to grooves in
sheaves and drums; they are not generally
suitable for pitch design since this may
involve other factors.
Further, the dimensions do not apply to
traction-type elevators; in this circumstance,
drum- and sheave-groove tdlerances should
conform to the elevator manufacturer's
specifications.
Modern drum design embraces extensive
considerations beyond the scope of this
publication. It should also be noted that
drum grooves are now produced with a
number of oversize dimensions and pitches
applicable to certain service requirements.
Nominal Groove Radius
Rope Diameter New Worn
1 2 3 4 5 6
inches mm inches mm inches mm
If the fleet angle (Fig. 33) is large, it may be necessary to accept a smaller
arc of contact at the throat; 130" for example instead of 150". This is done to avoid
scrubbing the rope on the flange of the sheave.
As previously noted, the groove size is evaluated on the basis of how the
gage leaf fits the groove. Daylight under the gage is not tolerable when using the
worn groove gage. If a full over-size gage is used, some daylight may be acceptable,
but this really must be judged by relating the measurement to the actual size
of the rope.
For new rope, extra caution should be observed as to its fit in the groove.
Characteristically, ropes become smaller in diameter immediately after being
placed in service. As a result, they would operate satisfactorily in a "worn" groove;
one that was gaged OK by the "worn" groove gage. Nonetheless, in some cases,
a rope may not "pull down," and if this happens, abnormal wear may occur.
It is important to remember that a tight groove not only pinches and damages
the rope but that the pinching prevents the necessary adjustment of the wires and
strands. On the other hand, a groove that is too large will not provide sufficient
support; in this case, the rope will flatten and thereby restrict the free sliding action
of the wires and strands.
The size of the groove is not the only critical item to be examined closely.
The condition of the groove is also an important factor of concern. Is it smooth or
corrugated? If the groove is imprinted then it must be re-machined or, if it is
corrugated too deeply, it means that sheave, roller or drum must be replaced.
If replacement is indicated, a larger sheave or drum should be installed if possible,
or a harder material should be specified for the replacement.
Groove examination should also concern itself with how the groove is wearing.
If it is worn off-center, thereby forcing the rope to undercut or to rub against the
flange, it then becomes necessary to correct the alignment of the reeving system,
and to specify a harder material.
When checking the grooves, the bearings of the sheaves and rollers should
also be examined. They should turn easily. If not, each bearing must be properly
lubricated. "Wobble" in the sheave-from broken or worn bearings-is not
acceptable. Bad bearings will set up vibrations in the wire rope that can cause rapid
deterioration unless the condition is remedied. Bad bearings also increase the
force on the rope that is needed to move a given load, since friction forces will be
greatly increased.
Sheaves with broken flanges may allow the rope to jump from the sheave and
become fouled in the machinery. When this happens, the rope is cut, curled,
and the crowns of the wires in the strands are burred. There is ample evidence to
support the rule that sheaves with broken flanges must be replaced immediately.
A sheave or drum with a flat spot can induce a "whip" into the line. This
whip, or wave may travel until it is stopped by the end terminal, at which point
the rope may bend severely. This condition helps to accelerate the fatigue breakage
of wires. Sometimes the reeving is such that the whip or wave is arrested by a
sheave, or the drum itself. In these circumstances, the whipping will cause wire
breaks along the crowns of the strands. Obviously, sheaves or drums that excite
vibrations of this sort, must be repaired or replaced.
In addition to the items discussed, inspection should also focus on any and all
Figure 32. Derived from standard test data,
this curve relates rope strength efficiency to
various D/d ratios. The curve is based on
static loads only and applies to 6 x 19 and
6 x 37 class ropes.
conditions that could cause wear and eventual damage to the wire rope.
For example, plain-face (smooth) drums can develop grooves or rope
impressions that will prevent the rope from winding properly. Imprinting is greatest
at the pickup point when the machine is accelerating. If this happens, the surface
should be repaired by machining or replaced. The winding should be checked
to make sure that the rope is winding "thread wound" (Fig. 27).
Excessive wear in grooved drums should be checked for variations either
in the depth or pitch of the grooves. This condition is particularly critical when
double drums are used because a differential force will be set up that can break
the drum and shear the shaft.
No matter what type of drum is in use, excessive drum wear will usually result
in rapid rope deterioration. This condition will accelerate rapidly when winding
in multiple layers.
STRENGTH LOSS OF WIRE ROPE OVER
STATIONARY SHEAVES OR PINS
Rope breaking strength is determined in a standard test wherein fittings are
attached to the ends of the rope and the rope is pulled in a straight line.
If, however, the rope passes over a curved surface (such as a sheave or pin)
its strength "is decreased." The amount of such reduction will depend on the
severity of the bend as expressed by the D/d ratio. For example, a rope bent around
a pin of its own diameter will have only 50% of the strength attributed to it
in the standard test. This is called "50 % efficiency" (Fig. 32) . Even at D/d ratios
of 40, there may be a loss of up to 5 % . At smaller D/d ratios, the loss in strength
increases quite rapidly.
The angle of bend need not be 1 80, 90, or even 45 O; relatively small bends
can cause considerable loss.
All discussion of strength pre-supposes a gradually applied load not to exceed
one inch per minute.
EFFICIENCY OF WIRE ROPE WHEN BENT OVER SHEAVES OR PINS OF VARIOUS SI ZES
50
60
-
g
70
Z
W
0
LL
h 80
90
100 2 6 10 14 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I l
18 22 26 3 0 34 3 8
D/d RATIO
Figure 33. This illustration of wire rope
running from a fixed sheave, over a floating
sheave, and then on to a smooth drum,
graphically defines the fleet angle.
FLEET ANGLE
The achievement of even winding on a smooth faced drum is closely related to
the magnitude of the D/d ratio, the speed of rotation, load on the rope, and the
fleet angle. Of all these factors, the one that exerts perhaps the greatest influence
on winding characteristics, is the fleet angle.
The schematic drawing (Fig. 33) shows an installation where the wire rope
runs from a fixed sheave, over a floating sheave, and then on to the surface of
a smooth drum. The fleet angle (Fig. 33 ) may be defined as the included angle
between two lines; one line drawn through the middle of the fixed sheave and
the drum-and perpendicular to the axis of the drum and a second line drawn from
the flange of the drum to the base of the groove in the sheave. (The drum flange
represents the farthest position to which the rope can travel across the drum.)
There are left and right fleet angles, measured to the left or right of the center line
of the sheave, respectively.
It is necessary to restrict the fleet angle on installations where wire rope
passes over the lead or fixed sheave and onto a drum. For optimum efficiency and
service characteristics, the angle here should not exceed 1% " for a smooth drum,
nor 2" for a grooved drum. Fleet angles larger than these suggested limits can cause
such problems as bad winding on smooth drums, and the rope rubbing against
the flanges of the sheave grooves. Larger angles also create situations where there
is excessive crushing and abrasion of the rope on the drum. Conversely, small
fleet angles-less than % "-should also be avoided since too small an angle will
cause the rope to pile up.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF WIRE ROPE
The key to choosing the rope best suited for the job, lies in an accurate estimation
of the important requirements. Correct appraisal of the following will simplify
the selection process :
1 ) Strength-resistance to breaking
2 ) Resistance to bending fatigue
3) Resistance to vibrational fatigue
4 ) Resistance to abrasion
5 ) Resistance to crushing
6 ) Reserve strength
It is well-nigh impossible for any single rope to have top values in all of the
above qualities. The rule, in fact, seems to be that a high rating in one almost
always means lower ratings in others. The first task is to make a careful analysis of
the job requirements, establishing priorities among these requirements, and then
selecting the rope on a trade-off basis. This will provide the best possible balance
by sacrificing the least essential advantages in order to obtain maximum benefits
in the most important requirements.
Following, are brief explanations of the six factors previously listed:
1 ) Strength-resistance to breaking
As has been noted at the very outset, a wire rope is a machine-a fairly complex
device that transmits and modifies force and motion. Thus, the very first
consideration in choosing a "machine," is to determine the potential work load.
Stated in terms of wire rope, this means establishing the actual load that is
to be moved. To this known dead weight, there must be added those loads that
are caused by abrupt starts (acceleration), sudden stops, shock loads, high
speeds, friction of sheave bearings. Another item in this equation is the loss
of efficiency that occurs when the rope is bent over sheaves. All of these loads
must be summed up in order to determine the true total load that will ultimately
be handled.
For an average operation, this figure is generally multiplied by a "design
factor" of 5. For increased mobility or design space economy, a design factor of
less than 5 is used at times, but if the load is especially valuable, or if there is
danger to human life, a larger design factor (up to 8 or 9) is used in some
instances. A still larger factor is sometimes found to be desirable. The factored
load is now used to choose the size, grade, and core of the wire rope to be
considered.
(An extended discussion of Design Factors can be found on p. 77. )
2 ) Resistance to bending fatigue
To describe this, a close analogy can be made with a paper clip. If it is repeatedly
bent back and forth at one point, it will eventually break. The reason for this
is a phenomenon called "metal fatigue." To some degree, the same thing
happens when a wire rope is bent around sheaves, drums, and rollers. The
sharper-or more acute-the bend, the quicker the fatigue factor does its work.
Accelerating the rate of travel also speeds up fatigue; close-coupled reverse
bending will speed it up at an even greater rate.
But fatigue can be greatly reduced if sheaves and drums have, at the
very least, the recommended minimum diameter (Table 9) . As for the rope,
there is one governing overall rule: the greater the number of wires in each
strand, the greater the resistance of the rope to bending fatigue.
The subject of metal fatigue is covered by a large and extensive body of
literature. It is not the intent of this publication to discuss, even in broad terms,
the theoretical concepts of the phenomenon. It will simply be noted here that
the concept of fatigue as a cause of metal "crystallization" is incorrect since
all metals are at all times crystalline in structure. The crystalline appearance
in many fractures is not indicative of "crystallization."
3) Resistance to vibrational fatigue
Vibration, from whatever source, sends shock waves through the rope. These
waves are a form of energy that must be absorbed at some point. This point
may appear at various places-the end attachment, the tangent where the rope
contacts the sheave, or at any other place where the waves are arrested and
the energy absorbed.
In the normal operation of a machine or hoist, wire ropes develop a
wave action that can be observed either as a low frequency or as a sharp, high
frequency cycle. A good example of this is found in shaft hoists. When the cage
is just starting up, the rope has a very slow swing within the shaft. But, by the
time the cage reaches the top of the shaft, the initially low frequency has become
a high frequency vibration. The result is eventual breakage of the wires at
the attachment of the cage.
Another type of vibrational fatigue is found in operations where there is
cyclic loading. Such loadings would be found, for example, in the boom
TABLE 12
Number Percent
of of
Outside Reserve
Wires Strength
suspension systems of draglines. Here, the energy is absorbed at the end fittings
of the pendants or at the tangent point where the rope contacts the sheave.
In this case, the "vibration" is torsional as well as transverse.
4) Resistance to abrasion
Abrasion is one of the most common destructive conditions to which wire rope
is exposed. It will occur whenever a rope either rubs against or is dragged
through any soil or other material. It happens whenever a rope passes around
a sheave or drum. And, it takes place within the rope itself whenever it is loaded
or bent. Abrasive action weakens the rope simply by removing metal from
both inside and outside wires.
When excessive wear is encountered in an operation, the problem usually
stems from faulty sheave alignment, incorrect groove diameters, an
inappropriate fleet angle, or improper drum winding. There may, however,
be other causes. If, on investigation, none of these common conditions are found
to be causative factors, the solution may lie in changing to a more suitable rope
construction. In making such a change, it is helpful to remember that larger
outer wires and lang-lay ropes are more abrasion resistant than regular-lay
ropes. (See p. 10 for limitations of lung-2ay ropes.)
5 ) Resistance to crushing
Rope can be crushed 1) by its own pressure against a sheave, 2) from
improperly sized grooves, and 3) from multiple layers on a drum.
The pressure of rope against a sheave is determined by the sheave diameter
and the load. The pressure of rope to a drum is influenced in great measure
by the support of the groove; smooth drums have a more adverse effect than
those that are grooved.
Multiple-layer winding is also a cause of wear even when the winding is
done in an orderly (thread-winding) manner. Irregular or scramble winding
is an even greater cause of damage.
Obviously, in each of these cases, reducing the load will ease the condition.
If, however, this is not feasible, offending sheaves may be replaced with
sheaves that have larger tread diameters. Unsuitable drums and/or winding
conditions should be corrected. Otherwise, the rope will have to be replaced
by one with a construction better designed to resist the abuse.
If the original rope has a fiber core, the replacement should have a steel
core because a steel core rope will provide greater physical support. And
here it is well to remember that regular-lay ropes are better able to resist
crushing than lang-lay ropes.
6) Reserve strength
The reserve strength of a wire rope is defined as the combined strength of all
the wires it contains, except those in the outside layer of the strands.
The listing (Table 12) gives the percent of reserve strength for 6- or
8-strand wire rope relative to the number of outside wires in each strand.
Figure 34. The wire rope industry refers
to this as the X-chart. It serves to illustrate
the inverse relationship between abrasion
resistance and resistance to bending fatigue in
a representative number of the most widely
I tsed wire ropes.
THE "X-CHART"-ABRASION RESISTANCE
VS. BENDING-FATIGUE RESISTANCE
While there is a possibility, there is little likelihood that an application can be
found for which there is a precisely suitable wire rope-one that can satisfy
every indicated requirement.
As with all engineering design problems, feasible solutions demand
compromise to some degree. At times, it becomes necessary to settle for less than
optimum resistance to abrasion in order to obtain maximum flexibility; the
latter being a more important requirement for the given job. A typical example
of this kind of trade-off would be in selecting a highly flexible rope on an overhead
crane. Conversely, in a haulage installation, a rope with greater resistance to
abrasion would be chosen despite the fact that such ropes are markedly
less flexible.
Two compelling factors that govern most decisions as to the selection of
a wire rope are: abrasion resistance, and resistance to bending fatigue. Striking
a proper balance with respect to these two important characteristics demands
judgment of a very high order. A graphic presentation of just such comparison of
qualities between the most widely used rope constructions and others is given
by means of the X-chart (Fig. 34).
Referring to this chart when selecting a rope, the mid-point (at the X)
comes closest to an even balance between abrasion resistance and resistance to
bending fatigue. Reading up or down along either leg of the X, the inverse
relationship becomes more apparent as one quality increases and the other
decreases.
The term flexibility is frequently thought of as being synonymous with
resistance to bending fatigue. This is not true. Flexibility refers to the capability
of flexing or bending. While a high degree of fatigue resistance may sometimes
accompany the flexibility characteristic, it does not necessarily follow that this is so.
A fiber core rope, for example, is more flexible than an IWRC rope. Yet, when
the IWRC rope is bent around undersize sheaves at relatively high loads, it will
usually perform better than the more flexible fiber core rope. The reason for
this lies in the ability of IWRC rope to retain its roundness and freedom of internal
movement. Under the same conditions, a fiber core rope will flatten and inhibit
free internal adjustment, thereby leading to early failure.
As noted earlier, a design choice is almost invariably the result of compromise.
Ultimately, what is sought is an efficient, economical solution, hence whatever
the compromise, it must help achieve this goal.
BREAKING IN A NEW WIRE ROPE
A new wire rope requires careful installation and close adherence to following
all the appropriate procedures previously noted. After the rope has been installed
and the ends secured in the correct manner, the mechanisms should be started
carefully and then permitted to run through a cycle of operation at very slow
speed. During this trial operation, a very close watch should be kept on all
working parts-sheaves, drums, rollers-to make certain that the rope runs
freely, and without any possible obstructions as it makes its way through the
system. If no problems appear in running the rope, the next step should include
several run-throughs of the normal operational cycle under light load and at
reduced speed. This procedure allows the component parts of the new rope to make
a gradual adjustment to the actual operating conditions.
WIRE ROPE AND OPERATIONS INSPECTION
It is essential to maintain a well-planned program of periodic inspection.
Frequently, there are statutory and/or regulatory agencies whose requirements
must be adhered to, but whether or not these exist in a given locale, the wire rope
user can be guided by the suggested procedures that follow.
Abrasion, bending and crushing represent the ABC's of wire rope abuse,
and it is the primary goal of good inspection practice to discover such conditions
early enough so that corrections can be made or ropes replaced safely and
with minimum effort. When any sudden degradation indicates a loss of original
rope strength, a decision must be made quickly as to allowing the rope to remain
in service. But such a decision can only be made by an experienced inspector.
And his determination will be based on:
1 ) Details of the equipment's operation,
2 ) Frequency of inspection,
3 ) Maintenance history,
4 ) Consequences of failure,
5 ) Historical records of similar equipment.
To make certain that sufficient information is obtained, following are
guidelines that should be adhered to.
GUIDELINE TO INSPECTIONS AND REPORTS FOR EQUIPMENT,
WIRE ROPE AND WIRE ROPE SLINGS
1 ) Maintain all inspection records and reports for the length of time deemed
appropriate.
2) Prior to each daily use, the following procedure should be followed.
a. Check all equipment functions.
b. Lower load blocks and check hooks for deformation or cracks.
c. During lowering procedure and the following raising cycle, observe the rope
and the reeving. Particular notice should be paid to kinking, twisting or
other deformities. Drumwinding conditions should also be noted.
d. Check wire rope and slings for visual signs of anything that can cause them
to be unsafe to use, i.e., broken wires, excessive wear, kinking or twisting,
and marked corrosion. Particular attention should be given to any new
damage during operation.
3) Periodic inspections consistent with applicable standards are recommended
with a signed report by an authorized competent inspector. These Periodic
Reports should include inspection of the following:
a. All functional operating mechanisms for excessive wear of components,
brake system parts and lubrication.
b. Limit switches.
c. Crane hooks for excess throat opening or twisting along with a visual
for cracks.
d. Wire rope and reeving for conditions causing possible removal.
e. Wire rope slings for excessive wear, broken wires, kinking, twisting and
mechanical abuse.
f. All end connections such as hooks, shackles, turnbuckles, plate clamps,
sockets, etc. for excessive wear, and distortion.
4 ) At least one annual inspection with signed report must be made for the
following :
a. Crane hook for cracks.
b. Hoist drum for wear or cracks.
c. Structural members for cracks, corrosion and distortion.
d. For loose structural connections such as bolts, rivets, and weldments.
WIRE ROPE INSPECTION
The following is a fairly comprehensive listing of critical inspection factors. It is
not, however, presented as a substitute for an experienced inspector. It is rather
a user's guide to the accepted standards by which ropes must be judged.
1 ) Abrasion
Rope abrades when it moves through an abrasive medium or over drums and
sheaves. Most standards require that rope is to be removed if the outer wire
wear exceeds ?43 of the original outer wire diameter. This is not easy to
determine and discovery relies upon the experience gained by the inspector
in measuring wire diameters of discarded ropes.
2 ) Rope stretch
All ropes will stretch when loads are initially applied. For an extended
discussion of stretch, see pp. 73 and following.
As a rope degrades from wear, fatigue, etc. (excluding accidental
damage), continued application of a load of constant magnitude will produce
varying amounts of rope stretch. A "stretch" curve plotted for stretch vs.
time (Fig. 35) displays three distinct phases:
Phase 1. Initial stretch, during the early (beginning) period of rope service,
caused by the rope adjustments to operating conditions (constructional stretch).
Phase 2. Following break-in, there is a long period-the greatest part of
the rope's service life-during which a slight increase in stretch takes place
over an extended time. This results from normal wear, fatigue, etc.
On the plotted curve-stretch vs. time-this portion would almost be a
horizontal straight line inclined slightly upward from its initial level.
Phase 3. Thereafter, the stretch occurs at a quicker rate. This means that the
rope has reached the point of rapid degradation; a result of prolonged
Figure 35. This curve is plotted to show the
relationship of wire rope stretch to the
subjection to abrasive wear, fatigue, etc. This second upturn of the curve is
J
r
a warning indicating that the rope should soon be removed.
I
3) Reduction in rope diameter
.4
Any marked reduction in rope diameter indicates degradation. Such reduction 1
may be attributed to :
1
i
excessive external abrasion
{
internal or external corrosion
loosening or tightening of rope lay
inner wire breakage - i
rope stretch i
ironing or milking of strands
1 i
I
In the past, whether or not a rope was allowed to remain in service
depended to a great extent on the rope's diameter at the time of inspection.
I
Currently this practice has undergone significant modification.
2
!
Previously, a decrease in the rope's diameter was compared with published
standards of minimum diameters. The amount of change in diameter is,
of course, useful in assessing a rope's condition. But, comparing this figure
,
with a fixed set of values can be misleading. These long-accepted minimums
%
are not, in themselves, of any serious significance since they do not take into
account such factors as : 1 ) variations in compressibility between IWRC and
i
Fiber Core; 2) differences in the amount of reduction in diameter from abrasive
'
wear, or from core compression, or a combination of both; and 3 ) the actual
i -
f
original diameter of the rope rather than its nominal value. I
As a matter of fact, all ropes will show a significant reduction in diameter
when a load is applied. Therefore, a rope manufactured close to its nominal
a
size may, when it is subjected to loading, be reduced to a smaller diameter
I
than that stipulated in the minimum diameter table. Yet, under these
various stages of a rope's life.
I
i
circumstances, the rope would be declared unsafe although it may, in actuality,
be safe.
As an example of the possible error at the other extreme, we can take the
case of a rope manufactured near the upper limits of allowable size. If the
diameter has reached a reduction to nominal or slightly below that, the tables
would show this rope to be safe. But it should, perhaps, be removed.
Today, evaluations of the rope diameter are first predicated on a
comparison of the original diameter-when new and subjected to a known
load-with the current reading under like circumstances. Periodically,
throughout the life of the rope, the actual diameter should be recorded when
the rope is under equivalent loading and in the same operating section.
This procedure, if followed carefully, reveals a common rope characteristic :
after an initial reduction, the diameter soon stabilizes. Later, there will be
a continuous, albeit small, decrease in diameter throughout its life.
Core deterioration, when it occurs, is revealed by a more rapid
reduction in diameter and when observed it is time for removal.
Deciding whether or not a rope is safe is not always a simple matter.
A number of different but interrelated conditions must be evaluated. It would
be dangerously unwise for an inspector to declare a rope safe for continued
service simply because its diameter had not reached the minimum arbitrarily
established in a table if, at the same time, other observations lead to an
opposite conclusion.
Because criteria for removal are varied, and because diameter, in itself,
is a vague criterion, the table of minimum diameters has been deliberately
omitted from this manual.
4 ) Corrosion
Corrosion, while difficult to evaluate, is a more serious cause of degradation
than abrasion. Usually, it signifies a lack of lubrication. Corrosion will
often occur internally before there is any visible external evidence on the rope
surface. Pitting of wires is a cause for immediate rope removal. Not only
does it attack the metal wires, but it also prevents the rope's component parts
from moving smoothly as it is flexed. Usually, a slight discoloration because
of rusting merely indicates a need for lubrication.
Severe rusting, on the other hand, leads to premature fatigue failures in
the wires necessitating the rope's immediate removal from service. When a
rope shows more than one wire failure adjacent to a terminal fitting, it should
'
be removed immediately. To retard corrosive deterioration, the rope
should be kept well lubricated. In situations where extreme corrosive action
can occur, it may be necessary to use galvanized wire rope.
5 ) Kinks
Kinks are permanent distortions caused by loops drawn too tightly. Ropes
with kinks must be removed from service.
6 ) "Bird Caging"
Bird caging results from torsional imbalance that comes about because of
mistreatments such as sudden stops, the rope being pulled through tight
sheaves, or wound on too small a drum. This is cause for rope replacement
unless the affected section can be removed.
7 ) Localized Conditions
Particular attention must be paid to wear at the equalizing sheaves. During
normal operations this wear is not visible. Excessive vibration, or whip can
cause abrasion and/or fatigue. Drum cross-over and flange point areas
must be carefully evaluated. All end fittings, including splices, should be
examined for worn or broken wires, loose or damaged strands, cracked fittings,
worn or distorted thimbles and tucks of strands.
8) Heat Damage
After a fire, or the presence of elevated temperatures, there may be metal
discoloration, or an apparent loss of internal lubrication; fiber core ropes are
particularly vulnerable. Under these circumstances the rope should
be replaced.
9 ) Protruding Core
If, for any cause, the rope core protrudes from an opening between the
strands the rope is unfit for service and should be removed.
10) Damaged End Attachments
Cracked, bent, or broken end fittings must be eliminated. The cause should
be sought out and corrected. In the case of bent hooks, the throat openings
-measured at the narrowest point-should not exceed 15 % over normal
nor should twisting be greater than 10 " .
1 1 ) Peening
Continuous pounding is one of the causes of peening. The rope strikes
against an object such as some structural part of the machine, or it beats
against a roller, or it hits itself. Often, this can be avoided by placing protectors
between the rope and the object it is striking. Another common cause of
peening is continuous working-under high loads--over a sheave or drum.
Where peening action cannot be controlled, it is necessary to have more
frequent inspections and to be ready for earlier rope replacement.
Figure 36 shows the external appearance of two ropes, one of which
has been abraded and the other peened. Also shown are the cross-sections
of wires in both conditions.
12) Scrubbing
Scrubbing refers to the displacement of wires and strands as a result of rubbing
against itself or another object. This, in turn, causes wear and displacement
of wires and strands along one side of the rope. Corrective measures should
be taken as soon as this condition is observed.
1 3 ) Fatigue Fracture
Wires that break with square ends and show little surface wear, have usually
failed as a result of fatigue. Such fractures can occur on the crown of the
strands, or in the valleys between the strands where adjacent strand contact
exists. In almost all cases, these failures are related to bending stresses
or vibration.
If diameter of the sheaves, rollers or drum cannot be increased, a more
flexible rope should be used. But, if the rope in use is already of maximum
flexibility, the only remaining course that will help prolong its service life is
to move the rope through the system by cutting off the dead end. By moving
Figure 36. These plan views and
cross-sections show the effects of abrasion
and peening on wire rope. Note that a crack
has formed as a result of heavy peening.
the rope through the system, the fatigued sections are moved to less fatiguing
areas of the reeving.
14 Broken Wires
The number of broken wires on the outside of a wire rope are an index of
1) its general condition, and 2) whether or not it must be considered
for replacement. Frequent inspection will help determine the elapsed time
between breaks. Ropes should be replaced as soon as the wire breakage
reaches the numbers given in Table 13. Such action must be taken without
regard to the type of fracture.
1 5 ) Electric Arc
Rope that has either been in contact with a live power line or been used
as "ground in an electric welding circuit, will have wires that are fused,
discolored and/or annealed, and must be removed.
On occasion, a single wire will break shortly after installation. However,
if 110 other wires break at that time, there is no need for concern. On the
other hand, should more wires break, the cause should be carefully
investigated.
On any application, valley breaks-i.e., where the wire fractures between
strands-should be given serious attention. When two or more such fractures
are found, the rope should be replaced immediately. (Note, however, that
no valley breaks are permitted in elevator ropes.)
It is well to remember that once broken wires appear-in a rope
operating under normal conditions-a good many more will show up within
a relatively short period. Attempting to squeeze the last measure of service
from a rope beyond the allowable number of broken wires (Table 13) ,
will create an intolerably hazardous situation.
A diagnostic guide to some of the most prevalent rope abuses is given in
Table 14. On the following pages these abuses are illustrated and described.
abrasion
TABLE 13 WHEN TO REPLACE WIRE ROPE--BASED ON NUMBER OF BROKEN WIRES
Number Broken Wires Number Broken Wires
In Running Ropes In Standing Ropes
ANSI*
Standard Equipment
In One In One In One At End
Rope Lay Strand Rope Lay Connection
Overhead & Gantry Cranes
Not
Specified
B30.4 Portal, Tower & Pillar Cranes 6 3 3 2
B30.5 Crawler, Locomotive & Truck Cranes 6 3 3 2
B30.6 Derricks 6 3 3 2
B30.7 Base Mounted Drum Hoists 6 3 3 2
B30.8 Floating Cranes & Derricks 6 3 3 2
B30.16 Overhead Hoists
Not
Specified
A10.4 Personnel Hoists 6** 3 2** 2
A10.5 Material Hoists 6**
Not Not
Specified Specified
"American National Standards Institute
**Also remove for 1 valley break
Figure 37. A wire broken under a tensile load that exceeds its strength is recognized by the
"cup and cone" configuration at the fracture point (a). The necking down of the wire at this
point shows that failure occurred while the wire retained its ductility. Shear-tensile fracture
(b) occurs in wire subjected to a combination of transverse and axial loads. Fatigue breaks
are usually characterized by squared-off ends perpendicular to the wire either straight across
or Z-shaped (c & d).
TABLE 14 DIAGNOSTIC GUIDE TO COMMON WIRE ROPE DEGRADATION 1
Mode Symptoms Possible Causes
Fatigue Wire break is transverse--either straight Check for rope bent around too small a radius; vibra-
across or Z shape. Broken ends will tion or whipping; wobbly sheaves; rollers too small;
appear grainy. reverse bends; bent shafts; tight grooves; corrosion;
small drums & sheaves; incorrect rope construction;
improper installation; poor end terminations. (In the
absence of other modes of degradation, all rope will
eventually fail in fatigue. )
-
Tension Wire break reveals a mixture of cup and Check for overloads; sticky, grabby clutches; jerky
cone fracture and shear breaks. conditions; loose bearing on drum; fast starts, fast stops,
broken sheave flange; wrong rope size & grade; poor
end terminations. Check for too great a strain on rope
after factors of degradation have weakened it.
Abrasion Wire break mainly displays outer wires Check for change in rope or sheave size; change in load;
worn smooth to knife edge thinness. Wire overburden change; frozen or stuck sheaves; soft rollers,
broken by abrasion in combination with sheaves or drums; excessive fleet angle; misalignment
another factor will show a combination of sheaves; kinks; improperly attached fittings; grit &
break. sand; objects imbedded in rope; improper grooving.
Abrasion Reduced cross-section is broken off A long term condition normal to the operating
plus Fatigue square thereby producing a chisel shape. process.
Abrasion Reduced cross-section is necked down A long term condition normal to the operating
plus Tension as in a cup and cone configuration. Tensile process.
break produces a chisel shape.
Cut or Gouged Wire ends are pinched down, mashed Check on all the above conditions for mechanical
or Rough Wire and/or cut in a rough diagonal shear-like abuse, or either abnormal or accidental forces during
manner. installation.
Torsion or Wire ends show evidence of twist and/or Check on all the above conditions for mechanical
Twisting cork-screw effect. abuse, or either abnormal or accidental forces during
installation.
Mashing Wires are flattened and spread at Check on all the above conditions for mechanical
broken ends. abuse, or either abnormal or accidental forces during
installation. (This is a common occurrence on the drum.)
Corrosion Wire surfaces are pitted with break Indicates improper lubrication or storage, or a
showing evidence either of fatigue tension corrosive environment.
or abrasion.
Figure 38A. An outer strand (top) from a 19 x 7 rope shows nicking that occurs between
adjacent strands as well as between strands and the inner rope (bottom). Similar nicking
patterns occur in other ropes with an IWRC.
Figure 38B. A single strand removed trom a wire rope subjected to strand nicking.
Resulting from adjacent strands rubbing against one another, this condition is usually caused
by core failure resulting from continued operation of the rope under high tensile load.
Ultimately, there will be individual wire breaks in the valleys of the strands.
Figure 39A. A tightly spiralled pig-tailed rope; this condition is a result of the rope being
pulled around an object that has a small diameter.
Figure 39B. Drum crushing and spiralling in a winch line. This is caused by the small
drums, high loads, and multiple layer winding conditions frequently found on winches.
Figure 40. When a reel has been damaged in transit, it is a safe assumption that there can
be irreparable damage to the rope.
Figure 41. Wire rope abuses during shipment create serious problems. One of the more
common causes is improper fastening of rope end to reel, e.g., nailing through the rope end.
These photos show two acceptable methods: a) one end of a wire "noose" holds the rope,
and the other end is secured to the reel; and b) the rope end is held in place by a J-bolt or
U-bolt that can be fixed to a reel.
Figure 42. Wire rope with a high strand. In this condition, one or two strands are worn before
adjoining strands. This is caused by improper socketing or seizing, kinks or dog legs. The top
illustration (a) is a close view of the concentration of wear, the lower ( b) shows how this
recurs in every sixth strand (in a six-strand rope).
Figure 43. This rope was damaged on the reel while being rolled over a sharp object.
Figure 44. These rope damages-the result of bad drum winding-are referred to as:
a) layer-to-layer crushing, b) scrubbing at cross-over or flange turnback, and c) layer-to-layer
crushing.
i
Figure 45. In this rope, subjected to drum crushing, the individual wires are distorted and
displaced from their normal position. Uwally, this is caused by the rope scrubbing on itself.
I
'
!
1
3
Figure 46. A deeply corrugated sheave. I
Figure 47. This rope condition is called a dog leg.
63
The following conditions (Figs. 48 and 49) can be caused by a sudden release of
tension and the resulting rebound of the rope from its overloaded condition. The
strands and wires will not return to their original position. These conditions
can also result from the rope operating through a tight groove.
--
Figure 48. An occurrence that is called a popped core.
Figure 49. This condition is called a bird cage and is caused by a sudden release of tension
and the resulting rebound of the rope from its overloaded condition. The strands and wires
will not return to their original positions.
Figure 50. Here the strand wires were snagged and gouged.
Figure 51. This is an example of a wire rope that has jumped a sheave. The deformation is
in the shape of a curl-as if it had been bent around a circular shaft. On close examination,
the wires show two types of breaks-the normal tensile cup and cone and the shear break
which appear as having been cut with a cold chisel on an angle (see Fig. 37).
Figure 52. This is the appearance of a typical tension break; a result of overloading.
65
Figure 53. Here, the rope was subjected to repeated bending over sheaves while under normal
loads. Fatigue breaks in the individual wires was the result; these breaks are square and
are usually on the crown of the strand.
Figure 54. An example of fatigue fractures in a wire rope that was subjected to heavy
loads while over small sheaves. The usual crown breaks are here accompanied by breaks in
the valleys between the strands; the latter breaks are caused by strand nicking-a result
of the heavy loads.
Figure 55. A typical example of localized wear. The development of this condition might
be reduced if suitable cut-off practice is employed.
ROPE INSPECTION SUMMARY
Any wire rope that has broken wires, deformed strands, variations in diameter,
or any change from its normal appearance, must be considered for replacement.
It is always better to replace a rope when there is any doubt concerning its
condition or its ability to perform the required task. The cost of wire rope
replacement is quite insignificant when considered in terms of human injuries,
the cost of down time, or the cost of replacing broken structures.
Wire rope inspection includes examination of basic items such as:
1 ) Rope diameter reduction
2 ) Rope lay
3) External wear
4 ) Internal wear
5 ) Peening
6 ) Scrubbing
7 ) Corrosion
8) Broken wires
Some wire rope sections can break up without any visible warning. Sections
where this occurs are usually found at end terminations, and at points where
the rope enters or leaves the sheave of boom hoists, suspension systems, or other
semi-operational systems. Because of the "working" that takes place at those
sections, neither appreciable external wear nor crown breaks will appear. Under
such conditions the core fails thereby allowing adjacent strand nicking. When
this happens, valley breaks appear. As soon as the first valley break is detected
at the end termination, or two valley breaks are found elsewhere, the rope should
be removed.
If preventive maintenance is performed diligently, rope life can be pro-
longed. Cutting off an appropriate length of rope at the end termination before the
core degrades and valley breaks appear, minimizes degradation at these sections.
EQUIPMENT INSPECTION
Any undetected fault on a sheave, roller, or drum-be it of relatively major or
minor signscance-can cause a rope to wear out many times faster than the wear
resulting from normal operations. As a positive means of minimizing abuses
and other-than-normal wear, the procedures here set forth should be adhered to.
Every observation and measurement should be carefully recorded and kept in
some suitable and accessible file.
1) Give close examination to the method by which the rope is attached both to
the drum and to the load. Make certain that the proper type of attachment
is applied correctly, and that any safety devices in use are in satisfactory
working order.
2) Carefully check the groove and working surface of every sheave, roller, and
drum, to determine whether each (groove and surface) is as near to the
correct diameter and contour as circumstances will permit, and whether all
surfaces that are in contact with the rope are smooth and free of corrugations
or other abrasive defects.
3) Check sheaves and rollers to determine whether each turns freely, and whether
they are properly aligned with the travel of the rope. All bearings must be
in good operating condition and furnish adequate support to the sheaves and
rollers. Sheaves that are permitted to wobble will create additional forces
that accelerate the degradation of the rope.
4) If starter, filler, and riser strips on drums are used, check their condition and
location. Should these be worn, improperly located or badly designed, they
will cause poor winding, dog legs, and other rope damage.
5) Wherever possible, follow the path that the rope will follow through a complete
operating cycle. Be on the lookout for spots on the equipment that have
been worn bright or cut into by the rope as it moves through the system.
Ordinarily, excessive abrasive wear on the rope can be eliminated at these
points by means of some type of protector or roller.
FIELD LUBRICATION
During fabrication, ropes receive lubrication; the kind and amount depending
on the rope's size, type, and use, if known. This in-process treatment will provide
the finished rope with ample protection for a reasonable time if it is stored
under proper conditions. But, when the rope is put into service, the initial
lubrication will normally be less than needed for the full useful life of the rope.
Because of this, periodic applications of a suitable rope lubricant are necessary.
Following, are the important characteristics of a good wire rope lubricant:
1) It should be free from acids and alkalis,
2) It should have sufficient adhesive strength to remain on the ropes,
3) It should be of a viscosity capable of penetrating the interstices between
wires and strands,
4) It should not be soluble in the medium surrounding it under the actual
operating conditions,
5) It should have a high film strength, and
6) It should resist oxidation.
Before applying lubrication, accumulations of dirt or other abrasive material
should be removed from the rope. Cleaning is accomplished with a stiff wire
brush dipped in solvent, compressed air or live steam. Immediately after it is
cleaned, the rope should be lubricated. When it is normal for the rope to operate
in dirt, rock or other abrasive material, the lubricant should be selected with
great care to make certain that it will penetrate and, at the same time, will not pick
up any of the material through which the rope must be dragged.
As a general rule, the most efficient and most economical means to do field
lubrication/protection is by using some method or system that continuously
applies the lubricant while the rope is in operation. Many techniques are used;
these include the continuous bath, dripping, pouring, swabbing, painting, or
where circumstances dictate, automatic systems can be used to apply lubricants
either by a drip or pressure spray method (Fig. 56).
CONTINUOUS BATH
PAINTING
' 1
DRIPPING
SWABBING
SPRAY NOZZLE
Figure 56. Methods of lubricant application in general use at present, include continuous
bath, dripping, pouring, swabbing, painting, and spraying. When the rope is bent, the lubricant
will penetrate much easier. Arrows indicate the direction of the rope's movement.
WIRE ROPE EFFICIENCY OVER SHEAVES
(TACKLE BLOCK SYSTEM)
Some portion of a wire rope's strength-when operating over sheaves-is
expended in turning the sheaves and in flexing. This lost strength is not available
to lift the load, and in a multi-part tackle block system (Fig. 57) this loss factor
can be significant.
The load on the lead line (fast line) under static (no-movement) conditions
can be readily calculated if the load is divided by the number of parts of line
as expressed in the following formula:
Total load (incl. slings, containers, etc. )
Fast line load =
No. of parts of line
For example, in a four-part system (Fig. 57d) to lift 6000 lb, the lead line
load will equal:
1
A. ONE-PART LINE 6. TWO-PART LINE C. THREE- PART LINE
D. FOUR-PART LINE E. FIVE-PART LINE
I
Figure 57. Commonly used single- and multiple-sheave blocks (tackles). Static loading on the
rope is: A) equal to, B) M of, C) 1/3 of, D) 1/4 of, and E) of the supported load.
Moreover, if this system has ball or roller bearings in the sheaves, the lead
line load will increase to 1651 lb when the load starts to move. On the other
hand, if the sheaves have plain bearings such as bronze bushings, the lead line load
will increase to 1 85 1 lb.
In an 8-part system with plain bearings, the lead line load jumps from
750 lb to 1086 lb--an increase of 45 % ! Derricks often use 8 or more parts in the
boom support system. The schematic diagram (Fig. 58) shows 4-part reeving.
This system has the same number of sheaves as there are parts of line.
The following procedure presumes this condition throughout. Provision
for extra lead sheaves are given at the end of this discussion.
To calculate the lead-line load, the combined load of the container, contents
and lifting attachments is multiplied by the lead line factor as follows:
Lead line load = lead-line factor x load
Figure 58. Schematic representation of a
four-part reeving system. N= the number of
parts of line supporting the load (W), and
S=the number of rotating sheaves.
TABLE 15 LEAD-LINE FACTORS''
Parts
of Line
With Plain
Bearing Sheaves
With Roller
Bearing Sheaves
*In using this table, the user should note that it is based on
the assumption that the number of parts of line ( N) is equal to
the number of sheaves (S). When S exceeds N, refer to the text.
Fig. 59 shows a similar 4-part system with an additional lead-in sheave.
In such cases, for each additional sheave the tabulated value is multiplied by 1.09
for plain bearings, or 1.04 for anti-friction bearings.
Example: What is the lead-line factor for a piain bearing tackle block system
of 5 parts of line and two extra lead-in sheaves? The tabulated value is .257.
Since there are two additional sheaves, the computation is:
.257 x 1.09 x 1.09 = .305
What is the lead-line load on this system when the load is 5000 lbs?
5000 x .305 = 1525 lb
It should be emphasized that the "dead-end" may also be subjected to this
augmented load.
Systems in which both rope ends are attached to a drum such as may be found
in overhead cranes are not within the scope of this discussion. It is suggested,
Figure 59. Schematic representation of a
therefore, that information on such systems be obtained directly from a wire
4-part reeving system with an extra (idler)
rope manufacturer.
sheave.
6 Physical Properties
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF WIRE ROPE
The following discussion relates to conventional 6- or %strand ropes that have
either fiber or steel cores; it is not applicable to rotation-resistant ropes since these
constitute a separate case.
Wire rope is an elastic member; it stretches or elongates under load. This
stretch derives from two sources:
1 ) constructional, and
2) elastic.
In actuality, there may be a third source of stretch-a result of the rope
rotating on its own axis. Such elongation, which may occur either as a result of
using a swivel, or from the effect of a free-turning load, is brought about by the
unlaying of the rope strands. Because the third source is a subject that is beyond
the scope of this publication, discussion will be directed to constructional and
elastic stretch.
CONSTRUCTIONAL STRETCH
When a load is applied to wire rope, the helically-laid wires and strands act in
a constricting manner thereby compressing the core and bringing all the rope
elements into closer contact. The result is a slight reduction in diameter and an
accompanying lengthening of the rope.
Constructional stretch is influenced by the following factors:
1 ) type of core (fiber or steel),
2) rope construction (6 x 7, 6 x 25 FW, 6 x 41 WS, 8 x 19 S, etc.),
3 ) length of lay,
4 ) material.
Ropes with wire strand core (WSC) or independent wire rope core (IWRC)
have less constructional stretch than those with fiber core (FC) . The reason for
this is the fact that the steel cannot compress as much as the fiber core.
Usually, constructional stretch will cease at an early stage in the rope's life.
However, some fiber core ropes, if lightly loaded (as in the case of elevator
ropes), may display a degree of constructional stretch over a considerable portion
of their life.
A definite value for determining constructional stretch cannot be assigned
since it is influenced by several factors. The following table gives some idea of the
approximate stretch as a percentage of rope under load.
Rope Construction Approximate Stretch*
6 strand FC Y2%- %%
6 strand IWRC %%- Y2%
8 strand FC %i%- 1%
*Varies with the magnitude of the loading.
73
ELASTIC STRETCH
Elastic stretch results from recoverable deformation of the metal itself. Here, again,
a quantity cannot be precisely calculated. However, the following equation can
provide a reasonable approximation for a good many situations.
Change in load (Ib) x Length (ft)
Changes in length (ft) =
Area (inches2) x Modulus of Elasticity (psi)
The modulus of elasticity is given in Table 16, and the area can be found
in Table 1 7.
TABLE 16 APPROXIMATE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
(Pounds per square inch)
Rope Classification Zero through 20 % Loading 21 % to 65 % Loading
--
6 x 7 with fiber core 1 1,700,000
6 x 19 with fiber core 10,800,000
6 x 19 with IWRC 13,500,000
6 x 37 with IWRC 12,600,000
"Applicable to new rope, i.e., not previously loaded.
EXAMPLE: How much elastic stretch may occur in 200 ft of 1/2 -inch 6 x 25
FW IPS FC rope when loaded to 20% of its nominal strength?
Nominal strength = 10.7 tons (2 1,400 lb)
20% of which = 4,280 lb
Area of 1/2 -inch is found by squaring the diameter and multiplying it by the
area of 1-inch rope given in Table 17 under the "Fiber Core" heading and
opposite6x25 FW,i.e., 1/2 x 342 x .417 = .104.
The modulus of elasticity is found in Table 16 opposite the 6 x 19 fiber core
(because 6 x 25 FW is a member of this class) and under the "Zero through
20% Loading."
Substituting these values, the equation reads as follows:
Change in length =
4280 x 200
-104 x 10,800,000
= .76 ft (9.1 inches)
A word of caution concerning the use of Table 16 : the higher modulus given
under the "21 % to 65 % Loading" is based on the assumption that both the
initial and the final load fall within this range. If the above example were restated
to the effect that the load was 35 % (or 7,490 lb) of the nominal strength,
it would be incorrect to rework the problem simply by making two substitutions:
the new load and the higher modulus of 12,000,000 psi. To do so would ignore
the greater stretch that occurs at the lower modulus during the initial loading.
TABLE 17
APPROXIMATE METALLIC AREAS OF ONE-INCH ROPE
OF VARIOUS CONSTRUCTIONS*
IWRC
Fiber or Cable
Construction Core WSC Laid
*Values given are based on 3% oversize because this is a
common design "target." But, this figure often varies and
is not to be considered a standard. Wire sizes in specific
constructions also vary, thus the given values are approxi-
mate. They are, however, within the range of accuracy of
the entire method that is, in itself, approximate.
As indicated, it is necessary to know the rope area in
order to solve the previously given stretch equation.
For diameters other than I inch, multiply the area given
in this table by the square of the nominal rope diameter.
Example: To find the area of 1/2" 6 x 36 WS IWRC
From the table: .485
Diameter squared: (1/2)2= % or .5 x .5 = .25
Multiply table value by diameter squared:
Area: = .25 x .485 = .12 1 inches2
Example: To find the area of 1 %" 6 x 25 FW FC
6x33FW .423 .490
6x36WS .419 .485
6 ~ 3 7 1 8 / 1 9 W .393 .459
6x37FW .427 .493
6 x 41 SFW .425 .49 1
6x41 WS .424 .490
6 x 42 Tiller .23 1
6 x 43 FWS .392 .45 8
6 x 46 SFW .425 .492
6x46WS .426 .492
6 x 61 FWS .408 .474
7 x 7 .471
7 x 19 12/7 .466
7 x l 9 W SO5
8 x 7 .343 .474
Answer: (1.25)2 x .417= 1.563 x .417= .652 inches2
75
Figure 60. This graph is called the Relative
Service Life Curve. It relates the service life
to operating loads. A design factor of 5 is
chosen most frequently.
In this instance, the problem would be worked out in two parts: the first
follows the above equation, and, in the second part, the load starts at 4,280 Ib and
ends at 7,490 Ib, and 12,000,000 psi is used as the modulus. Thus:
Change in length =
(7,490-4,280)
200'76 = -52 ft (6.2 inches)
. l o4 x 12,000,000
To this figure, the previously determined 9.1 inches must be added.
Hence, total stretch of this rope at 35 % of its nominal strength would be
approximately :
Constructional stretch ( % % ) * :
.0075 x 200 = 1.5 ft (18 inches)
Elastic stretch :
@ 0 through 20% = .76 ft (9.1 inches)
@ 21%-35% = .52 ft (6.2 inches)
TOTAL STRETCH = 2.78 ft ( 3 3.3 inches)
As noted earlier, this analysis is predicated on the assumption that the rope
in question is new-not having been previously loaded-and is free from rust
or other corrosion.
Where it is necessary to have precise data on elastic characteristics, a load vs.
elongation test must be performed on a representative sample of the rope
under consideration.
*The higher figure of % % is used here because of the heavy (35% ) load.
170
1 60
150
140
W
130
5 120
I10
-
2 I00
W
90
W
1 80
I-
3 70
W
a 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DESIGN FACTOR
For certain applications, ropes may be pre-stretched in order to remove
some of the constructional stretch. Frequently, this treatment is used on structural
members such as bridge rope and strand. In some cases, pre-stretching is applied
to operating ropes where elongation may present problems, e.g., elevator and
skip hoist ropes.
While a pre-stretching technique has value, some of the benefit is lost in
reeling and handling.
DESIGN FACTORS
The design f at or is defined as the ratio of the nominal strength of a wire rope
to the total load it is expected to carry. Hence, the design factor that is selected
plays an important part in determining the rope's service life. Excessive loading,
whether continuous or sporadic, will greatly impair its serviceability. Usually,
the choice of a certain wire rope size and grade will be based on static loading and,
under static conditions, it is sufficient for its task. However, where a machine is
working and dynamic loads are added to the static load, it is quite possible to
exceed the material's elastic limit.
As was noted in the earlier discussion, a "common" design factor is 5. Figure 60,
the Wire Rope Relative Service Li f e Curve, shows how the service life is reduced
as operating loads are increased. A change in the design fccctor from 5 to 3
decreases its life expectancy index from 100 to 60-a drop of 40% !
BREAKING STRENGTHS
The breaking strength is the ultimate load registered on a wire rope sample during
a tension test.
The nominal strengths given (Tables 18 through 36), have been calculated
by a standardized, industry-accepted procedure, and manufacturers design
wire rope to these strengths. When making design calculations, it should be noted
that the given figures are the static strengths. All discussion of strength is
predicated on the assumption of there being a gradually applied load that will not
exceed one inch per minute. Designers should base their calculations on these
strengths.
A minimum acceptance strength, 2% % lower than the published nominal
breaking strengths, was established as the industry tolerance. It serves to offset
variables that occur during the sample preparation and actual physical test of
a wire rope. This tolerance is used in the basic wire rope governmental
specifications.
Wire rope testi~g, whether it is performed for the purpose of determining
grade or for adherence to specifications, requires the sample to be tested to comply
with certain standards. For example: the sample's length must not be less than
3 ft (0.91 m) between sockets for ropes with diameters of from I / s inch (3.2 mm)
through 3 inches (77 mm) ; on ropes with larger (over 3 inches) diameters, the
clear length must be at least 20 times the rope diameter. The test is considered valid
only if failure occurs 2 inches (51 mm) or more from either of the sockets, or
from the holding mechanism.
TABLE 18 NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE
6 x 7 Classification/Bright (Uncoated), Fiber Core
Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Nominal Strength*
Improved Plow Steel* *
inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons metric tonnes
*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (nominal strength) by 8.896;
1 Ib = 4.448 newtons (N) .
**Available with galvanized wires at strengths 10% lower than listed, or at equivalent
strengths on special request.
6 x 7 Classification/Bright (Uncoated), IWRC
1 lb = 4.448 newtons (N) .
1 lb = 4.448 newtons (N) .
Nominal Approximate
Diameter Mass Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Plow Steel* * Plow Steel* *
metric metric
inches mm lb/ft kg/m tons tonnes tons tonnes
1 lb = 4.448 newtons (N).
6 x 37 ClassificationIBright (Uncoated), Fiber Core
*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN) , multiply
tons (nominal strength) by 8.896; 1 Ib=
4.448 newtons ( N) .
**Available with galvanized wires at
strengths 10% lower than listed, or at
equivalent strengths on special request.
Note: For four of the listed diameters,
Vt" through 7/1(3" with two-operation
strands, the given nominal strengths
will be reduced by approximately
5%%.
Nominal Strength*
Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel**
Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Nominal Approximate Plow Steel** Plow Steel* *
Diameter Mass
metric metric
- - --
2%
2%
2%
*To convert to Kilonewtons (kN) , multiply
2%
tons (nominal strength) by 8.896; 1 l b=
----
4.448 newtons (N). 2%
**Available with galvanized wires at 3
strengths 10% lower than listed, or at 3%
equivalent strengths on special request. 3%
Note: For four of the listed diameters,
3% 86 21.0 31.3 459 416 529 480
92" through 7/16" with two-operation 3 112 90 22.7 33.8 491 445 564 512
strands, the given nominal strengths
will be reduced by approximately
3% 96 24.3 36.2 523 458 602 528
3% 103 26.0 38.7 557
595%.
505 641 58 1
Nominal Strength*
Nominal Diameter Approximate Mass Improved Plow Steel
1 lb = 4.448 newtons ( N) .
Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Nominal Approximate Plow Steel Plow Steel
Diameter Mass
metric metric
1 lb = 4.448 newtons (N) .
Nominal Strength*
2 51 6.77 10.1 146 132
2 1/8 54 7.59 11.3 164 149
2% 57 8.51 12.7 183 166
2948 61 9.48 14.1 203 184
*To convert to Kilonewtons ( kN) , multiply tons (nominal strength) by 8.896;
1 lb = 4.448 newtons (N) .
6 x 91 ClassificationIBright (Uncoated), IWRC
Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Diameter Mass
metric metric
6 x 25B, 6 x 27H & 6 x 3 0 6 Flattened StrandIBright (Uncoated), Fiber Core
Nominal Strength *
1 lb = 4.448 newtons (N) .
6 x 25B, 6 x 27H & 6 x 306 Flattened StrandIBright (Uncoated), IWRC
Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Diameter Mass
metric metric
% 13 0.47 0.70 12.6 11.4 14 12.7
94s 14.5 0.60 0.89 16.0 14.5 17.6 16
s/s 16 0.73 1.09 19.6 17.8 21.7 19.7
% 19 1.06 1.58 28.1 25.5 31 28.1
1 lb = 4.448 newtons (N) .
Nominal Strength "
1 lb = 4.448 newtons (N) .
8 x 19 Classification/Rotation Resistant/Bright (Uncoated), IWRC
Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Diameter Mass
metric metric
i nches mm Ib/ft kg/m tons tonnes tons tonnes
The given strengths for 8 x 19 rotation resistant ropes are applicable only when a test
is conducted on a new rope fixed at both ends. When the rope is in use, and one end is free
to rotate, the nominal strength is reduced.
18 x 7 ConstructionIRotation ResistantIBright (Uncoated), Fiber Core
Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Nominal Approximate Plow Steel* * Plow Steel* *
Diameter Mass
metric metric
The given strengths are applicable only when a test is conducted on a new rope fixed
at both ends. When the rope is in use, and one end is free to rotate, the nominal strength
is reduced.
19 x 7 ConstructionIRotation ResistantIBright (Uncoated), IWRC
Nominal Strength*
Improved Extra Imp.
Nominal Approximate Plow Steel* * Plow Steel* *
Diameter Mass
metric metric
The given strengths are applicable only when a test is conducted on a new rope fixed
at both ends. When the rope is in use, and one end is free to rotate, the nominal strength
is reduced.
TABLE 34A NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE
1 x 7 and 1 x 19 Small Diameter Specialty Strand, Galvanized and Corrosion Resistant
Nominal Strength
Nominal Approximate -
Diameter Mass Galvanized Corrosion Resistant
lb/ kg/ lb/ kg/
inches mm 100ft 30.5m* 100ft 30.5m* lb kg lb kg lb kg 1b kg
TABLE 34B NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE
7 x 7 and 7 x 19 Small Diameter Specialty Cord, Galvanized and Corrosion Resistant
Nominal Strength
Nominal Approximate
Diameter Mass Galvanized Corrosion Resistant
lb/ kg/ lb/ kg/
inches mm 100 ft 30.5m** 100 ft 30.5m** lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg
*3 x 7 Construction
**30.5m = 100 ft
6 x 12 Construction/Galvanized, Fiber Core
Nominal Strength*
6 x 24 Construction/ Galvanized, Fiber Core
Nominal Strength*
--
Appendix A
ORDERING, STORING AND UNREELING WIRE ROPE
A. Ordering
When ordering wire rope, it must be described as completely as possible.
The generally accepted nomenclature conventions, defined elsewhere in this
publication, should be carefully noted. These, along with other applicable
information will not only enable the rope manufacturer to satisfy the purchaser's
requests, but will also provide data for technical advice or suggestions.
Following, is a check list of these data:
1) The application or use intended for the wire rope.
2) Description of the rope itself:
Length-standard or tape measured
Diameter-nominal diameter
Construction-e.g., "6 x 19 Seale"
Preformed or non-preformed-pref or non-pref
Lay-Right or Left; Regular or Lang Lay
Finish-bright or galvanized
Grade--e.g., improved plow steel, traction steel, or other
Core-independent wire rope, wire strand, or fiber
Lubrication-standard or special
3) Describe end terminations if required.
4) Describe special spooling or reel requirements.
B. Storing
No matter how the delivered rope is packaged, it should always be kept away
from moisture. This means storing under a weatherproof cover overhead,
and no direct contact with the ground or floor. Ocean spray, acid fumes,
or similarly corrosive atmospheres should be avoided. When reels will remain
stored for long periods, the supplier should be asked to ship the ropes with
a protective wrapping. Where this has not been done, the outer layers of rope
should be coated with an approved lubricant.
When a rope is to be removed from service and stored, it should be
thoroughly cleaned, lubricated, and carefully coiled on a reel. In this case, the
same storage conditions that are required for new rope, should be maintained.
Ambient temperature for rope in storage should be low. Elevated
temperatures tend to liquefy or thin out rope lubricants. Thus, wire rope storage
areas should not only be normally cool spaces, but possible sources of high
heat should be kept at some distance.
APPENDIX A
1
C. Unreeling
Wire rope must always be handled with care. This is particularly important
when reels or coils are received, moved about, unreeled or uncoiled. Reels or
coils should never be dropped. When this happens, the rope may shift and cause
the reel to collapse and thus the rope itself may be damaged. Removing rope
from a collapsed reel may often result in rope damage. Coiled rope, if dropped
on the edge of the coil, can sustain a permanent bend.
Coils and reels should only be rolled on relatively smooth, hard surfaces.
Rolling through loose dirt, standing water, or across sharp, hard objects, or
over uneven surfaces can cause deformations or harm the lubricant protection.
Careful handling before installation and proper maintenance procedures
afterward will ensure the longest possible service life for wire rope.
Improper handling can prove quite costly for the user, yet, for the
most part, abuse is easily avoidable.
Appendix B WIRE ROPE FITTINGS
CLOSED WIRE ROPE SOCKETS
(POURED)
TABLE 37 DIMENSIONS (inches)
W- DIAM.
Approx.
Rope Wt
Diam. A B C D G J R T W Lb
NOTE: Dimensions are for reference only. Consult your supplier of the specific fittings for
exact details.
APPENDIX B
OPEN WIRE ROPE SOCKETS
(POURED)
TABLE 38 DIMENSIONS (inches)
-
Approx.
Rope Wt
Diam. A B C D E G J K L N P Lb
exact details.
APPENDIX B
OPEN SWAGED WIRE ROPE
SOCKETS
TABLE 39 DIMENSIONS (inches) (after swaging)
After Jaw Pin
Rope Swaging opening diam. Approx.
diam. A B C D E F H L wt/lb
exact details.
APPENDIX B
OPEN SWAGED STRAND
SOCKETS
TABLE 40 DIMENSIONS FOR 19-WIRE AND 37-WIRE STRAND
(inches) (after swaging)
Approx.
Jaw Pin wt/lb
Strand opening diam. without
diam. A B C D E F H L Pin
exact details.
APPENDIX B
CLOSED SWAGED WIRE ROPE
SOCKETS
TABLE 41 DIMENSIONS (inches) (after swaging)
After Eye Hole Approx.
Rope Swaging thickness diam. wt
diam. A B C D E F L (lb
- --- -
exact details.
APPENDIX B
CLOSED SWAGED STRAND
SOCKETS
TABLE 42 DIMENSIONS FOR 19-WIRE AND 37-WIRE STRAND
(inches) (after swaging)
Eye Hole Approx.
Strand thickness diam. wt
diam. A B C D E F L (lb)
exact details.
APPENDIX B
OPEN SWAGED SOCKETS
OPEN WIRE ROPE
WEDGE-TYPE SOCKETS
These wedge-type sockets are easily and
quickly attached in the field by bending the
rope end around the tapered wedge. This
type of socket is normally furnished
without pins.
TABLE 43 DIMENSIONS OF SOCKETS (inches)
Center of pin Opening Diameter
Diameter hole to end between of Approximate
of of socket ears pin hole wt
rope A B C (lb)
exact details.
APPENDIX B
WIRE ROPE ASSEMBLIES Zinc-attached closed wire rope socket at one end; zinc-attached open wire rope
When ordering wire rope with end socket at other end.
attachments, lengths-as shown- Measurement: Pull of closed socket to centerline of open so.cket pin.
should be specified. Additionally, the
load at which this measurement is taken
should be specified, i.e., at no load, at
b
a percentage of nominal strength, etc.
The drawings (opposite page) do not Closed swaged wire rope socket at one end; open swaged wire rope socket at
show all possible combinations of other end.
fittings; in any case, the same measuring Measurement: Centerline of pin to centerline of pin.
methods should be followed.
Closed bridge socket attached to one end; open bridge socket attached to other end.
Measurements : Centerline of closed socket pin to centerline of open socket pin;
include two of the three values : takeup, contraction, and expansion. The values of
C and 0 are also required.
Thimble spliced at one end.
Measurement: Pull of thimble to end of rope.
Link spliced at one end; hook spliced at other end.
Measurement: Pull of link to pull of hook.
Thimble spliced at one end; loop spliced at other end.
Measurements: Pull of thimble to base of loop, and circumference of loop.
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B
BOOM PENDANTS WITH
SWAGED FITTINGS
Length of Pendant is measured as indicated on sketches.
SINGLE-ROPE LEGS AND OPEN SWAGED SOCKETS
I I
I
SINGLE-ROPE LEGS AND OPEN AND CLOSED SWAGED SOCKETS
I
SINGLE- ROPE LEGS AND CLOSED SWAGED SOCKETS
BOOM PENDANTS WITH SWAGED FITTINGS
Note: When ordering, customer should specify parallel or right angle (90") socket pins.
APPENDIX B
TABLE 44
RATED CAPACITIES IN TONS OF 2,000 LB.
6 x 19 & 6 x 37 IWRC IMPROVED PLOW STEEL *
Min.
Length Two Pendants
Diam. (SL) When Used Open Swaged Socket ** Closed Swaged Socket **
of of Single-
rope pendant part 0 D R Weight K W Weight
(inches) ft-inches vertical 30" 45" inches inches inches Ib inches inches lb
- pp -- --
*Values given apply when pendants are used as slings or sling
assemblies. When used in a Boom Suspension System, other
values apply; consult rope manufacturer.
**Dimension symbols (0, D, R, K & W) are
described in drawings on opposite page (1 18).
Appendix C SOCKETING
SOCKETING PROCEDURES
Zinc-Poured Socketing
The following steps, in the order given, should be carefully adhered to.
1. Measure the Rope Ends to be Socketed
The rope end should be of sufficient length so that the ends of the unlaid wires
(from the strands) will be at the top of the socket basket. (Fig. C. l ) .
2. Apply Serying at Base of Socket
Apply a tight wire serving band, at the point where the socket base will be,
for a length of two rope diameters. (Figs. C.2 & C.3).
3. Broom Out Strand Wires
Unlay and straighten the individual rope strands and spread them evenly so
that they form an included angle of approximately 60". Unlay the wires of each
individual strand for the full length of the rope end-being careful not to
disturb or change the lay of the wires and strands under the serving band.
Unlay the wires of an independent wire rope core in the same manner.
A fiber core should be cut out and removed as close to the serving band
as possible (Fig. C.3 ) .
4. Clean the Broomed-Out Ends
A suggested cleaning solvent for this step is SC-5 Methyl Chloroform. It is also
known under the names Chlorothane VG and 1- 1-1 Trichlorethane.
CAUTION: Breathing the vapor of this solvent is harmful;
it should only be used in a well-ventilated area. Be sure to follow the
solvent manufacturer's instructions, and carefully observe all
instructions printed on the label.
Swish the broomed-out rope end in the solvent, then brush vigorously to
remove all grease and dirt-making certain that the wires are clean to the
very bottom close to the serving band (Fig. C.4). Additionally, a solution of
muriatic acid may also be used. If, however, acid is used the broomed-out
ends should be rinsed in a solution of bicarbonate of soda so as to neutralize any
acid that may remain on the rope. Care should be exercised to prevent acid
from entering the core; this is particularly important if the rope has a fiber
core. Where it is feasible, the best and preferred cleaning method for rope
ends prior to socketing is ultrasonic cleaning. After this cleaning step, place
the broomed-out end upright in a vise allowing it to remain until all
solvent has evaporated and the wires are dry.
Solvent should never be permitted to remain on the rope or on the serving
band since it will run down the wires when the rope is removed from the vise.
5. Dip the Broomed-Out Rope Ends in Flux
Prepare a hot solution of zinc-ammonium chloride flux comparable to Zaclon K.
Use a concentration of 1 lb of zinc-ammonium chloride to 1 gallon of water;
maintain this at a temperature of 180" to 200" F. Swish the broomed-out
end in the flux solution, then place the rope end upright in the vise until such
time as the wires have dried thoroughly (Fig. C. 5 ) .
6. Close Rope Ends and Place Socket
Use clean wire to compress the broomed-out rope end into a tight bundle
that will permit the socket to be slipped on easily over the wires (Fig. C. 6).
Before placing the socket on the rope, make certain that the socket itself
APPENDIX C
C.4
is clean and heated. This heating is necessary in order to dispel any residual
moisture, and to prevent the zinc from cooling prematurely. A word of
caution: Never heat a socket after it is placed on the rope. To do so may
cause heat damage to the rope.
After the socket is on the rope end, the wires should be distributed evenly
in the socket basket so that zinc can surround each wire. Use extreme care
in aligning the socket with the rope's centerline, and in making certain that
there is a minimum vertical length of rope, extending from the socket,
that is equal to about 30 rope diameters (Fig. C.7).
Seal the socket base with fire clay or putty but make certain that this
material does not penetrate into the socket base. Should this occur, it would
prevent the zinc from penetrating the full length of the socket basket
thereby creating a void that would collect moisture after the socket is placed
in service.
7. Pour the Zinc
The zinc used should meet ASTM Specification designation B6-49 Grade ( 1 )
High Grade, and Federal Specification QQ-Z-35 1-a Amendment 1, interim
Amendment 2. Pour the zinc at a temperature of 950" to 970' F (Fig. C. 8) ;
make allowances for cooling if the zinc pot is more than 25 ft from the socket.
A word of caution: Do not heat zinc above 1200F or its bonding properties
will be lost. The zinc temperature may be measured with a portable pyrometer
or a Tempilstik. Remove all dross before pouring. Pour the zinc in one
continuous stream until it reaches the basket top and all wire ends are covered;
there should be no "capping" of the socket.
8. Remove Serving
Remove the serving band from the socket base; check to make certain that
zinc has penetrated to the socket base (Fig. C.9).
9. Lubricate the Rope
Apply wire rope lubricant to the rope at the socket base, and on any rope
section where the original lubricant may have been removed.
APPENDIX C
Thermo-Set Resin Socketing
Before proceeding with a thermo-set resin socketing procedure, check
manufacturer's instructions carefully. Give particular attention to selecting
sockets that have been specifically designed for resin socketing. Follow the steps,
outlined below, or manufacturer's directions, in the order given.
1. Seizing and Cutting the Rope
Follow rope manufacturer's directions for a particular rope size or construction
with regard to the number, position, length of seizings and the seizing wire
size. The seizing, located at the base of the installed fitting, must be positioned
so that the ends of the embedded wires will be slightly below the level of the top
of the fitting's basket. The best means to cut the rope is with an abrasive wheel.
2. Opening and Brooming the Strand Wires
Before opening the rope end, place a short temporary seizing directly above
the seizing that represents the broom base. Temporary seizing prevents
brooming the wires the full length of the basket and also prevents loss of lay
in the strands and rope outside the socket. Remove all seizing between
the end of the rope and the temporary seizing. Unlay the strands comprising
the rope. Starting with the IWRC, or strand core, open each strand of
the rope and broom or unlay the individual wires. (Note: A fiber core in the
rope may be cut at the base of the seizing; some prefer to leave the core in.
Consult the manufacturer's instruction.) When the brooming is completed,
wires should be distributed evenly within a cone so that they form an included
angle of approximately 60". Some types of sockets will require a somewhat
different brooming procedure, in which case the manufacturer's instructions
should be followed.
3. Cleaning the Wires and Fittings
Different types of resin with different characteristics require varying degrees
of cleanliness. In some cases, merely using a soluble cleaning oil has been
found effective. For one type of polyester resin, on which over 800 tensile tests
on ropes in sizes 94 If to 3 1/2 " diameter were made without failure in the
resin socket attachment, the cleaning procedure was as follows:
Clean wires thoroughly so as to obtain resin adhesion. Ultrasonic
cleaning in recommended solvents such as trichloroethylene or
1 - 1 - 1 trichloroethane or other non-flammable grease-cutting solvents is
the preferred method of cleaning the wires in accordance with OSHA
Standards. Where ultrasonic cleaning is not available, brush or dip-cleaning
in trichloroethane may be used; but fresh solvent should be used for each
rope and fitting and discarded after use. After cleaning, the broom should be
dried with clean compressed air or in other suitable fashion before
proceeding to the next step. The use of acid to etch the wires before resin
socketing is unnecessary and not recommended. Also, the use of a flux
on the wires before pouring resin should be avoided since this adversely
affects resin bonding to the steel wires. Since there is much variation in
the properties of different resins, manufacturers' instructions should
be carefully followed.
4. Close Rope Ends and Place Socket
Place rope in a vertical position with the broom end up. Close and compact
APPENDIX C
the broom to permit insertion of the broomed end into the base of the fitting.
Slip the fitting on, removing any temporary banding or seizing as required.
Make certain the broomed wires are uniformly spaced in the basket, with
wire ends slightly below the top edge of the basket, and that the axis of the rope
and the fitting are aligned. Seal the annular space between the base of the
fitting and the exiting rope to prevent leakage of the resin from the basket.
A non-hardening butyl rubber-base sealant is satisfactory for this purpose.
Make sure that the sealant does not enter the base of the socket so that the
resin will be able to fill the complete depth of the socket basket.
5. Pouring the Resin
Controlled heat-curing (no open flame) at a temperature range of 250"-300" F
is recommended. If ambient temperatures are less than 60" F, this is required!
When controlled heat curing is not available and ambient temperatures are
not less than 60" F the attachment should not be disturbed and tension should
not be applied to the socketed assembly for at least 24 hours.
6. Lubrication Af t er Socket Attachment
After the resin has cured, re-lubricate the wire rope at the base of the socket
to replace any lubricant that may have been removed during the cleaning
operation.
7. Acceptable Resin Types
Commercially-available resin properties vary considerably. Hence, it is
important to refer to the individual manufacturer's instructions before using
any one type. General rules cannot, of course, be established.
When properly formulated, most thermoset resins are acceptable for
socketing. These formulations, when mixed, form a pourable material which
will harden at ambient temperatures, or upon the application of moderate
heat. No open flame or molten metal hazards exist with resin socketing since
heat-curing when necessary, requires a relatively low temperature (250-300" F)
obtainable by electric resistance heating.
Tests have demonstrated that satisfactory wire rope socketing performance
can be obtained with resins having characteristics and properties as follows:
General Description
The resin shall be a liquid thermoset material that will harden after being
mixed with the correct proportion of catalyst or curing agent.
A. Properties of Liquid (Uncured) Material
Resin and catalyst are normally supplied in two separate containers.
After thoroughly mixing them together, the liquid can be poured into the
socket basket. Liquid resins and catalysts shall have the following properties:
1 ) Viscosity of the Resin-Catalyst Mixture
30-40,000 CPS at 75" F immediately after mixing. Viscosity will increase
at lower ambient temperatures and resin may need warming prior to
mixing in the catalyst if ambient temperatures drop below 40" F.
2 ) Flash Point
Both resin and catalyst shall have a minimum flash point of 100" F.
3 ) Shelf Li f e
Unmixed resin and catalyst shall have a minimum of 1 year
shelf life at 70 " F.
APPENDIX C
4) Pot Life and Cure Time
After mixing, the resin-catalyst blend shall be pourable for a minimum
of eight minutes at 60' F and shall harden in 15 minutes. Heating
of the resin in the socket to a maximum temperature of 250" F is
permissible to obtain full cure.
B. Properties of Cured Resin
1 ) Socket Performance
Resin shall exhibit sufficient bonding to solvent-washed wire in typical
wire rope end fittings to develop the nominal strength of all types and
grades of rope. No slippage of wire is permissible when testing resin-filled
rope socket assemblies in tension. After testing, however, some
"seating" of the resin cone may be apparent and is acceptable.
Resin adhesion to wires shall be capable of withstanding
tensile-shock loading.
2) Compressive Strength
The minimum allowable compressive strength for fully cured resin
is 12,000 psi.
3) Shrinkage
Maximum allowable shrinkage is 2 % . To control shrinkage, an inert
filler may be used in the resin provided that viscosity requirements as
specified above (A. 1 ) for the liquid resin are met.
4) Hardness
The desired hardness of the resin is in the range of Barcol40-55.
Resin Socketing Compositions
Manufacturer's directions should be followed in handling, mixing and pouring
the resin composition.
Performance of Cured-Resin Sockets
Poured-resin sockets may be moved after the resin has hardened. Following the
ambient- or elevated-temperature cure, recommended by the manufacturer,
resin sockets should develop the nominal strength of the rope, and have the
capability of withstanding shock loading to a degree sufficient to break
the rope, without cracking or breakage. Manufacturers of resin socketing
material shall be required to test these criteria before resin materials will
be approved for rope socketing use.
A final note of caution: the foregoing discussion is a generalized description
of but one of many commercially available thermo-set resins suitable for wire rope
socketing. Characteristics of these products vary significantly and each must be
handled diflerently. Thus, as noted earlier, specific information of any kind
concerning any resin must be obtained from the individual manufacturer before
setting up a resin socketing procedure.
Appendix D SHIPPING REEL CAPACITY
SHIPPING REEL CAPACITY
While it is virtually impossible to calculate the precise length of wire rope
that can be spooled on a reel or drum, the following formula provides a sufficiently
close approximation.
The formula is: L = (A+D) A B K
where: L = length of rope (ft)
A = depth of rope space on drum (inches)
B = width of drum between
flanges (inches)
D = drum barrel diameter (inches)
K = constant for given rope diameter
(see table below)
H = diameter of reel flanges (inches)
X = clearance
TABLE 45 "K" FACTORS*
(0.2618 -+ rope diameter )**
Diam. Diam. Diam.
(inches) K (inches) K (inches) K
*The values given for "K" factors take normal rope oversize
into account. Clearance ( " X" ) should be about 2 inches
unless rope-end fittings require more.
**This formula is based on uniform rope winding on the reel,
It will not give correct results if the winding is non-uniform.
The formula also assumes that there will be the same
number of wraps of rope in each layer. While this is not strictly
correct, there is no appreciable error in the result unless
the traverse of the reel is quite small relative to the flange
diameter ("H").
Appendix E WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS*
Substance
Weight
(lb/ft3)
METALS. ALLOYS. ORES
Aluminum. cast-hammered 165
............ Albminum. bronze 48 1
.......................... Antimony 4 1 6
.............................. Arsenic 358
............................ Bismuth 608
.............. Brass. cast-rolled 534
Bronze (gun metal) -
copper 88. tin 10.
........................ zinc 2% 544
Bronze (Phosphor) -
copper 80. tin 10.
lead 10% ...................... 562
Chromium ........................ 428
................................ Cobalt 552
............ Copper. cast-rolled 556
.......... Copper. ore. pyrites 262
Gold. cast-hammered ........ 1205
Iron. cast. pig .................... 450
.................... Iron. wrought 485
............ Iron. Spiegel-eisen 468
.............. Iron. ferro-silicon 437
............ Iron. ore. hematite 325
Iron. ore. hematite in bank 160-1 80
Iron. ore. hematite loose .... 1 30- 1 60
............ Iron. ore. limonite 237
Iron. ore. magnetite .......... 3 15
Iron. slag .......................... 172
.................................. Lead 706
................ Lead ore. galena 465
Magnesium ........................ 109
Manganese ........................ 456
Manganese ore. pyrolusite 259
Mercury ............................ 848
Molybdenum .................... 562
.............................. Nickel 545
Nickel monel metal .......... 556
Platinum. cast-hammered .. 1330
Silver. cast hammered ...... 656
Steel .................................. 490
.......... Tin. cast-hammered 459
.............. Tin. babbitt metal 443
............ Tin. ore. cassiterite 41 8
Tungsten .......................... 1 180
"Weights are derived from average specific Vanadium ........................ 350
gravities. except where noted as bulk. heaped Zinc. cast-rolled ................ 440
or loose material. ere .
................ Zinc. ore. blende 253
Substance
VARIOUS SOLIDS
Carbon. amorphous.
........................ graphitic
.................................. Cork
Ebony ................................
Fats ..................................
........ Glass. common. plate
Glass. crystal ....................
........................ Glass. flint
Phosphorous. white ..........
................ Porcelain. china
Resins. Rosin. Amber ........
Rubber. caoutchouc ..........
Silicon ................................
Sulphur. Amorphous ........
Wax ..................................
TIMBER. U.S. SEASONED
........................ Ash. white
Beech ................................
Birch. yellow ....................
............ Cedar. Port Orford
.............. Cedar. white. red
Chestnut ............................
.............. Cypress. southern
...... Douglas Fir. coast type
Douglas Fir. mountain ......
Elm. American ..................
Hemlock. eastern. western
................ Hickory. bigleaf
................ Hickory. pignut
Larch. western ..................
.............. Maple. red. black
Maple. silver ....................
............ Oak. Oregon white
Oak. red ............................
Pine. red ............................
Pine. white. yellow.
western ..........................
Poplar. yellow ..................
Redwood ..........................
.............. Spruce. black. red
Spruce. Engelmann ..........
Tamarack ..........................
Walnut ..............................
Moisture Contents :
Seasoned timber 12 %
Green timber up to 50%
Weight
(lb/ft3)
APPENDIX E
Weight
(lb/ft3)
Weight Weight
(lb/ft3) Substance (lb/ft3) Substance Substance
VARIOUS LIQUIDS
.................. Alcohol. 100%
........ Acids. Muriatic 40%
Acids. nitric 9 1 % ..............
........ Acids. sulphuric 87%
.................. Lye. soda 66%
.................. Oils. vegetable
.... Oils. mineral. lubricants
.......................... Petroleum
............................ Gasoline
Water. 4C. max . density ..
Water. 1 00C ....................
Water. ice ..........................
Water. snow. fresh fallen ..
................ Water. sea water
Slate. shale ........................ 172 BRICK MASONRY
Soapstone. talc .................. 169 Pressed brick .................... 140
STONE. QUARRIED.
PILED
Common brick .................. 120
Soft brick .......................... 100
Basalt. granite. gneiss ........
Limestone. marble. quartz
Sandstone ..........................
.................................. Shale
.... Greenstone. hornblende
CONCRETE
.......... Cement. stone. sand
Cement. slag. etc ...............
........... Cement. cinder. etc
BITUMINOUS
SUBSTANCES
Asphaltum ........................
Coal. anthracite ................
Coal. bituminous ..............
Coal. lignite ......................
Coal. peat. turf. dry ..........
Coal. charcoal. pine ..........
............ Coal. charcoal. oak
Coal. coke ..........................
Graphite ............................
VARIOUS BUILDING
MATERIAL
Ashes. cinders ..................
Cement. Portland. loose ....
........ Cement. Portland. set
Lime. gypsum. loose ........
Mortar. set ........................
................ Slags. bank slag
Slags. bank. screenings ......
............ Slags. machine slag
.................. Slags. slag sand
GASES
Air. OC. 760 mm ............... 08071
Ammonia ........................... 0478
Carbon dioxide ................... 1234
............... Carbon monoxide 078 1
Gas. illuminating .............. .028.. 036
Gas. natural ...................... .038.. 039
Hydrogen ........................... 00559
Nitrogen ............................. 0784
Oxygen ............................... 0 8 9 2
Paraffine ............................
Petroleum. crude ..............
............ Petroleum. relined
............ Petroleum. benzine
.......... Petroleum. gasoline
Pitch ..................................
Tar. bituminous ................
EARTH. ETC.,
EXCAVATED
Clay. dry ............................
............ Clay. damp. plastic
.......... Clay and gravel. dry
................ Earth. dry. loose
............ Earth. dry. packed
MINERALS
Asbestos ............................
.............................. Barytes
................................ Basalt
Bauxite ..............................
................................ Borax
Chalk ................................
........................ Clay. marl
Dolomite ..........................
.......... Feldspar. orthoclase
.................. Granite. gneiss
.............. Greenstone. trap
Gypsum. alabaster ............
Hornblende ......................
...... Limestone. crystalline
Limestone. oolitic ..............
Magnesite ..........................
Marble ..............................
Phosphate rock. apatite ....
Porphyry ..........................
................ Pumice. natural
...................... Quartz. flint
........ Sandstone. bluestone
COAL AND COKE. PILED
Coal. anthracite ................
Coal. bituminous. lignite ..
Coal. peat. turf ................
Coal. charcoal ..................
Coal. coke ........................
Earth. moist. loose ............ 78
Earth. moist. packed ........ 96
Earth. mud. flowing .......... 108
Earth. mud. packed .......... 115
Riprap. limestone .............. 80-85
Riprap. sandstone .............. 90
Riprap. shale .................... 105
Sand. gravel. dry. loose ...... 90- 105
Sand. gravel. dry. packed .. 100-120
Sand. gravel. wet .............. 1 1 8- 120
ASHLAR MASONRY
.................. Granite. gneiss
Limestone. crystalline ......
.............. Limestone. oolitic
Marble ..............................
EXCAVATIONS IN
WATER
Sand or gravel .................. 60
Sand or gravel and clay .... 65
Clay .................................. 80
River mud ........................ 90
Soil .................................... 70
Stone riprap ...................... 65
MORTAR RUBBLE
MASONRY
.................. Granite. gneiss
Limestone. crystalline ......
.............. Limestone. oolitic
Marble ..............................
Appendix F A GLOSSARY OF WIRE ROPE TERMS
ABRASION Frictional surface wear on
the wires of a wire rope.
ACCELERATION STRESS The addi-
tional stress that is imposed on a wire rope
as a result of an increase in the load
velocity (see DECELERATION
STRESS).
AGGREGATE AREA See AREA,
METALLIC.
AGGREGATE STRENGTH The
strength derived by totalling the indi-
vidual breaking strengths of the elements
of the strand or rope. This strength does
not give recognition to the reduction in
strength resulting from the angularity of
the elements in the rope, or other factors
that may affect efficiency.
AIRCRAFT CABLES Strands, cords
and wire ropes made of special-strength
wire, designed primarily for use in various
aircraft industry applications.
ALBERTS LAY See LAY, TYPES.
ALTERNATE LAY See LAY, TYPES.
AREA, METALLIC Sum of the cross-
sectional areas of all the wires either in
a wire rope or in a strand.
BACK-STAY Wire rope or strand guy
used to support a boom or mast; or that
section of a main cable, as on a suspension
bridge, cableway, etc., leading from the
tower to the anchorage.
BAIL a) U-shaped member of a bucket,
or b) U-shaped portion of a socket or
other fitting used on wire rope.
BAILING LINE In well drilling, it is the
wire rope that operates the bailer that
removes water and drill cuttings.
BARNEY CAR A relatively small car
permanently attached to a haulage rope
that pushes cars along a haulage system.
BASKET OF SOCKET The conical
portion of a socket into which a broomed-
rope-end is inserted and then secured.
BECKET An end attachment to
facilitate wire rope installation.
BECKET LOOP A loop of small rope or
strand fastened to the end of a larger
wire rope. Its function is to facilitate wire
rope installation.
BENDING STRESS Stress that is
imposed on the wires of a strand or rope
by a bending or curving action.
BICABLE A term usually applied to a
wire rope aerial tramway that has a fixed
cable or strand to support the load, as well
as a traction or haul rope that moves the
load about the system.
BIRDCAGE A colloquialism descriptive
of the appearance of a wire rope forced
into compression. The outer strands form
a cage and, at times, displace the core.
BLOCK A term applied to a wire rope
sheave (pulley) enclosed in side plates and
fitted with some attachment such as a
hook or shackle.
BOOM HOIST LINE Wire rope that
operates the boom hoist system of
derricks, cranes, draglines, shovels, etc.
BOOM PENDANT A non-operating rope
or strand with end terminations to support
the boom.
APPENDIX F
BREAKING STRENGTH
Breaking Strength is the ultimate load at
which a tensile failure occurs in the
sample of wire rope being tested. (Note:
The term breaking strength is synonymous
with actual strength.)
Minimum Acceptance Strength is that
strength which is 21/2% lower than the
catalog or nominal strength. This toler-
ance is used to offset variables that occur
during sample preparation and actual
physical test of a wire rope.
Nominal Strength is the published
(catalog) strength calculated by a
standard procedure that is accepted by the
wire rope industry. The wire rope manu-
facturer designs wire rope to this strength,
and the user should consider this strength
when making design calculations.
BRIDGE CABLE (Structural Rope or
Strand) The all-metallic wire rope or
strand used as the catenary and suspenders
on a suspension bridge.
BRIDGE SOCKET A wire rope or
strand end termination made of forged
or cast steel that is designed with baskets
-having adjustable bolts-for securing
rope ends. There are two styles: 1) the
closed type has a U-bolt with or without
a bearing block in the U of the bolt, and
2) the open type has two eye-bolts and
a pin.
BRIDLE SLING A multi-leg wire
rope SLING.
BRIGHT ROPE Wire rope fabricated
from wires that are not coated.
BRONZE ROPE Wire rope fabricated
from bronze wires.
BULL WHEEL A term applied to a
large-diameter wire rope SHEAVE,
e.g., the sheaves at the end of a ski lift.
BUTTON CONVEYOR ROPE Wire
rope to which buttons or discs are
attached at regular intervals to move
material as in a trough.
CABLE A term loosely applied to wire
rope, wire strand and electrical
conductors.
CABLE-LAID WIRE ROPE A type of
wire rope consisting of several wire ropes
laid into a single wire rope (e.g., 6 x 42
(6 x 6 x 7) tiller rope).
CABLE TOOL DRILLING LINE The
wire rope used to operate the cutting
tools in the cable tool drilling method
(i.e., rope drilling).
CABLEWAY Aerial conveying system
for transporting single loads along a
suspended track cable.
CASING LINE Wire rope used to install
oil well casings.
CATENARY A curve formed by a
strand or wire rope when supported
horizontally between two fixed points,
e.g., the main spans on a suspension
bridge.
CENTER The axial member of a strand
about which the wires are laid.
CHANGE OF LAYER POINT That
point in the traverse of a rope across the
face of the drum where it reaches the
flange, reverses direction and begins
forming the next layer. Also referred to as
the drum cross-over or TURN-BACK
POINT.
CHOKhR ROPE A short wire rope sling
that forms a slip noose around an object
that is to be moved or lifted.
CIRCUMFERENCE Measured perime-
ter of a circle that circumscribes either the
wires of a strand, or the strands of a
wire rope.
CLAMPS, STRAND A fitting for
forming a loop at the end of a length of
strand, consisting of two grooved plates
and bolts.
APPENDIX F
CLASSIFICATION Group, or family
designation based on wire rope construc-
tions with common strengths and weights
listed under the broad designation.
CLEANING OUT LINE Wire rope
used in conjunction with tools that are
used to clean an oil well.
CLEVIS See SHACKLE.
CLIP Fitting for clamping two parts of
wire rope to each other.
CLOSED SOCKET A wire rope end
termination consisting of basket and bail
made integral.
CLOSER A machine that lays strands
around a core to form rope.
CLOSING LINE Wire rope that per-
forms two functions: 1) closes a clamshell
or orange peel bucket, and 2) operates as
a hoisting rope.
COARSE LAID ROPE Term generally
used in oil fields to designate a 6 x 7
wire rope.
COIL Circular bundle or package of
wire rope that is not affixed to a reel.
COME ALONG Device for making a
temporary grip on a wire rope.
CONICAL DRUM Grooved hoisting
drum with a varying diameter. See
DRUM.
CONSTRUCTION Geometric design
description of the wire rope's cross
section. This includes the number of
STRANDS, the number of WIRES per
strand and the pattern of wire arrange-
ment in each STRAND.
CONSTRUCTIONAL STRETCH The
stretch that occurs when the rope is loaded
-it is due to the helically laid wires and
strands creating a constricting action that
compresses the core and generally brings
all of the rope's elements into close
contact.
CONTINUOUS BEND Reeving of wire
rope over sheaves and drums so that it
bends in one direction, as opposed to
REVERSE BEND.
CONVEYOR ROPE Endless wire rope
used to carry material. See BUTTON
CONVEYOR ROPE.
CORD Term applied to small diameter
specialty wire rope or strand.
CORE The axial member of a wire rope
about which the strands are laid.
CORING LINE Wire rope used to
operate the coring tool that is used to take
core samples during oil well drilling.
CORROSION Chemical decomposition
of the wires in a rope through the action
of moisture, acids, alkalines or other
destructive agents.
CORROSION-RESISTING STEEL
Chrome-nickel steel alloys designed for
increased resistance to corrosion.
CORRUGATED Term used to describe
the grooves of a SHEAVE or DRUM
after these have been worn down to a
point where they show an impression of
a wire rope.
COTTON CENTER See FIBER
CENTER.
COTTON CORE See FIBER CORE.
COUPLING Device for joining the ends
of two lengths of track cable.
COVER WIRES Outer layer of wires.
APPENDIX F
CRACKER Manila rope spliced or
otherwise attached to the end of a wire
drilling line.
CREEP The unique movement of a wire
rope with respect to a drum surface or
sheave surface resulting from the asym-
metrical load between one side of the
sheave (drum) and the other. It is not
dissimilar to the action of a caterpillar
moving over a flat surface. It should be
distinguished from slip which is yet
another type of relative movement
between rope and the sheave or drum
surf ace.
CRITICAL DIAMETER For any given
wire rope, it is the diameter of the
smallest bend that permits both wires and
strands to adjust themselves by relative
movement while retaining their normal
cross-section position.
CROSS LAY See LAY, TYPES.
CROWD ROPE A wire rope used to
drive or force a power shovel bucket into
the material that is to be handled.
CYLINDRICAL DRUM A hoisting
drum of uniform diameter. See DRUM.
DEAD-LINE In drilling, it is the end of
the rotary drilling line fastened to the
anchor or dead-line clamp.
DECELERATION STRESS The addi-
tional stress that is imposed on a wire rope
as a result of a decrease in the load
velocity. See ACCELERATION STRESS.
DEFLECTION a) The sag of a rope in
a span. Usually measured at mid-span as
the depth from the chord joining the tops
of the two supports. b) Any deviation
from a straight line.
DESIGN FACTOR In a wire rope, it is
the ratio of the nominal strength to the
total working load.
DIAMETER A line segment which
passes through the center of a circle and
whose end points lie on the circle. As
related to wire rope it would be the
diameter of a circle which circumscribes
the wire rope.
DOG-LEG Permanent bend or kink, in
a wire rope, caused by improper use or
handling.
DRAGLINE a) Wire rope used for
pulling excavating or drag buckets, and
b) name applied to a specific type of
excavator.
DRILLING LINE See CABLE TOOL
DRILLING LINE and ROTARY LINE.
DRUM A cylindrical flanged barrel,
either of uniform or tapering diameter, on
which rope is wound either for operation
or storage; its surface may be smooth
or grooved.
EFFICIENCY Ratio of a wire rope's
actual breaking strength and the aggregate
strength of all individual wires tested
separately-usually expressed as a
percentage.
ELASTIC LIMIT Stress limit above
which permanent deformation will take
place within the material.
ELLIPTIC SPOOL An endless-rope
drive drum with a face in the shape of an
elliptic arc.
ELONGATION See STRETCH.
END PREPARATION The treatment
of the end of a length of wire rope
designed primarily as an aid for pulling
the rope through a reeving system or tight
drum opening. Unlike END TERMINA-
TIONS, these are not designed for use as
a method for making a permanent
connection.
APPENDIX F
END TERMINATION The treatment
at the end or ends of a length of wire
rope, usually made by forming an eye or
attaching a fitting and designed to be the
permanent end termination on the wire
rope that connects it to the load.
ENDLESS ROPE Rope with ends spliced
together to form a single continuous loop.
EQUALIZING SHEAVE The sheave at
the center of a rope system over which
no rope movement occurs other than
equalizing movement. It is frequently
overlooked during crane inspections, with
disastrous consequences. It can be a
source of severe degradation.
EQUALIZING SLINGS Multiple-leg
slings composed of wire rope and fittings
that are designed to help distribute the
load equally. See SLING.
EQUALIZING THIMBLES Special
type of load-distributing fitting used as a
component of certain wire rope slings.
EXTRA FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE An
ambiguous and archaic term sometimes
applied to describe wire ropes in the
8 x 19 class and 6 x 37 class. The term is
so indefinite as to be meaningless and is
in' disfavor today.
EXTRA HIGH-STRENGTH STRAND
A grade of galvanized strand.
EXTRA IMPROVED PLOW STEEL
ROPE A specific wire rope grade.
EYE OR EYE SPLICE A loop, with or
without a thimble, formed at the end of
a wire rope.
FACTOR OF SAFETY In the wire rope
industry, this term was originally used to
express the ratio of nominal strength to
the total working load. The term is no
longer used since it implies a permanent
existence for this ratio when, in actuality,
the rope strength begins to reduce the
moment it is placed in service. See
DESIGN FACTOR.
FATIGUE As applied to wire rope, the
term usually refers to the process of
progressive fracture resulting from the
bending of individual wires. These
fractures may and usually do occur at
bending stresses well below the ultimate
strength of the material; it is not an
abnormality although it may be accel-
erated due to conditions in the rope such
as rust or lack of lubrication.
FERRULE A metallic buttorl, usually
cylindrical in shape, normally fastened to
a wire rope by swaging but sometimes by
spelter socketing.
FERRY ROPE Refers to wire rope that
is suspended over water for the purpose of
guiding a boat.
FIBER CENTER Cord or rope of
vegetable or synthetic fiber used as the
axial member of a strand.
FIBER CORE Cord or rope of vegetable
or synthetic fiber used as the axial
member of a rope.
FILLER WIRE Small spacer wires
within a strand which help position and
support other wires. Also the name for the
type of strand pattern utilizing filler wires.
FITTING Any functional accessory
attached to a wire rope.
FLAG Marker placed on a rope so as
to locate the load position.
APPENDIX F
FLAT ROPE Wire rope that is made of
a series of parallel, alternating right-lay
and left-lay ropes, sewn together with
relatively soft wires.
FLATTENED STRAND ROPE Wire
rope that is made either of oval or tri-
angular shaped strands in order to form a
flattened rope surface.
FLEET ANGLE That angle between
the rope's position at the extreme end
wrap on a drum, and a line drawn per-
pendicular to the axis of the drum through
the center of the nearest fixed sheave.
See DRUM and SHEAVE.
FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE An archaic
and imprecise term to differentiate one
rope construction from another; such as,
6 x 7 (least flexible) and 6 x 19 classi-
fication (somewhat more flexible).
GALVANIZED Zinc coating for
corrosion resistance.
GALVANIZED ROPE Wire rope made
up of galvanized wire.
GALVANIZED STRAND Strand made
up of galvanized wire.
GALVANIZED WIRE Zinc-coated wire.
GRADE Wire rope or strand classifica-
tion by strength and/or type of material,
i.e., Improved Plow Steel, Type 302
Stainless, Phosphor Bronze, etc. It does
not imply a strength of the basic wire used
to meet the rope's nominal strength.
GRADES, ROPE Classification of wire
rope by the wire's metallic composition
and the rope's nominal strength.
GRADES, STRAND Classification of
strand by the wire's metallic composition
and the strand's nominal strength. In the
order of increasing nominal strengths, the
grades are Common, Siemens Martin,
High-Strength and Extra-High Strength.
A Utilities grade is also made to meet
special requirements and its strength is
usually greater than High Strength.
GRAIN SHOVEL ROPE 6 x 19 Marline
clad rope used for handling grain in
scoops.
GROMMET An endless circle or ring
fabricated from one continuous length of
strand or rope.
GROOVED DRUM Drum with a
grooved surface that accommodates the
rope and guides it for proper winding.
GROOVES Depressions-helical or
parallel-in the surface of a sheave or
drum that are shaped to position and
support the rope.
GUY LINE Strand or rope, usually
galvanized, for stabilizing or maintaining
a structure in fixed position.
HAULAGE ROPE Wire Rope used for
pulling movable devices such as cars that
roll on a track.
HAWSER Wire rope, usually galvanized,
used for towing or mooring marine vessels.
HIGH-STRENGTH STRAND Grade
of galvanized strand.
HOLDING LINE Wire rope on a clam-
shell or orange peel bucket that suspends
the bucket while the closing line is released
to dump its load.
IDLER Sheave or roller used to guide
or support a rope. See SHEAVE.
IMPROVED PLOW STEEL ROPE A
specific grade of wire rope.
INCLINE ROPE Rope used in the
operation of cars on an inclined haulage.
APPENDIX F
INDEPENDENT WIRE ROPE CORE
(IWRC) A wire rope used as the axial
member of a larger wire rope.
INNER WIRES All wires of a strand
except the outer or cover wires.
INTERNALLY LUBRICATED Wire
rope or strand having all of its wire
components coated with lubricants.
IRONING See MILKING.
IRON ROPE A specific grade of wire
rope.
IWRC See INDEPENDENT WIRE
ROPE CORE.
KINK A unique deformation of a wire
rope caused by a loop of rope being pulled
down tight. It represents irreparable
damage to and an indeterminate loss of
strength in the rope.
LAGGING a) External wood covering
on a reel to protect the wire rope or strand,
or b) the grooved shell of a drum.
LGNG LAY ROPE See LAY, TYPES.
LAY a) The manner in which the wires
in a strand or the strands in a rope are
helically laid, or b) the distance measured
parallel to the axis of the rope (or strand)
in which a strand (or wire) makes one
complete helical convolution about the
core (or center). In this connection, lay is
also referred to as LAY LENGTH or
PITCH.
LAY, TYPES
1) Right Lay: The direction of strand or
wire helix corresponding to that of a right
hand screw thread.
2) Left Lay: The direction of strand or wire
helix corresponding to that of a left hand
screw thread.
3 ) Cross Lay: Rope or strand in which one
or more operations are performed in
opposite directions. A multiple operation
product is described according to the
direction of the outside layer.
4) Regular Lay: The type of rope wherein
the lay of the wires in the strand is in the
opposite direction to the lay of the strand
in the rope. The crowns of the wires
appear to be parallel to the axis of the
rope.
5) Lang Lay: The type of rope in which
the lay of the wires in the strand is in the
same direction as the lay of the strand
in the rope. The crowns of the wires
appear to be at an angle to the axis of
the rope.
6) Alternate Lay: Lay of a wire rope in
which the strands are alternately regular
and lang lay.
7 ) Alberts Lay: An old, rarely used term
for lang lay.
8) Reverse Lay: Another term for alternate
lay.
9) Spring Lay: This is not definable as a
unique lay; more properly, it refers to a
specific wire rope construction.
LAY LENGTH See LAY (b).
LEAD LINE That part of a rope tackle
leading from the first, or fast, sheave to
the drum. See DRUM and SHEAVE.
LEFT LAY See LAY, TYPES.
LINE Synonymous term for WIRE
ROPE.
LOCKED COIL STRAND Smooth-
surfaced strand ordinarily constructed of
shaped, outer wires arranged in concentric
layers around a center of round wires.
LOOP A 360" change of direction in
the course of a wire rope which when
pulled down tight will result in a kink.
See EYE and EYE SPLICE.
APPENDIX F
MARLINE A prelubricated fiber
material.
MARLINE-CLAD ROPE Rope with
individual strands spirally wrapped with
Marline.
MARLINE SPIKE Tapered steel pin
used as a tool for splicing wire rope.
MARTENSITE A brittle micro-con-
stituent of steel formed when the steel is
heated above its critical temperature and
rapidly quenched. This occurs in wire
rope as a result of frictional heating and
the mass cooling effect of the cold metal
beneath. Martensite cracks very easily,
and such cracks can propagate from the
surface through the entire wire.
MESSENGER STRAND Galvanized
strand used as support for telephone and
electrical cables.
METALLIC CORES See WIRE
STRAND CORE and INDEPENDENT
WIRE ROPE CORE.
MILD PLOW STEEL ROPE A specific
grade of wire rope.
MILKING Sometimes called IRONING,
it is the progressive movement of strands
along the axis of the rope, resulting from
the rope's movement through a restricted
passage such as a tight sheave.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY Mathe-
matical quantity expressing the ratio,
within the elastic limit, between a definite
range of unit stress on a wire rope and
the corresponding unit elongation.
MONOCABLE A term usually applied
to a wire rope conveyance designed with
a single wire rope that not only supports
the load but conveys it as well.
MOORING LINES Galvanized wire
rope, usually 6 x 12,6 x 24, or 6 x 3 x 19
spring lay for holding ships to dock.
NON-PREFORMED Rope or strand
that is not preformed. See PREFORMED
STRANDS and PREFORMED ROPE.
NON-ROTATING WIRE ROPE Term,
now abandoned, referring to 19 x 7 or
18 x 7 rope. See ROTATION RESIST-
ANT ROPE.
NON-SPINNING WIRE ROPE See
ROTATION RESISTANT ROPE.
OPEN SOCKET A wire rope fitting that
consists of a basket and two ears
with a pin. See FITTING.
OUTER WIRES See COVER WIRES.
PEENING Permanent distortion result-
ing from cold plastic metal deformation
of the outer wires. Usually caused by
pounding against a sheave or machine
member, or by heavy operating pressure
between rope and sheave, rope and drum,
or rope and adjacent wrap of rope.
PITCH See LAY (b).
PLOW STEEL ROPE A specific grade
of wire rope.
PREFORMED STRANDS Strand in
which the wires are permanently formed
during fabrication into the helical shape
they will assume in the strand.
PREFORMED WIRE ROPE Wire rope
in which the strands are permanently
formed during fabrication into the helical
shape they will assume in the wire rope.
PRESSED FITTINGS Fittings attached
by means of cold forming on the wire
rope.
PRESTRESSING An incorrect reference
to PRESTRETCHING.
APPENDIX F
PRESTRETCMING Subjecting a wire
rope or strand to tension prior to its
intended application, for an extent and
over a period of time sufficient to remove
most of the CONSTRUCTIONAL
STRETCH.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT As used in
the rope industry, this term has virtually
the same meaning as ELASTIC LIMIT.
It is the end of the load versus elongation
relationship at which an increase in load
no longer produces a proportion1 increase
in elongation and from which point
recovery to the rope's original length is
unlikely.
RATED CAPACITY The load which
a new wire rope or wire rope sling may
handle under given operating conditions
and at an assumed DESIGN FACTOR.
REEL A flanged spool on which wire
rope or strand is wound for storage or
shipment.
REEVE To pass a rope through a hole
or around a system of sheaves.
REGULAR LAY ROPE See LAY,
TYPES.
RESERVE STRENGTH The strength
of a rope exclusive of the outer wires.
REVERSE BEND Reeving a wire rope
over sheaves and drums so that it bends
in opposing directions. See REEVE.
REVERSE LAY See LAY, TYPES.
RIGHT LAY See LAY, TYPES.
ROLLERS Relatively small-diameter
cylinders, or wide-faced sheaves, that
serve as support for ropes.
ROTARY LINE On a rotary drilling rig,
it is the wire rope used for raising and
lowering the drill pipe, as well as for
controlling its position.
ROTATION-RESISTANT ROPE A wire
rope specially constructed to reduce the
tendency of the rope to rotate.
ROUND-WIRE TRACK STRAND
Strand composed of concentric layers
of round WIRES, used as TRACK
CABLE, sometimes called SMOOTH-
COIL TRACK STRAND.
RUNNING ROPE Term used to describe
6 x 12 galvanized wire rope.
SAFETY FACTOR See DESIGN
FACTOR.
SAFE WORKING LOAD This term
is potentially misleading and is, therefore,
in disfavor. Essentially, it refers to that
portion of the nominal rope strength that
can be applied either to move or sustain
a load. It is misleading because it is only
valid when the rope is new and equipment
is in good condition. See RATED
CAPACITY.
SAG See DEFLECTION.
SAND LINE See BAILING LINE
SASH CORD Small, 6 x 7 wire ropes,
commonly made of iron wires, are referred
to by this term.
SEALE The name for a type of strand
pattern that has two adjacent layers laid
in one operation with any number of
uniform sized wires in the outer layer, and
with the same number of uniform but
smaller sized wires in the inner layer.
SEIZE To make a secure binding at the
end of a wire rope or strand with
SEIZING WIRE or SEIZING STRAND.
APPENDIX F
SEIZING STRAND Small diameter
STRAND usually made up of 7 wires.
SEIZING WIRE A wire for seizing.
See SEIZE.
SERVE To cover the surface of a wire
rope or strand with a fiber cord or wire
wrapping.
SEWING WIRES See FLAT ROPE.
SHACKLE A U- or anchor-shaped
fitting with pin.
SHEAVE A grooved pulley for wire
rope.
SIEMENS-MARTIN STRAND A grade
of galvanized strand.
SLING, WIRE ROPE An assembly
fabricated from WIRE ROPE which
connects the load to the lifting device.
SLING, BRAIDED A flexible sling, the
body of which is made up of two or more
WIRE ROPES braided together. See
SLINGS.
SMOOTH-COIL TRACK STRAND
Strand composed of concentric layers of
round WIRES, used as track cable, more
commonly called ROUND WIRE
TRACK STRAND.
SMOOTH-FACED DRUM Drum with
a plain, ungrooved surface. See DRUM.
SOCKET Generic name for a type of
wire rope fitting. See BRIDGE SOCKETS,
CLOSED SOCKETS, OPEN SOCKETS
and WEDGE SOCKETS.
SPECIAL FLEXIBLE WIRE ROPE
Term sometimes used to describe 6 x 37
classification wire rope.
SPIN RESISTANT An abandoned term
referring to a ROTATION-RESISTANT
rope of the 8 x 19 classification.
SPIRAL GROOVE A continuous helical
groove that follows a path on and around
a drum face, similar to a screw thread.
See DRUM.
SPLICING 1) Making a loop or eye in
the end of a rope by tucking the ends
of the strands back into the main body of
the rope. 2) Formation of loops or eyes
in a rope by means of mechanical attach-
ments pressed onto the rope. 3) Joining
of two rope ends so as to form a long or
short splice in two pieces of rope.
SPRING LAY See LAY, TYPES.
STAINLESS STEEL ROPE Wire rope
made up of corrosion resistant steel wires.
STANDING ROPE See GUY LINE.
STIRRUP The eyebolt attachment on
a bridge socket. See SOCKET.
STONE SAWING STRAND A 2-wire
or 3-wire strand used in stone and slate
quarrying operations.
STONE SAWING WIRE A shaped and
twisted wire used in stone and slate
quarrying operations.
STRAND A plurality of round or shaped
wires helically laid about an axis.
STRAND CENTER See CENTERS.
STRAND CORE See WIRE STRAND
CORE.
STRANDER A machine that lays wires
together helically to form a strand.
STRESS The force or resistance within
any solid body against alteration of form;
in the case of a solid wire it would be the
load on the rope divided by the cross-
section area of the wire.
STRETCH The elongation of a wire rope
under load.
APPENDIX F
SWAB LINE See CLEANING OUT
LINE.
SWAGED FITTING Fitting into which
wire rope can be inserted and then per-
manently attached by cold pressing
(swaging) the shank that encloses the rope.
TAG LINE A small wire rope used to
prevent rotation of a load.
TAPERED DRUM See CONICAL
DRUM.
TAPERING AND WELDING Reduc-
ing the diameter of a wire rope at its end,
and then welding the wires so as to facil-
itate reeving. See END PREPARATION.
THIMBLE Grooved metal fitting to
protect the eye, or fastening loop of a
wire rope.
TILLER ROPE A highly flexible rope
constructed by cable-laying six 6 x 7 ropes
around a fiber core.
TINNED WIRE Wire that is coated
with tin. See WIRE.
TRACK CABLE On an aerial conveyor
it is the suspended wire rope or strand
along which the carriers move.
TRACTION ROPE On an aerial con-
veyor or haulage system it is the wire rope
that propels the carriages.
TRACTION STEEL ROPE A specific
grade of wire rope.
TRAMWAY An aerial conveying system
for transporting multiple loads.
TURN Synonymous with the term
WRAP; it signifies a single wrap around
a drum.
TURN BACK POINT See CHANGE
OF LAYER.
WARRINGTON The name for a type
of strand pattern that is characterized by
having one of its wire layers (usually the
outer) made up of an arrangement of
alternately large and small wires.
WEDGE SOCKET Wire rope fittings
wherein the rope end is secured by a
wedge. See FITTINGS.
WHIPPING A synonymous term for
SEIZING. Also, it has been suggested as
punishment for those who neglect the
cautionary rules in this publication.
WIRE (ROUND) A single, continuous
length of metal, with a circular cross-
section that is cold-drawn from rod.
WIRE (SHAPED) A single, continuous
length of metal with a non-circular cross-
section that is either cold-drawn or cold-
rolled from rod.
WIRE ROPE A plurality of wire strands
helically laid about an axis.
WIRE STRAND CORE (WSC) A wire
strand used as the axial member of a
wire rope.
WRAP See TURN.
ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF CONTENTS
Basic Components / 7
Bending Rope Over Sheaves and Drums / 40
Breaking in a New Wire Rope / 51
Breaking Strengths / 77
Clips, How to Apply / 29
Constructional Stretch / 73
Cutting Wire Rope / 25
Design Factors / 77
Drums, Grooved / 35
Multiple Layers / 37
Plain (Smooth) / 36
Elastic Properties of Wire Rope / 73
Elastic Stretch / 74
End Preparations / 26
End Terminations / 26
Factors Affecting the Selection of Wire Rope / 47
Field Lubrication / 68
Fleet Angle / 47
Glossary of Wire Rope Terms (Appendix F) / 120
Handling and Installation / 18
Identification and Construction / 9
Inspections and Reports, Guidelines to / 51
Introduction / 5
Operation, Inspection and Maintenance of Wire Rope / 38
Ordering, Storing and Unreeling Wire Rope (Appendix A) / 99
Physical Properties / 73
Receiving, Inspection and Storage / 18
Seizing Wire Rope / 23
Sheaves and Drums / 38
Inspection of / 43
Shipping Reel Capacity (Appendix D) / 117
Socketing / 29
Procedures (Appendix C) / 112
Sockets, Wedge / 34
Strength Loss of Wire Rope Over Stationary Sheaves and Pins / 46
Unreeling and Uncoiling / 20
Weights of Materials (Appendix E) / 118
Wire Rope
Clips / 29
Efficiency Over Sheaves / 70
Fittings (Appendix B) / 101
Identification and Construction / 9
Installation / 18
and Operations Inspection / 51
"X-Chart: Abrasion Resistance vs. Bending-Fatigue Resistance / 50
Washington, D.C.
WIRE ROPE TECHNICAL BOARD
Bethesda, Maryland

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